Linear algebra in R

Sren Hjsgaard
February 15, 2005

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Vectors
2.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Transpose of vectors . . . . . . . .
2.3 Multiplying a vector by a number .
2.4 Sum of vectors . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 (Inner) product of vectors . . . . .
2.6 The length (norm) of a vector . . .
2.7 The 0vector and 1vector . . . . .
2.8 Orthogonal (perpendicular) vectors

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1
1
2
3
3
4
5
5
5

3 Matrices
3.1 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Multiplying a matrix with a number . . . .
3.3 Transpose of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4 Sum of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5 Multiplication of a matrix and a vector . .
3.6 Multiplication of matrices . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Vectors as matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Some special matrices . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9 Inverse of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.10 Solving systems of linear equations . . . . .
3.11 Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.12 Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.13 Some additional rules for matrix operations
3.14 Details on inverse matrices* . . . . . . . . .
3.14.1 Inverse of a 2 2 matrix* . . . . . .
3.14.2 Inverse of diagonal matrices* . . . .
3.14.3 Generalized inverse* . . . . . . . . .
3.14.4 Inverting an n n matrix* . . . . .

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6
6
6
7
7
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8
9
9
10
11
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13

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4 Least squares

15

5 A neat little exercise from a birds perspective

16

Introduction

This note has two goal: 1) Introducing linear algebra (vectors and matrices) and 2)
showing how to work with these concepts in R.

Vectors

2.1

Vectors

A column vector is a list of numbers stacked on top of each other, e.g.

2
a= 1
3
A row vector is a list of numbers written one after the other, e.g.
b = (2, 1, 3)
In both cases, the list is ordered, i.e.
(2, 1, 3) 6= (1, 2, 3).
We make the following convention:
In what follows all vectors are column vectors unless otherwise stated.
However, writing column vectors takes up more space than row vectors. Therefore we shall frequently write vectors as row vectors, but with the understanding that it really is a column vector.
A general nvector has the form

a=

a1
a2
..
.

an

where the ai s are numbers, and this vector shall be written a = (a1 , . . . , an ).
A graphical representation of 2vectors is shown Figure 1. Note that row and

a1 = (2,2)

a2 = (1,0.5)

Figure 1: Two 2-vectors

column vectors are drawn the same way.
> a <- c(1, 3, 2)
> a

[1] 1 3 2

The vector a is in R printed in row format but can really be regarded as a

column vector, cfr. the convention above.
2

2.2

Transpose of vectors

Transposing a vector means turning a column (row) vector into a row (column)
vector. The transpose is denoted by > .
Example 1

2
4

1
3
2

3>
5 = [1, 3, 2]

og

2
[1, 3, 2]> = 4

1
3
2

3
5


Hence transposing twice takes us back to where we started:

a = (a> )>
> t(a)

[1,]

2.3

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
3
2

Multiplying a vector by a number

If a is a vector and is a number then a is the vector

a1
a2

a = .
..
an
See Figure 2.
Example 2

1
7
7 3 = 21
2
14

> 7 * a

[1]

7 21 14

3
1

a1 = (2,2)

a2 = (1,0.5)

2a2 = (2,1)

a2 = (1,0.5)

Figure 2: Multiplication of a vector by a number

2.4

Sum of vectors

Let a and b be nvectors. The sum a + b is the nvector

a1
b1
a1 + b1
a2 b2 a2 + b2

a+b= . + . =
=b+a
..
.. ..

.
an

bn

an + bn

See Figure 3 and 4. Only vectors of the same dimension can be added.

