BEE Mukesh Patel

Single Phase Transformer:

Emf equation, determination of efficiency & regulation by direct loading.
Estimation of regulation and efficiency by OC & SC test.
8 Hrs

TRANSFORMER THEORY
Construction of Transformer

Fig 1
A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means
of which electric power in one circuit is transformed in to electric power of
the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in
a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The
physical basis of transformer is mutual induction between two circuit
linked by a common magnetic flux.
In this simplest form, it consist of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low
reluctance as shown in fig.(1). The two coils posses high mutual
inductance. If one coil connected to source of alternating voltage an
alternating flux is setup in the laminated core, most of which is linked
with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced emf (according
to faradays law of electromagnetic induction e = -N d/dt).
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric
energy is transferred (entirely magnetically) from the first coil to the
second coil, The first coil in which electric energy is fed from the a.c.
supply mains is called primary winding and the other from which energy
is drawn out is called secondary winding.
In brief a transformer is a device that.
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(1) Transfers electric power from one circuit to other.

(2) It does so without a change of frequency.
(3) It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
(4) Where the two electric circuits are in mutual indicative influence of
each other.
Elementary theory of ideal transformer:-

Fig 2
An ideal transformer is one which has no losses i.e. its winding have no
ohmic resistance there is no magnetic leakage & hence which has no I 2R
and core losses. In other words, an ideal transformer consists of two
purely inductive coils wound on a loss free core.
An ideal transformer is a lossless device .
It has the following properties:

No iron (Core loss = 0)

Winding resistance = 0
No winding losses (copper losses = 0)
No leakage fluxes (all magnetic flux is confined to the core)
Total losses = 0
Efficiency=100% (since there are no losses)
Voltage regulation = 0% (Secondary voltage remains constant
irrespective of the load current)
Ouput power = input power
ideal transformer on no load V1 = E1 & E2 = V2
Voltage drop across primary and secondary winding = 0
Input VA = Output VA

BEE Mukesh Patel

Working of Transformer:
Consider an ideal transformer fig.2 (a). Whose secondary is open &
whose primary is connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage V 1, this
potential difference causes an alternating current to flow in the primary.
Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(secondary being open). The primary draws the magnetizing current I
only. The function of this current is merely to magnetize the core; it is
small in magnitude and lags V1 by 900. This alternating current I at an
alternating flux which at all times proportional to the current.
(Assuming permeability of the magnitude circuit to be constant) and
hence, is in phase with it. This changing flux is linked both with the
primary and the secondary windings.
Therefore, it produces self-induced emf in the primary. This selfinduced emf E1 is, at every instant, is equal to and in opposition to V 1. It is
also known as counter emf or back emf of the primary.
Similarly, there is produced in the secondary an induced emf E2
which is known as mutually induced emf, this emf is anti-phase with V 1
and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux and the
number of secondary turns.
The instantaneous values of applied voltage, induced emfs, flux and
magnetizing current are shown by sinusoidal waves in fig. 2(b). Fig.2(c)
shows the vectorial representation of the effective values of the above
quantities.
Emf Equation of A Transformer:-

Fig 3
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N1 = No. of turns in primary, N2 = No. of turns in secondary,

m = Maximum flux in core = Bm A

and

f = frequency of a.c. input in Hz

(t ) m sin t

This flux induces self induced emf E1

E1 N

d m sin t
dt
N m cos t

E1(max) N m 2fN m
E1( rms)

N m 2fN m

4.44 fN m
2
2

Similarly rms value of the emf induced in secondary is,

E2 = 4.44 fN2m

E1

From equation (1) & (2) that

emf

It means that
winding.

turns

E2

N 2

N 1

= 4.44f m

is the same in both the primary and secondary

In ideal transformer on no load V 1 = E1 & E2 = V2 where V2 is the terminal

voltage fig. (4).

Fig 4
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO(k):

BEE Mukesh Patel

E2

From equation (1) & (2) we get

N2

N 1

E1

=k

This constant k is shown as voltage transformation ratio

(1) if N2 > N1 , i.e k>1 than transformer is called step up transformer .
(2) if N1 > N2 , i.e k<1 than transformer is called step down transformer .
Input VA = output VA
I2

V1I1 = V2I2 or from equation (1) & (2) that

V1 1
V
2

I 1

Hence current are in the inverse ratio of the (voltage) transformer ratio.
Rating of the transformer

It is called as the kVA rating of the transformer

kVA rating is defined as the kVA ouput power which the transformer can deliver at given
rated voltage and frequency.
Transformer is always designed such that under full load condition (i.e. maximum current) the
temperature rise is not excessive and hence transformer is not damaged.
Transformer rating indicates the ouput power from transformer.
Transformer rating is given by Apparent Power.
VA V1 I1 V2 I 2

I1 and I2 = rated current on primary and secondary winding.

