LECTURE NOTES

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course 2014 (BNOC-2014)

Date : 21 September, 2014 Venue : Training Institute, AERE, Savar

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

(Fundamentals of Isotope Hydrology and its
Application)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Nasir Ahmed
CE and Head, Isotope Hydrology Division
Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (INST)
Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE)
Ganakbari, Savar, Dhaka

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

(Fundamentals of Isotope Hydrology and its Application)
Nasir Ahmed
CE and Head, Isotope Hydrology Division (IHD)
Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (INST)
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC)

1. Introduction to Isotope Hydrology

"Isotope Hydrology" is a relatively young scientific discipline (or rather an interdisciplinary
field), that evolved since around the 1950s, when it was first realised the methods of nuclear
physics for the detection of isotopes could have useful applications in hydrology. The
classical tools of isotope hydrology are the isotopes of the constituents of the water molecule
(H2O) itself, namely the rare stable isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen (2H, 18O) and the
radioactive tritium (3H). These were soon complemented by radiocarbon (14C), which
enabled water dating via. the decay of 14C in the carbon dissolved in the water.
Later on, many more methods were added to the toolbox of the isotope hydrologists, some
of which are not really isotope methods at all. For example, dissolved gases such as noble
gases and certain anthropogenic trace gases are very useful markers to "trace" the fate of
water in some parts of the hydrological cycle. Such substances are thus called tracers, or
more precisely "environmental tracers" to distinguish from substances that are added
purposefully to the water (e.g. dyes). From a modern point of view, isotope hydrology may
therefore be defined as the application of environmental isotopes and tracers to study
(parts of) the hydrological cycle.
Isotope hydrology is a truly interdisciplinary science. It emerged from the application of
methods developed in physics (analytical techniques) to problems of Earth and
environmental sciences. This combination proved very successful not only in hydrology but
also other branches of Earth sciences, leading to the related fields of isotope geology and
isotope geochemistry. Hydrology, the science of water, on the other hand, is in itself a very
diverse and segmented field. Some parts are covered by engineers (hydraulics, water supply,
waste water and groundwater), others by geologists (groundwater: hydrogeology), and still
other special disciplines such as oceanography (water in the oceans), meteorology (water in
the atmosphere), and limnology (water in lakes and rivers). Isotope methods have become
important in physical oceanography and limnology, but the term isotope hydrology is most
often used in relation to the study of groundwaters.
Problems studied in isotope hydrology may be classified in two large clusters:
Determination of the origin of water masses and the conditions during formation
- Identification and separation of water components
- Determination of groundwater recharge areas, flow paths, mixing
- Determination of the origin of contaminants
- Reconstruction of recharge temperatures for palaeoclimate studies
Determination of the residence time of water in the system ("water age")
- Calculation of flow velocities, assessing mixing and dispersion
- Determination of water fluxes, recharge rates, and exchange rates
- Study of transport and degradation of contaminants

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 2 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Environmental tracers
A tracer is a substance, which is present only in trace concentrations and marks a trace in a
natural system (marker). In hydrology, it ideally marks the water itself or dissolved
substances therein, and moves passively with the water or the solutes.
Isotopes are often nearly ideal tracers, e.g.:
- isotopes of H and O mark the water molecule
- isotopes of C, N, S etc. mark dissolved substances
- Conservative solutes (e.g. noble gases) are good tracers
Environmental tracers are isotopes or other tracers that are widely distributed in the
environment, especially the hydrosphere. They can be both of natural or anthropogenic
origin. They can be further classified into

a) Transient tracers: Anthropogenic substances with an input to the environment

(hydrosphere) that varies with time. Typical examples are tritium, CFCs, SF6, and
Kr.
b) Geochemical tracers: Tracers of natural origin with a (more or less) constant input,
e.g. stable isotopes, 14C, noble gases.
85

The term "environmental tracers" is mainly used to distinguish them from "artificial tracers",
both of which are often simply called tracers but are used in quite different settings and by
largely different researchers. Artificial tracers are released deliberately into the investigated
system, in local tracer experiments (e.g., dyes, chemicals, also isotopes, SF6 and so on).
The essential difference is that environmental tracers can be applied for studies on
large spatial and temporal scales, whereas artificial are suitable for targeted studies
of small scale processes.

2. Introduction to isotopes
Nuclei of atoms consist of protons and neutrons (= nucleons)
Z = number of protons (atomic number)
N = number of neutrons
A = Z + N = number of nucleons (mass number)
Z determines to which element a nucleus belongs and is equal to the number of electrons in
a neutral atom. The number of electrons determines the chemical properties of the elements.
As a general term for the type of nucleus determined by Z and N we use the word nuclide.
Isotopes are nuclides of the same element (same Z), with a different number of neutrons
(thus varying N and A). The term is derived from the Greek iso topos = same place (in the
periodic system).
There are two forms of notation for isotopes:
Full notation:
Short notation:

A
Z

N , e.g.

14
6

14

, e.g.