2
4

1
3
2

3 2
5+4

2
8
9

3 2
5=4

1+2
3+8
2+9

3 2
5=4

3
11
11

3
5

a1 = (2,2)

a1 + a2 = (3,1.5)

a2 = (1,0.5)

Example 3

Figure 3: Addition of vectors

a1 + ( a2) = (1,2.5)

a1 = (2,2)

a1 + a2 = (3,1.5)

a2 = (1,0.5)

a2 = (1,0.5)

Figure 4: Addition of vectors and multiplication by a number

> a <- c(1, 3, 2)

> b <- c(2, 8, 9)
> a + b

[1]

2.5

3 11 11

(Inner) product of vectors

Let a = (a1 , . . . , an ) and b = (b1 , . . . , bn ). The (inner) product of a and b is

a b = a1 b1 + + an bn
Note, that the product is a number not a vector.
> sum(a * b)

[1] 44

2.6

The length (norm) of a vector

The length (or norm) of a vector a is

||a|| =

v
u n
uX
aa=t
a2
i

i=1

> sqrt(sum(a * a))

[1] 3.741657

2.7

The 0vector and 1vector

The 0-vector (1vector) is a vector with 0 (1) on all entries. The 0vector
(1vector) is frequently written simply as 0 (1) or as 0n (1n ) to emphasize
that its length n.
> rep(0, 5)

[1] 0 0 0 0 0

> rep(1, 5)

[1] 1 1 1 1 1

2.8

Orthogonal (perpendicular) vectors

Two vectors v1 and v2 are orthogonal if their inner product is zero, written
v1 v2 v1 v2 = 0
> v1 <- c(1, 1)
> v2 <- c(-1, 1)
> sum(v1 * v2)

[1] 0

3
3.1

Matrices
Matrices

An r c matrix A (reads an r times c matrix) is a table with r rows og c columns

a11 a12 . . . a1c

a21 a22 . . . a2c

A= .
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
ar1 ar2 . . . arc
Note that one can regard A as consisting of c columns vectors put after each other:
A = [a1 : a2 : : ac ]
> A <- matrix(c(1, 3, 2, 2, 8, 9), ncol = 3)
> A

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
2
8
3
2
9

Note that the numbers 1, 3, 2, 2, 8, 9 are read into the matrix columnby
column. To get the numbers read in rowbyrow do
> A2 <- matrix(c(1, 3, 2, 2, 8, 9), ncol = 3, byrow = T)
> A2

[1,]
[2,]

3.2

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
3
2
2
8
9

Multiplying a matrix with a number

For a number and a matrix A, the product A is the matrix obtained by

multiplying each element in A by .

Example 4

1
7 3
2

7 14
2
8 = 21 56
14 63
9


> 7 * A

[1,]
[2,]

3.3

[,1] [,2] [,3]

7
14
56
21
14
63

Transpose of matrices

A matrix is transposed by interchanging rows and columns and is denoted by

> .

Example 5

1
3
2

>

2
1

8
=
2
9

3
8

2
9


Note that if A is an r c matrix then A> is a c r matrix.
> t(A)

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2]
1
3
2
2
8
9

3.4

Sum of matrices

Let A and B be r c matrices. The sum A + B is the r c matrix obtained

by adding A and B elementwise.
Only matrices with the same dimensions can be added.
Example 6

1
3
2

2
5
8 + 8
9
3

4
6
6
2 = 11 10
7
5 16


> B <- matrix(c(5, 8, 3, 4, 2, 7), ncol = 3, byrow = T)

> A + B

[1,]
[2,]

3.5

[,1] [,2] [,3]

6
10
11
7
4
16

Multiplication of a matrix and a vector

Let A be an r c matrix and let

product Ab is the r 1 matrix

a11 a12 . . . a1c

a21 a22 . . . a2c

Ab= .
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ar1

ar2

...

arc

b be a c-dimensional column vector. The

b1
b2
..
.
bc

a11 b1 + a12 b2 + + a1c bc

a21 b1 + a22 b2 + + a2c bc
..
.

ar1 b1 + ar2 b2 + + arc bc

Example 7

1
3
2

2  
21
15+28
5
8
= 3 5 + 8 8 = 79
8
9
25+98
82


> A %*% a

[1,]
[2,]

[,1]
23
27

Note the difference to

> A * a

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
4
24
9
2
18

Figure out yourself what goes on!

