LIQUIDITY AND WORKING

CAPITAL MANAGEMENT

Liquidity and working capital management imply the short-term

management of a firm, which are very vital for maintaining adequate but
not excessive liquidity for the firm. The holding of current or liquid
assets, especially cash, reduces the profitability of the firm; since cash is
an unproductive asset. The firm has a greater degree of flexibility in
managing current assets. Hence for maintaining proper liquidity of a
firm; liquidity and working capital management play the pivotal role.
Liquidity and working capital management discussed in UNIT#FIVE
mainly include the following: 1.

Working Capital Management Policy (Lesson:1)

2.

Working Capital Investment Policy (Lesson:2);

3.

Working Capital Financing Policy (Lesson:3);

4.

Working Capital Planning (Lesson:4)

5.

Cash Management (Lesson:5)

6.

Inventory Management Principles (Lesson:6);

7.

Inventory Management: Elements & Techniques (Lesson:7)

8.

Accounts Receivable Management and Factoring (Lesson: 8);

9.

Marketable Securities Management (Lesson:9)

10.

Short-term Financing. (Lesson:10)

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Lesson-1: Working Capital Management Policy

After careful reading of the lesson 1, you should be able

To grasp the concepts working capital and its relation with

management policies;

To understand the concept of working capital management

policies;

To identify the goals of working capital management policies and

To realize the significance of working capital management

policies.

Concepts of Working Capital and

Management Policies

Its

Relation

with

There are two concepts of working capital gross and net.

Gross working capital refers to the firms investment in current

assets. Current assets are the assets which can be converted into
cash within an accounting year (or operating cycle) and include
cash, short-term securities, debtors, (accounts receivable or book
debts) bills receivable and stock (inventory).

Net working capital refers to the difference between current assets

and current liabilities. Current liabilities are those claims of
outsiders which are expected to mature for payment within an
accounting year. The examples are accounts payable, bills payable,
bank overdrafts, bank loans and outstanding expenses. Net
working capital may be positive or negative. A positive net
working capital will arise when current assets exceeds current
liabilities. A negative net working capital will occur when current
liabilities exceed current assets.

It may be emphasized that both gross and net concepts of working capital
are equally important for the efficient management of working capital.
There is no precise way to determine the exact amount of gross or net
working capital for any firm. The data and problems of each firm should
be analyzed to determine the same.
The need for working capital to run the day-to-day business activities
cannot be overemphasized. We will hardly find a business firm which
dos not require any amount of working capital. Indeed, firms differ in
their requirements of the working capital. We know that a firm should
aim at maximizing the wealth of its shareholders. In its endeavor to do
so, a firm should earn sufficient return from its operations. Earning a
steady amount of profit requires successful sales activity. The firm has to
invest enough funds in current assets for generating sales. Current assets
are needed because sales do not convert into cash instantaneously.

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Working capital
management refers
mainly to the
planning and
control of working
capital.

By working capital management principles we mean the principles

followed in managing working capital. Working capital management
refers mainly to the planning and control of working capital. By planning
working capital we mean determination of working capital needs. By
control of working capital we mean the proper utilization of working
capital. The term working capital policy refers to the decisions regarding
:(i) the target levels for each current asset account and (ii) how current
assets will be financed. Therefore, working capital management policies
are mainly divided into two groups namely, working investment policy
and working financing policy.
The term working capital originated with the old Yankee Peddler, who
would load up his wagon with goods and then go off on his route to
paddle his wares. The merchandise was called working capital because it
was what he actually sold to earn profits. The wagon and horse were his
fixed assets. To buy the merchandise he borrowed fund which was
known as working capital loans that had to be repaid after each trip.

Concept of Working Capital Management Policies

Working capital
management should
aim at striking a
balance between
profitability and
liquidity of the firm.

Working capital management is concerned with the problems that arise

in attempting to mange the current assets, the current liabilities and the
interrelationships that exist between them. The term current assets refers
to those assets which in the ordinary course of business can be converted
into cash within one year without undergoing a diminution in value and
without disrupting the operations of the firm. The examples of current
assets are cash in hand, cash at bank, accounts receivables, inventory,
marketable securities, bills receivable and prepaid expenses. Current
liabilities are those liabilities, which are intended at their inception to be
paid in the ordinary course of business, within a one year, out of the
current assets or earnings of the business. The basic current liabilities are
accounts payable, bills payable, cash credit, bank overdraft and
outstanding expenses. One of the main features of managing current
assets is the question of profitability vs. liquidity and related aspect of
risk. If the size of current assets is large, the liquidity position would
improve no doubt, but profitability would be adversely affected since the
funds will remain idle. On the other hand, if the size of such assets is
relatively small, the overall profitability will undoubtedly increase, but it
will have an adverse effect on the liquidity position, thereby making the
firm more risky. Therefore, working capital management should aim at
striking a balance between profitability and liquidity of the firm.

Goals of Working Capital Management Policies

The interaction
between the current
asset and current
liabilities should be
the main theme of
the working capital
management.

The goal of working capital management is to manage the firms current

assets and current liabilities in such a way that an optimum level of
working capital is maintained. This is because of the fact that if the firm
fails to maintain a satisfactory level of working capital, it is likely to
become financially insolvent and even may be forced into bankruptcy.
The current assets should be large enough to cover its current liabilities
in order to ensure a reasonable margin of safety. Each of the current
assets must be managed efficiently in order to maintain the liquidity of
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the firm while not keeping too high or too low any one of them. Again,
each of the current liabilities must be effectively managed to ensure that
the short-term sources are obtained and used in the best possible manner.
Therefore, the interaction between the current asset and current liabilities
should be the main theme of the working capital management.
The firms policies for managing its working capital should be designed
to achieve three goals such as maintenance of adequate liquidity;
minimization of risks and maximization of the value of the firm through
its profit and wealth maximization. If a firm lacks sufficient cash to pay
its bills when due, it will experience continuing problems. Therefore, the
most important goal is to achieve and also maintain adequate liquidity
for the conduct of day-to-day operation. The matching of assets and
liabilities among current accounts is a task of minimizing the risk of
being unable to pay bills and other obligations. The investment of surplus
cash, minimizing of investment in inventory and receivable, speedy
collection of receivable and elimination of unnecessary and costly shortterm financing, all contribute to maximizing wealth, profit and in turn the
value of a firm.

Significance of Working Capital Management Policies

A firms profitability is determined in part by the way its working capital
is managed. That is, when working capital varies in relation to sales
without a corresponding change in production, the profit position is
affected. Moreover, if the flow of funds created by the movement of
working capital through the various business processes is interrupted, the
turnover of working capital is decreased, as is the rate of return on
investment. It is, therefore, important for the financial management of an
enterprise to pay particular attention to the planning and control of
working capital.
The relative amount that is invested in short-term assets is a function of
decisions that are made concerning the management of cash and
marketable securities, accounts receivable and inventories. Of these three
assets we generally consider cash and marketable securities to be the
least risky, or most liquid. But the degree of risk can vary for either
accounts receivable or inventories, depending on the general
characteristics of the firms working capital policy. For example, we
generally view receivables as relatively safe assets because they
represent sales the firm expects to collect in the future. But a firm with
an overly aggressive, or relaxed, credit policy might have many slow
payers or bad-debt customers that make its receivables extremely risky,
thus fairly liquid.
Thus, all else equal, firms that hold greater amounts of short-term assets
are considered less risky than firms that hold greater amounts of log-term
assets; at the same time, firms with more short-term assets earn lower
returns than firms with more long-term assets. Consequently, financial
managers are faced with a dilemma of whether to forgo higher returns to
attain lower risk or to forgo lower risk to achieve higher returns. In
general, however, we will see that some amount of short-term assets is
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required to maintain normal operations. Therefore, the question of tradeoff between profitability and risk is very much important in working
capital management principles.
Trade-off between Profitability and Risk
In evaluating a firms net working capital position, an important
consideration is the trade-off between profitability and risk. In other
words, the level of net working capital has a bearing on profitability and
risk. The term risk is defined here as the probability that a firm will
become technically insolvent so that it will not be able to meet its
obligation when they become due for payment.
The risk of becoming technically insolvent is measured using net
working capital (NWC). It is assumed that the greater the amount of
NWC, the less risk prone the firm is, or the greater the NWC, the more
liquid the firm is. Therefore, the less likely it is to become technically
insolvent. Contrary, lower levels of NWC and liquidity are associated
with increasing levels of risk. The relationship between liquidity, NWC
and risk is such that if either NWC or liquidity increases, the firms risk
decreases and vice-versa.
Nature of Trade-off
If a firm wants to increase its profitability, it must also increase its risk.
On the hand, if it is to decrease risk it must decrease profitability. The
trade-off between these variables is that regardless of how the firm
increases its profitability through the manipulation of working capital,
the consequence a corresponding increase in risk as measured by the
level of NWC.
In evaluating the profitability risk trade-off related to the level of
NWC, three basic assumptions, which are generally true, are as follows:
(i)

That the firm is a manufacturing one

(ii)

That current assets are less profitable than the fixed assets

(iii) That the short-term funds are less costly than the long-term funds.
In reality, the principal reason for the failure of the firms is that they are
unable to meet their working capital requirements. Thus, sound working
capital management policy is a pre-requisite for the survival of a firm.
Therefore, much of the financial managers time is devoted to working
capital management and many of you who get jobs in financial areas will
find your first assignment on the job would involve working capital. For
these reasons, working capital management policy is very essential.

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Review Questions
A. Short Questions
1.
Define working capital and working capital management.
2.
What is a working capital policy? Explain with examples.
3.
Examine the nature of working capital management policy.
4.
What is the goal of working capital management policy? Discuss.
B. Broad Questions
5.

Discuss the significance of working capital management policy in

case of a manufacturing enterprise.

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Lesson-2: Working Capital Investment Policy

After careful study of the lesson 2, you should be able

To understand the concept and the significance of working capital

investment policy;

To know the cash conversion cycle and its various stages and

To identify and discuss the types of working capital investment

policies.

Concept and Significance of Working Capital Investment

Policy
The allocation of
total working
capital in its various
components is
known as working
capital investment
policy.

Cash conversion
cycle refers to the
length of time from
the payment for the
purchase of raw
materials and
supplies to
manufacture a
product until the
collection of
accounts
receivables created
by credit sale of the
products.

Working capital investment policy refers to the determination of the

amount of working capital to be invested in various current assets
namely, cash and bank balances, inventory, accounts receivables, bills
receivables, marketable securities and prepaid expenses. That is, the
allocation of total working capital in its various components is known as
working capital investment policy.
Determination of correct amount of investment in current assets is
significant for any manufacturing firm. The level of investment in
current assets should be neither excessive nor inadequate; but should be
reasonable. Therefore, investment in current assets should be just
reasonable, not more or not less to the needs of the business firms. Both
the excessive investment and the inadequate investment in current assets
should be avoided because they impair the firms profitability and
liquidity. Excessive investment leads to blockage of funds in current
assets which earns nothing since it is an idle investment. On the other
hand, inadequate investment in current assets can threaten the liquidity as
well as solvency of the firm because of its inability to meet its current
financial obligations. It should be kept in mind that working capital
needs of the firm may fluctuate with changing business activities. This
may cause excessive or inadequate investment in current assets
frequently. In such a situation the financial management should take
initiative to correct the imbalances. Here lies the importance of proper
current assets investment policy for the firms.

Cash Conversion Cycle and Its Various Stages

Cash conversion cycle refers to the length of time from the payment for
the purchase of raw materials and supplies to manufacture a product until
the collection of accounts receivables created by credit sale of the
products. There are five important processes involved in cash conversion
cycle which are summarized as follows:
(i)
Purchasing raw materials and supplies on credit, thereby creating
accounts payable. Such purchases have no immediate cash flow
effect because payment is not made at the time of purchases.
(ii) Labor and other factory expenses are used to convert the materials
into the finished products.
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(iii) The finished products are sold on credit, thereby creating accounts
receivables. Such sales have no immediate cash inflows to the
business.
(iv) Later on, the question of paying off accounts payable and other
accrued operating costs like wages and factory overheads arises
which involves cash outflows.
(v) The last process arises when the question of collection from
accounts receivables arises. This leads to cash inflows in the
business.
There are three important stages of a cash conversion cycle namely, the
inventory conversion period, receivables collection period and the
payables deferral period. The following paragraphs deal with the
following stages:
(i)

The Inventory Conversion Period: The inventory conversion

period is the average length of time required to convert materials
into finished goods and then to sell those goods? It is the amount
of time the product remains in inventory in various stages of
completion. The inventory conversion period is calculated by
dividing inventory by the cost of goods sold per day.

(ii)

The Receivables Collection period: It is the average length of

time required to convert the firms receivables into cash that is,
to collect cash following a sale. The receivables collection period
also is called the days sales outstanding (DSO), and it is
calculated by dividing accounts receivable by the average credit
sales per day.

(iii)

The Payable Deferred Period: It is the average length of time

between the purchase of raw materials and labor and the
payment of cash for them. It is computed by dividing accounts
payable by the daily credit purchases.

The cash conversion cycle computation nets out the three periods just
defined, resulting in a value that equals the length of time between the
firms actual cash expenditure to pay for (invest in) productive resources
(materials and labor) and its own cash receipts from the sale of the
products that is, the length of time between paying for labor and
materials and collecting on receivables. The cash conversion cycle thus
equals the average length of time a Taka is tied up in current assets.
Therefore, the formula for finding out cash conversion cycle goes as
follows :
Cash
Inventory Re ceivables Payables

conversion = conversion + collection deferred

cycle
period
period
period

Types of Investment Policy

There are three alternative policies regarding the total amount of current
assets carried. Essentially, these policies differ in that different amounts
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The cash conversion

cycle thus equals the
average length of
time a Taka is tied
up in current assets.

School of Business

of current assets are carried to support any given level of sales. These
policies are
1. Relaxed Current Investment Policy: A policy under which relatively
large amounts of cash and marketable securities and inventories are
carried and under which sales are stimulated by a liberal credit policy
that results in a high level of receivables.
2. Restricted Current Asset Investment Policy: A policy under which
holdings of cash and marketable securities, inventories, and receivables
are minimized.
3. Moderate Current Assets Investment Policy: A policy that is in
between the relaxed and restrictive policies.
In terms of the cash conversion cycle, a restricted investment policy
would tend to reduce the inventory conversion and receivables collection
periods, which would result in a relatively short cash conversion cycle.
Conversely, a relaxed policy would create higher levels of inventories
and receivables, longer inventory conversion and receivables collection
periods, and a relatively long cash conversion cycle. A moderate policy
would produce a cash conversion cycle somewhere between the two
extremes.
The following Figure presents the alternative current assets investment
policies of a corporate firm.
Current Assets

40

Relaxed

Moderate
30
Restricted
20

10

50

100

150

200

Figure 28.1 : Alternative Current Asset Investment Policies (millions of dollars)

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Summary of Figure 1:
Sales ($)
Policy

Current Assets to Support

Sales of $100

Relaxed

$30

Moderate

23

Restricted

16

Problems and Solutions

Problem - 1
The following data relate to a manufacturing company during 20032004:
Credit sales-Tk. 4,50,000; Credit purchase Tk. 3,80,000; Finished
Inventory Tk. 90,000; Cost of goods sold Tk. 60% of total sales of Tk.
6,00,000 and Accounts payable Tk. 1,45,000.
Calculate cash conversion cycle of the company. Also determine Net
Working Capital of the company.
Solution

Cash
Inventory Re ceivables Payables

conversion = conversion + collection deferred

cycle
period
period
period

Finished Inventory
(i) Inventory Conversion Period = ----------------------------------Cost of goods sold per day
90,000
= ----------------------------60% of 6,00,000/360
90,000
= --------------- = 90 days
1,000

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Receivables
4,50,000
(ii) Receivables Collection Period = ---------------------------- =----------------- = 360 days
Credit sales per day
1,250

Accounts payable 1,45,000

1,45,000
(iii) Payable Deferred Period = ------------------ = ------------------ = ------------- = 137 days
Credit purchase per day 3,89,000/360 1,055.5

Therefore Cash Conversion Cycle = 90 days + 360 days 137 days = 313 days
Net working capital = Total Current Assets Total Current Liabilities
= (Inventory + Receivables) Accounts Payable
= (90,000 + 4,50,000) 1,45,000
= Tk. 3,95,000

Problem - 2
The Saliford Corporation has an inventory conversion period of 60 days,
a receivables collection period of 36 days, and a payables deferred period
of 24 days.
a.

What is the length of the firms cash conversion cycle?

b.

If Salifords annual sales are $3,960,000 and all sales are on credit,
what is the average balance in accounts receivable?

c.

How many times per year does Saliford turn over its inventory?

d.

What would happen to Salifords cash conversion cycle if, on

average, inventories could be turned over eight times a year ?

Solution

Cash
Inventory Re ceivables Payables

a. conversion = conversion + collection deferred

cycle
period
period
period

= 60 days + 36 days 24 days

= 72 days
b. Average balance
in accounts
receivables

Credit sales
39,60,000
= --------------------------------------- = ----------------Average collection period/360
36/360

= Tk. 3,96,000

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Sales
39,60,000
c. Inventory Turnover = --------------- = ------------------ = 6 times
Inventory
6,60,000

360
d. Cash conversion cycle = ---------- + 36 24 days = 57 days
8

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Review Questions
Short Questions
1.
What is working capital investment policy?
2.
Discuss the significance of working capital investment policy.
3.
What is a cash conversion cycle? Explain.
4.
What two key issues does working capital investment policy
involve?
5.
How would you determine:
a) Inventory conversion period, b) Receivables collection period
and
c) Payable Deferral Period
Broad Questions
6.

What is meant by working capital investment policy? Discuss its

various forms. Which one is the best and why?

Review Problems
Problem - 1
Peoples Ltd. had projected sales for 2004 Tk. 1,650 million. The
projected cost of goods sold was 1,353 million. Assume all sales and
purchases are made on credit:
a)
Calculate inventory conversion period as of September 30 and
December 31, 2004.
b)
Calculate receivables collection period as on those dates.
c)
Calculate the payables deferral period as on those days.
d)
Calculate cash conversion cycle as on those days.
Problem - 2
Rahim Afrooz is a leading producer of automobile batteries. It turns out
1,500 batteries a day at a cost of Tk. 6 per battery for materials and labor.
It takes the firm 22 days to convert raw materials into the battery. It
allows its customers 40 days in which to pay for the batteries and the
firm generally pays its suppliers in 30 days.
a)
What is the length of cash conversion cycle?
b)
If the firm always produces and sales 1,500 batteries a day, what
amount of working capital must it finance?
c)
By what amount would the firm reduce its working capital
financing needs if it was able to stretch its payables deferral period
to 35 days?

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Lesson-3: Working Capital Financing Policy

After successful completion of this lesson 3, you should be able

To understand the concept and significance of working capital

financing policy;

To identify the various types of working capital and

To evaluate the various forms of working capital financing policy.

Concept and Significance of Working Capital Financing Policy

By working capital financing policy we mean that policy which is
applied in financing working capital. That is, in financing working
capital whether the firm would use : (i) hedging policy; (ii) conservative
policy and (iii) moderate policy; is the ultimate theme of the working
capital financing policy.
Apart from the profitability-risk trade-off, another important ingredient
of the theory of working capital management is determining the
financing mix. One of the most important decisions, in other words,
involved in the management of working capital is how current assets will
be financed. There are, broadly speaking two sources from which funds
can be raised for current asset financing: (i) short-term sources (current
liabilities), and (ii) long-term sources such as, share capital, long-term
borrowings, internally generated resources like retained earnings and so
on. What proportion of current assets should be financed by current
liabilities and how much by long-term resources? Decisions on such
questions will determine the financing mix.
The sources of financing working capital play a vital role in maintaining
liquidity and profitability of the firm. If permanent working capital is
financed by short-term loans, the business will face lack of liquid assets
when the loan falls due. It will cause interruption in the normal business
operation. On the other hand, if temporary working capital is financed by
long-term finance, the amount will remain idle after the need for such
capital is over; this causes loss to the firm to the extent of cost capital.
Therefore, it is also expected that an organization is to select appropriate
source for financing the working capital.

Various Types of Working Capital

Most businesses experience seasonal fluctuations, cyclical fluctuations,
or both. For example, construction firms have peaks in the spring and
summer, retailers peak around festivals, and the manufacturers, who
supply both construction companies and retailers, follow similar patterns.
Similarly, virtually all businesses must build up current assets when the
economy is strong, but they then sell off inventories and have net
reductions of receivables when the economy slacks off. Still, current
assets rarely drop to zero, and this realization has led to the development
of the idea that some current assets should be considered permanent
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In financing
working capital
whether the firm
would use : (i)
hedging policy; (ii)
conservative policy
and (iii) moderate
policy; is the
ultimate theme of
the working capital
financing policy.

It is also expected
that an organization
is to select
appropriate source
for financing the
working capital.

