Principles

p
of Ge
eophysics
p y
((250G))
(Electric Prospecting Methods)
Comp
piled by
Prof. Dr. Abudeif A. Bakheit
Email : abakheeit
eit57
[email protected]
@yahoo.com

Geoph
hysics
Geophysical
Geophysical prospecting meth
hods can be classified as:
-Natural methods, as gravity and magnetic methods
-Artificial methods, as seismicc and some electric methods
It can also be classified as:
-Deep geophysical methods as gravity, magnetic, and
seismic
i i reflection
fl ti methods.
th d
-Shallow g
geophysical
p y
methods as electric,, seismic refraction
and GPR methods.

Electrical Prospecting
P
Electrical prospecting method
ds include two types:
-Natural
N t
l methods
th d as SP and
d tteelluric
ll i currents
t methods
th d
-Artificial methods as the resisstivety,
y, IP and EM methods.
Importance of Electrical Methods
M
Most of electric methods arre effective only in shallow
exploration and they can be ussed in the following aspects:
Searching for metals and miinerals
inerals.
The prospecting for under ground
g
water.
Engineering geology to determine the depth of bedrock.
Geothermal
G th
l exploration.
l ti

Electrical prope
erties of rocks
Electrical p
prospecting
p
g mak
ke use of three important
p
properties of rocks:
1-The resistivity which governs the amount of current
that path through a rock when specified
potential
difference is applied.
22-The
Th electrochemical
l t h i l activit
ti itty
t with
ith respectt to
t electrolytes
l t l t
in the ground is the base for the self potential and induced
polarization methods.
33-The
The dielectric constant givees information on the capacity
of a rock material to store electric charge as in inductive
prospecting
ti methods.
th d

Resisttivity
y
The
The electric resistivity () of any material is defined
as the resistance (R) of a cy
ylinder with cross section of
unit
nit area (S) and with
ith unit
nit length
l
(L)
(L).
= R S / L -----------(1)
The unites of resistivity
y in the metric system
y
is the
Ohm. cm. The current (I) iss related to the impressed
voltage (V) and the resistan
nce (R) by Ohm's
Ohm s low
R = V / I --------------(2)
From equations 1 and 2,
= S / L . V / I ---------(3)

Resistivity ranges
The
Th resistivity
i i i ranges for
f rocks
k and
d minerals
i
l (Fig.1)
(Fi 1)
extend from 10-5 to 10 15 .m.

as follow :
-Good conductors
10 5 to 10 1.
-Intermediate conductors
1 to 10 7.
-Poor conductors
10 8 to 10 15.
In
In porous sedimentary rocks the resistivity is
governed more by the ellectrolyte concentration of
th liquid
the
li id filling
filli
th po
the
ores interstices
i t ti
within
ithi the
th
formation.

Fig.(1):
g ( ) Approximate
pp
e ranges
g for the
electric resistivity of rocks
r
and soils.

Electrochem
mical activity
The electrochemical actiivity of rocks depend on:
-The chemical compositioon of rocks
-The chemical compositiion and concentration of
the electrolytes with whicch these rocks in contact
This activity governs th
he magnitude and sign of
the voltage developed wh
hen the rock material is in
equilibrium
q
with the elecctrolyte.
y

Dielectric
c constant
The dielectric constant is a measure
polarizability of a material in
i an electric field.

of

the

The
Th polarization
l i ti
,or elect
l trical
t i l momentt (P) per unit
it
volume is proportional to the
t impressed electrical field
(E) and the proportionallity constant is ( ) ,the
electrical susceptibility.
p
y
P = E
The total electrical flux peer unit area (corresponds to
magnetic flux density) is:
E + 4P = E + 4E = E ( 1 + 4 )

The
Th quantity
tit (1+4)
(1+4 ) is
i desi
d iignated
t d as
, the
th dielectric
di l t i
to magnetic
constant ,,which is analogous
g
g
permeability.
p
y
The
Th dielectric
di l
i constant determines
d
i
the
h
effective
ff i
capacitance of a rock materrial and its response to any
applied electric field ,either direct
d
or alternating.
The dielectric constant is qu
uite sensitive to temperature,
temperature
the value of increases as the
t rock become hotter.