8

3.6

Multiplication of matrices

Let A be an r c matrix and B a c t matrix, i.e. B = [b1 : b2 : : bt ]. The

product AB is the r t matrix given by:
AB = A[b1 : b2 : : bt ] = [Ab1 : Ab2 : : Abt ]
Example 8
#
"
1
3
2

2
8
9

5
8

4
2

1 2  
1 2  
5
4

= 3 8
: 3 8
8
2
2 9
2 9

15+28
14+22
21
3 4 + 8 2 = 79
= 35+88
25+98
24+92
82

8
28
26


Note that the product AB can only be formed if the number of rows in B and
the number of columns in A are the same. In that case, A and B are said to
be conforme.
In general AB and BA are not identical.
A mnemonic for matrix multiplication is :

1
3
2

2 
5
8
8
9

4
2


=

1
3
2

5
8
2 15+28
8 35+88
9 25+98

2
21
1 4 + 2 2 = 79
82
34+82
24+92

8
28
26

> A <- matrix(c(1, 3, 2, 2, 8, 9), ncol = 2)

> B <- matrix(c(5, 8, 4, 2), ncol = 2)
> A %*% B

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

3.7

[,1] [,2]
21
8
79
28
82
26

Vectors as matrices

One can regard a column vector of length r as an r 1 matrix and a row

vector of length c as a 1 c matrix.

3.8

Some special matrices

An n n matrix is a square matrix

A matrix A is symmetric if A = A> .
A matrix with 0 on all entries is the 0matrix and is often written simply
as 0.
9

 A matrix consisting of 1s in all entries is of written J.

A square matrix with 0 on all offdiagonal entries and elements d1 , d2 , . . . , dn
on the diagonal a diagonal matrix and is often written diag{d1 , d2 , . . . , dn }
A diagonal matrix with 1s on the diagonal is called the identity matrix
and is denoted I. The identity matrix satisfies that IA = AI = A.
0-matrix and 1-matrix
> matrix(0, nrow = 2, ncol = 3)

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

0
0
0
0
0
0

> matrix(1, nrow = 2, ncol = 3)

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
1
1
1
1
1

Diagonal matrix and identity matrix

> diag(c(1, 2, 3))

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3

> diag(1, 3)

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1

Note what happens when diag is applied to a matrix:

> diag(diag(c(1, 2, 3)))

[1] 1 2 3

> diag(A)

[1] 1 8

10

3.9

Inverse of matrices

In general, the inverse of an n n matrix A is the matrix B (which is also

n n) which when multiplied with A gives the identity matrix I. That is,
AB = BA = I.
One says that B is As inverse and writes B = A1 . Likewise, A is Bs inverse.
Example 9 Let

A=

1
2

3
4


B=

2
1.5
1 0.5

Now AB = BA = I so B = A1 .

Example 10 If A is a 1 1 matrix, i.e. a number, for example A = 4, then

A1 = 1/4.

Some facts about inverse matrices are:
Only square matrices can have an inverse, but not all square matrices
have an inverse.
When the inverse exists, it is unique.
Finding the inverse of a large matrix A is numerically complicated (but
computers do it for us).
In Section ?? the issue of matrix inversion is discussed in more detail.
Finding the inverse of a matrix in R is done using the solve() function:
> A <- matrix(c(1, 3, 2, 4), ncol = 2, byrow = T)
> A

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2]
1
3
2
4

> B <- solve(A)

> B

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2]
-2 1.5
1 -0.5

> A %*% B

[1,]
[2,]

[,1] [,2]
1
0
0
1

11

3.10

Solving systems of linear equations

Example 11 Matrices are closely related to systems of linear equations. Consider the two equations
x1 + 3x2
2x1 + 4x2

= 7
= 10

The system can be written in matrix form



 

1 3
x1
7
=
i.e. Ax = b
2 4
x2
10
Since A1 A = I and since Ix = x we have


  
2
1.5
7
1
1
x=A b=
=
1 0.5
10
2
A geometrical approach to solving these equations is as follows: Isolate x2 in
the equations:
1
2
7 1
x2 = x1 x2 = 4 x1
3 3
0
4

These two lines are shown in Figure 5 from which it can be seen that the
solution is x1 = 1, x2 = 2.

x1

Figure 5: Solving two equations with two unknowns.