School of Business
The manner in
which the
permanent and
temporary current
assets are financed
is called the firms
current asset
financing policy

current assets because their levels remain stable no matter the seasonal
or economic conditions. Temporary current assets are those amounts of
current assets that vary with respect to the seasonal or economic
conditions of a firm. The manner in which the permanent and temporary
current assets are financed is called the firms current asset financing
policy, which generally can be classified as one of the three approaches
described next.
Maturity Matching, or Self-liquidating Approach: A financing
policy that matches asset and liability maturities. This would be
considered a moderate current asset financing policy.
Aggressive Approach : A policy where all of the fixed assets of a firm
are financed with long-term capital, but some of the firms permanent
current assets are financed with short-term nonspontaneous sources of
funds.

Evaluation of Various Financing Policies

There are three basic approaches to determine an appropriate financing
mix : (i) Hedging approach, also called the Matching approach; (ii)
Conservative approach, and (iii) Trade-off between these two. These are
developed and explained with appropriate examples in this section.
The term hedging
can be said to refer
to a process of a
matching maturities
of debt with the
maturities of
financial needs.

(i) Hedging Approach : The term hedging is often used in the sense
of a risk-reducing investment strategy involving transactions of a
simultaneous but opposite nature so that the effect of one is likely to
counterbalance the effect of the other. With reference to an appropriate
financing mix, the term hedging can be said to refer to a process of a
matching maturities of debt with the maturities of financial needs. This
approach to the financing decision to determine an appropriate financingmix is, therefore, also called as matching approach.
According to this approach, the maturity of the source of funds should
match the nature of the assets to be financed. For the purpose of analysis,
the assets can be broadly classified into two classes:
(a)

Those which are required in a certain amount for a given level of

operation and, hence, do not vary over time.

(b)

Those which fluctuate over time

The hedging approach suggests that long-term funds should be used to

finance the fixed portion of current assets requirements in a manner
similar to the financing of fixed assets; the purely temporary
requirements, i.e. the seasonal variations over and above the permanent
financing needs should be appropriately financed with short-term funds
(current liabilities). This approach, therefore, divides the requirements of
total funds into permanent and seasonal components, each being financed
by a different source.

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According to the hedging approach the permanent portion of funds

required should be financed with long-term funds and the seasonal
portion with short-term funds. With this approach, the short-term
financing requirements (current assets) would be just equal to the shortterm financing available (current liabilities). There would, therefore, be
no NWC.
(ii) The conservative approach: This approach suggests that the
estimated requirement of total funds should be met from long-run
sources; the use of short-term funds should be restricted to only
emergency situations or when there is an unexpected outflow of funds.
Comparison of Hedging Approach with Conservative Approach
A comparison of the two approaches can be made on the basis of (i) cost
considerations and (ii) risk considerations.
(i) Cost Considerations: The cost of these financing plans has a bearing
on the profitability of the enterprise. The conservative plan for financing
is more expensive because the available funds are not fully utilized
during certain periods; moreover, interest has to be paid for funds which
are not actually needed i.e. the period when there is NWC).
(ii) Risk Considerations: The two approaches can also be contrasted on
the basis of the risk involved. The hedging approach is more risky in
comparison to the conservative approach. There are two reasons for this.
First, there is, as already observed, no NWC with the hedging approach
because no long term funds are used to finance short-term seasonal
needs, i.e. current assets are just equal to current liabilities. On the other
hand, the conservative approach has a fairly high level of NWC.
Secondly, the hedging plan is risky because it involves almost full
utilization of the capacity to use short term funds. Hence, in emergency
situations it may be difficult to satisfy the short term needs. In contrast,
the company need not use any of its short term borrowing capacity with
the conservative approach. As a result, the firm has sufficient short term
borrowing capacity to cover unexpected financial needs and avoid
technical insolvency.
To summarize, the hedging approach is a high profit (low cost) high risk
(no NWC) approach to determine an appropriate financing mix. In
contrast, the conservative approach is a low profit (high cost) low risk
(high NWC). The contrast between these two approaches is indicative of
the trade-off between profitability and risk.
Tradeoff between the Hedging and Conservative Approaches
It has been shown that the hedging approach is associated with high
profits and high risk; while the conservative approach provides low
profits and low risk. Obviously, neither approach by itself would serve
the purpose of efficient working capital management. As a result, a
trade-off between these two extremes would give an acceptable financing
strategy. The third approach i.e. trade-off between these two strikes a
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A trade-off between
these two extremes
would give an
acceptable
financing strategy.

School of Business

balance and provides a financing plan that lies between these two
extremes. It may be, therefore, called a moderate approach.
The exact trade-off between the two approaches will differ from case to
case depending on the perception of risk of those who have to take the
decision. One possible trade-off could be assumed to be equal to the
average of the minimum and maximum monthly requirements of funds
during a given period of time. This level of requirement of funds may be
financed through long term sources and any other additional funds may
be financed through short term sources.

Problems and Solutions

Problem - 1
The Cannon Company is attempting to develop a current asset policy. Its
Fixed Assets are $6,00,000 and the firm plans to maintain a 50% debt-toasset ratio. The interest rate is 10% on all debts. The three alternative
current assets policies under considerations are to carry current assets
that total 40%, 50% and 60% of projected sales. The company expects to
earn 15% before tax and interest on sales of $3 million. The firms
marginal tax rate is 40%. Calculate the expected return on equity under
each of the alternatives.
Solution
The Cannon Company Alternative Balance Sheets
Restricted
Moderate
(40%)
(50%)
Current assets
$12,00,000
$15,00,000
Fixed assets
6,00,000
6,00,000
Total Assets
18,00,000
21,00,000
Debt
9,00,000
10,50,000
Equity
9,00,000
10,50,000
Total
liabilities 18,00,000
21,00,000
and equity

Relaxed
(60%)
$18,00,000
6,00,000
24,00,000
12,00,000
12,00,000
24,00,000

The Cannon Company : Alternative Income Statements

Sales
$30,00,000
$30,00,000
$30,00,000
EBIT
4,50,000
4,50,000
4,50,000
Interest (10%)
(90,000)
(1,05,000)
(1,20,000)
Earnings
before 3,60,000
3,45,000
3,30,000
taxes (EBT)
Taxes (40%)
(1,44,000)
(1,38,000)
(1,32,000)
Net income
2,16,000
2,07,000
1,98,000
ROE
24%
19.7%
16.5%

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Problem - 2
Max Printing Corporation and Azad Publishing House had the following
Balance Sheets as of December 31, 2000 (thousands of dollars) :
Max
Printing Azad Publishing
Corporation
House
Current assets
$1,00,000
$80,000
Fixed assets (net)
1,00,000
1,20,000
Total assets
2,00,000
2,00,000
Current liabilities
20,000
80,000
Long-term debt
80,000
20,000
Common stock
50,000
50,000
Retained earnings
50,000
50,000
Total liabilities and 2,00,000
2,00,000
equity
Earning before interest and taxes (EBIT) for both firms are $30 million,
and the marginal tax rate is 40%.
a.
What is the return on equity for each firm if the interest rate on
current liabilities is 10% and the rate on long-term debt is 13% ?
b.
Assume that the short-term rate rises to 20%. While the rate on
new long-term debt rises to 16%, the rate on existing long-term
debt remains unchanged. What would be the return on equity for
Max Printing Corpn. and Azad Publishing House under these
conditions ?
c.
Which company is in a riskier position ? Why ?
Solution
a. and b.
Income Statements for Year ended December 31, 2000 (Thousands
of Dollars)
Max Printing Corporation Azad Publishing House
EBIT
$30,000
$30,000
$30,000
$30,000
Interest
(12,400)
(14,400)
(10,600)
(18,600)
Taxable
$17,600
$15,600
$19,400
$11,400
income
Taxes
(7,040)
(6,240)
(7,760)
(4,560)
(40%)
Net
$10,560
$9,360
$11,640
$6,840
income
Equity
$1,00,000
$1,00,000
$1,00,000
$1,00,000
Return on
10.56%
9.36%
11.64%
6.84%
Equity
The Max Printing Corp. has a higher ROE when short-term interest rates
are high, whereas Azad Publishing House does better when rates are
lower.

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School of Business

c. Azads position is riskier. First, its profit and return on equity are
much more volatile than Maxs. Second, Azad must renew its large
short-term loan every year, and if the renewal comes up at a time when
money is ver tight, when its business is depressed, or both, then Azad
could be denied credit, which could put it out of business.

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Review Questions
A. Short Questions
1.
Define working capital financing policy and examine its
significance.
2.
Distinguish between : (a) Permanent working capital and
Temporary working capital
3.
Explain the risk return trade-off working capital financing.
B. Broad Questions
4.
Discuss the various types of current assets in the context of
financing.
5.
Explain the various elements of working capital financing. Which
one is the best and why ?

Review Problems
Problem -1
Janata Firm has an investment of Tk. $500 million in total assets of
which 60% I fixed assets and 40% in current assets. It is expected that
the investment will earn a return of 18% before interest and taxes. Tax
rate is 35%. The firm maintains a debt ratio of 60%. The firm has to
decide whether it should use a 12% short-term debt or a 14% long-term
debt to finance its current assets. The financing plans would affect the
return on equity fund. Calculate return on equity under different
financing plans.
Problem - 2
The Sunshine Corporation is attempting to determine the optimum level
of current assets for the coming year. Management expects sales to
increase to $2 million as a result of an asset expansion undertaken. Fixed
assets total $1 million and the firm finances 60% of its total assets with
debt and the rest with equity. The firms interest cost currently is 8% on
both the short-term and long-term debts. Three alternatives regarding the
projected current assets level are (i) a tight policy requiring current assets
of only 45% of projected sales, (ii) a moderate policy of 50% of sales
and (iii) relaxed policy of 60% of sales. The firm expects to generate
EBIT at a rate of 12% on total assets.
a.

What is the expected return on equity under each current asset

level, assuming 40% tax rate.

Case Study
Three companies namely Aggressive Between and Defensive have
different working capital management policies as indicated by their
names. Aggressive employs only minimal current assets and finances
almost entirely with current liabilities and equity. These light shit
approach has a duel effect. It keeps total assets lower which would tend
to increase return on assets. But for reasons such as stock-outs total
assets are reduced but variable cost is increased because of more frequent
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School of Business

order of similar quantities of raw materials. The balance sheets for the
three companies as of 31-12-2004 are presented below :

Aggressive
(Tk.)

Between
(Tk.)

Defensive
(Tk.)

Fixed assets

2,00,000

2,00,000

2,00,000

Current assets

1,50,000

2,00,000

3,00,000

Total assets

3,50,000

4,00,000

5,00,000

Share capital and

reserves

1,50,000

2,00,000

2,50,000

Long-tern
(10%)

1,00,000

2,00,000

Current liabilities
(8%)

2,00,000

1,00,000

50,000

Total claims

3,50,000

4,00,000

5,00,000

Current ratio

0.75 x

2x

6x

debt

The cost of goods sold functions for the firms are as follows :
Cost of goods sold = Fixed costs + Variable costs
Aggressive = Tk. 2,00,000 + 70% of sales
Between = Tk. 2,50,000 + 60% of sales
Defensive = Tk. 3,00,000 + 60% of sales
A Company with normal net working capital such as Between will sell
Tk. 10,00,000 in a year when economic growth is average. If the
company is weak sales for Between will be reduced by Tk. 1,00,000; if
strong, sales for Between will increase by Tk. 1,00,000. In any given
economic conditions, Aggressive will sell Tk. 1,00,000 less than
Between, and Defensive will sell Tk. 1,00,000 more. This is because of
working capital differences.
Questions
a.
Complete the income statement that follow for strong, average and
weak economies.
b.
Compare the rates of return (EBIT/Assets) and return on equity.
Which company is the best in a strong economy ? In an average
economy ? In a weak economy ?
c.
What are the considerations for management of working capital
that are indicated by this problem ?

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Lesson-4: Working Capital Planning

After successful completion of the lesson 4, you should be able

To assess the importance for working capital for your firm;

To identify the differences between permanent, temporary and

balanced working capital;

To identify the determinants of working capital requirements;

To know about the techniques of working capital planning and

To grasp the methods of estimating working capital requirements.

Importance of Working Capital

The need for working capital arises because of its significance in
corporate firms. Working capital is needed because credit sales are not
converted into cash instantaneously. There is always an operating cycle
involved in the conversion of credit sales into cash.
Operating Cycle
Operating cycle is the time duration required to convert credit sales into
cash after the conversion of resources into inventories. The operating
cycle of a manufacturing firm involves three phases which are as
follows:
(i) Acquisition of resources such as raw materials, supplies, labors and
other costs of production.
(ii) Manufacture of the product, which includes conversion of raw
materials into working progress into finished goods.
(iii) Sale of the product either for cash or on credit. Credit sales create
accounts receivables for collection.
These phases affect cash flows, which most of the time, are neither
synchronized nor certain. Therefore, the firm is required to invest in
current assets for smooth and uninterrupted functioning. The following
Figure 1 shows the operating cycle of a manufacturing firm.
Figure : Operating Cycle of a Manufacturing Firm
Purchase

Payment

Credit sale

Collection

RMCP+WIPCP+FGCP
Inventory conversion period
Payables

Receivable conversion price

Net operating cycle
Gross operating cycle

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Operating cycle is
the time duration
required to convert
credit sales into
cash after the
conversion of
resources into
inventories.

School of Business

Permanent, Temporary and Balanced Working Capital

The operating cycle, thus, creates the need for current assets (working
capital). However, the need does not come to an end after the cycle is
completed. It will continue to exist. To explain this continuing need of
current assets, a distinction should be drawn between permanent and
temporary working capital.
The need for current assets arises, as already observed, because of the
cash cycle. Business activity does not come to an end after the realization
of cash from customers. For a company, the process is continuous and,
hence, the need for a regular supply of working capital. However, the
magnitude of working capital required will not be constant, but, will
fluctuate. To carry on business a certain minimum level of working
capital is necessary on a continuous and uninterrupted basis. For all
practical purposes, this requirement will have to be met permanently as
with other fixed assets. This permanent requirement is referred to as
permanent or fixed working capital.
Any amount over and above the permanent level of working capital is
temporary, fluctuating or variable working capital. This portion of the
required working capital is needed to meet fluctuations in demand
consequent upon changes in production and sales as a result of seasonal
changes. The basic distinction of between permanent and temporary
working capital is illustrated in Figure 2.

Accounting of
Working Capital

This permanent
requirement is
referred to as
permanent or fixed
working capital.

Temporary
Permanent
Time

Figure : Permanent and Temporary Working Capital

Figure 2 shows that the permanent level is fairly constant, while
temporary working capital is fluctuating sometimes increasing and
sometimes decreasing in accordance with seasonal demands. In the case
of an expanding firm the permanent working capital line may not be
horizontal. This is because the demand for permanent current assets
might be increasing (or decreasing) to support a rising level of activity.
In that case the line would be rising one as shown in Figure 3.

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Accounting of
Working Capital

Bangladesh Open University

Permanent

Temporary or
Fluctuating

Time
Figure : Permanent and Temporary Working Capital
Both kinds of working capital are necessary to facilitate the sales process
through the operating cycle. Temporary working capital is created to
meet liquidity requirements that are of a purely transient nature.
Changes in Working Capital : The changes in the level of working
capital occur for the following three basic reasons : (i) changes in the
level of sales and/or operating expenses, (ii) policy changes and (iii)
changes in technology.

Temporary working
capital is created to
meet liquidity
requirements that
are of a purely
transient nature.

Balanced Working Capital Position:

A corporate firm should maintain a balanced working capital position,
which means not excess of working capital nor shortage of working
capital. Both excessive as well as shortage of working capital positions
are dangerous for the firm. Excessive working capital means idle funds
which earns no profit for the firms. Shortage of working capital not only
impairs the firms profitability but also results in production interruptions
and inefficiencies.
The dangers of excessive working capital are as follows:
(i)

Unnecessary accumulation of inventories;

(ii)

Defective credit policy and slack collection period;

(iii) Managerial inefficiency and

(iv)

Growing speculative profits.

Inadequate working capital has the following dangers:

(i)

Stagnating growth;

(ii)

Difficulty to implement operating plans and to achieve the profit

target;

(iii) Creeping operating inefficiencies;

(iv)

Under-utilization of fixed assets;

(v)

Failure to avail attractive credit opportunities and

(vi)

Tightening credit terms.

Fundamentals of Financial Management

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A corporate firm
should maintain a
balanced working
capital position,
which means not
excess of working
capital nor shortage
of working capital.

School of Business

An efficient financial management should therefore, maintain the proper

amount of working capital on a continuous basis.

Determinants of Working Capital Requirements

The importance of efficient working capital management, as an aspect of
over-all financial management, has been highlighted in the preceding
sections. A firm should plan its operations in such a way that it should
have neither too much nor too little working capital. The total working
capital requirement is determined by a wide variety of factors. It should
be however, noted that these factors affect different enterprises
differently. They also vary from time to time. In general, the following
factors are involved in a proper assessment of the quantum of working
capital required.
General Nature of Business
The total working
capital requirement
is determined by a
wide variety of
factors.

The working capital requirements of an enterprise are basically related to

the conduct of the business. Enterprises fall into some broad categories
depending on the nature of their business. For instance, public utilities
have certain features which have a bearing on their working capital
needs. At the other extreme are trading and financial enterprises. The
manufacturing enterprises fall, in a sense, between these two extremes.
Production Cycle
Another factor which has a bearing on the quantum of working capital is
the production cycle. The term production or manufacturing cycle
refers to the time involved in the manufacture of goods. It covers the
time-span between the procurement of raw materials and the completion
of the manufacturing process leading to production of finished goods.
Funds will have to be necessarily tied-up during the process of
manufacture, necessitating enhanced working capital. In other words,
there is some gap before raw materials become finished goods. To
sustain such activities the need for working capital is obvious. The longer
the time-span (i.e. the production cycle), the larger the working capital
needed and vice-versa.
Business Cycle
The working capital requirements are also determined by the nature of
the business cycle. Business fluctuations lead to cyclic and seasonal
changes which, in turn, cause a shift in the working capital position,
particularly for temporary working capital requirements. The variations
in business conditions may be in two directions : (i) upward phase when
boom conditions prevail and (ii) downswing phase when economic
activity is marked by decline.
Production Policy
The quantum of working capital is also determined by production policy.
In the case of certain lines of business, the demand for products is
seasonal, i.e., they will be purchased during certain months of the year.
What kind of production policy should be followed in such cases ? There
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are two options open to such enterprises : either they confine their
production only to periods when goods are purchased or they follow a
steady production policy throughout the year and produce goods at a
level to meet the peak demand. In the former case, there will be serious
production problems. During the slack season the firm will have to
maintain its working force and physical facilities without adequate
production and sale.
Credit Policy
The level of working capital is also determined by credit policy which
relates to sales and purchases. The credit policy influences the
requirement of working capital in two ways : (i) through credit terms
granted by the firms to its customers/ buyers of goods; (ii) credit terms
available to the firm from its creditors.
Growth and Expansion
As a company grows, it is logical to except that a larger amount of
working capital will be required. It is, of course, difficult to determine
precisely the relation between the growth in the volume of business of a
company and the increase in its working capital in a going company also
shifts with economic circumstances and corporate practices. Other things
being equal, growth industries require more working capital than those
that are static.
Vagaries in the Availability of Raw Materials
The availability or otherwise of certain raw materials on a continuous
basis without interruption would sometimes affect the requirement of
working capital. There may be some materials which cannot be procured
easily either because their sources are few or they are irregular. To
sustain smooth production, therefore, the firm might be compelled to
purchase and stock them far in excess of genuine production needs. This
will result in an excessive inventory of such materials.
Profit Level
The level of profits earned differ from enterprise to enterprise. In
general, the nature of the product, hold on the market, quality of
management, and monopoly power would by and large determine the
profit earned by a firm. The net profit is a source of working capital to
the extent that it has been earned in cash. The cash profit can be found by
adjusting non- cash items such as depreciation, outstanding expenses and
losses written off, in the net profit. But, in practice, the net cash inflows
from operations can not be considered as cash available for use at the end
of the cash cycle.
The availability of internal funds for working capital requirements is
determined not merely by the profit margin but also on the manner of
appropriating profits. The availability of such funds would depend upon
the profit appropriations for taxations, dividend, reserves and
depreciations.
Fundamentals of Financial Management

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The net profit is a

source of working
capital to the extent
that it has been
earned in cash.