V1 and V2 = rated voltage on primary and secondary winding.
Rated current is the full load current of the transformer
Full load means the maximum current that that can flow the transformer

KVA rating allows you to find the maximum current that the given
transformer can sustain.

VA V1 I1 V2 I 2
I1FL = KVA /
V1
I2FL
= KVA /
Losses
in transformer
Copper loss / Winding loss
Iron loss / core loss
Hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss
Magnetic leakage
Copper Loss
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BEE Mukesh Patel

Loss of power caused by the resistance of primary and

secondary winding and current flowing through them
2
Primary winding loss: (I R )
1 1
2
Secondary winding loss: (I R )
2 2
2
2
Total copper loss : (I R ) + (I R )
1 1
2 2
Losses can be reduced by using material with good conductivity like copper.
Iron loss:
Hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss
Hysteresis Loss:
Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the
magnetic domains in the core during each half-cycle.
Transformer is subjected to alternating flux.
This leads to continuous magnetization and demagnetization
Rapid reversal of magnetization by the alternating flux causes loss:
Hysteresis loss.
To reduce hysteresis loss
Special magnetic materials such as silicon steel can be used
Eddy Current Loss
Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage
applied to the transformer.
There is some current flowing through the core
These currents are called as Eddy current (I)
The core has a finite resistant (r)
Eddy current loss (I2 r )

BEE Mukesh Patel

To reduce eddy current losses

we reduce the eddy current flowing through the core.
Eddy losses reduced by using
Stacks of laminates rather than solid core
coat the laminates with varnish
This reduces the cross sectional area thereby increasing the
core resistance and hence the decreases the eddy current.
Total iron losses = Eddy losses + Hysteresis loss
Efficiency of transformer

Full load efficiency

To check the performance of the device, by comparing the output with

respect to the input. The higher the efficiency, the better the system.
Output Power
100%
Input Power
Pout

100%
Pout Plosses

Efficiency,

V2 I 2 cos
100%
V2 I 2 cos Pc Pcu

Output power is always < Input power due to losses

< 100%
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BEE Mukesh Patel

Efficiency at some load n

Where, if load, hence n = ,

load, n= ,

Phasor Diagrams:
Phasor diagram of ideal transformer under no load condition
Phasor diagram of practical transformer under no load condition
Phasor diagram of practical transformer under load condition
Phasor diagram of practical transformer considering winding and
leakage losses under load condition
Phasor diagram of practical transformer on load:
TRANSFORMER with losses but no magnetic leakage:We will consider the cases
(1) when such a transformer is on no load and
(2) when it is loaded.
Transformer on no load :

Fig 5
Even when the transformer is on no load the primary input is not wholly
reactive. The primary input under no load conditions has to supply.
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(1)
Iron losses in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss
and
(2)
A very small amount of copper loss in primary (there being no
cu loss and it is open). Hence the no load primary input current I o is
not at 900 behind V1 but lags it by angle o<900. No load input power
Wo = V1 I 0 Cos o
Where cos o is primary power factor under no load condition. No load
condition of an actual transformer is shown vector ally in fig. (5). Form fig.
(5) Primary current I0 has two components.
(1)

One in phase with V1 this is known as active or working or iron loss

plus small quantity of primary cu loss. I w =I0 cos o.

(2)
The other component is in quadrature with V 1 and is known as
magnetizing component I because its function is to sustain the
alternating flux in the core. It is wattles.
I = I0 sin o. Obviously I0 is the vector sum of I w and I Hence I02 =
(I2 +Iw2).
Note:(1)
The no load primary current I0 is very small as compared to the
full load primary current. It is about 1% of the full load current.
(2)
As I0 is very small the no load primary cu loss in negligible small
which means that no load primary input is practically the iron loss in
transformers.
(3)
As it is principally the core loss which is responsible for shift in
the current vector angle o is known as hysteresis angle of advance.
Practical transformer on load:

Fig 6

BEE Mukesh Patel

Fig 7 (a)

(b)

(c)

When the secondary is loaded, the secondary current I 2 is setup. The

magnitude and phase of I2 w.r.t. V2 is determined by the characteristics
of the load current I2 and is in phase with V2 if load is resistive, it lags if
load is inductive and it leads of load is capacitive.
The secondary current sets up its own mmf (= N 2I2) and hence its own
flux 2 which is in opposition to the main primary flux which is due to
I0. The secondary ampere turns are known as demagnetizing ampere
turns. The opposing secondary flux 2 weakens the primary flux
momentarily, hence primary back emf E1 tends to be reduced. For a
moment V1 gains the upper hand over E 1 and hence causes more
currents to flow in primary.
Let the additional primary current be I 2. It is known as load component
of primary current. This current is anti-phase with I 2. The additional
primary mmf N1I2 sets up its own flux 2 which is in opposition to 2
(but is in the same direction as ) and is equal to it in magnitude.
Hence, the two cancel each other out. So we find that the magnetic
effects of secondary current I2 are immediately neutralized by the
additional primary current I2 which is brought into a distance exactly at
the same instant as I2. The whole process is illustrated in fig.6.
Hence, whatever the load conditions the net flux passing through the
core is approximately the same as at no load. An important deduction
is that due to the consistency of core flux at all loads. The core loss is
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also practically the same under all load conditions. As