The dielectric constant ranges

r g are as follows:
For most hard rocks

about 6 to 16 eus

For wet soils it is greateer up to 40 or 50 eus

For the vacuum

it is unityy

N t : eus (electrostatic
Note
( l t t tic unit)
it)

Self- Potential Method

M
( SP)
The SP method is based upo
on measuring the natural
potential difference existing between any two points on
the ground.
g
They are developed in the earth by electro-chemical
action
ti
b t
between
minerals
i
l an
nd
d the
th solutions
l ti
with
ith which
hi h
they are in contact.
SP normally range from frriction of mv to few tens of
mv`ss ,but
mv
but sometimes they attain higher values in the
order of few hundreds of mv
v`s.
The large anomalous potentials are observed over
sulfides and graphite ore bodies,
b
bodies
coal and manganese

deposits, magnetite, quartz and

a pegmatite veins

Origin of Se
elf Potential
The SP observed on the groun
nd can be broadly divided
into two classes:
1-the small background potentials:
p
It range between friction of mv
m to few tens of mv`s. It seem
to originate as follows:
- Concentration differences
- Adsorption.
Ad
i
- Electro filtration.

2-The mineralization pote

entials :
They are often called sulfid
des potential since they are
strongest on ores like pyritte and chalcopyrite (Fig.2).
Their value reaches several hu
undreds of millivolts.

Fig.(2):Typical
g ( ) yp
SP p
profile and
d
contours over sulphide body
y.

Most
M theories
h i have
h
attrributed
ib d mineral
i
l SP to the
h
Oxidation of parts of a mineral deposit above
the water table and redu
uction under it (Fig.3).
Oxidizingg sulphide
p
z
zone
looks like as a
galvanic cell with chargees circulating (Fig.4)

Fig. (3): Physicochemical model

f self
for
lf potential
t ti l process in
i
a massive sulfide ore body.

Fig.( 4 ): Oxidizing sulfide

zone as a galvanic cell.

Measurement of
o self potential
The apparatus
pp
required
q
d for SP measurements
is essentially simple and comprises:
1-Electrodes: Non polariizing electrodes must be
used It consisted of a porous clay pot filled with
used.
a saturated solution of cu
upper sulphate (Fig.5).
2- Cable: It should havee good insulation cover
and
d be
b light
li ht in
i weight.
i ht
3-Voltmeter:
3
Voltmeter: A sensitivee mill voltmeter is used
for measuring SP.

Fig.( 5 ): Non polarizing electrode

Field Pro
ocedure
Two
Two procedures are in use fo
or SP surveys:
In
I the
th first;
fi t
- The electrodes, say 20m apart, are advanced together
along staked lines. The gradiient of the potential in mv/m
is calculated every
y time.
In the second;
- One electrode connected to one end of a long cable on a
reell is
i kept
k
at a base
b
point,
i while
whil the
h other
h electrode,
l
d the
h
reel, and the voltmeter are carried
c
to different points of
measurements

Interpretation of
o SP anomalies
Self Potential surveys are reesponsible for the discovery
of numerous sulfides ore bod
dies at shallow depths.
For the quantitative interprretation of SP anomalies it is
necessary to
t assume a suitab
it ble
bl
b model
d l off a polarized
l i d body
b d
and calculate its parameters.
p
.
Two examples of SP survey
ys for sulfides were described.
described
The first in Sariyer area in
n Turkey, and the second in
Kimheden area in Sweden. The
T SP interpretation results
are shown in figures (6&7)

Fig.(6): SP Profile and geologic

section, Sariyer, Turkey

Fig.(7):SP profile and map of pyrite

ore body. Kimheden, Sweeden.