School of Business

Level of Taxes
The first appropriation out of profits is payment or provision for tax. The
amount of taxes to be paid is determined by the prevailing tax
regulations. The management has no discretion in this respect. Very
often taxes have to be paid in advance on the basis of the profit of the
preceding year. Tax liability is, in a sense, shortterm liability payable in
cash. An adequate provision for tax payments is, therefore, an important
aspect of working capital planning. If tax liability increases, it will lead
to an increase in the requirement of working capital and vise - versa.
Dividend Policy
Another appropriation of profits which has a bearing on working capital
is dividend payment. The payment of dividend consumes cash resources
and, thereby, affects working capital to that extent. Conversely, if the
firm does not pay dividend but retains the profit, working capital will
increase. In planning working capital requirements, therefore, a basic
question to be decided is whether profits will be retained or paid out to
shareholders. In theory, a firm should retain profits to preserve cash
resources and, at the same time, it must pay dividends to satisfy the
expectations of investors. When profits are relatively small, the choice is
between retention and payment. The choice must be made after taking
account of all the relevant factors.
Depreciation Policy
Depreciation policy also exerts and influence on the quantum of working
capital. Depreciation charges do not involve any cash outflow. The effect
of depreciation policy on working capital is, therefore, indirect. In the
first place, deprecation affects the tax liability and retention of profits.
Depreciation is allowable expenditure in calculating net profits.
Enhanced rates of depreciation will lower the profits and, therefore, The
tax liability and, thus, more cash profits. Higher depreciation will also
mean lower disposable profits and, therefore, a smaller dividend
payment.
Price Level Changes
Changes in the price level also affect the requirements of working
capital. Rising prices would necessitate the use of more funds for
maintaining an existing level of activity. For the same level of current
assets, higher cash outlays will be required. The effect of rising prices
will be that a higher amount of working capital will be needed.
Operating Efficiency
The operating efficiency of management is also an important determinant
of the level of working capital. Management can contribute to a sound
working capital position through operating efficiency. Although
management cannot control the rise in prices, it can ensure the efficient
utilization of resources by eliminating waste, improving co ordination,
and fuller utilization of existing resources, etc. Efficiency of operations
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accelerates the pace of the cash cycles and improves the working capital
turnover. It releases the pressure on working capital by improving
profitability and the internal generation of funds.

Techniques of Working Capital Planning

The important techniques that can be successfully used in working
capital planning are : (i) projected funds flow statements; (ii) budget
statements and (iii) proforma statements. The fund flow statement is
made up of two parts viz., statement of movements of funds showing the
sources and application of funds and a schedule of changes in working
capital. Cash budget and revenue budget serve as a planning tool for
working capital. The revenue budget is mainly composed of (i) sales
budget; (ii) material budget, (iii) production budget; (iv) purchase
budget; (v) working capital budget and the like. The cash budget is
composed of cash inflows and cash outflows. The proforma statements
are composed of proforma profit and loss statement and proforma
balance sheet. All these cash budget, proforma profit and loss account,
proforma balance sheet and fund flow statement have already been
discussed in earlier lesson.

The important
techniques that can
be successfully used
in working capital
planning are : (i)
projected funds flow
statements; (ii)
budget statements
and (iii) proforma
statements.

Methods of Estimating Working Capital Requirements

The most appropriate method of estimating the working capital needs of
a firm is the concept of operating cycle discussed earlier. However, some
other methods may be used to determine the working capital needs.
These are discussed as follows :
(i)
Current assets holding period : To estimate working capital
requirement on the basis of average holding period of current
assets and relating them to cost based on firms experience in the
previous years. This method is essentially based on the operating
cycle concept.
(ii) Ratio of sales : To estimate working capital requirements as a
ratio of sales on the assumption that current assets change with
sales.
(iii) Ratio of fixed investment : In this case working capital
requirements are estimated as a percentage of fixed investment.
A number of factors will govern the selection of the methods of
estimating working capital. Factors such as seasonal variations in
operations, accuracy of sales forecast, investment costs and variability in
sales price would generally be considered. The production cycle and the
production and collection policies would also have an impact on working
capital requirements. Therefore, these should be given due weightage in
projecting working capital requirements.

Problems and Solutions

Problem - 1
Bata Company is interested to purchase a business and has consulted
you, as a financial analyst to advise them as regards the average amount
of working capital required in the first year. You are given the following
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Page-337

The most
appropriate method
of estimating the
working capital
needs of a firm is
the concept of
operating cycle

School of Business

estimates and are advised to add 10% to your figure to allow for
contingencies.
Estimates
Amount
(Tk.)
Average amount backed up for finished products
5,000
Average amount backed up for materials etc.
8,000
Average credit given :
Local sales - 6 weeks credits
3,12,000
Export sales- 1.5 weeks credit
78,000
Average time lag in payment of :
Wages- 1.5 weeks
2,60,000
Stocks, materials etc.- 1.5 months
48,000
Rent, Royalties etc.- 6 months
10,000
Clerical staff- 0.5 month
62,400
Manager 0.5 month
4,800
Other expenses- 1.5 months
48,000
Payment in advance :
Sundry expenses- paid quarterly
8,000
Undrawn profits
11,000
Solution
Statement to determine Net Working Capital for Bata Company
(A) Current assets :
Amount (Tk.)
(i) Stock of finished product
5,000
(ii) Stock stores, materials, etc.
8,000
(iii) Debtors :
Inland sales 6 weeks
Credit sales
= -----------------------Debtors turnover
Tk. 3,12,000 x 6
= -----------------------52
Export sales 1.5 weeks
Tk. 78,000 x 3
= --------------------104
(iv) Advance payment of sundry expenses :
Tk. 8,000 x 1
= -------------------4
Total investment in current assets

Unit-5

36,000

2,250

2,000
53,250

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Bangladesh Open University

(B) Current liabilities :

Tk .2,60,000

104

(i) Wages

7,500

Tk .48,000 x3

24

(ii) Stocks, materials etc.

Tk .10,000 x6

12

6,000

(iii) Rent, royalties, etc.

Tk .62,400 x1

24

5,000

(iv) Clerical staff

Tk .4,800 x1

24

2,600

(v) Manager

200

Tk .48,000 x3

24

(vi) Miscelleneous expenses

Total estimate of current liabilities

6,000
27,300

(C) Net working capital :

(i) Current assets Current liabilities (A - B)

25,950

(ii) Add 10% contingency allowance

2,595

Average amount of working capital required

28,545

Assumptions :
(i)
For calculations a time period of 52 weeks/12 months has been
assumed in a year.
(ii) Undrawn profit has been ignored in the working capital
computation for the following reasons:
(a) For the purpose of determining working capital provided by
net profit, it is necessary to adjust the net profit for income tax and
dividends/ drawing, etc.
(b) Profit need not always be a source of financing working
capital. It may be used for other purposes like purchase of fixed
assets, repayment of long-term loans, etc.
(iii) Actual working capital requirement would be more than what is
estimated here as in the question cash component of current assets
is not given.

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School of Business

Problem - 2
While preparing a project report on behalf of a client you have collected
the following facts. Estimate the net working capital required for that
project. Add 10% to your computed figure to allow contingencies.
Amount per unit (Tk.)
Estimated cost per unit of production is :
Raw materials

80

Direct labor

30

Overheads (exclusive of depreciation)

60

Total cost

170

Additional information :
Selling price

Tk. 200 per unit

Level of activity

1,04,000
units
of
production per annum

Raw materials in stock

average 4 weeks

Work in progress (assume 50% completion

stage in respect of conversion costs)

average 2 weeks

Finished goods in stock

average 4 weeks

Credit allowed by suppliers

average 4 weeks

Credit allowed to debtors

average 8 weeks

Lag in payment of wages

average 1.5 weeks

Cash at bank is expected to be

Tk. 25,000

You may assume that production is carried on evenly throughout the year
(52 weeks) and wages and overheads accrue similarly. All sales are on
credit basis only.

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Solution
Amount (Tk.)
(A) Current assets :
(i) Raw materials in stock, average 4 weeks :

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .80 x 4

52

6,40,000

(ii) Work in progress, average 2 weeks :

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .80 x 2

52

Tk
.
1
,
04
,
000
xTk
.
15
x
2

(b) Direct labor

52

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .30 x 2

(c) Overheads

52

(a) Raw material

3,20,000

60,000
1,20,000

(iii) Finished goods stock, average 4 weeks :

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .170 x 4

52

13,60,000

(iv) Debtors, average 8 weeks :

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .170 x8

52

(v) Cash at bank

Total investment in current assets
(B) Current liabilities :
(i) Creditors, average 4 weeks

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .80 x 4

52

27,20,000
25,000
52,45,000

6,40,000

(ii) Lag in payment of wages, average 1.5 weeks :

Tk .1,04,000 xTk .30 x3

104

Total current liabilities

(C) Net working capital :
Current assets Current liabilities
= Tk. 52,45,000 Tk. 7,30,000
Add 10% contingencies

90,000

7,30,000

45,15,000
4,51,500
49,66,500

Assumptions: A full unit of raw material is required at the beginning of

the manufacturing process and, therefore, total cost of the material, i.e.,
Tk. 80 per unit has been taken into consideration, while in the case of
expenses, viz., direct labor and overheads, the unit has been finished only
to the extent of 50%. Accordingly, Tk. 15 and Tk. 30 have been charged
for direct labor and overheads respectively.

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Review Questions
A. Short Questions
1.
How would you assess the need for working capital of a corporate
firm?
2.
Length of operating cycle is the main determinant of working
capital needs of a firm. Explain.
3.
Distinguish between operating cycle and production cycle of a
manufacturing firm.
4.
What are the three phases of operating cycle ? Discuss.
5.
Distinguish between permanent and temporary working capital.
6.
What do you mean by balanced working capital ?
7.
What are the dangers of excessive working capital ?
8.
What are the adverse impacts of shortage of working capital ?
9.
What are the major techniques of working capital planning ?
Explain.
10. How would you estimate working capital needs of a firm ?
B. Broad Questions
11.

Describe the various factors which affect the working capital

requirement of a manufacturing firm.

Review Problems
Problem - 1
A proforma cost sheet of a company provides the following data :
Tk.
Cost (per unit) :
Raw materials
52.0
Direct labor
19.50
Overheads
39.0
Total cost (per unit)
110.50
Profit
19.50
Selling price
130.0
The following is the additional information available :
Average raw materials in stock : one month; average materials in process
: half month. Credit allowed by suppliers : one month; credit allowed to
debtors : two months. Time lag in payment of wages : One and half a
weeks. Overheads : one month. One-fourth sales are on cash basis. Cash
balance is expected to be Tk. 1,20,000.
You are required to prepare a statement showing the working capital
needed to finance a level of activity of 70,000 units of output. You may
assume that production is carried on evenly throughout the year and
wages and overheads accrue similarly.

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Problem - 2
While preparing a project report on behalf of client you have collected
the following facts. Estimate the net working capital required for that
project. Add 10% to your computed figure to allow for contingencies.
Amount per unit (Tk.)
Estimated cost per unit of production
is:
Raw material
Direct labor
Overheads (exclusive of depreciation)

Total cost
Additional information :
Selling price
Level of activity
Raw material in stock
Work in progress (50% completion)
Finished goods in stock
Credit allowed by suppliers
Credit allowed to debtors
Lag in payment of wages
Cash at bank (expected)

42.4
15.9
31.8
90.1
Amount per unit (Tk.)
Tk. 106
1,00,000units
of
annually
Average 4 weeks
Average 2 weeks
Average 4 weeks
Average 4 weeks
Average 8 weeks
Average 1.5 weeks
1,25,000

production

Assume that all sales are on credit

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Lesson-5: Cash Management

After successful completion of the lesson 5, you should be able

To understand the meaning, objectives and significance of cash

management;

To identify the motives for holding cash;

To grasp the methods of determining cash requirements for a firm;

To explain the basic strategies of cash management and

To acquire the techniques/processes involved in cash management.

Meaning, Objectives and Significance of Cash Management

A major function of
the financial
manager is to
maintain a sound
cash position.

Cash is the important current asset for the operations of the business.
Cash is the basic input needed to keep the business running on a
continuous basis; it is also the ultimate output expected to be realized by
selling the service or product manufactured by the firm. The firm should
keep sufficient cash, neither more nor less. Cash shortage will disrupt the
firms manufacturing operations while excessive cash will simply remain
idle, without contributing anything towards the firms profitability. Thus,
a major function of the financial manager is to maintain a sound cash
position.
The basic objectives of cash management are two-fold namely : (a) to
meet the cash disbursements needs (payment schedule) and (b) to
minimize funds committed to cash balances. These are conflicting and
mutually contradictory and the task of cash management is to reconcile
them.
(a) Meeting the Payments Schedule
In the normal course of business, firms have to make payments of cash
on a continuous and regular basis to suppliers of goods, staffs and
employees and the like. At the same time, there is a constant inflow of
cash through collections from debtors. Cash is therefore, aptly described
as the oil to lubricate the ever-turning wheels of business. A basic
objective of cash management is therefore, to meet the payment
schedule.
(b) Minimizing Funds Committed to Cash Balances
While minimizing cash balances two conflicting aspects have to be
reconciled. A high level of cash balances will ensure prompt payment.
But, it would lead to large funds remaining idle, as cash is a non-earning
asset. On the contrary, a low level cash balances may mean failure to
meet the payment schedule. The aim of cash management therefore,
should be to have an optimal amount of cash balance.
One of the tasks of financial management is to manage cash effectively
and efficiently. Because, poor cash management may have serious
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consequences. It is possible for a company to go bankrupt or to be taken

over even it does well; since rapid increase in sales will involve heavy
expenses on stocks and the extension of credits, thereby depleting cash
resources. Alternatively, if idle cash reserves are built up, this suggests
that investment opportunities are being missed and the business may be
stagnating. Therefore, finding reasonable amount of funds for operating
needs is a perennial pre-occupation for the firms finance manager.
Paucity of cash, even on a temporary phase, is a source of trouble to most
enterprises. Nor, it is wise to have excess cash which is not a productive
asset. Now, the question arises as to the reasonable amount of cash to be
maintained by an enterprise. No standard answer can be provided for this
question. Past trends, industry averages and inter-firm comparison can
provide some useful indications in this regard. However, one author of
financial management opines that management should project the future
cash receipts and cash payments of the firm with various cash balances,
deduct the payments from the receipts to determine the net cash flows
and then select that cash balance which maximizes the present value of
the net cash flows.
Cash management is concerned with the managing of : (i) cash flows
into and out of the firm, (ii) cash flows within the firm, and (iii) cash
balances held by the firm at a point of time by financing deficit or
investing surplus cash. It can be represented by a cash management cycle
as shown in Figure-31.1. Sales generate cash which has to be disbursed
out. The surplus cash has to be invested while deficit has to be borrowed.
Cash management seeks to accomplish this cycle at a minimum cost. At
the same time, it also seeks to achieve liquidity and control. Cash
management assumes more importance than other current assets because
cash is the most significant and the least productive asset that a firm
holds. It is significant because it is used to pay the firms obligations.
However, cash is unproductive. Unlike fixed assets or inventories, it does
not produce goods for sale. Therefore, the aim of cash management is to
maintain adequate control over cash position to keep the firm sufficiently
liquid and use excess cash in some profitable way.
Figure Cash Management Cycle
Business
operations

Cash
collections
Deficit
--------------Surplus

Information
and control

Borrow
--------------Invest

Cash payments

The management of cash is also important because it is difficult to

predict cash flows accurately, particularly the inflows, and there is no
perfect coincidence between the inflows and outflows of cash. During
some periods, cash outflows will exceed cash inflows, because payments
for taxes, dividends, or seasonal inventory may build up. At other times,
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The aim of cash

management is to
maintain adequate
control over cash
position to keep the
firm sufficiently
liquid and use
excess cash in some
profitable way.

School of Business

cash inflow will be more than cash payments because there may be large
cash sales and debtors may be realized in large sums promptly. Cash
management is also important because cash constitutes the smallest
portion of the total current assets, yet managements considerable time is
devoted in managing it. In recent past, a number of innovations have
been done in cash management techniques. An obvious aim of the firm
now-a days is to manage its cash affairs in such a way as to keep cash
balance at a minimum level and to invest the surplus cash in profitable
investment opportunities.
The ideal cash
management system
will depend on the
firms products,
organization
structure,
competition, culture
and options
available.

The ideal cash management system will depend on the firms products,
organization structure, competition, culture and options available. The
task is complex, and decisions taken can affect important areas of the
firm. For example, to improve collections if the credit period is reduced,
it may affect sales. However, in certain cases, even without fundamental
changes, it is possible to significantly reduce cost of cash management
system by choosing a right bank and controlling the collections properly.

Motives for Holding Cash

There are four primary motives for holding cash which are discussed
below :
(i) Transaction Motive : A very important reason for maintaining cash
balance is the transaction motive. The requirement of cash balances to
meet routine cash needs is known as the transaction motive and such
cash balances are called transaction balances. Thus, transaction motive
refers to the holding of cash to meet anticipated obligations whose timing
is not perfectly synchronized with cash receipts.
(ii) Precautionary Motive : A firm may have to pay cash for the
purposes which cannot be predicted or anticipated. The unexpected cash
needs at a short notice may arise due to : (a) any natural calamities and
strikes and lockouts; (b) failure of important customers; (iii) unexpected
slow down in collection of debtors; (iv) cancellation of some orders for
goods; (v) sharp increase in cost of raw materials etc. The cash balances
held in reserve for such random and unforeseen fluctuations in cash
flows are called precautionary balances. Hence, precautionary motive
implies the need to hold the cash to meet unpredictable obligations.
(iii) Speculative Motive : It refers to the desire of a firm to take
advantage of opportunities which present themselves at unexpected
moments and which are typically outside the normal course of business.
Such motive represents a positive and aggressive approach. Firms aim to
exploit profitable opportunities keep cash in reserve to do so.
(iv) Compensation Motive : Customers of a bank are usually required to
maintain a minimum cash balance at that bank for providing services to
them. Since this balance cannot be utilized by the firms for transaction
purposes, the banks themselves can use the amount to earn a return. Such
balances are known as compensating balances. These balances are also
required by some loan agreements between a bank and its customers.
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Methods of Determining Cash Requirements

The factors that determine the required cash balances are :
Synchronization of Cash Flows
The need for maintaining cash balances arises from the nonsynchronization of the inflows and outflows of cash : if the receipts and
payments of cash perfectly coincide or balance each other, there would
be no need for cash balances. The first consideration in determining the
cash need is, therefore, the extent of non- synchronization of cash
receipts and disbursements. For this purpose, the inflows and outflows
have to be forecasted over a period of time.
Short Fall Costs
Another general factor to be considered in determining cash needs is the
cost associated with a shortfall in the firms cash needs. The cash
forecast presented in the cash budget would reveal periods of cash
shortages. In addition, there may be some unexpected shortfalls. Every
shortage of cash whether expected or unexpected involves a cost
depending upon the severity, duration and frequency of the shortfall and
how the shortage is covered. Expenses incurred as a result of shortfall are
called short costs. Included in the short costs are :
(i)

Transaction costs associated with raising cash to tide over the

shortage. This is usually the brokerage incurred in relation to the
sale of some short-term near-cash assets such as marketable
securities.

(ii)

Borrowing Costs associated with borrowing to cover the shortage.

These include items such as interest on loan, commitment charges
and other expenses relating to the loan.

(iii) Loss of trade-discount, i.e. a substantial loss because of a

temporary shortage of cash.
(iv)

Cost associated with deterioration of the firms credit rating which

is reflected in higher bank charges on loans, stoppage of supplies,
demands for cash payment, refusal to sell, loss of firms image and
the attendant decline in sales and profits.

(v)

Penalty rates by banks to meet a shortfall in compensating

balances.

Excess Cash Balance Costs

Another consideration in determining cash needs is the cost associated
with maintaining excess/idle cash. The cost of having excessively large
cash balances is known as excess cash balance cost. If large funds are
idle, the implication is that the firm has missed opportunities to invest
those funds and has thereby lost interest which it would otherwise have
earned. This loss of interest is primarily the excess cost.
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Procurement and Management

These are the costs associated with establishing and operating cash
management staff and activities. They are generally fixed and are mainly
accounted for by salary, storage, handling of securities, etc.
Uncertainty and Cash Management
Finally the impact of uncertainty on cash management strategy is also
relevant as cash flows cannot be predicted with complete accuracy. The
first requirement is a precautionary cushion to cope with irregularities in
cash flows, unexpected delays in collections and disbursements, defaults
and unexpected cash needs.
Determining Cash Need Cash Budget
After the examination of the pertinent considerations and cost that
determine cash needs, the next questions deals with the determination of
a firms cash needs.
There are two approaches to derive an optional cash balance, namely, (a)
Minimizing Cost Model and (b) Cash Budget.
Cash Budget : Cash Management Tool
A firm is well-advised to hold adequate cash balances but should avoid
excessive balances. The firm has, therefore, to assess its need for cash
properly. The cash budget is probably the most important tool in cash
management. It is a device to help a firm to plan and control the use of
cash. It is a statement showing the estimated cash income (cash inflow)
and cash expenditure (cash outflow) over the firms planning horizon. In
other words, the net cash position (surplus or deficiency) of a firm as it
moves from one budgeting sub-period to another is highlighted by the
cash budget.
One of the primary responsibilities of the financial manager is to
maintain a sound liquidity position of the firm so that the dues are settled
in time. The firm needs cash to purchase raw materials and pay wages
and other expenses as well as for paying dividend, interest and taxes. The
test of liquidity is the availability of cash to meet the firms obligations
when they become due.
A firm maintains the operating cash balance for transaction purposes. It
may also carry additional cash as a buffer or safety stock. The amount of
cash balance will depend on the risk-return trade-off. If the firm
maintains small cash balance, its liquidity position weakens, but its
profitability improves as the released funds can be invested in profitable
opportunities (marketable securities. When the firm needs cash, it can
sell its marketable securities (or borrow). On the other hand, if the firm
keeps a high cash balance, it will have a strong liquidity position but its
profitability will be low. The potential profit foregone on holding large
cash balance is an opportunity cost of the firm. The firm should maintain
optimum just enough, neither too much nor too little cash balance.
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How to determine the optimum cash balance if cash flows are predictable
and if they are not predictable ?
Optimum Cash Balance under Certainty : Baumols Model
The Baumols cash management model provides a formal approach for
determining firms optimum cash balance under certainty. It considers
cash management similar to an inventory management problem . As
such, the firm attempts to minimize the sum of the cost of holding cash
(inventory of cash) and the cost of converting marketable securities to
cash.
The Baumols model makes the following assumptions :

The firm is able to forecast its cash needs with certainty.

