CHAPTER 5

SERIES REPRESENTATION OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION

5.1 Convergence of Sequence

Let

express sequence of complex number

have a limit)

Sequence

if:

This statement is equivalent to the following definition. Sequence

every

is said converge to (or

there is a positive number

such that

converges to
for all

if for

Example 5.1.1. The sequence

converges to zero. To show this, look

Thus, if given any , we can choose N arbitrary natural numbers greater than
shown that the sequence converges to zero.

. So, it has

If

converges to

((in other words limit

exists), then this is written as

and this limit is singular.

If

not converge to a complex number anywhere (it means that the line has no limit), so the

sequence is said to be divergent.

Theorem 5.1.1.
Suppose:

and

. If

converges to

converges to

. Conversely, if

converges to

converges to

, then
and

converge to

converges to

and

, then

Thus, a complex sequence converges if and only if its real and imaginary parts converge.

Proof :
If

, then

. But
.

By squeeze theorem it means that

can be shown that

Suppose

, i.e.

. By the same argument

and

, then

based on the triangle inequality which is applied to

and

, concluded that

and

. We have

and

. Since
, i.e.

Example 5.1.2. Sequence

converges to i. This can be demonstrated as follows:

If

converges to a function f which is continuous at

For example

converges to

, then

when

converges to

because

continuous.

5.2 Series
Definition 5.2.1.
A series is a formal expression in the form

with the terms

complex numbers.

The number of sections to-N of the series, written SN, is the sum of N+1 first terms, that is
.
If the sequence number of {SN }

= 0 has a limit S, then the series is said to be converge

to (or have amount) of S and written as

. The series which is not convergent is

called divergent.
If

and

= S = X+iY , then

=Y

and vice versa. This shows that the complex series converges if and only if its real and imaginary
parts converge. It is formulated in the following theorem:
Theorem 5.2.1.
Let

with

are real numbers for all n.

Then

In this case,
.

Proof:
Let

then use. Theorem 5.1.1

Example 5.2.1.
Series

convergent. Let

and

. Thus, the series

. It is clear that

converges to

and

Some laws for the series is presented below.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
One way to show that the series converges to S is by showing that the remainder after summing
N +1 first term N+1,

goes to zero for

. This technique is used to show the

convergences of series which is simple but very useful, that is geometric series

Lemma 5.2.1. Series

converges to

if

, i.e.
if

and divergent if

Proof.
Note that:
=
=

By doing re-arrangement obtained:

(5.2.1)

Since
for

, it is clear that the right-hand side of equation (5.2.1), which is the remainder, to 0
.

Another way to determine the convergences of the series is by comparing that series with another
series which its convergences has known. It is formulated in the following theorem.

Theorem 5.2.2. (Comparison Test).

Suppose the terms of

fulfill inequality

For all integers n which is more than a number K. If the series

series

is also converges.

Example 5.2.2.
Show that the series
Solution.
We compare the series

is converges

converges, then the

With a convergent geometric series

Since

, it can be show that

It means that the terms of (5.2.3) dominates the terms of (5.2.1) and consequently (5.2.2) is
converges.
Besides the comparison test, ratio test is often used to determine the convergence of a series.

Theorem 5.2.3. (Ratio Test) .

Suppose the terms of series

have a property that the ratio

limit L . If L < 1, then the series

converges to a

is convergent; If L > 1, then the series

is

diverges.

Example 5.2.3.
Show that the series

is convergent!

Solution.
We determine the ratio

This ratio is close to zero for n . So the series converges. Apart from the comparison
test and ratio test, several other trials presented in the following theorem.
Theorem 5.2.4. Converges Test.
(i). (Test p series). Series

converges when p> 1 and diverges if p 1.

exist and equal to L. If L < 1, then the

(ii). (Test Root). Suppose lim

series

convergent. If L > 1, then the series diverges.

for , then the series

(iii). (Zero Test). If

Same as the series of real numbers, the series

series

diverges

is says an absolute convergent if the

converges.

Theorem 5.2.5.
If

absolute convergent, then the series converges.

Proof.
Let

with the real of

and

converges (since 0
real series

. Since

and use the test comparison). So the

absolute converges so that the series

arguments, the series

converges, then

converges. By the same

is convergent. Thus

by Theorem 5.2.1
In general, the converse of Theorem 5.2.5 is not always true. For example
but

converges

diverges. Types of sequences and series that often arise in complex

analysis is a sequence and series of its terms is a function of complex variable z.

So, if we have sequence of function

, then for a value z, the sequence is

convergent while for another value diverges. For example, the sequence
close to zero for |

is

, close to 1 for z = 2i, and have no limit to the other values of z.