2 = 2
Therefore,

Or

N2 x I2 = N1 x I2

I2 =

N2
I2
N1

= kI2

Hence, when transformer is no-load, the primary winding has two currents
in it; one is I0 and the other is I2 which is anti-phase with I 2 and k times in
magnitude. The total primary current is the vector sum of I 0 & I2.
In fig.7 are shown the vector diagrams for a loaded transformer
when the load is non-inductive and it is inductive. Voltage transformation
ratio of unity is assumed so that primary vectors are equal to the
secondary vectors. With reference to fig.7 (a) I 2 is secondary current in
phase with E2. It causes primary current I2 which is anti-phase with it and
equal to it in magnitude (since k=1). Total primary current I 1 is the vector
sum of I0 & I2 and lags behind V1 by an angle 1.
In fig.7.b Vectors are drawn for an inductive load. Here I 2 lags E2 by
2. Current I2 is again anti-phase with I 2 and equal to it in magnitude. As
before, I1 is the vector sum of I2 and I0 and lags behind V1 by 1. It will be
observed that 1 is slightly greater than 2. But if we neglect I0 as
compared to I2 in fig.7.c, Then 1 = 2 moreover under this assumption:
N1I2 = N1I1 so It shows that under full load conditions, the rate of primary
and secondary currents is constant. This important relationship is made
the basis of current transformer a transformer which is used with a lowrange ammeter for measuring current in circuits where the direct
connection of the ammeter is impracticable.
Transformer with winding resistance but no magnetic leakage:An ideal transformer was supposed to possess no resistance but in an
actual transformer, there is always present some resistance of the
primary and secondary windings. Due to this resistance, there is some
voltage drop in the winding. The result is that:
(1) The secondary terminal voltage V 2 is vectorially less than the
secondary induced emf E2 by an amount I2R2 where R2 is the resistance of
secondary winding. Hence, V2 is equal to vector difference of E 2 and
resistive voltage drop I2R2.
So V2 = E2 I2R2 vector difference
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(2) Similarly, primary induced emf E 1 is equal to the vector difference of

V1 and I1R1 where R1 is the resistance of primary winding.
E1 = V1 I1R1 --------------------vector difference.
The vector diagram for non-inductive, inductance and capacitive load are
shown in fig.8 (a), (b) & (c) respectively.

Fig 8
Equivalent Resistance:-

Fig 9
In fig. (9) Is shown a transformer whose primary and secondary have
resistance of R1 and R2 respectively to the winding.
It would now be shown that the resistance of the two winding can be
transferred to any one of the two winding. The advantage of
concentrating both the resistance in one winding is that it makes
calculations very simple and easy because one has than to work in one
winding only. It will be proved that a resistance of R 2 in secondary is
R2

R2

k2

R2

equivalent to
in primary. The value
will be denoted by . The
equivalent secondary resistance as referred to primary. The copper loss
in secondary is I22R2. This loss is supplied by primary which takes a
R2

current of I1. Hence if

is the equivalent resistance in primary which
would have cause the same loss as R2 in secondary than.
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BEE Mukesh Patel

I22R2 = I12

R2

or

R2

I2

I2

Now if we neglect no load current I0, Than

I1

I 1

.R2
k

Hence

R2

R2

k2

Similarly equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary is

k2 R1.

(a)

Fig 10

.
R1

(b)

In fig.10 (a), secondary resistance has been transferred to primary side

leaving secondary circuit resistance less. The resistance R 1+
R2

R2

= R1 +

k2

is known as the equivalent or effective resistance of the transformer

as referred to primary and may be designated as
R01 = R1+

R2

R2

= R1 +

k2

Similarly the equivalent of the transformer as referred to secondary is R 02

R1

= R2 +
= R2 + k2R1. The fact is shown in fig. 10(b) where all the
resistance of the transformer has been concentrated is the secondary
winding.
Note:
(1)
A resistance of R1 in primary is equivalent to k 2R1 in secondary.
Hence it is called the equivalent primary resistance as referred to
secondary i.e. R1.
R2

k2

(2)
A resistance of R2 in primary is equivalent to
in primary.
Hence it is called the equivalent secondary resistance as referred to
primary i.e. R2/.
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(3)
Total effective resistance of the transformer as referred to
primary is
R 01 = primary resistance + equivalent secondary resistance as
referred to Primary
R2