From the Figure it follows that there are 3 possible cases of solutions to the
system
1. Exactly one solution when the lines intersect in one point
2. No solutions when the lines are parallel but not identical
3. Infinitely many solutions when the lines coincide.

>
>
>
>

A <- matrix(c(1, 2, 3, 4), ncol = 2)

b <- c(7, 10)
x <- solve(A) %*% b
x

[1,]
[2,]

[,1]
1
2

12

3.11

Trace

Missing

3.12

Determinant

Missing

3.13

Some additional rules for matrix operations

For matrices A, B and C whose dimension match appropriately: the following rules
apply
(A + B)> = A> + B >
(AB)> = B > A>
A(B + C) = AB + AC
AB = AC 6 B = C
In genereal AB 6= BA
AI = IA = A
If is a number then AB = A(B)

3.14
3.14.1

Details on inverse matrices*

Inverse of a 2 2 matrix*

It is easy find the inverse for a 2 2 matrix. When



a b
A=
c d
then the inverse is
A1 =

1
ad bc

d b
c
a

under the assumption that abbc 6= 0. The number abbc is called the determinant
of A, sometimes written |A|. If |A| = 0, then A has no inverse.
3.14.2

Inverse of diagonal matrices*

Finding the inverse of a diagonal matrix is easy: Let

A = diag(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
where all ai 6= 0. Then the inverse is
A1 = diag(

1
1 1
, ,..., )
a1 a2
an

If one ai = 0 then A1 does not exist.

3.14.3

Generalized inverse*

Not all square matrices have an inverse. However all square matrices have an
infinite number of generalized inverses. A generalized inverse of a square matrix A
is a matrix A satisfying that
AA A = A.
For many practical problems it suffice to find a generalized inverse.
13

3.14.4

Inverting an n n matrix*

In the following we will illustrate one frequently applied methopd for matrix inversion. The method is called GaussSeidels method and many computer programs,
including solve() use variants of the method for finding the inverse of an n n
matrix.
Consider the matrix A:
> A <- matrix(c(2, 2, 3, 3, 5, 9, 5, 6, 7), ncol = 3)
> A

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

2
3
5
2
5
6
3
9
7

We want to find the matrix B = A1 . To start, we append to A the identity matrix

and call the result AB:
> AB <- cbind(A, diag(c(1, 1, 1)))
> AB

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6]

2
3
5
1
0
0
2
5
6
0
1
0
3
9
7
0
0
1

On a matrix we allow ourselves to do the following three operations (sometimes

called elementary operations) as often as we want:
1. Multiply a row by a (nonzero) constant.
2. Multiply a row by a (nonzero) constant and add the result to another row.
3. Interchange two rows.
The aim is to perform such operations on AB in a way such that one ends up with
a 3 6 matrix which has the identity matrix in the three leftmost columns. The
three rightmost columns will then contain B = A1 .
Recall that writing e.g. AB[1,] extracts the enire first row of AB.
First, we make sure that AB[1,1]=1. Then we subtract a constant times the
first row from the second to obtain that AB[2,1]=0, and similarly for the third
row:
>
>
>
>

AB[1, ] <- AB[1, ]/AB[1, 1]

AB[2, ] <- AB[2, ] - 2 * AB[1, ]
AB[3, ] <- AB[3, ] - 3 * AB[1, ]
AB

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6]