Thus, the series of complex functions

may be converge to a value of z and

diverges for another value of z.

Example 5.2.4.
If

is a fixed complex numbers, show that it converges to

.

5.3 Taylor Series

Definition 5.3.1.
If

analytic at

, then the series

Called the Taylor series of

around

. If

, the series is called Maclaurin series of .

Theorem 5.3.1.
If

analytic in the disk

, then the Taylor series (5.3.1) converges to

the disk. In addition, the convergence of series is uniform in every part of a closed disk
.

for all z in

This theorem imply that the Taylor series will converges to

disk centered at

where

everywhere in the largest open

analytic.

Example 5.3.1.
Determine the Taylor series and convergences properties of (a) Ln z around

, and (b)

around

Solution.
(a) Derivatives of Ln z is given by

Calculate the value of this derivative at z = 1, we obtain

The series is valid for

which is the largest open disk centered at z = 1 where ln z

analytic.
(b) Since

, all the derivatives have the same value at z = 0, that is 1. So,

valid for all z since

Example 5.3.2.

is complete function.

Function
cant be expanded into the Maclaurin series since this function is not analytic at z = 0. But,
can be expanded into Maclaurin series, so for

is obtained

Theorem 5.3.2.
If f analytic at

, the Taylor series of

term the Taylor series of f around

around

. Taylor series of

can be obtained by differentiating term by

and f converges in the same disc.

Example 5.3.2.
Get the Maclaurin series for sin z and cos z.

Solution:
We expand sin z as usual in order to get the series

which applicable for all z since sin z is a complete function. To get a series of cos z, we
derive the series

Theorem 5.3.3.

term to term so obtained.

Let f and g are analytic functions with Taylor series

around the point

and

. Then

Definition 5.3.2.
Cauchy product of two Taylor series

and

is defined as series

with
lbl

Theorem 5.3.4.
Let f and g analytic function with Taylor series
around the point

and

. Then the Taylor series of the product

around

given by the Cauchy product of two series.

5.4 Power Series

Definition 5.4.1.
Series in form of

is called a power series. Constant

is the complex

coefficient of power series.

Powers series obviously convergent when

and also can be converges to another value of

z, but not necessarily convergent for all. Convergence power series defined in the following
theorem.

Theorem 5.4.1
For any power series

, there are real numbers

0 R that depends only on the coefficients

(i) The series converges for

such that

(ii) The series uniform converges on a closed disc | z-z_0 | r <R

(iii) The series diverges
Numbers R called the convergence radius of power series. If R = 0, the power series converges
, and when R = , the series converges for all z. For

only at
circle

, the

is called Circle convergence.

Theorem 5.4.2.
Power series

is an analytic function inside its convergence circle.

Its radius convergence can be determined using the ratio test or root test. It is presented in the
following theorem.

Theorem 5.4.3.
Consider power series
(i)

So the convergence radius is given by R=1/L

(ii) If
So the convergence radius is R=1/L
In determining the convergence radius, it was agreed that if L=0, then R=
And conversely if L=

,then R= 0.

Example 5.4.1
(a) Series

having a convergent radius 1 since

= 1 so that

(b) Series

having a convergent radius R=

since

so that

to k
( c ) Series

having a convergent radius R=0 since

for

5.5 Laurent Series

Theorem 5.5.1 Let f analytic in the open annulus

. Then f can be expressed as a

sum of two series

Both of that series converges in the annulus, and uniformly convergent in every closed annulus
section

. Coefficient

is given by

with C be any simple closed contour with positive orientation which is located in the annulus and
the interior contains .
Expansion as in the theorem that contains positive and negative powers of

is called a

Laurent series of f in the annulus. The series is usually abbreviated

Part

is called the analytic part of Laurent series and part of

called the main part.

Consider that if f is analytic throughout the disk

, the coefficients are given by

(5.5.1) with negative index is zero and the other gives the Taylor series for f.

In the following example we determine the Laurent expansion using the fact that the geometric
series

converges to

for

Example 5.5.1.
Get Laurent series for the function

Solution.
We write this function in two terms with the technique of fractional parts, that is

(a). For
In this region the function

Being the function

So Laurent series from

has the expansion

has the expansion

is given by

(b). For
In this region, the series (5.5.3) is still valid (since for

while the series

(5.5.2) is invalid. Should be found the expansion of

in this area. If

so that

Thus, the Laurent series of

is given by

(c). For
In this region the series ( 5.5.4) is still valid ( since for

) while the series

(5.5.3) is invalid.