(4)

k2

R 01 = R1 + R2 = R1 +
.
similarly total transformer resistance referred to secondary is
/

R2

R02 = R2 + R = R2 +
/
2

k2

MAGNATIC LEAKAGE:

Fig 11 (a)

Fig 11 (b)

If it is found that all the flux linked with primary does not link the
l1

secondary but part of it i.e.

completes its magnetic circuit by
passing through air rather than around the core as shown in fig.11 (a).
This leakage flux produced when the mmf due to primary ampere turns
existing between points a & b acts along the leakage paths. Hence this
flux is proportion to the primary amp turns alone because the
secondary turns do not link the magnetic circuit of
time phase with I1. It induces an emf
secondary.

el1

l1

.The flux

l1

is in

in primary but none in

Similarly secondary amp.turns (or mmf) acts across points c & d setup
leakage flux

l2

which is linked with secondary winding alone (and not

l2

with primary turns). This flux

is in time phase with primary and
secondary winding carry huge current. Hence large mmf is setup
which, while acting on leakage paths, increases the leakage flux. As
said earlier the leakage flux linking with each winding produces a selfinduced emf in that winding. Hence in effect it is equivalent to a small
chokes or inductive coil in series with each winding such that voltage
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BEE Mukesh Patel

drop in each
other words
primary and
internal emf

series coil is equal to that produced by leakage flux. In

a transformer with inductive coils connected in both
secondary circuits as shown fig.11 (b). Such that the
in each inductive coil is equal to that due to the
X 1 e L1

I1

X 2 eL 2

I2

corresponding leakage flux in the actual transformer

&
. The terms X1 and X2 are shown as primary and secondary leakage
reactance respectively.
NOTES:(1)
The leakage flux links one or the other winding but not both,
Hence it in no way contributes transfer of energy from the primary to
secondary winding transformer.
Vl1

(2)
The primary voltage
will have to supply reactive drop I 1X1 in
addition to I1R1. Similarly, E2 will have to supply I2R2 and I2X2.
Transformer with Resistance and leakage Reactance:-

Fig 12
In fig. (12) are shown the primary and secondary windings of
transformer with reactance taken out of the windings. The primary
2

impedance is given
2

Z 2 R2 X 2

Z 1 R1 X 1

. Similarly the secondary impedance is

given
. The resistance and leakage reactance of each
winding is responsible for some voltage drop in each winding. In
primary the leakage reactance voltage drop is I 1X1 (usually 1 or 2% of
V1). Hence V1 = E1 + I1 (R1 +jX1) = E1+I1Z1.
Similarly, there are I2R2 and I2X2 drops in secondary which combine
with V2 to give E2.
E2 = V2 + I2(R2 +jX2) = V2+I2Z2.
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The vector diagram for such a transformer for different kinds of loads is
shown in fig. (13). In these diagram, vector for resistive drops are
drawn parallel to current vectors whereas reactive drops are
perpendicular to the current vectors. The angle 1 between V1 & I1
gives the power factor angle of the transformer.
If may be noted that leakage reactance can also be transformed from
one winding to the other in the same way as resistance.

X2

X2 =
/

k2

& X1 =
/

X2

And X01 = X1 +X2 = X1+

/

k 2 X1

k2

and X02 = X2 +X1 = X2+

/

k 2 X1

It is obvious that total impedance of the transformer as referred to

primary is given by
2

Z 01 R01 X 01

Fig 13 (a)

&

Z 02 R02 X 02

Fig 13 (b)

Fig 13 (c)

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BEE Mukesh Patel

Fig 13 (d)

Fig 13 (e)

Simplified Diagram: - The vector diagram of fig. (13) may be

considerably simplified if the no load current I 0 is neglected. Since I0 is
1 to 3% of full load primary current I 1 it may be neglected without
serious error, fig. (14) Shows diagram of fig. (13) With I 0 neglected.

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BEE Mukesh Patel

Fig 14
In fig. (14) V2, V1, 2 are known hence E2 can be found by adding
vectorially I2R2 and I2X2 to V2. Similarly V1 is given by the vector addition
of I1R1 and I1X1 to E1. All the voltage on the primary side can be
transferred to secondary side as shown in fig. (14) Where the upper
part of the diagram has been rotated through 180 0. However it should
be noted that each voltage or voltage drop should be multiplied by
transformation ratio k. The side of the diagram has been shown
separately in fig. (15) laid horizontally where vector for V 2 has been
taken along X-axis.