1 1.5 2.5 0.5
0
0
0 2.0 1.0 -1.0
1
0
0 4.5 -0.5 -1.5
0
1

14

 Next we ensure that AB[2,2]=1. Afterwards we subtract a constant times the

second row from the third to obtain that AB[3,2]=0:
> AB[2, ] <- AB[2, ]/AB[2, 2]
> AB[3, ] <- AB[3, ] - 4.5 * AB[2, ]

Now we rescale the third row such that AB[3,3]=1:

> AB[3, ] <- AB[3, ]/AB[3, 3]
> AB

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

[,4]
[,5]
[,6]
1 1.5 2.5 0.5000000 0.0000000 0.0000000
0 1.0 0.5 -0.5000000 0.5000000 0.0000000
0 0.0 1.0 -0.2727273 0.8181818 -0.3636364

Then AB has zeros below the main diagonal.

We then work our way up to obtain that AB has zeros above the main diagonal:
> AB[2, ] <- AB[2, ] - 0.5 * AB[3, ]
> AB[1, ] <- AB[1, ] - 2.5 * AB[3, ]
> AB

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

[,4]
[,5]
[,6]
1 1.5
0 1.1818182 -2.04545455 0.9090909
0 1.0
0 -0.3636364 0.09090909 0.1818182
0 0.0
1 -0.2727273 0.81818182 -0.3636364

> AB[1, ] <- AB[1, ] - 1.5 * AB[2, ]

> AB

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]

[,1] [,2] [,3]

[,4]
[,5]
[,6]
1
0
0 1.7272727 -2.18181818 0.6363636
0
1
0 -0.3636364 0.09090909 0.1818182
0
0
1 -0.2727273 0.81818182 -0.3636364

Now we extract the three rightmost columns of AB into the matrix B. We claim that
B is the inverse of A, and this can be verified by a simple matrix multiplication
> B <- AB[, 4:6]
> A %*% B

[,1]
[,2]
[,3]
[1,] 1.000000e+00 3.330669e-16 1.110223e-16
[2,] -4.440892e-16 1.000000e+00 2.220446e-16
[3,] -2.220446e-16 9.992007e-16 1.000000e+00

So, apart from rounding errors, the product is the identity matrix, and hence B =
A1 . This example illustrates that numerical precision and rounding errors is an
important issue when making computer programs.
15

Least squares

Consider the table of pairs (xi , yi ) below.

x
y

1.00
3.70

2.00
4.20

3.00
4.90

4.00
5.70

5.00
6.00

5.0
4.0

6.0

A plot of yi against xi is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Regression
The plot in Figure 6 suggests an approximately linear relationship between y and
x, i.e.
yi = 0 + 1 xi for i = 1, . . . , 5
Writing this in matrix form gives

y1
y2

y=
...

y5

1 x1


1 x2
0
= X
..
..
1
.
.
1 x5

The first question is: Can we find a vector such that y = X? The answer is
clearly no, because that would require the points to lie exactly on a straight line.
A more modest question is: Can we find a vector such that X is in a sense as
close to y as possible. The answer is yes. The task is to find such that the length
of the vector
e = y X
is as small as possible. The solution is
= (X > X)1 X > y
> y

[1] 3.7 4.2 4.9 5.7 6.0

> X

[1,]
[2,]
[3,]
[4,]
[5,]

1
1
1
1
1

x
1
2
3
4
5

16

> beta.hat <- solve(t(X) %*% X) %*% t(X) %*% y

> beta.hat

[,1]
3.07
x 0.61

A neat little exercise from a birds perspective

On a sunny day, two tables are standing in an English country garden. On each
table birds of unknown species are sitting having the time of their lives.
A bird from the first table says to those on the second table: Hi if one of you
come to our table then there will be the same number of us on each table. Yeah,
right, says a bird from the second table, but if one of you comes to our table, then
we will be twice as many on our table as on yours.
Question: How many birds are on each table? More specifically,
Write up two equations with two unknowns.
Solve these equations using the methods you have learned from linear algebra.
Simply finding the solution by trialanderror is considered cheating.

17