Electrical resisttivity Method

The electrical resistivity meethod can be used to obtain,

quickly details about the loccation,
quickly,
cation depth and resistivity
of subsurface formations.
The usual practice is to paass current into the ground
by means of two electro
odes and to measure the
potential difference betweeen a second pair placed in
li between
line
b t
th
them
(
(see
Fi 8&9)
Fig.
8&9).

Fig.(8):
g ( ) Equipotential
q p
and current
lines on surface of ground.
A) plan view B) vertical section

Fig.(9): Arrangement of current

electrodes (A,B) and potential
electrodes (C,D).

From the value of thee p

potential difference,, the
current applied and also the electrode separation, a
quantity termed the ap
pparent resistivity can be
calculated .
In general the depth of penetration
p
of the electrical
current in the ground increases with increased
distance between the curreent electrodes.

Principles of Resistivity Method

The electrical resistivity ( ) of any material as
previously mentioned is giveen by the equation:
=S/L.R=S/L.V/I
Iff (I)
( ) is
i the current passin
ing through a point
i electrode
on a flat earth of resistivity (),
( the electric potential at a
point (P) ,distance (d) from the
t electrode, is:
V = I / 2 d -------------(1)

In practice one dose not measure the absolute

potential in the ground
gro nd but
b t always
al a s the potential
difference between two elecctrodes.
The
Th simplest
i l
method
h d off conducting
d i
a resistivity
i i i
survey is to arrange the fo
our electrodes in a straight
line. Consider the situation in Fig. (10) .

The distances between diff

fferent electrodes are shown
and from equation (1) it can be
b seen that:
Vp
p1 = I / 2 ( 1/d1-1/d2)------------(2)
Vp2 = I / 2 ( 1/D1-1/D
1/D2))-----------(3)
(3)
C1
P1
P2
C2
l_________ l ___________l _________l
l_____ d1___ l__________d2 _________l
l________D1___________l_____D2 ____l
Fig ( 10 ): General eleectrode arrangement.
Fig.(
arrangement

Therefore from 1,2

, the p
potential difference between
points P1 and P2 is :
VP1VP2= V=I / 2 (1/d1-1/d
- 2-1/D1+1/D2)
Hence = 2 V/I.(1/(1/d1-1/d
- 2-1/D1+1/D2)
Or

= 2 K V/I = 2 K R-----------(4)

The value of (k) is callculated from the distances

between the electrodes and
a
for certain electrode
configuration.
Some instruments read the ratio V/I directly, which
denoted R ,and
and measured in Ohms.
Ohms

Electrode Arra
angements

A great number of electtrode arrangements

have been introduced in
n electrical prospecting
prospecting.
The most commonly useed arrangements are:
11-Wenner
Wenner array
2-Schlumberger
g arrayy
3-Three point array
4 Dipole Dipole array
4-Dipole-Dipole
5-Lee Arrayy

1-Wenner
1
Wenner array:
The electrodes in this arra
ay are arranged so that the
spacing between each adjaceent electrode is equal. If the
separation
p
is ((a)) then the factor
f
((k)) for this array
y is
simply equal to (a).(See Fiig. 11 ).
In this array ,

a = 2 a . V/I

C1
P1
P2
C2
l
l___
a______l____
l
a__
___l____
l
a_____ll
Fig ( 11 ):W
Fig.(
Wenner array

2-Schlumberger
g array
y
In
In this array the distancee (2L) between the current
electrodes is large comparred with the distance (2l)
b t
between
th potential
the
t ti l electr
l trodes.
d If L 10 l then
th
a
can be approximated by:
a = /2l . L2 . V
V/I
____2l____
C1
P1
P2
C2
___l___________l____0____l____________l
______________2L
2 _________________
Fig.( 12): Schlu
umberger array

3-Three point array:

It
It has one of the current elecctrodes fixed at large distance
from the remaining three (Fig
g.13).
Hence
H
(C1) is
i regarded
d d as being
i at infinity
i fi i and
d the
h other
h
three electrodes have uniform
m spacing
p
g ((a).
)
This array is often used forr resistivity measurements in
pore holes.
holes The apparent resisstivity
sti it is then given
gi en by:
b :
a = 4 a . V/I
C1
C2
P1
P2
_l______________________
_l__a__l__a__l__
Fig.( 13 ):Threee point array