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BEE Mukesh Patel

Equivalent Circuit:-

The transformer shown in diagram can be resolved into an equivalent

circuit in which the resistance and leakage reactance of the transformer
are imagined to be external to the winding whose only function then is to
be transform the voltage. The no load current I 0 is simulated by pure
inductance X0 taking the magnetizing component I and non-inductive
resistance R0 taking the working component Iw, connected in parallel
across the primary circuit. The value of E 1 is obtained by subtracting
vectorially I1Z1 form V1. The value of
X0 = E1 / I and of R0 = E1 / Iw. It is cleared that E1 and E2 are related to
each other by expression
E2 / E1 = N2 / N1 = k.
To make transformer calculation simpler, it is preferable to transfer a
voltage, current and impedance either to the primary or to the secondary
side. In that case we would have to work in one winding only which is
more convenient. The primary equivalent of the secondary induced
voltage is E2/ = E2/k = E1.
Similarly, primary equivalent of secondary terminal or output voltage is
V2/ = V2/k. primary equivalent of the secondary current is I 2/ = kI2.
For transferring secondary impedance to primary K 2 is used.
Therefore R2/ = R2 / K2, X2/ = X2/K2, Z2/ = Z2/K2
The same relationship is used for shifting external load impedance to the
primary. The secondary circuit is shown in fig.19 (a) & its equivalent
primary values are shown in fig. 19(b).

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The total equivalent circuit of the transformer is obtained by adding in the

primary impedance as shown in fig.20 (b). This is known as the exact
equivalent circuit but it presents a somewhat harder to solve. A
simplification may be made by transferring the exciting circuit across the
terminal as in fig.20 (b). It should be noted that in this case X 0= V1/I. The
values of R0 and X0 are found from the open circuit test.

Further simplification may be achieved by omitting I 0 altogether as shown

in fig.20 (b).
From fig.20 (a), it is found that the total impedance between the input
terminals is
/

Z1

Z m (Z 2 Z L )
/

Z m (Z 2 Z L )

Z = Z1 + Zm ll (Z +Z ) = (
)
/
/
/
Where Z2 = R2 +jX2 & Zin = impedance of exciting circuit
/
2

/
L

Z1

V 1 = I1 [

Z m (Z 2 Z L )
/

Z m (Z 2 Z L )

].

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BEE Mukesh Patel

Transformer tests:The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of its

equivalent circuit which contains R 01, X01, R0 and X0. These constants or
parameters can be easily determined by two tests. (1) Open circuit test
and (2) Short circuit test.
Open circuit Test Or No Load Test:

Fig 21
The purpose of this test is to determine no load loss or core loss and no
load I0 which is helpful in finding X0 and R0.
One winding of the transformer- whichever is convenient but usually high
voltage winding is left open and the other is connected to its supply of
normal voltage and frequency. A wattmeter W, voltmeter V and an
ammeter A are connected in the low voltage winding i.e. primary winding.
With normal voltage applied to the primary, normal flux will be setup in
the core, hence normal iron losses will occur which is recorded by the
wattmeter. As the primary no load current I 0 is small (usually 2 to 10% of
rated), copper loss is negligibly small in primary and nil in secondary
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(being open). Hence, the wattmeter reading represents practically, the

core loss under no load condition.
It should be noted that since I 0 is itself very small, the pressure coil of the
wattmeter and the voltmeter are connected such that the current in them
does not pass through the current coil of the wattmeter.
Sometimes, a high resistance voltmeter is connected across the
secondary. The reading of the voltmeter, ammeter and Wattmeter are
noted. This helps to find transformation ratio k.

The no load vector diagram is shown in fig. (22). If W is the wattmeter

reading then
W = V1Iw.cos0 so cos0 = W/ V1I0
I = I0sin0 , Iw = I0cos0
So X0 = V1/I & R0 = V1/Iw.
Or since the current is practically all exciting current when a transformer
is on no load (i.e. I0=I) and the voltage drop in primary leakage
impedance is small, hence the exciting admittance Y 0 of the transformer
is given by I0= V1Y0 or Y0 = I0/V1.
The exciting conduction G0 is given by W= V12.G0 or G0 = W/V12
The exciting susceptance B0 = (Y0 2 G0 2 )
Separation of core losses:The core loss of a transformer depends upon the frequency and the
maximum flux density when the volume and the thickness of the core
laminations are given. The core loss is made up of two parts (1) hysteresis
loss Wh = P.Bmax1.6.f &
(2) eddy current loss We = Q.Bmax2.f2
Q= constant. The total core loss is given by W i = Wh + We = P.Bmax1.6.f +
Q.Bmax2.f2
Short circuit or impedance test:-

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BEE Mukesh Patel

Fig 23
This is an economical method for determining the following.
(1) Equivalent impedance (Z01 or Z02), leakage reactance (X01 or X02) and
total resistance (R01 or R02) of the transformer as referred to the winding in
which the measuring instruments are placed.
(2) Copper loss at full load (and at any desired load this load is used in
calculating the efficiency of the transformer.
(3) Knowing Z01 or Z02, the total voltage drop in the transformer as
referred to primary or secondary can be calculated and hence regulation
of the transformer determined.
In this test, one winding, usually the low voltage winding is short circuited
by a thick conductor as shown in fig. (23).