The firms cash payments occur uniformly over a period of time.

The opportunity cost of holding cash is known as and it doe not

change over time.

The firm will incur the same transaction cost whenever it converts
securities to cash.

Basic Strategies of Cash Management

In order to resolve the uncertainty about cash flow prediction and lack of
synchronization between cash receipts and payments, the firm should
develop appropriate strategies for cash management. The firm should
evolve strategies regarding the following four facets of cash
management:

Cash planning Cash inflows and outflows should be planned to

project cash surplus or deficit for each period of the planning
period.. Cash budget should be prepared for this purpose.

Managing the cash flows The flow of cash should be properly

managed. The cash inflows should be accelerated while, as far as
possible, the cash outflows should be decelerated.

Optimum cash level The firm should decide about the appropriate
level of cash balances. The cost of excess cash and danger of cash
deficiency should be matched to determine the optimum level of
cash balances.

Investing surplus cash The surplus cash balances should be

properly invested to earn profits.
Cash Management : Basic Strategies
The cash budget, as a cash management tool, would throw light on the
net cash position of a firm. After knowing the cash position, the
management should work out the basic strategies to be employed to
manage its cash. The present section attempts to outline the basic
strategies of cash management.
It may be noted at the outset that the broad cash management strategies
are essentially related to the cash turn-over process, i.e., the cash cycle
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together with the cash turn-over. The cash cycle refers to the process by
which cash is used to purchase materials from which are produced goods,
which are then sold to customers, who later pay bills. The firm receives
cash from customers and the cycle repeats itself. The cash turn-over
means the number of times firms cash is used during each year.
Minimum Operating Cash
The higher the cash turn-over, the less cash the firm requires. The firm
should, therefore, try to maximize the cash turn-over. But it must
maintain a minimum amount of operating cash balance so that it does not
run out of cash.
The cash management strategies are intended to minimize the operating
cash balance requirement. The basic strategies that can be employed to
do the needful are(i)

Stretching accounts payable,

(ii)

Efficient inventory production management,

(iii) Speedy collection of accounts receivables and

(iv)

Combined cash management strategy.

Each of the above strategies are discussed below briefly :

(i) Stretching accounts payable
One of the basic strategies of efficient cash management is to stretch the
accounts payable. This means that a firm should make delay as far as
possible in paying its accounts payable without its credit standing. It
should however take advantage of the cash discount available on prompt
payment.
(ii) Efficient inventory production management
Another important strategy is to increase the inventory turnover rate
avoiding stock-outs. This can be done as follows :
(a) Increasing raw materials turn-over
(b) Decreasing production cycle
(c) Increasing finished goods turn-over
(iii) Speedy collection of accounts receivables
Another strategy for efficient cash management is to collect accounts
receivables as quickly as possible without loosing future sales. The
average collection period can be reduced by bringing changes in credit
terms, credit standards and collection policies.

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(iv) Combined cash management strategy

In this strategy all the above mentioned strategies are combined together
in order to bring efficiency of the cash management. These three
strategies may lead to a reduction in the cash balance.

Techniques and Processes of Cash Management

The main techniques of cash management are discussed below :
(i)

Speedy cash collection : In managing cash efficiently, the inflow

process can be accelerated by encouraging the customers to pay as
quickly as possible and converting the payment from the customers
into cash without any delay. Speedy cash collection may also be
ensured by decentralizing collection of accounts receivables.

(ii)

Slowing disbursement : The operating cash requirement can be

reduced by slowing disbursements of accounts payable. This can
be done as follows : avoidance of early payments, centralized
disbursements, creating floats and creating accruals.

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Review Questions
Short Questions
1.
What is cash management ?
2.
What are the objectives of cash management ?
3.
What are the adverse consequences of poor cash management ?
4.
What are the goals of cash management strategies ?
5.
Examine the significance of speedy receivables collection.
6.
What is the significance of slow payments of accounts payable ?
7.
Explain the deposit float and payment float ?
Broad Questions
8.
Examine the significance of cash management.
9.
What are the factors that influence cash requirements of a firm.?
Explain.
10. What are the models that can be used in determining the cash
needs of a firm ? Discuss.
11. Describe the basic strategies of efficient cash management.
12. Narrate the processes of efficient cash management

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Lesson-6: Inventory Management Principles

After successful completion of the lesson 6, you should be able

To understand the concepts and significance of inventory and

inventory management;

To realize the objectives of inventory management and

To realize the benefits of holding optimum level of inventory.

Concepts and Significance of Inventory and Inventory

Management
The term inventory refers to the stockpile of the product a firm is
offering for sale and the components that make up the product. In other
words, inventory is composed of assets that will be sold in future in the
normal course of business operations. The assets which firm store as
inventory in anticipation of need are (i) raw materials, (ii) work-inprocess (semi finished goods) and (iii) finished goods. The raw material
inventory contains items that are purchased by the firm from others and
are converted into finished goods through the manufacturing
(production) process. They are an important input of the final product.
The work-in-process inventory consists of items currently being used in
the production process. They are normally partially or semi-finished
goods that are at various stages of production in a multi-stage production
process. Finished goods represent final or completed products, which are
available for sale. The inventory of such goods consists of items that
have been produced but are yet to be sold.
Inventory, as a current asset, differs from other current assets. Because
not only financial managers, but all the functional areas, finance,
marketing, production, and purchasing, are involved. The views
concerning the appropriate level of inventory would differ among the
different functional areas. The job of the functional manager is to
reconcile the conflicting viewpoints of the various functional areas
regarding the appropriate inventory levels in order to fulfill the overall
objective of maximizing the owners wealth. Thus, inventory
management, like the management of other current assets, should be
related to the overall objective of the firm.
The question of managing inventories arises only when the company
holds inventories. Maintaining inventories involves tying up of the
company's funds and incurrence of storage and handling costs. If it is
expensive to maintain inventories, why do companies hold inventories?
There are three general motives for holding inventories.

Transactions motive emphasizes the need to maintain inventories

to facilitate smooth production and sales operations.

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The term inventory

refers to the
stockpile of the
product a firm is
offering for sale and
the components that
make up the
product.

School of Business

Efficient firms
constantly try to
make production
cycle smaller by
improving their
production
techniques.

Precautionary motive necessitates holding of inventories to guard

against the risk of unpredictable changes in demand and supply
forces and other factors.

Speculative motive influences the decision to increase or reduce

inventory levels to take advantage of price fluctuations.

A company should maintain adequate stock of materials for a continuous

supply to the factory for an uninterrupted production. It is not possible
for a company to procure raw materials whenever it is needed. A time lag
exists between demand for materials and its supply. Also, there exists
gap between demand for materials and its supply. Also there exists
uncertainty in procuring raw materials in time on many occasions. The
procurement of materials may be delayed because of such factors as
strike, transport disruption or short supply. Therefore, the firm should
maintain sufficient stock of raw materials at a given time to streamline
production.
Work-in-process inventory builds up because of the production cycle.
Production cycle is the time span between introduction of raw material
into production and emergence of finished products at the completion of
production cycle. Till production cycle completes, stock of work-in
process has to be maintained. Efficient firms constantly try to make
production cycle smaller by improving their production techniques.
Stock of finished goods has to be held because production and sales are
not instantaneous. A firm cannot produce immediately when goods are
demanded by customers. Therefore, to supply finished goods on a regular
basis, their stock has to be maintained.

Inventories are
important to the
management of an
enterprise primarily
because of the direct
impact, which they
have upon the firms
profits.

Financial managers are concerned with every aspect of inventory

management that is controllable from the standpoint of reducing liquidity
risks and increasing profits for the owners. Inventories are important to
the management of an enterprise primarily because of the direct impact,
which they have upon the firms profits. Inventories affect firms profits
in several ways. Firstly, both over-investment and under-investment in
inventories have harmful effects on the enterprises. Holding excessive
stock immobilizes capital resources. The immediate consequence of
over-investment is the freezing up of funds in excessive stocks and nonavailability of these resources for meeting current obligations or pressing
commitments. Moreover, too much inventory reduces the profit margin
in that carrying costs viz., costs of handling, insurance, recording and
inspection and, in turn, costs of doing business are increased for extra
load of inventories. Again, under-investment in inventory i.e., too little
inventory has also some adverse effects. Under-investment creates
frequent production hold-ups or delays and failures to meet delivery
commitments to customers. At the same time, the delays and shut-downs
boost-up cost of production which, in turn, reduces profit margin.
Secondly, the rate at which inventories move through the production and
distribution processes also affects the cost of doing business.

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It is therefore, important for financial management to determine the

correct amount of working capital to invest in inventory at any one time.
But the question is : what is the appropriate size of inventory ? No
standard set of rules can be formulated and offered as a ready solution
for all enterprises and in all circumstances. The nature of the business
activity, location of the sources of materials and services, as also of the
sales outlets, reliability on the sources of supply, speed and efficiency of
transport and communication facilities etc. influence the inventory levels.

Objectives of Inventory Management

In the context of the inventory management, the firm is faced with the
problem of meeting two conflicting needs :

To maintain a large size of inventory for efficient and smooth

production and sales operations.

To maintain a minimum investment in inventories to maximize

profitability.

The aim of inventory management, thus, should be to avoid excessive

and inadequate levels of inventories and to maintain sufficient inventory
for the smooth production and sales operations. Efforts should be made
to place an order at the right time with the right source to acquire the
right quantity at the right price and quality. An effective inventory
management should

ensure a continuous supply of raw materials to facilitate

uninterrupted production,

maintain sufficient stocks of raw materials in periods of short

supply and anticipate price changes,

maintain sufficient finished goods inventory for smooth sales

operation and efficient customer service,

minimize the carrying cost and time, and

control investment in inventories and keep it at an optimum level.

The basic responsibility of the financial manager is to make sure the

firms cash flows are managed efficiently. Efficient management of
inventory should ultimately result in the maximization of the owners
wealth. It was indicated earlier that in order to minimize cash
requirements, inventory should be turned over as quickly as possible,
avoiding stock-outs that might result in closing down the production line
or lead to a loss of sales. It implies that while the management should try
to pursue the financial objective of turning inventory as quickly as
possible, it should at the same time ensure sufficient inventories to
satisfy production and sales demands. In other words, the financial
manager has to reconcile these two conflicting requirements. Stated
differently, the objective of inventory management consists of two
counterbalancing parts : (i) to minimize investments in inventory, and
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(ii) to meet demand for the product by efficiently organizing the

production and sales operations. These two conflicting objectives of
inventory management can also be expressed in terms of cost and benefit
associated with inventory. That the firm should minimize investment in
inventory implies that maintaining inventory involves costs, such that the
smaller the inventory, the lower is the cost to the firm. But inventories
also provides benefits to the extent that they facilitate the smooth
functioning of the firm : the larger the inventory, the better it is from this
viewpoint. Obviously, the financial mangers should aim at a level of
inventory which will reconcile these conflicting elements. That is to say,
an optimum level of inventory should be determined on the basis of the
trade-off between costs and benefits associated with the levels of
inventory.

Advantage of Holding Optimum Level of Inventory

The major benefits
of holding inventory
are the basic
functions of
inventory.

The major benefits of holding inventory are the basic functions of

inventory. In other words, inventories perform certain basic functions
which are of crucial importance in the firms production and marketing
strategies.
The basic function of inventories is to act as a buffer to decouple or
uncouple the various activities of a firm so that all do not have to be
pursued at exactly the same rate. The key activities are : (i) purchasing,
(ii) production, and (iii) selling. Inventories permit short-run relaxation
so that each activity may be pursued efficiently. Stated differently,
inventories enable firms in the short-run to produce at a rate greater than
purchase of raw materials and vice-versa, or to sell at a rate greater than
production and vice-versa.
Since inventory enables uncoupling of the key activities of a firm, each
of them can be operated at the most efficient rate. This has several
beneficial effects on the firms operations. Another way of saying it is
that the three types inventory, namely raw materials, work-in process
and finished goods, perform certain useful functions. Alternatively, rigid
tying (coupling) of purchase and production to sales schedules is
undesirable in the short-run as it will deprive the firms of certain
benefits. The effects of uncoupling (maintaining inventory) are as
follows :
Advantage in Purchasing
If the purchasing of raw materials and other goods is not tied to
production/sales, i.e. a firm can purchase independently to ensure the
most efficient purchase, several advantages would become available. In
the first place, a firm can purchase larger quantities than is warranted by
usage in production or the sales level. This will enable it to avail of
discounts that are available in the bulk purchases. Moreover, it will lower
the ordering cost as fewer acquisitions would be made. There will, thus,
be a significant saving in costs. Second, firma can purchase goods before
anticipated or announced price increases. This will lead to a decline in
the cost of production. Inventory, thus, serves as a hedge against price
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increases as well as shortages of raw materials. This is a highly desirable

inventory strategy.
Advantage in Work-in Process
The inventory of work-in-process performs two functions. In the first
place, it is necessary because production processes are not instantaneous.
The amount of such inventory depends upon technology and the
efficiency of production. The larger the steps involved in the production
process, the larger the work-in process inventory and vice-versa. By
shortening the production time, efficiency of the production process can
be improved and the size of this type of inventory reduced. In a multistage production process, the work-in process inventory serves a second
purpose also. It uncouples the various stages of production so that all of
them do not have to be performed at the same rate. The stages involving
higher set-up costs may be most efficiently performed in batches with a
work-in process inventory accumulated during a production run.
Advantage in Production
Finished goods inventory serves to uncouple production and sale. This
enables production at a rate different from that of sales. That is,
production can be carried on at a rate higher or lower than the sales rate.
This would be of special advantage to firms with a seasonal sales pattern.
In their case, the sales rate will be higher than the production rate during
a part of the year (peak season) and lower during the off-season. Thus,
inventory helps a firm to co-ordinate its production scheduling so as to
avoid disruptions and the accompanying expenses. In brief, since
inventory permits least cost production scheduling, production can be
carried on more efficiently.

Production can be
carried on at a rate
higher or lower than
the sales rate.

Advantage in Sales
The maintenance of inventory also helps a firm to enhance its sales
efforts. For one thing, if there are no inventories of finished goods, the
level of sales will depend upon the level of current production. A firm
will not be able to meet demand instantaneously. There will be a lag
depending upon the production process. If the firm has inventory, actual
sales will not have to depend on lengthy manufacturing processes. Thus,
inventory serves to bridge the gap between current production and actual
sales. A related aspect is that inventory serves as a competitive marketing
tool to meet customer demands. Moreover, in the case of firms having a
seasonal pattern of sales, there should be a substantial finished goods
inventory prior to the peak sales season. Failure to do so may mean loss
of sales during the peak season.
Finally, the inventory of work-in-process performs two functions. In the
first place, it is necessary because production processes are not
instantaneous. The amount of such inventory depends upon technology
and the efficiency of production. The larger the steps involved in the
production process, the larger the work-in-process inventory and viceversa. By shortening the production time, efficiency of the production
process can be improved and the size of this type of reduced inventory.
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Inventory serves to
bridge the gap
between current
production and
actual sales.

The larger the steps

involved in the
production process,
the larger the workin-process inventory
and vice-versa.

School of Business

Review Questions
Short Questions
1.
What do you mean by inventory and inventory management ?
Explain.
2.
Discuss the various types of inventory held by a manufacturing
enterprise.
3.
State the significance of inventory management.
4.
Explain the necessity of holding inventory.
Broad Questions
5.
What are the objectives of inventory management ? Explain.
6.
What is an optimum level of inventory ? Discuss the benefits of
holding optimum level of inventory.
7.
The management of inventory must meet two opposite needs.
What are they ? How is a balance made in these two opposite
needs.

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Lesson-7: Inventory Management: Elements and

Techniques
After attentively studying the lesson 7, you should be able

To know about the elements of inventory management;

To learn about the techniques of inventory management and

To analyze the investments made in inventories.

Elements of Inventory Management

Inventory management consists of two important elements namely
inventory planning and inventory control.
Inventory Planning
It is important for financial management to determine the correct amount
of working capital to invest in inventory at any one time. But the
question is : what is the appropriate size of inventory ? No standard set
of rules can be formulated and offered as a ready solution for all
enterprises and in all circumstances. The nature of the business activity,
location of the sources of materials and services, as also of the sales
outlets, reliability on the sources of supply, speed and efficiency of
transport and communication facilities etc. influence the inventory levels.

Inventory
management
consists of two
important elements
namely inventory
planning and
inventory control.

Here lies the necessity of inventory planning. Inventory planning not

only includes investments of working capital in inventories of all types at
one point of time; but it also includes the amount and types of
inventories to be maintained for the smooth production of a
manufacturing enterprise. Therefore, inventory planning covers the
fixation of the following policies :
(i)

Inventory turnover policy

(ii)

Finished goods policy

(iii) Purchase and procurement policy

(iv)

Inventory accounting policy.

Each of these policies is discussed below :

(i) Inventory Turnover Policy
Inventory turnover is a test of efficient inventory management which
signifies the number of times inventory is sold during a particular period.
A high inventory turnover is a sign of good inventory management;
while a low inventory turnover is a symptom of bad inventory
management. Investment of working capital in inventory will be less for
sales volume if inventory turnover is higher. On the other hand,
investment of working capital in inventory will be higher for sales
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Inventory turnover
is a test of efficient
inventory
management which
signifies the number
of times inventory is
sold during a
particular period.

School of Business

volume. Therefore, fixation of proper inventory policy is a great concern

of inventory planning.
(ii) Finished Goods Policy
The question of
fixation of finished
goods policy arises
because of sales of
inventory and costs
of inventories.

While fixing finished goods policy, the inventory management should

take into consideration the costs involved in storing inventories like rent
of the ware house, insurance premium, inventory handling and
distribution costs, maintenance etc. The question of fixation of finished
goods policy arises because of sales of inventory and costs of
inventories. Therefore, fixation of proper finished goods policy is a must
for effective inventory planning.
(iii) Purchase and Procurement Policy
The main objective of purchasing and procuring raw materials, supplies,
spares etc. is to ensure continuity of their supplies and at the same time
to reduce the ultimate costs of finished goods. For ensuring this, there are
a number of parameters viz., right price, right quantity, right quality,
right time, right source, right terms and conditions etc. Therefore, fixing
proper purchase and procurement policy is a sine-qua-non for efficient
inventory planning.
(iv) Inventory Accounting Policy
Proper inventory accounting i.e. store keeping and recording of
inventories and also for right pricing of them is a precondition of
efficient inventory management. Material costing is very significant in
terms of valuation of the cost of materials consumed by the production
department. Therefore, fixing proper inventory accounting policy is a
must for efficient inventory management.

Inventory Control and Its Approaches

Inventory control
refers to the
physical control of
inventory as well as
control of overinvestment in the
inventory.

Inventory control refers to the physical control of inventory as well as

control of over-investment in the inventory. Inventory is significant for
the efficient inventory management. To control over-investment in
inventories, preparing proper inventory budget, production budget,
purchase budget and sales budget is very significant. To control physical
inventory, ABC analysis, stores level control, determination economic
order quantity, reorder level etc. are the vital ones

Techniques of Inventory Management

To manage inventories efficiently, answers should be sought to the
following two questions :

How much should be ordered ?

When should it be ordered ?

The first question, how much to order, relates to the problem of

determining economic order quantity EOQ), and is answered with an
analysis of costs of maintaining certain level of inventories,. The second
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question, when to order, arises because of uncertainty and is a problem

of determining the re-order point.
Determination of Economic Order Quantity (EOQ)
Economic Order Quantity is that order quantity of inventories that will
minimize inventory costs. The EOQ is a model which can be expressed
as follows :
EOQ =

2(0)(T )
(C )( PP )

Where 0 = Fixed order cost per order

Economic Order
Quantity is that
order quantity of
inventories that will
minimize inventory
costs.