4-Dipole-Dipole array:
It
I has
h
the
h potential
i l elect
l trodes
d
outside
id the
h current
electrodes,, each p
pair having
g the same separation
p
a.
The distance between the ceenters of the two p
pairs is r
(Fig. 14). The apparent resisttivity is given by:
a = (r2/a - r)
r . V/I
This equation is for the collin
near dipole-dipole
dipole dipole array.
array
C1
C2
P1
P2
__l___ a __l______________________l___ a __l__
_____________r_______________

Fig.( 14): Dipo

ole-dipole array

5 Lee Array:
5-Lee
It utilize five electrodes as shown
s
in the Fig.(15).
The potential difference beetween the central electrode
Po
Po and each of the outeer two potential electrodes
P1 and P2 is taken.
The
Th two values
l
off apparentt resistivity
i i i are:
a1 = 4 a . V1/I
a2 = 4 a . V2/I
C1
P1
Po
P2
C2
__l_____a_____l__a/2 _l__
_ a/2 _l______a____l_
Fig ( 15 ): Lee
Fig.(
L array

Field Proc
cedure
Certain problems are besst solved by a particular
method wither it be waterr exploration,
method,
exploration depth to bed
rock determination , reconna
aissance surveys.etc.
The followings
g are the fielld p
procedures for electrical
resistivity surveys:
-Electrical Resistivity Sound
ding (Drilling)
-Electrical Resistivity Profiliing and Mapping

Electrical resistivity sounding (drilling):

This method gives detailed
d information on the vertical
succession of the various conducting
c
zones and their
individual thicknesses and trrue resistivities.
The technique is based upo
on the fact that the fraction
of electric current pass in
nto the ground,
ground penetrating
below, increases with an increased
i
separation of the
currentt electrodes.
l t d

Using
Using the Wenner array of ellectrodes the separation a
a is
increased by moving each off the electrodes out such that
the center point of the system remains constant.
constant
Using Schlumberger array of electrodes the potential
electrodes are kept
p fixed at the
t center of the line C1 C2
while the current electrodees are moved symmetrically
outwards At any stage , the potential
outwards.
p
difference becomes to
small, then the potential elecctrodes separation should be
i
increased
d and
d measurements
t continued.
c ti
d
Since only two electrodes arre moved, the field procedure
with the Schlumberger arra
ay is quicker than that with
Wenner.

Electrical Profiling
g and Mapping:
M pp g
This method is used to determine
d
the variations in
apparent resistivity in a horizontal direction.
In it the complete electro
ode configuration is moved
along the direction of the prrofile with a distance equal to
the station interval (easier to
o achieve by Wenner array).

The electrode spacing mustt be carefully chosen because

it is
i the
th factor
f t
which
hi h determines
d t
i
th depth
the
d th off
penetration. In order to fin
p
ned the best spacing
p
g between
the electrodes it is advisable to carry out an electrical
resistivity sounding in the arrea.
The resulting values of ()) are plotted as iso-resistivity
profiles or contour maps and
a
interpreted qualitatively.
The used instrument is show
wn in figure(16).
figure(16)

Fi (16) I t
Fig.(16):Instrument
t used
d iin SP and
d resistivity
i ti it surveys.

Presentation of resisttivity surveys data

In the case of electrical resistivity sounding surveys

the measured apparent
pp
resiistivities are usually
yp
plotted
on the ordinate against th
he electrode separation or
some function
f
ti off this
thi on the
the abscissa.
b i
Bilogarithmic papers with
h cycle base 6.25 cm usually
used. See Fig.(1)

Fig.(17):Bi-logarithmic
Fig
(17):Bi-logarithmic paper used for
the plotting of VES data (base 6.25 cm).