A low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal primary voltage) at correct

frequency is applied to the primary and is cautiously increased till full
load currents are flowing both in primary and secondary.
Since, in this test, the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal
voltage. The mutual flux produced is also a small percentage of its
normal value. Hence core losses are very small with the result that the
wattmeter reading represents the full load cu loss or I 2R loss for the whole
transformer i.e. both primary cu loss and secondary cu loss. The
equivalent circuit of the transformer under short circuit condition is shown
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BEE Mukesh Patel

in fig. (24). If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate rated load currents,
then Z01 = Vsc / I1
Also W = I12 R01 so R01 = W / I12
So X01 = (Z012 R012 )1/2

In fig.25 (a) is shown the equivalent circuit vector diagram for the short
circuit test. The
entire voltage Vsc is consumed in the impedance drop of the two winding.
If R1 can be
measured than knowing R01 we can find R2/ = R01 R1. The impedance
Triangle than be
divided into the appropriate equivalent triangle for primary and
secondary as shown in
fig.25(b).
Why transformer rating in kva.
As seen Cu loss of transformer depends on current and iron loss on
voltage. Hence total
Transformer loss depends on volt-ampere (VA) and not on phase angle
between voltages
& current i.e. it is dependent of load power factor. That is why rating of
transformer is in
KVA and not in kW.
Regulation of a transformer:When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage the
secondary voltage
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BEE Mukesh Patel

Decrease because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance.

Let V2 = secondary terminal voltage at no load
= E2 = kE1 = kV1 because at no-load the impedance drop is
negligible.
V2 = secondary terminal voltage on full load. The change in secondary
terminal voltage from
no-load to full load is E2 V2.
This Change is divided by V2 i.e. full load secondary terminal
voltage then it is called regulation up.

% regn = (E2 V2 )/ E2 x 100

The lesser this value, the better the transformer, because a good
transformer should keep its secondary terminal voltage as constant as
possible under all conditions of load.
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
In a static transformer, there are no friction or windage losses,
hence the only losses occurring are,
1. Core or Iron loss: - It includes both hysteresis and eddy current loss.
Because the core flux in a transformer remains practically constant for all
loads (its variations being 1 to 3 % from no load to full load), the core loss
is practically the same at all loads.
Hysterysis loss Wh = Bmax 1.6 f V Watts
Eddy current loss = We = P Bmax 2 f2 t2 Watts
These losses are minimized by using steel or high silicon content for
the core and by using very thin laminations. Iron or core losses is found
from OC test, the input of the transformer when no load measures the
core loss.
2. Copper loss: - This loss is due to the ohmic resistance of the
transformer winding. Total copper loss = I 12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 R01 = I22 R02. It is
clear that Cu loss is proportional to I 2 or (KVA)2 . In other words, Cu loss at
half and full load is one fourth of that at full load. The value of the Cu loss
is found from the SC test.
Efficiency of a transformer:25

BEE Mukesh Patel

As in the case with other types of electrical machines, the efficiency of

the transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the
output divided by the input. The two being measured in the same units.
= output / Input
But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment, has very
small loss hence it is impractical to try to measure transformer efficiency
by measuring input and output. These quantity are nearly the same. A
better method is to determine the losses and then to calculate the
efficiency from:
= (output) / (Output + Losses) = output / (output + Cu loss + Iron
loss)
Output = V I cos
It may be noted that efficiency is based on power output in watts
and not in volt-amperes, although losses are proportional to VA load, the
efficiency depends on PF being maximum at a Unity PF. Efficiency can be
computed by determining core loss from no load or OC test and from the
SC test.
CONDITION FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY:Cu loss = I1 2 R01 or I2 2 R02 = Wcu
Iron loss = Hysteresis loss + eddy current loss = W e + Wh = Wi
Considering primary side,
Primary I/P = (V1I1 cos Losses) = (V1I1 cos - I12 R1 - Wi)
V1I1 cos
=1-

I1 R01

V1I1 cos
-

Wi

V1I1 cos V1I1 cos

Differentiating both side wrt I1, we get
d
dI1

= 0 - R01
V1 cos

Wi
V1I12 cos

Or Wi = I1 2 R01 = I2 2 R02
Cu Loss = Iron Loss.
The output current corresponding to maximum is I 2 = ( Wi / R02).
Note: 1. If we are given iron loss and full load Cu loss, then the load at
which two losses would be equal( corresponding to maximum ) is given
by
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BEE Mukesh Patel

KVAMax = KVAFL( Iron loss / FL Cu loss)