C8

The full notation is rarely used, because the short notation contains all information, if one
knows the number of protons (Z) of the elements.
The Chart of the Nuclides
The chart of the nuclide chart provides an overview of the existing isotopes and is an
important source of basic information for isotope sciences. The isotopes are mapped in plot
of neutron number N versus proton number Z. Isotopes of a single element stand in rows
Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 3 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

(Fig. 1). Stable isotopes of the light elements align roughly along the 1:1 diagonal, for
heavier elements, there is always an excess of neutrons over protons.

Fig. 1: The lowest part of the chart of the nuclides. Adapted from Mook (2001).

3. Stability and abundance of stable isotopes

The most important distinction for applications of isotopes is between stable and unstable
(radioactive) isotopes. Stability of a nucleus requires a balance between the electromagnetic
force leading to a repulsion between the protons and the strong force that brings about an
attraction between the nucleons. This is the reason why a sufficient number of neutrons is
always necessary to "glue" the protons together.
Some rules of thumb on stability:
- For the light elements, nuclides with Z = N (e.g. 12C, 14N, 16O) or a slight neutron
excess (e.g. 13C, 15N, 18O) are stable.
- For the heavy elements, only nuclides with a strong neutron excess are stable (e.g.
208
Pb, Z = 82, N = 126)
The abundance of the isotopes is mainly determined by processes during nucleo synthesis,
which took place during the big bang and in supernovae explosions. A high chance of
stability occurs if Z and/or N equal the so-called "magic numbers", i.e. 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82,
126. Particularly stable are the doubly magic nuclei, where both Z and N are magic numbers.
Due to their high stability, such nuclides have a large natural abundance (e.g. 4He (2,2), 16O
(8,8), 40Ca (20,20), and 208Pb (82,126)). On the other hand, nuclides with uneven Z tend to
be less stable, and isotopes with both uneven Z and uneven N are usually rare.
For applications in environmental science, the stable isotopes of light elements are
particularly important. As expected, symmetric (Z = N) and (doubly) magic nuclides are most
abundant (e.g. 4He, 12C, 14N, 16O, 20Ne), whereas isotopes with uneven Z or N are rather rare
(e.g. 3He, 13C, 15N, 17O).
Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 4 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Tab. 1:

Isotopic abundance (ratio of the abundance of a given isotope to that of all isotopes of the
element) of the stable isotopes of the light elements. There is always one dominating light
isotope, and one or two rare, heavier isotope(s) with higher neutron number.

4. Radioisotopes and their production

Radioactivity
Most nuclei are actually unstable and undergo radioactive decay. There are many very
shortlived isotopes, which have no practical importance, but some longer-lived isotopes are
of great use in Earth and environmental science and especially in isotope hydrology (e.g. 3H,
14
C). We therefore look a bit closer at the phenomenon of radioactivity.

Fig. 2: Effects of radioactive decay modes in the chart of the nuclides.

There are several different modes of radioactive decay. Particularly important for the
isotopes that are applied in hydrology are the and - decay. In an -decay an -particle,
which is nothing else than the very stable 4He nucleus, is emitted. The proton and neutron
numbers of the decaying nuclide are thus both reduced by 2, and the mass number is
reduced by 4. In a --decay a --particle, which is nothing else than an electron, is emitted,
and a neutron is converted to a proton. Consequently, the proton number is enlarged by 1
while the neutron number is reduced by 1, and the mass number remains the same. The
effects of radioactive decays on the position of an isotope in the chart of nuclides is shown in
Fig. 2.
Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 5 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Radioactive decay is a purely statistical process, with constant decay probability. The
number of decays in a given time interval is proportional to the total number of nuclides:

dN
N
dt

(4.1)

with [T-1] is the decay constant, i.e. the decay probability per unit time. The decay
constants of the different radioisotopes are characteristic material constants. They are in
principle well-known, although the precision of the values for long-lived isotopes is not
always very high.
Integration of eq. (4.1) with the initial condition N(0) = N0 yields

N (t ) N 0 e t

(4.2)
This is the well-known equation of an exponential decay (Fig. 3). The time dependence of
this decay is entirely characterised by the decay constant . Instead of , it may be more
convenient to use its inverse = 1/, which has the dimension of a time. corresponds to the
time when the number of nuclides has declined by a factor of 1/e and it equals the
expectation value for the lifetime of the nuclides. It is thus called the mean life of the isotopes.
Although mathematically less elegant, a much more customary measure of the characteristic
time of a radioactive decay process is the half-life T1/2, which is the time when the number of
nuclides has declined to half of its initial value. It can easily be seen that the half-life is linked
to t by a factor of ln2:

T1 / 2

ln 2

ln 2

(follows from N (T1 / 2 ) N 0 e T1 / 2

N0
)
2

(4.3)

Eq. (4.3) is a simple but very useful relationship. It may even be worthwhile to remember that
ln2 is about 0.7, thus the half-life is about 70% of the mean life.

Fig. 3: Radioactive decay curve, and definition of some characteristic times.