In the case of electrical resisstivity profiling and mapping,

th data
the
d t is
i represented
t d as a profile
fil off resistivity
i ti it variation
i ti
along the traverse or as a contoured iso resistivity map
(see Figs. 18 &19 )

Fig.( 18 ): Electrical Resistivity

R
Profiling.

Fig.( 19 ):Iso resistivity

y contour map

Quantitative interpretation of VES curves:(Tagg

curves:(Tagg`s
s method)

It is applicable to two layer currves measured with Wenner array

only using master curves.
The master curves give the rela
ation between ratio a/1and the
ratio h/a for different valuess of the parameter k which is a
function of 1 and 2 .
- In applying Tagg
Tagg`ss method we foollow the following steps:
1. Assume that the value of a for a value nearly zero is 1 and
divide all a readings by 1.
2 If 1/a <1,
2.
<1 then the upper fam
mily of curves is used,
used if 1/a >1,
>1
then the lower family of curves is
i used (fig. 20).

-The a / 1 ratio for eacch

vvalue
ue oof a iss then
e d
drawn
w ass a
horizontal line across th
he
appropriate
i
set off master curvees.
-At
At each
h intersection
i t
ti
with
ith a
curve corresponding to different
k values, the h/a value is
converted to h simply by
b
multiplication with a.

Fig.(20): Tagg`s curves

- The k values are then plootted vs. h , all the points

f a given
for
i
being
a
b i connectted
t d by
b a line.
li

-The
Th lines
li
f various
for
i
elec
l ctrode
t d separations
ti
should
h ld
intersect at a point.
p
-The value of h at the point of intersection is the
depth to the interface and
d the value of k gives
2 (the resistivity of the deeper
d
layer) since,
1 is
1
i known
k
and
d k = (1
( 1-2)
1 2) / ( 1+2)
1 2)

Telluric Curren
nts Method
Telluric currents method is a technique which employ
certain large scale generally lo
ow-frequency
ow
frequency terrestrial
current system.
It is a natural source electriccal method.
Source of telluric currentts
The
Th source off these
th
currents
t is
i located
l t d outside
t id the
th earth.
th
These activities have a directt influence on currents in the
ionosphere; it is thought th
hat the telluric currents are
induced in the earth by ionosp
pheric currents.

Characteristics of telluric
c currents
The current intensity is larg
ger on the daylight side of the
earth.
The frequencies are genera
ally higher and more erratic
during the day than at night.
night.
Periodic and transient fluctuations can be correlated
he magnetic
g
field of the earth
with diurnal variations in th
caused by solar emission, aurrora, etc.

Telluric field intensities vary

y with electrical disturbances
in the ionosphere. As a result, the telluric record consists of
erratic variations in potential as illustrated in Fig.
Fig (21).
(21)

Fig.(21): N-S and E-W telluric cu

urrent records at two stations.

Field operation and interrpretation:

In the field measurement of telluric currents we measure
the potential gradients betweeen electrodes planted on
ground surface
surface.
As in self
self-potential
potential , non
non-p
polarizing electrodes must be
As
used to reduce erratic poten
ntials at the soil contact. The
electrodes
l t d are connected
t d to
t an amplifier
lifi to
t drive
d i a strip
t i
chart or magnetic
g
tape
p record
der.
Because of large variations of
o signal amplitude with time,
two electrode spreads are neecessary, one as base station
monitor ,the other for the mooving station.

 Since the signal vary in direcction with time,

time the base and
field stations normally have tw
wo pairs of electrodes for each,
laid out perpendicular to each other,
o
say N-S and E-W.
Thus
Th continuous
i
records
d off tw
wo horizontal
h i
l components are
obtained at each station.
With this arrangement one can compare the horizontal
components of electric field variations between the field and
base stations; with regard to frequency, phase and amplitude.
Any non-uniform geologic structure which distort the current
flow at one station will produce an anomaly in this field.