2. The at any load is given by
= X . FL KVA . pf . 100
X . FL KVA . pf + Wi + Wcu
Where X ratio of actual load KVA to FL KVA
All Day efficiency:
The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is given by the
ratio of O/P in Watts to I/P in Watts, but there are certain types of
transformer whose performance cannot be judge by this efficiency.
Transformers used for supplying lighting and general network i.e.
distribution transformer have their primary energized all the twenty four
hours, although their secondary supply little or no load much of the time
during the day except during the house lighting period. It means that
whereas Core loss occurs throughout the day, the Cu loss occurs only
when the transformer is loaded. Hence it is considered a good practice to
design such transformers so that core losses are very low. The Cu losses
are relatively less important, because they depend on the load. The
performance of such a transformer should be judged by all day efficiency
which is computed on the basis of energy consumed during a certain
period usually a day of 24 hours.
Therefore all day = output in KWH / Input in KWH (for 24 Hours)
This efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency of a
transformer.
To find this all day efficiency or energy efficiency, we have to know the
load cycle on the transformer i.e. how much and how long the
transformer is loaded during 24 hours practical calculations are facilitated
by making use of load factor,
all

day

= ( O/p in Kwh) / ( O/P Kwh + iron loss Kwh + Cu loss

Kwh)
Why transformer rating in KVA?
As seen, Copper loss of a transformer depends on current and iron loss on
voltage. Hence total transformer loss depends on Volt-Ampere (VA) and
not on the phase angle between voltage and current i.e. it is independent
of load power factor. That is why rating of transformer is in KVA and not
on KW.
TRANSFORMER PROBLEMS
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BEE Mukesh Patel

Q1 It is desired to have 4.13mWb maximum flux in the core of a

transformer operating at 110V & 50 Hz. Determine required number of
turns in primary.
Q2 What will be the secondary voltage at no load if the primary of a 5KVA,
220/100V, 50 Hz single phase transformer is fed at a) 110V, 50Hz, b)
220V DC.
Q3 A single phase transformer has a 400 primary and 1000 secondary
turns. The net cross sectional area of the core is 60 Cm 2. If the primary
winding be connected to a 50 Hz supply at 520V Calculate 1. The peak
value of the flux density in the core. 2. The voltage induced in the
secondary winding.
Q4 A 25KVA transformer has 500 turns on primary and 50 turns on the
secondary winding. The primary is connected to 3000V, 50 Hz supply. Find
the full load primary and secondary current & emf and the maximum flux
in the core. Neglect leakage drops and no load primary current.
Q5 The maximum flux density in the core of 250/3000V, 50 Hz single
phase transformer is 1.2 Wb/m2. If the emf per turn is 8 volt, determine 1)
N1, N2 2) Area of core.
Q6 A 2200/250V transformer takes 0.5 Amp at a pf of 0.3 on open circuit.
Find magnetizing and working components of no load primary current.
Q7. A 50KVA, 2300/230V, 50 Hz transformer takes 200W and 0.3 Amp at
no load, when 2300V are applied to the HV side. The primary resistance
(HV) is 3.5 ohms. Determine no load pf.
Q8 A single phase transformer with a ratio of 440/110V takes a no load
current of 5 Amp at 0.2 pf lagging, If the secondary supplies a current of
120A at a pf of 0.8 lag, estimate the current taken by primary.
Q9 A transformer has a primary winding of 800 turns& a secondary
winding of 200 turns, when the load current on the secondary is 80Amp at
0.8 pf lagging. The primary current is 25 Amp at 0.707 pf lagging.
Determine graphically or otherwise the no load current of the transformer
and its phase w.r.t voltage.
Q10 A 30 KVA, 2400/120V, 50 Hz transformer has high voltage winding
resistance of 0.1 ohm and a leakage reactance of 0.22 ohm. The low
voltage winding resistance is 0.035 ohm & leakage reactance is 0.012
ohm. Find the equivalent winding resistance, reactance & impedance
referred to 1. High voltage side 2. The low voltage side.