Should be found the expansion of

in this area. If

, then

so that

So Laurent series of

is given by

5.6 Zeros and Singularity

Zeros
Point

is called zeros of a function

if

analytic at

and

Definition 5.6.1.
Point

is called zeros-order k of the function

if

analytic at

But

For example, the function

has a zeros-order 1 in 1 and -2. The function

has a zeros-order 2 at 1 and order 1 at -2.

Theorem 5.6.1.
Let f analytic at
analytic at

and

. Then

has a zeros-order k at
.

if and only if

with

Based on the Taylor formula, the coefficient of

. So, the zeros order of function

at

on the Taylor expansion of at

is

equal to the value of the firs k which is cause

For example, take

. We calculate

and

Thus,

But

so that

has zeros of order 2at 1.

The zeros with order 1is called simple zero. For example, the zeros of sin z are integer multiple
of and they all are simple zeros.

If

has a zeros with order k at

a zeros with order k + m at

and

. For example

has a zeros with order m at , then

has

and sin ( ) both have simple zeros at 0. Thus,

sin ( ) has a zeros with order 2 at 0.

Singularity
Point

is a singular point of

if

is not analytic at

. There are two types of singularities, that

are not isolated and isolated singularities.

Point

is isolated singularity of

(or perforated discs

and

if

analytic in a removed neighborhood of

). Let

) has two isolated singularities namely

We can make a removed neighborhood with radius 1 (or less) around those two points where
analytic. On the other hand, the function

is

has no isolated singularity at 0 for the

smallest radius R we choose, the perforated disc

must contain singularities

other than 0.
Isolated singularities can be classified into 3 types, they are removed singularity, pole, and
essential singularity.
1. Removed singularity. The function
singularities at
defining

but

di

has removed singularity at

can be made analytically by redefining

equal to

if

has isolated

at . This is done by

(this limit exists).

2. Pole. If the main part of the Laurent series of finite number, namely

Then

is called pole with order m. If m=1, is called simple pole. If

then

. If

has a pole with order k and

has a pole

has a pole with order m, then

has a pole with order k + m.

3. Essential singularity. The singularity which is not a pole and not the removed singularity is
called essential singularity. For example, the function

. This function has a

singularity at 0 and its Laurents series is around 0 which is given by

Since there exist the negative powers Laurent expansion, this function has no removed
singularity at 0. Its singularity is not pole because how many times we multiply by , we cant
eliminate all the negative powers of

and remove its singularity. Therefore,

is said to have

an essential singularity.

In general, if the Laurent expansion of

the negative powers, then

around

contain an infinite number of terms with

is said to have essential singularity.

If the Laurent expansion of

around

contain a finite number of terms with the negative

powers, then its singularity is pole.

And if there are no terms with the negative powers, then its singularity can be removed.

The following functions have eliminated singularities.

The function

have a pole with order 2 and

have order 4 at
Some theorems for the determination of the pole and removed singularity are given below.

Lemma 5.6.1.
A function

has a pole with order m at

satisfying:

with

if and only if in a removed neighborhood of

Theorem 5.6.2.
If

and

are analytic and have a common zeros order at , then

has a

removed singularity.

Theorem 5.6.3.
If

exists and not equal to zero, then

Theorem 5.6.4.
Let

and

has a simple pole at

are

analytic

at ,

) has a simple pole at

Theorem. 5.6.5
Suppose that

has a singular point

and k 0 is the smallest integer such that

exists and not equal to zero.Then

has pole with order k at

Theorem 5.6.6.
Suppose that
(i).

is removed singularity if and only if one of the following conditions are satisfied:
(1)
(2)
(3)

(ii).

analytic on a region D and has a remote singularity at

is bounded in removed neighborhood of

exists; or
= 0.
is a pole with order k if and only if of the following conditions are satisfied: (1) There

are constants M>0 and integer k 1 such that:

In the removed circle of

(1)
(2)

is exist.

Example 5.6.1.
Clarify the singularity of the function
Solution.
Since:
and the numerator is analytic and not equal to zero at z = 1, Lemma 5.5.1 implies that the
function has a second-order pole (pole with order 2)

Example 5.6.2.
Determine the order of pole of the following functions at the point of singularity which is given.

(a).
(b).
(c).

The solutions will be completed part (a) only. Part (b) and (c) submitted to the reader.
(a).

has a zeros with order 2 and cos 0 = 1. So

by using following series:

has a pole with order 2. Another way is

Example 5.6.3.
Determine the functions bellow, which functions have a removed singularity at

(a).
(b).
(c).
(d).

Solution:
Will be completed for part (a) and (b). For part (c) submitted to the reader.
(a).

so that this function has a removed singularity.

Another way is by using the following series:

(b).

so that

is a simple pole. So, this function has no removed singularity.