Electromagne
etic Method
The electromagnetic (EM) method
m
is widely used in
mineral exploration .
It is based on the inductio
on of electric currents in a
buried conductors as certtain ore bodies , by
y the
magnetic components of electro-magnetic waves
generated at the earth
earth'ss surfface or in aircraft above the
surface.
The waves originate from
m alternating currents at
diff
different
t frequencies
f
i are passed
d through
th
h loops
l
off wire
i
on the ground or in the air. Current is introduced into
the earth by grounded length
hs of wire.

The
Th oscillating
ill ti
magnetic
ti fields
fi ld thus
th
generated
t d are
propagated as waves into the earth with rate that
depends on the frequency and
a the electrical properties
of the rock material through
h which they travel (Fig. 22).
The higher the frequencyy,
y the greater the rate of
attenuation.
When the waves p
pass throu
ugh
g a conducting
g body,
y they
y
induce alternating electric currents in the conductive
materials. These currents become
b
the source of new
electromagnetic waves wh
hich can be detected by
suitable
it bl pickup
i k coils.
il

Fig.(22): Detection of conductin

ng ore body by EM induction.

The
The depth of penetration off electromagnetic waves h
h
is related to the frequency f
and the resistivity of the
overlying material ( )by thee relation:
h f
/ =10
Where: h is in meters,,
f in hertz and

in ohm.cm.
ohm cm
Presently
P
tl available
il bl techniq
t h iques off measuring
i
electrol t
magnetic waves at very
y low frequencies allow
penetrations as deep as many
y kilometers.

Depth sounding and horizo

ontal profiling:
Most
M t inductive
i d ti methods
th d were d
designated
i
t d tto llocate
t the
th
horizontal position of buried coonductors.
Other techniques were develop
ped for estimating their depth
usingg the followingg techniques:
q
-Depth sounding -Horizontaal profiling
Depth sounding:
In the electromagnetic depth sou
unding, one can either:
1. Vary the spacing between the transmitting loop and
receiving coil. or,
2 Vary
2.
V
th frequency
the
f
while
hil maaintaining
i t i i fixed
fi d positions
iti
off the
th
transmitter and receiver.
Varying the frequency is geneerally preferred.

Horizontal profiling:
Most electromagnetic surveeys are carried out with the
objective
bj i off locating
l
i
the
h ho
horizontal
i
l positions
ii
off buried
b i d
conducting
g bodies.
Both fixed and moving sourcees are used in surveys;
The fixed source method;

It is generally designed in a way that the transmitter is

kept at a single location and
d the receiving loop is moved
over the
h area being
b i explored
l d.
The moving-source
moving source method
d;

It involves shifting both sou

urce and receiver, usually in a
way that maintains a fixed seeparation between the two.

The moving source method

d requires smaller and more
portable generators and so
ource loops than the fixed
source technique.
q
The greatest source of diffficulty in the interpretation
of horizontal profiling data
a is the effect of conductive
material
i l in
i the
h rock
k adjacen
dj nt to prospective
i ore bodies
b di
and in the overburden abovee them.

Airborne Electromagnetiic prospecting:

The advantage
ad antage of airbornee surveys
s r e s in speed of coverage
co erage
and consequent economy iss obvious.
Some technical problemss make it more difficult to
obtain useful electromagn
netic data from the air than
from the earth's surface.
Among these problems are::

1.The limited separation between

b
source and receiver
compared with that possible on the ground.
2.The exceptional sensitivity
y required in the measuring
system
t
t pick
to
i k up the
th weak
k signals.
i
l
3.The higher
g
noise level in
ntroduced by
y motion of the
receiving loop in the earth''s magnetic field.

After the data obtaiined in electromagnetic

prospecting are reduced,
reduced they are presented in the
form of cross sections.
In the sections the am
mplitudes of the signals
recorded by the receiving
g element are represented
versus the horizontal position.
Figs. (23&24) show two case studies in which
Figs
electromagnetic surveys were
w
used to detect some
mineralization .

Fig.(23): Electromagnetic profiles

over New
N B
Brunswick
i k sulphide
l hid
body and adjacent iron formation

Fig.(24): Electromagnetic and

magnetic profiles obtained over
the Pipe nickel mine, Manitoba

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