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BEE Mukesh Patel

Q11 The primary of a 1000/250V step down transformer has a resistance

of 0.15 ohm & leakage reactance of 0.8 ohm. Find the primary induced
emf when the primary current is 60 Amp at 0.8 pf lagging.
Q12 A 50KVA, 4400/220V, transformer has a R1 = 3.45 , R2 = 0.009 .
The values of the reactances are X1 = 5.2 , X2 = 0.015 . Calculate for
the transformer 1. R01 2. R02 3. X01 4. X02 4. Z01 5. Z02 6. Total Cu loss.
Q13 A transformer with a 10:1 ratio and rated 50KVA, 2400/240V, 50Hz is
used to step down the voltage of a distributed system. The low tension
voltage is to be kept constant at 240 Volts. a) What load impedance
connected to low tension side will be loading the transformer fully at 0.8
pf lagging? b) What is the value of this referred to high voltage side? c)
What is the value of current referred to high tension?
Q14 The following data refer to a 1 phase transformer N 1: N2 = 19.5: 1, R1
= 25, X1=100, R2 = 0.06, X2 = 0.25, I0 = 1.25 Amp leading the flux
by 300. The secondary delivers 200 Amp at a terminal voltage of 500 Volts
& pf of 0.8 lagging. Determine the primary applied voltage, the primary pf
and the efficiency.
Q15 A 230 / 460V transformer has a primary resistance of 0.2 &
reactance of 0.5 & the corresponding values for secondary are 0.75, &
1.8 respectively. Find the secondary terminal voltage when supplying 10
Amp at 0.8 pf lagging.
Q16 Calculate the regulation of a transformer in which the percentage
resistance drop is 1% & % reactance drop is 5% when the pf is a) 0.8
lagging b) unity & c) 0.8 leading.
Q17 A transformer has a reactance drop of 5% and a resistance drop of
2.5%. Find the lagging pf at which the voltage regulation is maximum and
the value of this regulation.
Q18 Calculate the percentage drop for a transformer with a % resistance
of 2.5% & a % reactance of 5% of rating 500KVA, when it is delivering
400KVA at 0.8 pf lagging.
Q19 The parameter of a 2300 / 230 Volt, 50 Hz transformer are R 1 =
0.286,
R2 = 0.319, R0 = 250, X1 = 0.73, X2 = 0.73, X0 = 1250. The
Secondary load impedance ZL = 0.387 + j0.29. Solve for the exact
equivalent circuit with normal voltage across primary.
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BEE Mukesh Patel

Q20 A 30KVA, 6000 / 230Volts, 1 phase transformer has the following

parameters;
R1 = 10, R2 = 10.8, X1 = 16, X2 = 34.
Calculate neglecting no load current, the voltage to be applied to the
primary to circulate full load current when the secondary is short
circuited. What is the pf of short circuit?
Q21 Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200 / 400 Volt, 50 Hz, 1 phase
transformer from the following test data:
OC Test: 200V, 0.7 Amp, 70 Watts ---- on L.V.side
SC Test: 15V, 10 Amps, 85 Watts ------ on H.V.side
Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 5KW at 0.8 pf lagging,
the primary voltage being 200 Volts.
Q22 A 1 phase transformer has a turns ratio of 6. R 1 = 0.9, X1 = 5, R2 =
0.03, X2 = 0.13. If 330 Volts at 50 Hz be applied to the high voltage
winding with a low voltage winding short circuited. Find the current in the
low voltage winding and its pf, neglecting magnetizing current.
Q23 A 1 phase 10KVA, 500 / 250 Volts, 50 Hz transformer has the
following constants:
R1 =0.2, R2 = 0.5, X1 = 0.4, X2 = 0.1
What should be reading of the instruments when the transformer is
connected for the OC & SC tests?
Q24 The equivalent circuit for a 200 / 400 Volt step up transformer has
the following parameters referred to the low voltage side:
R01 = 0.15, X01 = 0.37, R0 = 600, X0 = 300.
When the transformer is supplying a load of 10 Amps at a pf of 0.8 lag,
Calculate I1, VL.
Q25 The low voltage winding of a 300KVA, 11000 / 2500 Volts, 50 Hz
transformer has 190 turns and a resistance of 0.06, when the LV
winding is short circuited, the full load current is obtained with 550V
applied to the HV winding. Calculate a) R01, X01 b) X1, X2.
Q26 The corrected instrument reading from OC & SC test on 10KVA, 450 /
120 V, 50 Hz transformer are:
OC test: V1 = 120V, I1 = 4.2 Amps, W1 = 80 Watts Instruments on LV side.
SC test: V1 = 9.65V, I1 = 22.2 Amps, W1 = 120 Watts, LV short circuited
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BEE Mukesh Patel

Calculate a) Equivalent circuit constant, b) & voltage regulation for 80%

lagging pf load. C) at half full load & 80% lagging pf load.
Q27 From following data of 500KVA, 3300 / 400V, 50 Hz, 1 phase
transformer, calculate the FL regulation and at a pf of 0.8 lagging.
OC test: 1000 W with normal primary voltage.
SC test: 1250 W, 100V, secondary short circuited with FL current in it.
Q28 A 100KVA, 6600 / 330 V, 50Hz 1 phase transformer took 10 Amps &
436 Watts in a SC test, the figures referring to HV side. Calculate the
voltage to be applied to the HV side on FL at a pf of 0.8 lagging, when the
secondary terminal voltage is 330V.
Q29 A 250 / 500Volts transformer gave the following test results:
OC test: 250V, 1Amp, 80 Watts on LV side.
SC test: LV winding short circuited 20 V, 12 Amp, 100 Watts.
Determine the circuit constants & calculate applied voltage and when
the output is 10 Amp at 500Volts & 0.8 pf lagging.

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