T = Annual sales in units

C = % cost of carrying
PP = Purchase price per unit
The above formula indicates two types of costs viz., ordering costs and
carrying costs. Such costs are explained below:
a) Ordering Costs
The term ordering costs is used in case of raw materials or supplies and
includes the whole costs of acquiring raw materials. They include costs
incurred in the following activities: requisitioning, purchase ordering,
transporting, receiving, inspecting and storing. Ordering costs increased
in proportion to the number of orders placed. Hence, the more frequently
inventory is acquired, the higher the firms ordering costs on the other
hand, if the firm maintains larger inventory levels, there will be few
orders placed and as such ordering costs will be relatively small. Thus,
ordering costs decrease with increasing size of inventory.

The term ordering

cost is used in case
of raw materials or
supplies and
includes the whole
costs of acquiring
raw materials.

b) Carrying Costs
Costs incurred for maintaining a given level of inventory are called
carrying costs. They include storage, insurance, taxes, handling,
deterioration and obsolescence. The storage costs consist of ware
housing costs, store handling costs and clerical and staff services costs.
Such costs vary with the size of inventory. The behavior of such costs is
contrary to that of ordering costs, which decline with increase in
inventory size. The economic size of inventory would therefore, depend
on trade-off between carrying costs and ordering costs.
Ordering and Carrying Costs Trade-off
The optimum inventory size is commonly referred to as EOQ. It is that
order size at which annual total costs of ordering and handling are the
minimum.

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Costs incurred for

maintaining a given
level of inventory
are called carrying
costs.

It is that order size

at which annual
total costs of
ordering and
handling are the
minimum.

School of Business

In general, carrying
costs increase as the
level of inventory
rises; but ordering
costs and stock out
costs decline with
larger inventory
holdings.

Besides, ordering and carrying costs there are stock out costs which are
also included in inventory costs. In general, carrying costs increase as the
level of inventory rises; but ordering costs and stock out costs decline
with larger inventory holdings.
Determination of various Inventory Costs
Total Inventory Cost (TIC) =
Total Carrying Costs + Total ordering costs
= (Carrying cost per unit) (Average units in inventory) + (Cost per order)
(Number of orders)
=(CPP) (Q/2) + (O) (T/Q)
The variables in the equation are defined as follows:
C = Carrying costs as a percent of the purchase price of each inventory item.

PP = Purchase price, or cost, per unit.

Q = Number of units purchased with each order.
T = Total demand, or number of units sold, per period.
O = Fixed costs per order.
Re-order Point
The re-order point
is that inventory
level at which an
order should be
placed to replenish
the inventory.

The problem, how much to order, is solved by determining the economic

order quantity, yet the answer should be sought to the second problem,
when to order. This is a problem of determining the re-order-point. The
re-order point is that inventory level at which an order should be placed
to replenish the inventory. To determine the re-order under certainty, we
should know : (a) lead time, (b) average usage, and (c) economic order
quantity. Lead time is the time normally taken in replenishing inventory
after the order has been placed. By certainty we mean that usage and lead
time do not fluctuate. Under such a situation, re-order point is simply that
inventory level which will be maintained for consumption during the
lead time. That is :
Re-order point = Lead time x Average usage
Safety Stock

In order guard
against the stock
out, the firm may
maintain a safety
stock some
minimum or buffer
inventory as cushion
against expected
increased usage
and/or delay in
delivery time.

The re-order point is determined under the assumption of certainty. But it

is difficult to predict usage and lead time accurately. The demand for
materials may fluctuate from day to day, week to week or month to
month. Similarly, the actual delivery time may be different from the
normal lead time. If the actual usage increases or the delivery of
inventory is delayed, the firm can face a problem of stock out which can
prove to be costly for the firm. Therefore, in order guard against the
stock out, the firm may maintain a safety stock some minimum or
buffer inventory as cushion against expected increased usage and/or
delay in delivery time.
Safety stocks are held to avoid shortages arisen from: (i) demand
increases and (ii) shipping delays are caused. Such safety stocks also
involves costs. The cost of carrying safety stocks is equal to the
percentage cost of carrying inventories times the purchase price per unit
times the number of units held as the safety stock. Thus :
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Cost of Safety Stock (SS) = (C) (PP) (SS)

Selective Inventory Control: ABC Analysis

Usually a firm has to maintain several types of inventories. It is not
desirable to keep the same degree of control on all the items. The firm
should pay maximum attention to those items whose value is the highest.
The firm should, therefore, classify inventories to identify which items
should receive the most effort in controlling. The firm should be
selective in its approach to control investment in various types of
inventories. This analytical approach is called the ABC analysis and
tends to measure the significance of each item of inventories in terms of
its value. The high-value items are classified as A items and would be
under the tightest control. C items represent relatively least value and
would be under simple control. B items fall in between these two
categories and require reasonable attention of management.

The firm should be

selective in its
approach to control
investment in
various types of
inventories.

The following steps are involved in implementing the ABC analysis :

Classify the items of inventories, determining the expected use in

units and the price per unit for each item.

Determine the total value of each item by multiplying the expected

units by its units price.

Rank the items in accordance with the total value, giving first rank
to the item with highest total value and so on.

Compute the ratios (percentage) of number of units of each item to

total units of all items and the ratio of total value of each item to
total value of all items.

Combine items on the basis of their relative value to form three

categories A, B and C.

Investment in Inventories and Analysis thereof

It is the major responsibility of the financial manager to over-see the
management of inventory since inventories represent investment of the
firms large funds in practice. A decision to determine or change the
level of inventory is an investment decision. The analysis should
therefore involve an evaluation of the profitability of investment in
inventory. The goal of the inventory policy should be maximization of
the firms value. The inventory policy will maximize the firms value at
a point at which marginal (incremental) return from the investment in
inventory equals the marginal (incremental) cost of funds used to finance
the investment in inventory. As stated in the earlier Lesson, the cost of
funds is the required rate of return to the suppliers of funds, and it
depends on the risk of the investment opportunity.

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The inventory policy

will maximize the
firms value at a
point at which
marginal
(incremental) return
from the investment
in inventory equals
the marginal
(incremental) cost
of funds used to
finance the
investment in
inventory.

School of Business

Incremental Analysis
The incremental
analysis should be
used to compute the
values of operating
profit, investment in
inventory, rate of
return and cost of
funds.

The investment in inventory should be analyzed involving the following

four steps :

Estimation of operating profit

Estimation in investment in inventory

Estimation of the rate of return on investment in inventory

Comparison of the rate of return on investment with the cost of

funds.
The incremental analysis should be used to compute the values of
operating profit, investment in inventory, rate of return and cost of funds.
A change in the inventory policy is desirable if the incremental rate of
return exceeds the required rate of return.

If a firm increases
its investment in
inventories, its risk
increases.

The firm should

invest in higher
level of inventory if
r k.

Choice of Policy The choice of the inventory policy by the management

of a corporate firm will depend on the required rate of return, k, on
incremental (or marginal) investment in inventories. The concept of the
required rate of return, k, has been discussed in earlier Lesson. At this
stage, we shall emphasize that the required rate of return is not the
borrowing rate. It depends on the risk of investment. Higher the risk,
higher the rate of return. If a firm increases its investment in inventories,
its risk increases. For example, the company may not be able to realize
receivables, or inventory may become obsolete if it cannot sell goods
because of recession or other unfavorable market conditions.
Thus, the choice of inventory policy will depend on a comparison of the
expected rate of return and the required rate of return. The firm should
invest in higher level of inventory if r k.

Problems and Solutions

Problem - 1
The Homemade Bread Company buys and then sells (as bread) 2.6
million bushels of wheat annually. The wheat must be purchased in
multiples of 2,000 bushels. Ordering costs are $5,000 per order. Annual
carrying costs are two percent of the purchase price of $5 per bushel. The
delivery time is six weeks.
a.

What is the EOQ ?

b.

At what inventory level should an order be placed ?

c.

What are the total inventory costs ?

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Solution
a. EOQ =

20T
C PP

(2)($5,000)(2,600,000)
(0.02)($5.00)

= 509,902 bushels
Because the firm must order in multiples of 2,000 bushels, it should
order in quantities of $10,000 bushels.
b. Average weekly sales = 2,600,000/52
= 50,000 bushels.
Reorder point = 6 weeks sales
= 6 (50,000)
= 300,000 bushels

c. Total inventory costs :

T
Q
O
2
Q

TIC = (C)PP

2,600,000
510,000

$5,000
2

510,000

= (0.02)($5)

= $25,500 + $25,490.20
= $50,990.20

Problem - 2
Vostick Filter Company is a distributor of air filters to retail stores. Its
buys its filters from several manufacturers. Filters are ordered in lot sizes
of 1,000 and each order costs $40 to place. Demand from retail stores is
20,000 filters per month, and carrying cost is $.10 a filter per month.
a.
What is the optimal order quantity with respect to so many lot
sizes?
b.
What would be the order quantity if the carrying cost were $.50 per
month ?
c.
What would be the optimal order quantity if ordering costs were $
10 ?
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Solution

a. Q* =

2(20)(40)
4
100

Carrying costs = $.10 x 1,000 = $100. The optimal order size would be
4,000 filters, which five orders a month.

2(20)(40)
5.66
50

b. Q*

Since the lot size is 1,000 filters, the company would order 6,000 filters
each time. The lower the carrying cost, the more important ordering costs
become relatively, and the larger the optimal order size.
c. Q* =

2(20)(10)
2
100

The lower the order cost, the more important carrying costs become
relatively and the smaller the optimal order size.
Problem - 3
The following inventory data have been established for the Thompson
Company :
(1) Orders must be placed in multiples of 100 units.
(2) Annual sales are 338,000 units.
(3) The purchase price per unit is $6.
(4) Carrying cost is 20 percent of the price of goods.
(5) Fixed order cost is $48.
(6) Three days are required for delivery.
a. What is the EOQ ?
b. How many orders should an Thompson place each year ?
c. At what inventory level should an order be made ?
d. Calculate the total cost of ordering and carrying inventories if
the order quantity is (1) 4,000 units, (2) 4,800 units, or (3)
6,000 units. (4) What are the total costs if the order quantity is
the EOQ ?
Solution
(a) EOQ =

2(0)(T )
(C )( PP )

Where :
O = Fixed cost per Order
T = Annual Sales in Units
C = % Cost of Carrying Inventory
PP = Purchase price per unit

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2(48)(3,38,000)
(.20)(6)

EOQ=

= 2,70,40,000
= 5,200 units
(b) No. of order to be placed =

AnnualSales 3,38,000

65
EOQ
5,200

(c) Reorder Point = Safety Stock + (Lead Time x Usage Rate) Goods
in Transit

= 12,000 + 2x

3,38,000
-10,400
52

= 12,000 + 13,000 10,400

= 14,600 Units
Goods in Transit = EOQ x Lead Time
= 5,200 x 2 = 10,400 Units
(d) (i) Total Inventory Cost (TIC) = Total Carrying Cost (TCC) + Total
Ordering Cost (TOC)

= (C)(PP)(A) + (O)

3,38,000
4,000
(48)
4,000
2

= (.20)(6)

= $2,400 + $4,056
= $6,456
(ii)TIC = TTC + TOC

3,38,000
4,800

(48)
2
4,800

= (.20)(6)

= $2,880 + $3,380
= $6,260
(iii) TIC = TCC + TOC

3,38,000
6,000

(48)
2
6,000

= (.20)(6)

= $3,600 + $2,704
= $6,304
(iv) TIC = TCC + TOC

3,38,000
5,200

(48)
2
5,200

= (.20)(6)

= $3,120 + $3,120
= $6,240

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Review Questions
Short Questions
1.
What is EOQ ? How it is determined ?
2.
What are ordering costs ? Give examples.
3.
What are carrying costs ? Give examples.
4.
What do you mean by inventory planning ? Explain.
5.
What is inventory control ? Explain.
6.
What is re-order point ? Discuss. How it is computed.
7.
What is safety stock ? Explain. How it is determined ?
8.
How would you analyze investment in inventory ?
9.
What is ABC control of inventory ? Explain.
10. What is lead time ? How it is calculated ?
Broad Questions
11. Discuss briefly the techniques involved in inventory management.
12. Explain the steps involved in analyzing investment in inventories.
Illustrate with an example.

Review Problems
Problem - 1
Two components, A and B are, used as follows :
Normal usage
:
50 units each per week
Minimum usage
:
25 units each per week
Maximum usage
:
75 units each per week
Re-order quantity
:
A : 300 units; B : 500 units
Re-order period
:
A : 4 to 6 weeks; B : 2 to 4
weeks
Calculate for each component :
(a)
Reorder level
(b)
Minimum level
(c)
Maximum level
(d)
Average stock level
Problem - 2
Green Thumb Garden Centers sells 240,000 bags of lawn fertilizer
annually. The optimal safety stock (which is on hand initially) is 1,200
bags. Each bag costs (Green Thumb $4, inventory carrying costs are 20
percent, and the cost of placing an order with its supplier is $25.
(a) What is the Economic Ordering Quantity ?
(b) What is the maximum inventory of fertilizer ?
(c) What will Green Thumbs average inventory be ?
(d) How often must the company order ?
Problem - 3
The Hedge Corporation manufactures only one product : planks. The
single raw material used in making planks is the dint. For each plank
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manufactured, 12 dints are required. Assume that the company

manufactures 150,000 planks per year, that demand for planks is
perfectly steady throughout the year, that it costs $200 each time dints
are ordered, and that carrying costs are $8 per dint per year.
a.
Determine the economic order quantity of dints.
b.
What are total inventory costs for Hedge (carrying costs plus
ordering costs) ?
c.
How many times per year would inventory be ordered ?
Case Study
Now Ray Smith wants you to take a look at the companys inventory
position because he thinks that inventories might be too high as a result
of the managers tendency to order in large quantities. Smith has decided
to examine the situation for one key product fly rods, which cost $320
each to purchase and prepare for sale. Annual sales of the product are
2,500 units (rods), and the annual carrying cost is ten percent of
inventory value. The company has been buying 500 rods per order and
placing another order when the stock on hand falls to 100 rods. Each
time SSP orders, it incurs a cost equal to $64 Sales are uniform
throughout the year.
a.
Smith believes that the EOQ model should be used to help
determine the optimal inventory situation for this product. What is
the EOQ formula, and what are the key assumptions underlying
this model ?
b.
What is the formula for total inventory costs ?
c.
What is the EOQ for the fly rods ? What will be the total inventory
costs for this product if the EOQ is produced ?
d.
What is SSPs added cost if it orders 500 rods rather than the EOQ
quantity ? What if it orders 750 rods each time ?

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Lesson-8: Accounts Receivable Management

and Factoring
After successful completion of the lesson 8, you should be able
To form a clearcut concept on accounts receivable and its
management;

To realize the objectives and significance of accounts receivable

management;

To understand how an optimum credit policy can be formulated;

To identify and explain the credit and collection policies and

procedures and

To get acquainted with the concept and costs and benefits involved
in factoring.

Concept of Accounts Receivable and Its Management

Accounts
receivables arise
when a firm sells its
products or services
on credit and does
not receive cash at
the time of sale.

Accounts
receivables
management refers
to taking decisions
regarding credit
and collection
policy of a firm.

Accounts receivables arise when a firm sells its products or services on

credit and does not receive cash at the time of sale. It is an essential
marketing tool which acts as a bridge for the movement of goods through
production and distribution stages to customers. A firm grants trade
credit to protect its sales from the competitors and to attract the potential
customers to buy its products services on favorable terms and conditions.
Trade credit creates accounts receivables which the firm expects to
collect in the near future. Such accounts receivables have three
characteristics which are as follows :
(i)
They involve an element of risk which should be carefully
analyzed.
(ii) They are based on economic value. To the buyer, the economic
value in goods and services passes immediately at the time of sale;
while the seller expects an equivalent value to be received in near
future.
(iii) They imply future period since the collection of receivables will be
made in the near future.
Accounts receivables management refers to taking decisions regarding
credit and collection policy of a firm. The management of investment of
funds in accounts receivables is also known as receivable management.
The general liquidity management goal of a firm is to use cash resources
as economically as possible in expanding receivables, without impairing
sales and the chance for increasing profits. Credit and collection policies
significantly influence requirements. Sound and proper credit and
collection policies are the pre-requisites to a good accounts receivables
policy. Therefore, accounts receivable management deals with the
formulation and implementation of sound credit and collection policy.

Objective and
Management

Significance

of

Accounts

Receivable

The main objective of receivables management is to promote sales and

profits until that point is reached where the return on investment in
further funding of receivables is less than the cost of funds raised to
finance the additional credit (cost of capital). The specific costs and
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benefits which are relevant to the determination of the objectives of

receivables management are briefly discussed below :
Relevant Costs The major types of cost associated with the extension of
credit and accounts receivables are collection costs, capital costs,
delinquency costs and default cost. Collection costs are the
administrative costs incurred in collecting the receivables from the
customers to whom credit sales have been made. Capital costs are the
cost of financing the investment made in accounts receivables.
Delinquency cost arises out of the failure of the customers to meet their
obligations when payment on credit sales becomes due. Finally, default
cost arises due to non-recovery of the overdue of the customers because
of their inability to pay.
Relevant Benefits The benefits arises from credit sales are the increased
sales and profits anticipated because of a more liberal policy. Thus, it is
clear that investment in receivables involves both costs and benefits. The
extension of trade credit has a major impact on sales, costs and
profitability. It is to be remembered here that the costs and benefits to be
compared are marginal costs and benefits. The firm should only consider
the incremental (additional) benefits and costs that result from a change
in the receivables or trade credit policy.
Accounts receivables management is very much significant mainly in
case of manufacturing as well as service rendering concerns where credit
sales cannot be avoided. This is because of the fact that a proper and
sound accounts receivables policy of a firm tends to reduce the need for
working capital for operations, boost up sales promotion, reduce the cost
of doing business and maintain good customer relations. Funds locked up
in accounts receivables have opportunity costs. Over-investment in
accounts receivables will amount to denial of funds for more productive
uses. Moreover, excessive credits for an unusually long period are open
invitations to incompetence and the consequent failure of customers.
Therefore, proper and sound receivable management is a must for a firm.

Credit Policy and Its Formulation

Definition of a Credit Policy
The term credit policy is used to refer to the combination of the three
decision variables namely (i) Credit standard, (ii) Credit terms and (iii)
Collection efforts, on which the financial manager of a firm has
influence.
(i) Credit Standard : These are the criteria to decide the types of
customers to whom goods and services could be sold on credit terms. If a
firm has more slow paying customers, its investment in accounts
receivables will be higher. In that case, the firm will also be exposed to
higher risk of default.
(ii) Credit Terms : These refer to the duration of credit and terms of
payments by customers. Investment in accounts receivables will be
higher if customers are allowed more period for making payments.
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(iii) Collection Efforts : These determine the actual collection period.

The lower the collection period the lower the investment in accounts
receivables and vice-versa
Goals of Credit Policy
A firm may follow a
lenient or a
stringent credit
policy.

A firm may follow a lenient or a stringent credit policy. The firm

following a lenient credit policy tends to sell on credit to customers on
very liberal terms and standards; credits are granted for longer periods
even to those customers whose credit worthiness is not fully known or
whose financial position is doubtful. In contrast, a firm following a
stringent credit policy sells on credit on a highly selective basis only to
those customers who have proven credit worthiness and who are
financially strong. Therefore, the goals of credit policy is to trade-off the
lenient credit policy and stringent credit policy. That means the firms
should follow credit policies ranging between stringent and lenient.
Formulation of an Optimum Credit Policy

Optimum credit
policy is one which
maximizes the value
of the firm.

Optimum credit policy is one which maximizes the value of the firm.
The value of the firm is maximized when the incremental rate of return,
also called the marginal rate of return of an investment is equal to the
incremental cost of firm, also called the marginal cost of capital used to
finance the investment. The incremental rate of return can be calculated
as incremental operating profit divided by the incremental investment in
receivables. The incremental cost of funds is

Profitability

Costs & benefits

Liquidity

Tight

Credit policy

Loose

Figure 1 : Costs of Credit Policy necessarily the optimum credit policy.

Higher the risk of
investment, higher
the required rate of
return.

the rate of return required by the suppliers of funds, given the risk of
investment in accounts receivables. It is to be noted here that the required
rate of return is not equal to the borrowing rate. Higher the risk of
investment, higher the required rate of return.

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a) An Optimum Credit Policy : A Cost Benefit Analysis

A firms operating profit is maximized when total cost is minimized for a
given level of revenue. Credit policy at point A in Figure-1 represents the
maximum operating profit (since total cost is minimum). But it is not
As the firm loosens its credit policy, its investment in accounts
receivable becomes more risky because of increase in slow-paying and
defaulting accounts. Thus the required rate of return is an upward sloping
curve.
In sum, we may state that the goal of the firms credit policy is to
maximize the value of the firm. To achieve this goal, the evaluation of
investment in accounts receivable should involve the following four
steps :

Estimation of incremental operating profit

Estimation of incremental investment in accounts receivable

Estimation of incremental rate of return of investment

Comparison of the incremental rate of return with the required rate

of return.

b) Credit Policy Variables

In establishing an optimum credit policy, the financial manager must
consider the important decision variables which influence the level of
receivables. The major controllable decision variables include the
following :

Credit standards and analysis

Credit terms

Collection policy and procedures

Credit Standards
Credit standards are the criteria, which a firm follows in selecting
customers for the purpose of credit extension. The firm may have tight
credit standards; that is, it may sell mostly on cash basis, and may extend
credit only to the most reliable and financially strong customers. Such
standards will result in no bad-debt losses, and less cost of credit
administration. But the firm may not be able to expand sales. The profit
sacrificed on lost sales may be more than the costs saved by the firm. On
the contrary, if credit standards are loose, the firm may have larger sales.
But the firm will have to carry larger receivable. The costs of
administering credit and bad-debt losses will also increase. Thus, the
choice of optimum credit standards involves a trade-off between
incremental return and incremental costs.

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A firms operating
profit is maximized
when total cost is
minimized for a
given level of
revenue.

School of Business

Credit Analysis

The average
collection period
(ACP) determines
the speed of
payment by
customers.

Default rate can be

measured in terms
of bad-debt losses
ratio the
proportion of
uncollected
receivable.

Credit standards influence the quality of the firms customers. There are
two aspects of the quality of customers : (i) the time taken by customers
to repay credit obligation and (ii) the default rate. The average collection
period (ACP) determines the speed of payment by customers. It
measures the number of days for which credit sales remain outstanding.
The longer the average collection period, the higher the firms
investment in accounts receivable. Default rate can be measured in terms
of bad-debt losses ratio the proportion of uncollected receivable. Baddebt losses ratio indicates default risk. Default risk is the likelihood that a
customer will fail to repay the credit obligation. On the basis of the past
practice and experience, the financial or credit manager should be able to
form a reasonable judgment regarding the chances of default. To
estimate the probability of default, the financial or credit manager should
consider five Cs viz., (i)character, (ii) collateral, (iii) capital, (iv)
capacity and (v) condition.

Character : It refers to the customers willingness to pay. The

financial or credit manager should judge whether the customers
will make hones efforts to honor their credit obligations. The moral
factor is of considerable importance in credit evaluation in
practice.

Collateral : Here collateral refers to the security given by the loan

applicants in favor of the loan giving agency. Generally, collateral
in the form of inventories or any other fixed assets are pledged
against loan. The loan giving agency while appraising loan
application also examines the security.

Capital : Capital refers to the total amount of both the fixed and
working capital invested by a businessman in his business. Such
capital may be either owned capital or debt capital or both. The
question of capital arises in case of an existing business.

Capacity : It refers to the customers ability to pay. Ability to pay

can be judged by assessing the customers capital and assets which
he may offer as security. Capacity is evaluated by the financial
position of the firm which is indicated by analysis of ratios and
trends in firms cash and working capital position.

Condition : It refers to the prevailing economic and other

conditions which may affect the customers ability to pay. Adverse
economic conditions can affect the ability or willingness of a
customer to pay. An experienced financial or credit manager will
be able to judge the extent and genuineness to which the
customers ability to pay is affected by the economic conditions.

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Credit Terms
The stipulations under which the firm sells on credit to customers are
called credit terms. These stipulations include : (a) the credit period and
(b) the cash discount.
Credit Period The length of time for which credit is extended to
customers is called the credit period. It is generally stated in terms of a
net date. A firms credit period may be governed by the industry norms.
But depending on its objective, the firm can lengthen the credit period.
On the other hand, the firm may tighten its credit period if customers are
defaulting too frequently and bad-debt losses are building up.
Cash Discounts A cash discount is reduction in payment offered to
customers to induce them to repay credit obligations within a specified
period of time, which will be less than the normal credit period. It is
usually expressed as a percentage of sales. Cash discount terms indicate
the rate of discount and the period for which it is available. If the
customer does not avail the offer, he must make payment within the
normal credit period.
In practice, credit terms would include : (i) the rate of cash discount, (b)
the cash discount period, and (c) the net credit period. For example,
credit terms may be expressed as 2/10, net 30. This means that a 2
percent discount will be granted if the customer pays within 10 days; if
he does not avail the offer he must make payment within 30 days.
A firm uses cash discount as a tool to increase sales and accelerate
collections from customers. Thus the level of receivable and associated
costs may be reduced. The cost involved is the discounts taken by
customers.
Credit Policy Effects
In evaluating credit policy, there are five basic effects to consider :
1.

Revenue effects. If the firm grants credit, then there will be a delay
in revenue collections as some customers take advantage of the
credit offered and pay later. However, the firm may be able to
charge a higher price if it grants credit and it may be able to
increase the quantity sold. Total revenues may thus increase.

2.

Cost effects. Although the firm may experience delayed revenues if

it grants credit, it will still incur the costs of sales immediately.
Whether the firm sells for cash or credit, it will still have to acquire
or produce the merchandise (and pay for it).

3.

The cost of debt. When the firm grants credit, it must arrange to
finance the resulting receivables. As a result, the firms cost of
short-term borrowing is a factor in the decision to grant credit.

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The stipulations
under which the
firm sells on credit
to customers are
called credit terms.

School of Business

4.

The probability of nonpayment. If the grants credit, some

percentage of the credit buyers will not pay. This cant happen, of
course, if the firm sells for cash.

5.

The cash discount. When the firm offers a cash discount as part of
its credit terms, some customers will choose to pay early to take
advantage of the discount.

Credit Collection Policy and Procedure

A collection policy is needed because all customers do not pay the firms
bills in time. Some customers are slow-payers while some are nonpayers. The collection efforts should, therefore, aim at accelerating
collections from slow-payers and reducing bad-debt losses. A collection
policy should, therefore, ensure prompt and regular collection. Prompt
collection is needed for fast turnover of working capital, keeping
collection costs and bad debts within limits and maintaining collection
efficiency. Regularity in collections keeps debtors alert, and they tend to
pay their dues promptly.
The collection policy should lay down clear-cut collection procedures.
The collection procedures for past dues or delinquent accounts should
also be established in unambiguous terms. The slow-paying customers
are needed to be handled very tactfully. Some of them may be permanent
customers. The collection process initiated quickly, without giving any
chance to them, may antagonize them, and the firm may lose them to
competitors.

Monitoring Accounts Receivable

A firm needs to continuously monitor and control its receivable to ensure
the success of collection efforts. Two traditional methods of evaluating
the management of receivable are : (1) average collection period (ACP)
and (2) aging schedule. These methods have certain limitations to be
useful in monitoring receivable. A better approach is the collection
experience matrix.
Average Collection Period
Average collection period is found as under ACP =

The average
collection period
measures the quality
of receivable since it
indicates the speed
of their
collectability.

Debtors
Credit

360
Sales

The average collection period so calculated is compared with the firms

stated credit period to judge the collection efficiency. An extended
collection period delays cash inflows, impairs the firms liquidity
position and increases the chances of bad-debt losses. The average
collection period measures the quality of receivable since it indicates the
speed of their collectability.
There are two limitations of this method. First, it provides an average
picture of collection experience and is based on aggregate data. For
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control purposes, there is no need of specific information about the age

of outstanding receivables. Second, it is susceptible to sales variations
and the period over which sales and receivables have been aggregated.
Thus, average collection period cannot provide a very meaningful
information about the quality of outstanding receivable.
Aging Schedule
The aging schedule removes one of the limitations of the average
collection period. It breaks down receivables according to the length of
time for which they have been outstanding. Aging schedule provides
more information about the collection experience. It helps to spot out the
slow-paying debtors. However, it also suffers from the problem of
aggregation, and does not relate receivables to sales of the same period.
Collection Experience Matrix
The major limitations of the traditional methods are that they are based
on aggregated data and fail to relate outstanding receivables of a period
with the credit sales of the same period. Thus, using the traditional
methods, two analysts can come up with entirely different signals about
the status of receivables if they aggregate sales and receivables data
differently. This problem can be eliminated by using disaggregated data
for analyzing collection experience. The key is to relate receivables to
sales of the same period. When sales over a period of time are shown
horizontally and associated receivables vertically in a tabular form, a
matrix constructed. Therefore,, this method of evaluating receivables is
called collection experience matrix.

Concepts, Costs and Benefits of Factoring

Factoring is a popular mechanism of managing, financing and collecting
receivables in developed countries like USA and UK and has extended to
a number of other countries in the recent past, including India and
Bangladesh.
Concepts of Factoring
Factoring is a unique financial innovation. It is both a financial as well as
a management support to a client. It is a method of converting a nonproductive, inactive asset (i.e. receivable) into a productive asset (viz.
cash) by selling receivables to a company that specializes in their
collection and administration.
One can define factoring as business involving a continuing legal
relationship between a financial institution (the factor) and a business
concern (the client) selling goods or providing services to trade
customers (the customers) whereby the factors purchase the clients
accounts receivable and in relation thereto, control the credit, extended to
customers and administers the sales lodger. Factoring may also be
defined as a contract between the suppliers of goods/services and the
factor under which (a) the supplier and its customers (debtors) other than
those for the sale of goods bought primarily for their personal; family or
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It is a method of
converting a nonproductive, inactive
asset (i.e.
receivable) into a
productive asset
(viz. cash) by selling
receivables to a
company that
specializes in their
collection and
administration.

School of Business

household use; (b) the factor is to perform at least two of the following
functions (i) finance for supplier, including loans and advance
payments; (ii) maintenance of accounts (ledgering relating to the
receivables); (iii) collection of accounts (ledgering relating to the
receivables) and (iv) protection against default in payment by debtors
and (c) notice of assignment of the receivables is to be given to debtors.
The agreement between the suppliers and the factor specifies the
factoring procedure.
Factoring Services
While purchase of receivables is the fundamental to the functioning of
factoring, the factor provides the following three basic services to the
clients :

Sales ledger administration and credit management;

Credit collection and protection against default and bad debt losses
and

Financial accommodation against the assigned receivables.

Types of Factoring
The factoring facilities available worldwide can be broadly classified
into the following four main groups :

Full service non-recourse (old line)

Full service recourse factoring

Agency factoring and

Non-notification factoring.

Full service non-recourse : Under this method accounts receivables are

purchased by the factors, assuming 100 percent credit risk.
Full service recourse factoring : In this method, the client is not
protected against the risk of bad debts. He has no indemnity against
uncollected debts.
Agency factoring : Under this method, the factor finances the bad debts
against agency either on recourse or without recourse.
Non-notification factoring : In this type, customers are not informed
about the factoring agreement. The factor performs all his usual
functions without a disclosure to customers that he owns the book debts
Costs and Benefits of Factoring
There are two types of costs involved in factoring. These are discussed
below :

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Factoring Commission or Service Fee : This cost is paid for credit

evaluation and collection and other services and to cover bad debt losses.
In reality, factoring commission depends upon the total volume of
receivables, the size of individual receivables and the quality of
receivables. The commission is expected to be higher in case of without
recourse factoring since the factor assumes the entire credit risk.
Interest on Advance Granted by the Factor : The interest on advance
would be higher than the prevailing prime rate of interest or the bank
overdraft rate. In the opinion of the experts, the factor should not charge
more than what the banks are charging since they would be in
competition with the banks as regards financing of receivables.
Benefit of Factoring Factoring provides the following benefits :
(i)

It give specialized services in credit management and thus helps

the firms management to concentrate on manufacturing and
marketing.

(ii)

It helps the firm to save the credit administration due to the scale
of economics and specialization.

Problems and Solutions

Problem - 1
One factor will purchase accounts receivables of Micro World
Corporation worth Tk. 1,00,000. The factor would pay in advance equal
to 70% of the receivables @8 interest. The factor would charge a fee @
2% on all purchased accounts receivables. Such factoring would save
Tk.1,500 per month as bad debts. The peiod of payments as debtors is 60
days.
Determine the cost of factoring.
Solution
Advance paid = Tk. (70% of Tk. 1,00,000) = Tk. 70,000
Interest payable on advanced amount = 70,000 x 8/100 x 2/12
= 933 (Approx.)
Monthly Interest = 933/2 = Tk. 466.50
Commission payable = 1,00,000 x 2/100 = 2,000
Financing cost of accounts receivable per month
= 2,000 + 466.50 = 2,466.50 less cost savings Tk. 1,500
Hence, net cost of financing = 966.50
Hence, effective rate of interest =

966.50
X 12 X 100 16.57%
70,000

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Problem - 2
A firm is thinking about stringent collection policy. The following details
are available :
(a)

At present the firm is selling 36,000 units on credit at a price of Tk.

32 each; the variable cost per unit is Tk. 25 while the average cost
per unit is Tk. 29; average collection period is 58 days; collection
expenses amount to Tk. 10,000 and bad debts are 3%.

(b)

If the collection procedures are tightened, additional collection

charges of Tk. 20,000 would be required; bad debts will be 1%; the
collection period will be 40 days and sales volume is likely to
decline by 500 units.

Assuming a 20% ROI, what would be your recommendation ? Should

the firm implement the decision ?
Solution
The decision to implement the new strategy of tightening the collection
policy should be based on the cost benefit analysis. The benefits are from
reduced bad debt expenses and average collection period. On the
contrary, the costs of implementing the decision are : (i) decrease in sales
volume and (ii) additional collection charges. All these calculations are
shown below :
(i)

Bad debt expenses :

Present plan : 3% of Tk. 11,52,000 =
Proposed plan : 1% of Tk. 11,36,000=
Saving in bad debt expenses =

Tk. 34,560
Tk. 11,360
Tk. 23,200

(ii) Average collection period/average investment in receivables :

Average investment =

Present plan =

Cost
of sales
Re ceivables
turnover

36,000 XTk .29

Tk .1,68, 200
360 / 58

Proposed plan =

36,000 XTk.29 500 XTk.26 Tk .1,14,611

360 / 40

Savings in average investments:

Tk. 53,589

Assuming a 20% return, the firm will be able to earn Tk. 10,718 on this
saving
(iii) Sales volume :
Since the sales volume will decline by 500 units, there would be a loss of
Tk. 3,500 (500 x Tk. 7).
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(iv) Collection charges:

Additional expenditure would be Tk. 20,000.
Thus, the total benefits from a tightening of the collection policy will be
Tk. 33,918 (Tk. 23,200 + 10,718) and the total cost will be Tk. 23,500
(Tk. 3,500 + 20,000). Therefore, there would be a net gain of Tk. 10,418
(Tk. 33,918 Tk. 23,500). The firm should, therefore, implement the
proposed strategy.
Problem - 3
XYZ Corporation is considering relaxing its present credit policy and is
in the process of evaluating two proposed policies. Currently the firm has
annual credit sales of Tk. 50,00,000 and accounts receivable turnover
ratio of 4 times a year. The current level of loss due to bad debts is Tk.
1,50,000. The firm is required to give a return of 25% on the investment
in new accounts receivable. The companys variable costs are 70% of the
selling price. Given the following information, which is a better option ?
Present policy
Annual credit sales
Accounts
receivable
turnover ratio
Bad debt losses

Tk. 50,00,000
4 times

Policy option
I
Tk. 60,00,000
3 times

Policy option
II
Tk. 67,50,000
2.4 times

Tk. 1,50,000

Tk. 3,00,000

4,50,000

Solution
XYZ Corporation
Decision making (liberalization of credit terms, selecting Policy option
I or Policy II)

Sales revenue
Less variable cost (70%)
Contribution
margin
(manufacturing)
Less other relevant costs :
Bad debt losses
Investment cost (see
working notes)
Contribution margin (final)

Present
policy
(Tk.)
50,00,000
(35,00,000)
15,00,000

Policy option
I
(Tk.)
60,00,000
(42,00,000)
18,00,000

Policy option II
(Tk.)

(1,50,000)
2,18,750

(3,00,000)
(3,50,000)

4,50,000
4,92,187.50

11,31,250

11,50,000

10,82,812.50

67,50,000
47,25,000
20,25,000

Comment :
The firm is advised to adopt policy option I (extend credit term to 4
months) since the firms contribution margin is the maximum at this
policy option.

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Working Notes :
(i)

Calculation of investment cost at present policy = Tk. 35,00,000/4

times = Tk. 8,75,000. Therefore, its cost is 25% of Tk. 8,75,000 =
Tk. 2,18, 750.

(ii)

Calculation of investment cost at policy option I = Tk. 42,00,000/3

times = Tk. 14,00,000, its cost is 25% of 14,00,000 = Tk. 3,50,000.

(iii) Calculation of investment cost at policy option II = Tk.

47,25,000/2.4 times = Tk. 19,68,750, its cost is 25% of 19,68,750
= 4,92,187.50.
In the above cases in absence of total costs, investment cost is
determined with reference to variable costs only.

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Review Questions
Short Questions
1.
What do you mean by accounts receivables and accounts
receivables management ?
2.
What is the basic objective of account receivable management ?
3.
Explain the specific costs and benefits relevant to the
determination of accounts receivables policy.
4.
What are the goals of a credit policy ?
5.
What is a credit policy ? What are its elements ?
6.
What is an optimum credit policy ?
7.
Examine the role of cost benefit analysis in the formulation of an
optimum credit policy.
8.
What is a credit period ?
9.
What is cash discount ? Give an example.
10. What is credit collection policy ?
11. What is credit analysis ? Explain.
Broad Questions
12. Explain the major credit policy variables.
13. What are the basic factors considered in evaluating a credit policy
of a firm ? Explain.
14. What is meant by monitoring of accounts receivables ? Explain its
main methods.
15. What is factoring ? Discuss its nature. Examine the cost and
benefit involved in factoring.

Review Problems
Problem - 1
A small firm has a total credit sales of Tk. 80,00,000 and its average
collection period is 80 days . The past experience indicates that bad-debt
losses are around 1 percent of credit sales. The firm spends about Tk.
1,20,000 per annum on administering its credit sales. This cost includes
salaries of one officer and two clerks who handle credit checking,
collection etc., telephone and telex charges. These are avoidable costs. A
factor is prepared to buy the firm receivables. He will charge 2 percent
commission. He also pay advance against receivables to the firm at an
interest rate of 18% after withholding 10% as reserve. What should the
firm do ?
Problem - 2
The Hypothetical Ltd. has currently annual credit sales of Tk. 7,80,000.
Its average age of accounts receivable is 60 days.
It is contemplating a charge in its credit policy that is expected to
increase sales to Tk. 10,00,000 and increase the average age of accounts
receivable to 72 days.

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The firms sales price is Tk. 25 per unit, the variable cost per unit is Tk.
12 and the average cost per unit at Tk. 7,80,000 sales volume is Tk. 17.
Assume a 360-day year.
(i)
What is the average accounts receivable with both the present and
the proposed plans ?
(ii) What is the average cost per unit with the proposed plan ?
(iii) Calculate the marginal investments in accounts receivable resulting
from the proposed change.
(iv) What is the cost of marginal investment if the assumed rate of
return is 15%.
Problem - 3
Durham-Feltz Corporation presently gives terms of net 30 days. It has $
60 million in sales, and its average collection period is 45 days. To
stimulate demand, the company may give terms of net 60 days. If it does
instigate these terms, sales are expected to increase by 15 percent. After
the change, the average collection period is expected to be 75 days, with
no difference in payment habits between old and new customers.
Variable costs are $ .80 for every $1.00 of sales, and the companys
required rate of return on investment in receivables is 20 percent. Should
the company extend its credit period ? (Assume a 360-day year).
Case Study
The Boca Grande Company expects to have sales of $10 million this year
under its current operating policies. Its variable costs as a percentage of
sales are 80 percent, and its costs short-term funds is 16 percent.
Currently, Boca Grandes credit policy is net 25 (no discount for early
payment). However, its DSO is 30 days, and its bad debt loss percentage
is two percent. Boca Grande spends $50,000 per year to collect bad
debts, and its marginal tax rate is 40 percent.
The credit manager is considering two alternative proposals for changing
Boca Grndes credit policy. Find the expected change in net income,
taking into consideration anticipated changes in carrying costs for
accounts receivable, the probable bad debt losses, and the discounts
likely to be taken, for each proposal. Should a change in credit policy be
made ?
Proposal 1 : Lengthen the credit period by going from net 25 to net 30.
Collection expenditures will remain constant. Under this proposal, sales
are expected to increase by $1 million annually, and the bad debt loss
percent on all sales is expected to rise to three percent. In addition, the
DSO is expected ti increase from 30 to 45 days on all sales.
Proposals 2 : Shorten the credit period by going from net 25 to 20.
Again, collection expenses will remain constant. The anticipated effects
of this change are a decrease in sales of $1 million per year, a decline in
the DSO from 30 to 22 days, and a decline in the bad debt loss
percentage to one percent on all sales

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Lesson9: Marketable Securities Management

After attentively reading the lesson 9, you should be able

To grasp the meaning and characteristics of marketable securities

and the reasons for owning them.

To know about the types of marketable securities.

To identify the factors considered while making investment in

marketable securities; and.

To get the idea of portfolio management relating to investment in

marketable securities.

Meaning and Characteristics of Marketable Securities

Meaning and Characteristics
Securities those can be sold on short notice without loss of principal or
original investment called are market also securities. Once the optimum
level of cash balance of a firm has been determined, the residual of its
liquid assets is invested in marketable securities. Such securities are
short-term investment instruments to obtain a return on temporarily idle
funds. In other words, they are securities, which can be converted into
cash in a short period of time, typically a few days. The basic
characteristics of marketable securities affect the degree of their
marketability/ liquidity. To be liquid, a security must have two basic
characteristics: a ready market and safety of principal. Ready
marketability minimizes the amount of time required to convert a
security into cash. A ready market should have both breadth in the sense
of a large number of participants scattered over a wide geographical area
as well as depth as determined by its ability to absorb the purchase/sale
of large amount of securities.
The second determinant of liquidity is that there should be little or no
loss in the value of a marketable security over time. Only those securities
that can be easily converted into cash without any reduction in the
principal amount qualify for short-term investments. A firm would be
better off leaving the balances in cash if the alternatives were to risk a
significant reduction in principal.
A wide variety of securities is available to firms that choose to hold
marketable securities. But the characteristics generally associated with
marketable securities are as follows :
1.

Maturity. Firms hold marketable securities in order to temporarily

invest cash that otherwise would be idle in the short run.
Therefore, marketable securities are short-term investments, often
they are held only for a few days or weeks. If the cash budget
indicates the funds are not needed in the foreseeable future, then
long-term investments, which generally earn higher returns, should
be used.

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Securities those can

be sold on short
notice without loss
of principal or
original investment
called are market
also securities

Ready marketability
minimizes the
amount of time
required to convert
a security into cash.

School of Business

2.

Risk. Recall that earlier we developed this equation for

determining the nominal interest rate :
kNom = k* + IP + DRP + LP + MRP

Here k* is the real risk-free rate, IP is a premium for expected inflation,

DRP is the default risk premium, LP is the liquidity (or marketability)
risk premium, and MRP is the maturity (or interest rate) risk premium.
Also, remember from earlier Lesson that the risk-free rate kRF, is equal to
k* + IP, and a Government. Treasury bill comes closest to the risk-free
rate. For other instruments considered appropriate as marketable
securities, the default and liquidity risks are small, and the interest-rate
risk is negotiable. These risks are small because marketable securities
mature in the short-term, and the short run is less uncertain than the long
run. In general, then, the total risk associated with a portfolio of
marketable securities (short-term) is less than the total risk associated
with a portfolio of long-term investments.
3.

Liquidity We generally judge an assets marketability according to

how quickly and easily it can be bought and sold in the financial
markets. If an asset can be sold on short notice for close to its
original purchase price, it is to be liquid. Because marketable
securities are held as a substitute for cash and as a temporary
investment, such instruments should be very liquid.

4.

Return (yield) Because the marketable securities portfolio

generally is composed of highly liquid, short-term securities with
low risks, the returns associated with such investments are
relatively low when compared to other investments. But given the
purpose of the marketable securities portfolio, treasurers should
not sacrifice safety for higher rates of return.

Rationale for Owning Marketable Securities

Marketable securities, or near-cash assets, are extremely liquid, shortterm investments that permit the firm to earn positive returns on cash that
is not needed to pay bills immediately but will be needed sometime in
the near term, perhaps in a few days, weeks, or months. Although such
investments typically yield much lower yields than operating assets,
nearly every large firm has possessed them. The following are the two
main reasons for owning marketable securities of the firm :
i.

Marketable securities serve as a substitute for cash balances.

Firms often hold portfolios of marketable securities, liquidating
part of the portfolio to increase the cash account when cash is
needed because the marketable securities offer a p1ace
temporarily put cash balances to work earning a positive return.
In such situations, the marketable securities could be used as a
substitute for transactions balances, for precautionary balances,
for speculative balances, or for all three.

ii.

Marketable securities are also used as a temporary investment :

(a) to finance seasonal or cyclical operations and (b) to amass

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funds to meet financial requirements in the near future. For

example, if the firm has a conservative financing policy, then its
long-term capital will exceed its permanent assets, and
marketable securities will he held when inventories and
receivables are low.

Types of Marketable Securities

In this section, we describe briefly the more prominent marketable/nearcash securities available for investment. Our concern is with money
market instruments.
Treasury Bills : These are obligations of the government. They are sold
on a discount basis. The investor does not receive an actual interest
payment. The return is the difference between the purchase price and the
face (par) value of the bill. The treasury bills are issued only in bearer
form. They are purchased, therefore, without the investors name upon
them. This attribute makes them easily transferable from one investor to
another. A very active secondary market exists for these bills. The
secondary market for bills not only makes them highly liquid but also
allows purchase of bills with very short maturities.
Negotiable Certificates of Deposit (CDs) : These are marketable
receipts for funds that have been deposited in a bank for a fixed period of
time. The deposited funds earn a fixed rate of interest. The denomination
and maturities are tailored to the investors need. The CDs are offered by
banks on a basis different from treasury bills, that is, they are not sold at
a discount. Rather, when the certificates mature, the owner receives the
full amount deposited plus the earned interest. A secondary market exists
for the CDs.
Commercial Paper : It refers to short-term unsecured promissory note
sold by large business firms to raise cash. As they are unsecured, the
issuing side of the market is dominated by large companies which
typically maintain sound credit ratings. Commercial papers (CPs) can be
sold either directly or through dealers. Companies with high credit rating
can sell directly to investors. The denominations in which they can be
bought vary over a wide range. They can be purchased similarly with
varying maturities. These papers are generally sold on discount basis in
bearer form although at times commercial papers can be issued carrying
interest and made payable to the order of the investor. For all practical
purposes, there is no active trading secondary market for commercial
paper although direct sellers of CPs often repurchase it on request.
Bankers Acceptances : These are drafts (order to pay) drawn on a
specific bank by an exporter in order to obtain payment for goods he has
shipped to a customer who maintains an account with that specific bank.
They can also be used in financing domestic trade. The draft guarantees
payment by the accepting bank at a specific point of time. The seller who
holds such acceptance may sell it at a discount to get immediate funds.
Thus, the acceptance becomes a marketable security. Since acceptances
are used to finance the acquisition of goods by one party, the document
Fundamentals of Financial Management

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These are
obligations of the
government. They
are sold on a
discount basis.

These are
marketable receipts
for funds that have
been deposited in a
bank for a fixed
period of time.

It refers to shortterm unsecured

promissory note
sold by large
business firms to
raise cash.

These are drafts

(order to pay)
drawn on a specific
bank by an exporter
in order to obtain
payment for goods
he has shipped to a
customer who
maintains an
account with that
specific bank.

School of Business

is not issued in specialized denominations; its size/ denomination is

determined by the cost of goods being purchased. They serve a wide
range of maturities and are sold on a discount basis, payable to the
bearer. A secondary market for the acceptances of large banks does exist.
These are legal
contracts that
involve the actual
sale of securities by
a borrower to the
lender.

Repurchase Agreements These are legal contracts that involve the

actual sale of securities by a borrower to the lender with a commitment
on the part of the former to repurchase the securities at the current price
plus a stated interest charge. The securities involved are government
securities and other money market instruments. The borrower is either a
financial institution or a security dealer.
There are two major reasons why a firm with excess cash prefers to buy
repurchase agreements rather than a marketable security. First, the
original maturities of the instrument being sold can, in effect, be adjusted
to suit the particular needs of the investing firm. Therefore, funds
available for a very short period, that is, one/two days can be employed
to earn a return. Closely related to the first is the second reason, namely,
since the contract price of the securities that make up the arrangement is
fixed for the duration of the transaction, the firm buying the repurchase
agreement is protected against market fluctuations throughout the
contract period. This makes it a sound alternative investment for funds
that are surplus for only short periods.
Units The units of the Mutual Trust or Unit Trust offer a reasonably
convenient alternative avenue for investing surplus liquidity as (i) there
is a very active secondary market for them, (ii) the income from units is
tax-exempt up to a specified amount and, (iii) the units appreciate in a
fairly predictable manner.
Inter-corporate Deposits Inter-corporate deposits, that is, short-term
deposits with other companies are a fairly attractive form of investment
of short-term funds in terms of rate of return. However, apart from the
fact that one months time is required to convert them into cash, intercorporate deposits suffer from high degree of risk.

Surplus funds may

be deployed to
purchase/ discount
bills.

It enables corporate
firms to utilize their
float money
gainfully.

Bills Discounting Surplus funds may be deployed to purchase/discount

bills. Bills of exchange are drawn by seller (drawer) on the buyer
(drawee) for the value of goods delivered to him. During the pendency of
the bill, if the seller is in need of funds, he may get it discounted. On
maturity, the bill should be presented to the drawee for payment. A bill
of exchange is a self-liquidating instrument. Bill discounting is superior
to inter-corporate deposits for investing surplus funds. While parking
surplus funds in bills discounting, it should be ensured that the bills are
trade bills arising out of genuine commercial transaction and, as far as
possible, they should be backed by letter of credit /acceptance by banks
to ensure absolute safety of funds.
Call Market It deals with funds borrowed/lent overnight one-day (call)
money and notice money for periods up to 14 days. It enables corporate
firms to utilize their float money gainfully. However, the returns (call
rates) are highly volatile. The stipulations pertaining to the maintenance
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of cash reserve ratio (CRR) by banks is the major determinant of the

demand of funds and is responsible for volatility in the call rates Large
borrowings by them to fulfill their CRR requirements pushes up the rates
and a sharp decline takes place once these funds are met.
Eurodollars Although most Eurodollars are deposited in Europe, the
term applies to any dollar deposit in foreign banks or in foreign branches
of U.S. banks. There exists a substantial, very active market for the
deposit and lending of Eurodollars. This market is a wholesale one in
that the amounts involved are at least $100,000. Moreover, the market is
free of government regulation, as it is truly inter national in scope. As a
marketable security, the Eurodollar time deposit is like a negotiable
certificate of deposit. Most deposits have a maturity of less than a year,
and they can be sold in the market prior to maturity.
Short-Term Municipal Securities State and local governments are
increasingly providing securities tailored to the short-term investor. One
is a commercial paper type of instrument, where the interest rate is reset
every week. That is, the security is essentially a floating rate where the
weekly reset ensures that market value will vary scarcely at all. Some
corporations invest in longer-term municipal securities, but the maturity
usually is kept within 1 or 2 years. A problem with longer-term
instruments is that marketability is only fair. Shorter-term instruments
designed for the corporate treasurer and for municipal money market
mutual funds have much better marketability and price stability.

Factors Influencing Investment in Marketable Securities

A major decision confronting the financial managers involves the
determination of the mix of cash and marketable securities.
In general, the choice of the mix is based on a trade-off between the
opportunity to earn a return on idle funds (cash) during e holding period,
and the brokerage costs associated with the purchase and sale of
marketable securities.
This trade-off between interest returns and brokerage costs is a key factor
in determining what proportion of liquid assets should be held in the
form of marketable securities.
There are three motives for maintaining liquidity (cash as well as
marketable securities) and, therefore, for holding marketable securities:
transaction motive, safety and precautionary motive and speculative
motive. Each motive is based on the premise that a firm should attempt
to earn a return on temporarily idle funds. The type of marketable
security purchased will depend on the motive for the purchase. An
assessment of certain criteria can provide the financial manager with a
useful framework for selecting a proper marketable securities mix These
considerations include evaluation of : (i) financial risk (ii) interest rate
risk (iii) taxability (iv) liquidity and (v) yield among different financial
assets.

Fundamentals of Financial Management

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The choice of the

mix is based on a
trade-off between
the opportunity to
earn a return on
idle funds (cash).

School of Business

Financial/Default Risk It refers to the uncertainty of expected returns

from a security attributable to possible changes in the financial capacity
of the security-issuer to make future payments to the security-owner. If
the chance of default on the terms of the investment is high (low), then
the financial risk is said to be high (low). As the marketable securities
portfolio is designed to provide a return on funds that would he otherwise
tied up in idle cash held for transaction or precautionary purposes, the
financial manager will not usually be willing to assume such
financial/default risk in the hope of greater return within the makeup of
the portfolio.
Interest Rate Risk The uncertainty that is associated with the expected
returns from a financial instrument attributable to changes in interest rate
is known as interest rate risk. Of particular concern to the corporate
financial manager is the price volatility associated with instilments that
have long, as opposed to short, terms to maturity.
If prevailing interest rates rise is compared with the date of purchase,
the market price of the securities will fall to bring their yield to maturity
in line with what financial managers could obtain by buying a new issue
of a given instrument, for instance, treasury bills. The longer the maturity
of the instrument, the larger will be the fall in prices. To hedge against
the price volatility caused by interest rate risk, the market securities
portfolio will tend to be composed of instruments that mature over short
periods.
Taxability Another factor affecting observed difference in market yields
is the differential impact of taxes. Securities, income on which is taxexempt, sell in the market at lower yields to maturity than other
securities of the same maturity. A differential impact on yields arises also
because interest income is taxed at the ordinary tax rate while capital
gains are taxed at a lower rate. As a result, fixed-interest securities that
sell at a discount because of low coupon rate in relation to the prevailing
yields are attractive to taxable investors. The reason is that part of the
yield to maturity is a capital gain. Owing to the desirability of discount
on low-interest fixed-income securities, their yield to maturity tends to
be lower than the yield on comparable securities with higher coupon
rates. The greater the discount, the greater is the capital gains attraction
and the lower is its yield relative to what it would he if the coupon rate
were such that the security was sold at par.
Liquidity With reference to marketable securities portfolio, liquidity
refers to the ability to transform a security into cash. Should an
unforeseen event require that a significant amount of cash be
immediately available, a sizeable portion of the portfolio might have to
be sold. The financial manager will want the cash quickly and will not
want to accept a large price reduction in order to convert the securities.
Thus, in the formulation of preferences for the inclusion of particular
instruments in the portfolio, consideration will be given to (i) the time
period needed sell the security and (ii) the likelihood that the security can
be sold at or near its prevailing market price.
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Yield The final selection criterion is the yields that are available on the
different financial assets suitable for inclusion in the marketable/nearcash portfolio. All the four factors listed above, financial risk, interest
rate risk, liquidity and taxability; influence the available yields on
financial instruments. Therefore, the yield criterion involves a weighing
of the risks and benefits inherent in these factors. If a given risk is
assumed, such as lack of liquidity, then a higher yield may be expected
on the instrument lacking the liquidity characteristics. In brief, the
finance manager must focus on the risk-return trade-off associated with
the four factors on yield through his analysis. Coming to grips with these
trade-off will enable the finance manager to determine the proper
marketable securities mix for his firm.
Investment of Portfolio Management (PM)
Portfolio Management (PM)
The decision to invest excess cash in marketable securities involves not
only the amount to invest but also the type of security in which to invest.
To some extent, the two decisions are interdependent. Both should be
based on an evaluation of expected net cash flows and the uncertainty
associated with these cash flows. If future cash-flow patterns are known
with reasonable certainty and the yield curve is upward sloping in the
sense of longer-term securities yielding more than shorter- term ones, a
company may wish to arrange its portfolio so that securities will mature
approximately when the funds will be needed. Such a cash-flow pattern
gives the firm a great deal of flexibility in maximizing the average return
on the entire portfolio, for it is unlikely that significant amounts of
securities will have to be sold unexpectedly.
If the yield curve is downward sloping, the maturity matching strategy
out lined above may not be appropriate. The company may wish to invest
in securities having maturities shorter than the intended holding period,
then to reinvest at maturity. In this way, it can avail itself of the higher
initial yield on shorter-term securities, but it does not know what the
securities will yield on reinvestment at maturity. Another key factor is
the degree of certainty one has in the cash-flow projections. With a high
degree of certainty, the maturity of a marketable security becomes its
most important characteristic. If future cash flows are fairly uncertain,
the most important characteristics of a security become its marketability
and risk with respect to fluctuations in market value. Treasury bills and
short-term repos are perhaps best suited for the emergency liquidity
needs of a firm. Higher yields can be achieved by investing in longerterm, less marketable securities with greater risk.

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Page-391

Amount of
investment & types
of securities should
be based on an
evaluation of
expected net cash
flows and the
uncertainty
associated with
these cash flows.

School of Business

Review Questions:
A. Short questions:
1.
Define marketable securities. Examine their main features.
2.
Why do investors prefer marketable securities?
3.
What is portfolio management relating to marketable securities?
4.
How higher yields can be achieved from investment in marketable
securities? Examine.
5.
How does taxability affect selection of marketable securities?
6.
How does return/yield affect selection of marketable securities?
7.
Write short notes on:
(a) Treasury bills; (b) Commercial paper; (c) Bankers acceptance
and (d) Bills discounting.
8.
What is a repurchase agreement? Why do the firms with excess
cash prefer to the repurchase agreements?
9.
What are the motives for maintaining liquidity in the form of
marketable securities?
B. Broad questions
10 Discuss briefly the various types of marketable securities.
11. Describe the considerations that help the firms selecting a proper
marketable securities mix.

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Lesson10: Short term Financing

After careful reading of the lesson 10, you should be able

To realize the concepts and necessity of short term financing and

selection of its sources.

To know the mode and procedures involved in short-term

financing and.

To determine the costs involved in trade and bank credits.

Concepts and Necessity of Short term Financing

The need for short-term financing arises mainly because the investment
in working capital/current assets, that is, raw materials, work/stock-inprocess, finished goods and receivables typically fluctuates during the
year. Although long-term funds partly finance current assets and provide
the margin money for working capital, such assets/working capitals are
virtually exclusively supported by short-term sources. The necessity for
financing working capital also arises to maintain the liquidity and shortterm solvency of a firm. Lenders, suppliers and creditors expect prompt
payments of their dues. This requires the solvency of a firm on a
continuous basis. Again, the sources of financing working capital play a
vital role in maintaining liquidity and profitability of the firm. If
permanent working capital is financed by short-term loans, the business
will face lack of liquid assets when the loan falls due. It will cause
interruption in the normal business operation. On the other hand, if
temporary working capital is financed by long term finance, the amount
will remain idle after the need for such capital is over; this causes loss to
the firm to the extent of cost of capital. Therefore, it is also expected that
an organization is to select appropriate source for financing the working
capital.

It is also expected
that an organization
is to select
appropriate source
for financing the
working capital.

Major Sources of Short term Financing.

The main sources of short term financing are: (i) trade credit; (ii) bank
credit; (iii) accruals; (iv) commercial paper and (v) factoring. The
following sub-sections deal with each of the sources.
Trade Credit
Features
Trade credit refers to the credit extended by the supplier of goods and
services in the normal course of transaction/business/sale of the firm.
According to trade practices, cash is not paid immediately for purchases
but after an agreed period of time. Thus, deferral of payment (trade
credit) represents a source of finance for credit purchases. There is,
however, no formal/specific negotiation for trade credit. It is an informal
arrangement between the buyer and the seller. There are no legal
instruments/ acknowledgements of debt, which are granted on an open
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Page-393

Trade credit refers

to the credit
extended by the
supplier of goods
and services in the
normal course of
transaction/business
/sale of the firm.

School of Business

account basis. Such credit appears in the records of the buyer of goods as
sundry creditors/accounts payable.
There are two components of trade credit namely free and costly.
Free trade credit Credit received during the discount period.
Costly trade credit Credit taken in excess of free trade credit, whose
cost is equal to the discount lost.
Costs of Trade Credit
There is an implicit
cost of trade credit.
It depends on the
credit terms offered
by the supplier of
goods.

Trade credit does not involve any explicit interest charge. However, there
is an implicit cost of trade credit. It depends on the credit terms offered
by the supplier of goods. If the terms of the credit are, say, 45 days net,
the payable amount to the supplier of goods is the same whether paid on
the date of purchase or on the 45th day and, therefore, trade credit has no
cost, that is, it is cost-free. But if the credit terms are, say, 2/15, net 45,
that is, there is discount for prompt payment, the trade credit beyond the
discount period has a cost equals to : [( Discount/1 Discount) (360
days/Credit period - Discount period)]. Alternatively, the credit terms,
2/15, net 45, imply that the firm (buyer) is entitled to 2 percent discount
for payment made within 15 days when the entire payment is to be made
within 45 days.
To sum up, as the cost of trade credit is generally very high beyond the
discount period, firms should avail of the discount on prompt payment.
If, however, they are unable to avail of discount, the payment of trade
credit should be delayed till the last day of the credit (net) period and
beyond without impairing their credit-worthiness. But, a precondition for
obtaining trade credit particularly by a new company is cultivating good
relationship with suppliers of goods and obtaining their confidence by
honoring commitments.
The following equation can be used to calculate the approximate
percentage cost, on an annual basis, of not taking cash discounts that is,
the cost of forgoing discounts.
Approximate Cost of forgoing a Cash Discount (%) =
Discount Percent
360 days
x
100 Discount Percent Total days Net credit is a available Discount Period

Bank Credit

Bank credit is the primary institutional source of working capital finance

in Bangladesh. In fact, it represents the most important source for
financing of current assets. Working capital finance is provided by banks
in five ways: (i) cash credits/overdrafts, (ii) loans, (iii) purchase/ discount
bills, (iv) letter of credit and (v) working capital term loans.

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Cash Credits/Overdrafts : Under cash credit/overdraft form/

arrangement of bank finance, the bank specifies a predetermined
borrowing/credit limit. The borrower can draw/borrow up to the
stipulated credit/ overdraft limit. Within the specified limit, any numbers
of drawls/drawings are possible to the extent of his requirements
periodically. Similarly, repayments can be made whenever desired
during the period. The interest is determined on the basis of the running
balance/amount actually utilized by the borrower and not on the
sanctioned limit.
Loans : Under this arrangement, the entire amount of borrowing is
credited to the current account of the borrower or released in cash. The
borrower has to pay interest on the total amount. The loans are repayable
on demand or in periodic instilments. They can also be renewed from
time to time. As a form of financing, loans imply a financial discipline
on the part of the borrower.
Bills Purchased/Discounted This arrangement is of relatively recent
origin in Bangladesh. Under this arrangement, bank credit is being made
available through discounting of usance bills by banks. The amount
made available under this arrangement is covered by the cash credit and
overdraft limit. Before discounting the bill, the bank satisfies itself about
the credit-worthiness of the drawer and the genuineness of the bill. To
popularize the scheme, the discount rates are fixed at lower rates than
those of cash credit.
The modus operandi of bill finance as a source of working capital
financing is that a bill arises out of a trade sale-purchase transaction on
credit. The seller of goods draws the bill on the purchaser of goods,
payable on demand or after a usance period not exceeding 90 days. On
acceptance of the bill by the purchaser, the seller offers it to the bank for
discount/purchase. On discounting the bill, the bank releases the funds to
the seller. The bill is presented by the bank to the purchaser/acceptor of
the bill on due date for payment the bills can also be rediscounted with
the other banks. However, this form of financing is not very popular in
the country.

Under cash
credit/overdraft
form/ arrangement
of bank finance, the
bank specifies a
predetermined
borrowing/
credit limit.

Under this
arrangement, the
entire amount of
borrowing is
credited to the
current account of
the borrower or
released in cash.

The amount made

available under this
arrangement is
covered by the cash
credit and overdraft
limit.

Term Loans for Working Capital Under this arrangement, banks

advance loans for 3-7 years repayable in yearly or half-yearly
instilments.
Letter of Credit While the other forms of bank credit are direct forms of
financing in which banks provide funds as well as bear risk, letter of
credit is an indirect form of working capital financing and banks assume
only the risk, the credit being provided by the supplier himself.
The purchaser of goods on credit obtains a letter of credit from a bank.
The bank undertakes the responsibility to make payment to the supplier
in case the buyer fails to meet his obligations. Thus, the modus operandi
of letter of credit is that the supplier sells goods on credit/extends credit
(finance) to the purchaser and the bank gives a guarantee and bears risk
only in case of default by the purchase.
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The purchaser of
goods on credit
obtains a letter of
credit from a bank.

School of Business

Cost of Bank Credit

Prime Rate
A published rate of
interest charged by
banks to short-term
borrowers (usually
large, financially
secured
corporations) with
the best credit; rates
on short-term loans
generally are
pegged to the
prime rate.

A published rate of interest charged by banks to short-term borrowers

(usually large, financially secured corporations) with the best credit; rates
on short-term loans generally are pegged to the prime rate. The cost of
bank loans varies for different types of borrowers at any given point in
time and for all borrowers over time. Interest rates arc higher for riskier
borrowers and rates also are higher on smaller loans because of the fixed
costs involved in making and servicing loans. If a firm can qualify as a
prime credit because of its size and financial strength, it might be able
to borrow at the prime rate, which traditionally has been the lowest rate
banks charge. Rates on other loans generally are scaled up from the
prime rate.
Interest paid on a hank loan generally is calculated in one of three ways:
(1) simple interest (2) discount interest; and (3) addon interest. These
three approaches are explained in the following sections.
Computing the Annual Cost (Rate) of Bank Loans
Before we describe the specific feature of each of the three approaches to
computing the interest paid on hank loans, it will be useful to briefly
discus how the effective annual rate of return (percent cost) and the
annual percentage rate (APR) arc calculated.
For any types of short-term credit, we can compute the interest rate for
the period the funds are used with the following equation.

Interest rate per period (cost) = Dollar Taka cos t of borrowing

Amount of usable funds
We can compute the effective annual rate and the annual percentage rate
(APR) using the following formula :
Effective annual rate = EAR = (1 + Interest rate per period)m 1.0

Annual percentage rate = APR = (Interest rate per period) x m

Where m is the number of borrowing periods in one year (i.e., if the loan
is for one month, m = 12).
Simple Interest Loan
Both the amount borrowed and the interest charged on that amount are
paid at the maturity of the loan; there are no payments made before
maturity.
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Face value The amount of the loan or the amount borrowed; also called
the principal amount of the loan.
Discount Interest Loan: A loan in which the interest, which is
calculated on the amount borrowed, is paid at the beginning of the loan
period; interest is paid in advance.
Add-on Interest: Interest that is calculated and then added to the amount
borrowed to obtain the total dollar amount to be paid back in equal
installments.
Accruals
Accruals refer to continually recruiting short-term liabilities, liabilities
such as wages and taxes that increase spontaneously with operations.
Firms generally pay employees on a weekly, biweekly, or monthly basis,
so the balance sheet typically will show some accrued wages. Similarly,
the firms own estimated income taxes, the social, the social security and
income taxes withheld from employee payrolls, and the sales taxes
collected generally are paid on a weekly, monthly, or quarterly basis, so
that balance sheet typically will show some accrued taxes along with
accrued wages.
Accruals increase automatically or spontaneously, as a firms operations
expand. Further, this type of debt generally is considered free in the
sense that no explicit interest is paid on funds raised through accruals.
However, a firm ordinarily cannot control its accruals. The timing of
wage payments is set by economic forces and industry custom, while tax
payment dates are established by law. Thus, firms use all the accruals
they can, but they have little control over the levels of these accounts.
Commercial Paper :
Commercial paper (CP) is a short-term unsecured negotiable instrument,
consisting of usance promissory notes with a fixed maturity. It is issued
on a discount on face value basis but it can also be issued in interestbearing form. A CP when issued by a company directly to the investor is
called a direct paper. The companies announce current rates of CPs of
various maturities and investors can select those maturities which closely
approximate their holding period. When CPs are issued by security
dealers/dealers on behalf of their corporate customers, they are called
dealer paper. They buy at a price less than the commission and sell at the
highest possible level. The maturities of CPs can be tailored within the
range to specific investments.
As the CPs are issued at discount and redeemed at it face value, their
effective pre-tax cost/interest yield

360
Face value Net amount realised

Net amount realised

Maturity period

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Commercial paper
(CP) is a short-term
unsecured
negotiable
instrument,
consisting of usance
promissory notes
with a fixed
maturity.

School of Business

Where net amount realized = Face value discount issuing and paying
agent (IPA) charges, that is, stamp duty, rating charges, dealing bank fee
and fee for stand by facility.
Factoring
Factoring provides resources to finance receivables as well as facilitates
the collection of receivables. Although such services constitute a critical
segment of the financial services scenario in the developed countries; but
in our country factoring is quite new.
Definition Factoring can broadly be defined as an agreement in which
receivables arising out of sale of goods/services are sold by a firm
(client) to the factor (a financial intermediary) as a result of which the
title of the goods/services represented by the said receivables passes on
to the fact the factor.
Once a sale
transaction is
completed the factor
steps in to realize
the sales.

Mechanism Credit sales generate the factoring business in the ordinary

course of business dealings Realization of credit sales is the main
function of factoring services. Once a sale transaction is completed the
factor steps in to realize the sales. Thus, the factor works between the
seller and the buyer and sometimes with the seller s banks together.
Functions of a Factor
Depending on the type/form of factoring the main functions of a factor in
general terms can be classified into five categories;

The rights of the

lending bank
(hypothecate)
depend upon the
terms of the contract
between the
borrower and the
lender.

The term lien

refers to the right of
a party to retain
goods belonging to
another party until a
debt due to him is
paid.

Financing facility/trade debts;

Maintenance/administration of sales ledger;

Collection facility/of accounts receivable;

Assumption of credit risk/credit control and credit restriction and

Provision of advisory services

Modes of Security
Banks provide credit on the basis of the following modes of security :
Hypothecation : Under this mode of security, the banks provide credit to
borrowers against the security of movable property, usually inventory of
goods. The goods hypothecated, however, continue to be in the
possession of the owner of these goods (i.e., the borrower). The rights of
the lending bank (hypothecate) depend upon the terms of the contract
between the borrower and the lender.
Pledge : Pledge as a mode of security is different from hypothecation in
that in the former unlike in the latter, the goods which are offered as
security arc transferred to the physical possession of the lender. An
essential prerequisite of pledge, therefore, is that the goods are in the
custody of the bank.
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Lien : The term lien refers to the right of a party to retain goods
belonging to another party until a debt due to him is paid. Lien can be of
two types (i) particular lien and (ii) general lien Particular lien is a right
to retain goods until a claim pertaining to these goods is fully paid. On
the other general lien can be applied till all dues of the claimant are paid.
Banks usually enjoy general lien.
Mortgage : It is the transfer of a legal/equitable interest in specific
immovable property for securing the payment of debt. The person who
parts with the interest in the property is called mortgagor and the bank
in whose favor the transfer takes place is the mortgagee. The mortgage
interest in the property is terminated as soon as the debt is paid.
Mortgages are taken as an additional security for working capital credit
by banks.
Charge : Where immovable property of one person is, by the act of
parties or by the operation of law, made security for the payment of
money to another and the transaction does not amount to mortgage, the
latter person is said to have a charge on the property and all the
provisions of simple mortgage will apply to such a charge.
Secured Loan : It refers to a loan backed by collateral; for short-term
loans the collateral often is inventory, receivables, or both. So far we
have not addressed the question of whether loans should be secured or
not. Commercial paper is never secured, but all other types of loans can
be secured if this is deemed necessary or desirable. Given a choice, it
ordinarily is better to borrow on an unsecured basis because the
bookkeeping costs of secured loans often are high. However, weak firms
might find that they can borrow only if they put up some type of security
or that by using security they can borrow at a lower rate.
Uniform Commercial Code : It refers to a system of standards that
simplifies procedure for establishing loan security.
Accounts Receivable Financing : Pledging Receivables using accounts
receivable as collateral for a loan. Accounts receivable financing
involves either the pledging of receivables or the selling of receivables
(called factoring). The pledging of accounts receivable is characterized
by the fact that the lender not only has a claim against the receivables but
also has recourse to the borrower.
Recourse : Under this, the lender can seek payment from the borrowing
firm when receivables accounts used to secure a loan are uncollectible.

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It is the transfer of a
legal/
equitable interest in
specific immovable
property for
securing the
payment of debt.

School of Business

Problems and Solution

Problem - 1
Galliinger corporation projects an increase in sales from $ 1.5 million to
$2 million, but it needs an additional $300,000 of current assets to
support this expansion. The money can be obtained from the bank at an
interest rate of 13 percent, discount interest; no compensating balance is
required. Alternatively Gallinger can finance the expansion by no longer
taking discounts, thus increasing accounts payable. Galliger purchases
under terms of 2/10, net 30, but it can delay payment for an additional 35
days paying in 65 days and thus becoming 35 days past due- without a
penalty because of its suppliers current excess capacity problems.
a.

Based strictly on effective annual interest rate comparisons, how

should Gallinger finance its expansion.

b.

What additional qualitative factors should Gallinger consider

before reaching a decision ?

Solution
a. Commercial bank loan
Amount loaned
= (0.75) ($250.000)
Discount
=0.09/12) ($187.500)
Compensating balance
=(0.20) ($187.500)
Amount received
Interest expense
= (0.09) ($187, 500)
Credit department*
= ($4,000) (12)
Bad debts*
=0.02) ($250,000) (12)
Total annual costs

= $187,500
= (1,406)
= (37,500)
= $148,594
= $ 16,875
= $ 48,000
= $ 60,000
= $124,875.

*The costs of the credit department and bad debts are expenses that will
be incurred if a bank loan is used, but these costs will be avoided if the
firm accepts the factoring arrangement.
Factoring :
Amount loaned
Commission for period
Prepaid interest
Amount received
Annual commission
Annual interest
Total annual costs

= (0.85)( $250,000)
=(0.035)( $250,000)
=(0.09/12)( $203,750)
=($8,750)(12)
=(0.09)( $203,750)

=$212,500
=(8,750)
=(1,528)
=$202,222
=$105,000
=18,338
=123,338

b. The factoring costs are slightly lower than the cost of the bank loan,
and the factor is willing to advance significantly greater amount. On the
other hand, the elimination of the credit department could reduce the
firms options in the future.

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Problem 2
Gifts Galore Inc. borrowed $1.5 million from National City Bank (NCB).
The loan was made at a simple annual interest rate of nine percent a year
for three months. A 20 percent compensating balance requirement raised
the effective interest rate because the company does not maintain a
checking balance at NCB.
a.
The approximate interest rate (APR) on the loan was 11.25
percent. What was the true effective rate ?
b.
What would be the effective cost of the loan if the note required
discount interest ?
Solution
Total amount of loan = $ 15,00,000
Interest 9% on $ 15,00,000 = $ 1,35,000
Effective loan = Total loan Compensating balance
= $ 15,00,000 20% of $ 15,00,00
= $ 12,00,00
Total Interest

Hence, true effective interest rate =

x 100
Effective Loan

1,35,000

x 100
12,00,000

= 11.25%
Problem 3
Calculate the approximate cost of non-free trade credit under each of the
following terms :
(a) 1/15, net 20;
(b) 2/10, net 60
(c) 3/10, net 45
(d) 2/10, net 45
(e) 2/15, net 40
Solution
a) We know that approximate cost of foregoing cash discount (ie. Cost of
non free trade credit)

Discount %
360

100 Discount %) (Total days net payable - Discount period)

1
360

100 1) 20 - 15

= 7.27%
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b) Cost of non free trade credit

2
360

14 69%
100 2 (60 - 10)

c) Cost of non free trade credit

3
360
1080

3.18%
100 3 (45 - 10) 3395

d) Cost of non free trade credit

2
360
720

20.99%
100 2 (45 - 10) 3430

e) Cost of non free trade credit

2
360
720

29.39%
100 2 (40 - 15) 2450

Problem 4
a) If a firm buys under terms of 3/15, net 45, but actually pays on the 20th
day and still takes the discount, what is the approximate cost of its nonfree trade credit ?
(b) Does it receive more or less credit than it would if it paid within 15
days ?
Solution
a) Approximate cost of non free trade credit

Discount %
360

100 Discount % (Total days net payable - Discount period)

3
360
3 360

100 3 (45 - 20) 97 25

1080
44.54%
2425

b) Yes, it would receive more or less credit; because in this situation Approx cost of non free trade credit

3
360
1080

37.11%
100 3 (45 - 15) 2910

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Problem 5
Susan Visscher, owner of Visschers Hardware, is negotiating with First
Merchants Bank for a $50,000, one-year loan, first Merchants has
offered Visscher the following alternatives. Calculate the effective
interest rate for each alternative. Which alternative has the lowest
effective interest rate?
(A) A 12 percent annual rate on a simple interest loan with no
compensating balance required and interest due at the end of the
year.
(B) A nine percent annual rate on a simple interest loan with a 20
percent compensating balance required and interest against due at
the end of the year.
(C) An 8.75 percent annual rate on a discounted loan with a 15 percent
compensating balance.
Solution

A Effective Interest Rate =

Interest on total loan

50,000 .12
100
100
Total loan
50,000

6000
100 12%
50,000

B Effective Interest Rate

Interest on total loan

100
Total loan - compensating balance

50,000 .09
4500
100
100 11.25%
50,000 - 20% of 50,000
40000

C Effective Interest Rate

Interest on total loan

100
(Total loan - (Interest on Total loan compensating balance

50,000 .0875
4375
100
100 11.48%
(50,000- (4375 50,000 .15)
38,125

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Review Questions
A. Short Questions
1.
Why shot term financing is necessary ? Explain.
2.
Why do the financial managers aware of the selection of sources of
finance ?
3.
What is a trade credit ? What are its main features ?
4.
Examine the components of trade credit.
5.
What is the cost of trade credit ? How it is determined ?
6.
What is bank credit ? Distinguish between bank credit and trade
credit.
7.
How accounts play the role of short-term financing ? Examine.
8.
What is the cost of bank credit ? How it is measured ?
9.
Examine the role of commercial paper as the source of short term
financing.
10. 10. What is a factoring ? What are the main functions of a factor ?
11. What is receivable financing ?
12. What is inventory financing ?
B. Broad Questions
13. Briefly discuss the major sources of short-term financing.
14. Discuss the modes of procedures of using security in short term
financing.
15. What are the merits of demerits of short term financing? Explain.

Review Problems
Problem - 1
Gallinger Corporation projects an increase in sales from $1.5 million to
$2 million, but it needs an additional $300,00 of current assets to support
this expansion. The money can be obtained from the bank at an interest
rate of 13 percent, discount interest; no compensating balance is
required. Alternatively, Gallinger can finance the expansion by no longer
taking discounts, thus increasing accounts payable Gallinger purchases
under terms of 2/10, net 30, but it can delay payment for an additional 35
days- paying in 65 days and thus becoming 35 days past due- without a
penalty because of its suppliers current excess capacity problems.
a.
Based strictly on effective annual interest rate comparisons, how
should Gallinger finance its expansion ?
b.
What additional qualitative factors should Gallinger consider
before reaching a decision ?
Problem 2
The UFSU Corporation intends to borrow $450,000 to support its shortterm financing requirements during the next year. The company is
evaluating its financing options at the bank where it maintains its
checking account. UFSUs checking account balance, which averages
$50,000 can be used to help satisfy any compensating balance
requirements the bank might impose. The financing alternatives offered
by the bank include the following:
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Alternative- 1:

A discount interest loan with a simple interest of 9

percent and no compensating balance requirement.

Alternative- 2:

A ten percent simple interest loan that has a 15 percent

compensating balance requirement.

Alternative- 3:

A $1 million revolving line of credit with simple

interest of 9 percent paid on the amount borrowed
and a percent commitment fee on the unused
balance. No compensating balance is required.

a.

Compute the effective cost (rate) of each financing alternative

assuming UFSU borrows $450,000. Which alternative should
UFSU use?

b.

For each alternative, how much would UFSU have to borrow in

order to have $45,000 available for use (to pay the firms bills) ?

Problem 3
Cooley Industries needs an additional $500,000, which it plans to obtain
through a factoring arrangement. The factor would purchase Cooleys
accounts receivable and advance the invoice amount, minus a two
percent commission on the invoices purchased each month. Cooley sells
on terms of net 30 days. In additional, the factor charges a 12 percent
annual interest rate on the total invoice amount, to be deducted in
advance.
a.
What amount of accounts receivable must be factored to net
$50,000 ?
b.
If Cooley can reduce credit expenses by $3,500 per month and
avoid bad debt losses of 2.5 percent on the factored amount, what
is the total dollar cost of the factoring arrangement ?
c.
What would be the total cost of the factoring arrangement if
Cooleys funding needs rose to $750,000 ? Would the factoring
arrangement be profitable under these circumstances ?
Problem 4
Boles Corporation needs to raise &500,00 for one year to supply capital
to a new store. Boles buys from its suppliers on terms of 3/10, net 90,
and it currently pays on the 10th day and takes discounts, but it could
forgo discounts, pay Alternatively, Boles could borrow from its bank on
a 12 percent discount interest rate basis. What is the effective annual
interest rate of the lower cost sources?

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Problem 5
Bankston Feed and Supply company buys on terms of 1/10, net 30, but it
has not been taking discounts and has actually been paying in 60 rather
than 30 days. Bankstons balance sheet follows (thousands of dollars):
Cash

$50 Accounts payable

$ 500

Accounts
receivable

450 Notes payable

50

750 Accruals

50

Inventories
Current assets

$1,250 Current liabilities

Long term debt

$ 600
150

Fixed assets

750 Common equity

1,250

Total assets

$2,000 Total liabilities and

equity

$2,000

*Stated net of discounts.

Now Bankstons suppliers are threatening to stop shipments unless the
company begins making prompt payments (that is, paying in 30 days or
less). The firm can borrow on a one-year note (cell this a current
liability) from its bank at a rate of 15 percent, discount interest, with a 20
percent compensating balance required. (Bankstons $50,000 of cash is
needed for transactions; it cannot be used as part of the compensating
balance).
a.

Determine what action Bankston should take by calculating (1) the

cost of non free trade credit and (2) the cost of the bank loan.

b.

Assume that Bankston forgoes discounts and then borrows the

amount needed to become current on its payables from the bank.
How large will the bank loan be?

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