Radioactive isotopes can yield time information (age), if N(t) and N0 are known (the s are
known constants). The age is obtained simply by solving eq. (4.2) for the time:

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 6 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

N (t )
N
ln 0
ln
N0
N (t )
1

(4.4)

In applications of this equation for dating, time zero is some unknown date in the past,
whereas time t is usually the present time or more precisely the time of analysis. N(t) is thus
directly measured, the problem is to know N0! We will address this problem and possible
solutions in some detail later on in the discussion of individual methods. The basic idea is
usually that N0 is assumed to be a known constant value. Another very important approach
is to measure the product of the decay (the so-called daughter isotope) in addition to the
decaying radioisotope itself (the mother isotope).
Radioisotopes are usually rather rare (because they constantly disappear), but the fact that
they decay offers an opportunity to detect them even at very low abundance. Thus, in
practice, often not N (number of atoms, abundance) is measured, but the activity, which is
the number of decays per unit time:
Definition of activity:

dN
N
dt

(4.5)

Units for A are:

Becquerel (Bq) = s-1 (decays per sec)
Curie (Ci): 1 Ci = 3.7 .1010 Bq (activity of 1 g Ra)
The modern SI-unit is of course the Bq, which we will use. The Curie is a historical unit,
derived from the early experiments of Marie Curie with radium as a source of radioactivity.
The Curie is a rather large unit, environmental activities are often in the range of pCi. It
should be noted that activity is a measure of the mass (number of atoms) of a radioactive
substance. Their concentrations are often given as activity concentrations (e.g. Bq/m3).
Radioisotopes, their abundance and production
Radioactive isotopes can only occur in nature if they are either very long lived (i.e., the
halflife is comparable to the age of Earth) or if they are constantly produced by nuclear
processes. Radioisotopes can be classified according to their origin:
Primordial (remnants from the formation of the solar system, when supernova
produced radioisotopes must have been present)
Cosmogenic (produced by interactions with cosmic rays in the Earth atmosphere or
near the Earth's surface)
Subsurface-produced (produced by nuclear reactions in the solid Earth)
Anthropogenic (produced by technical processes)
Most radioisotopes have very low isotopic abundances, except for some very long-lived
primordial isotopes. Some heavy elements occur in nature, although they have no stable
isotopes: Uranium, thorium, and isotopes produced in the U/Th-decay series.
Radioisotopes can be produced by nuclear reactions induced by irradiation of nuclides.
Sources and types of irradiation are:
In the atmosphere, near the Earth's surface: Cosmic rays (CR, protons, neutrons,
etc.)
In the subsurface: U/Th-decay series and fission (s and neutrons)
In the anthroposphere: Nuclear bombs, reactors, accelerators, etc. (mainly neutrons)
An example of a nuclear reaction that produces radioisotopes is spallation, where at high
energy particles of the cosmic radiation break a nucleus apart, forming a radioisotope and
some smaller fractions, e.g.:
Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 7 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

16

O + p 10Be + 2n + 5p

16

O (p,2n5p) 10Be

or short

Another example is thermal neutron capture, where low-energy neutrons react less violently
with nuclides. The most commonly used environmental radioisotopes for groundwater
studies are tritium (3H) and radiocarbon (14C). Tritium is produced naturally in the upper
atmosphere through interaction of cosmic ray produced neutrons with nitrogen atoms:
14

N + 1n (cosmic ray produced) 3H (Tritium) + 12C

Radiocarbon (14C) is also produced in the upper atmosphere by interaction of secondary

cosmic ray neutrons with the nitrogen nuclei:
14

N + 1n (cosmic ray produced)

14

C + p (proton)

Another important source of radionuclides is anthropogenic production (Tab. 3). Major

sources of anthropogenic radionuclides are
Tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere (~1950s - 60s)
Accidents of nuclear power plants (esp. Chernobyl, 1986)
Normal releases of nuclear power and reprocessing plants
Waste from other applications (medical, science, etc.)
Anthropogenic nuclides of importance for isotope hydrology are listed in Tab. 2. The primary
example of such nuclides is of course tritium, which along with the stable isotopes of H and
O is the classical tool of isotope hydrology. The input history of tritium into the hydrosphere
via precipitation is illustrated by Fig. 4, showing the prominent peak resulting from
atmospheric nuclear bomb testing, the so-called "bomb peak" that occurred in 1963.
Tab. 2: Anthropogenic nuclides of importance for isotope hydrology.

10,000

Vienna

KAITOKE,
NEW ZEALAND

TRITIUM [TU]

1,000

VIENNA,
AUSTRIA

100

10

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

YEAR

Fig. 4:

Long-term record of tritium in precipitation of a station in the northern hemisphere

(Vienna) and a station in the southern hemisphere (Kaitoke). The shape of the
curve with the pronounced "bomb peak" in 1963 is typical for the entire northern
and southern hemisphere.

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 8 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

5. Isotope Fractionation
Isotope fractionation is defined as the phenomenon that the isotopic composition of an
element in a certain compound changes by the transition of the compound from one physical
state or chemical composition to another. One distinguishes three mass-dependent isotope
fractionation processes, namely, thermodynamic (in physical or chemical equilibrium
systems), kinetic (in one-way (bio)chemical reactions) and transport fractionation during
diffusive processes.
Within the hydrologic cycle the variability in the isotope composition results primarily from
mass-dependent isotope fractionation accompanying the phase transitions and transport
processes in the cycle. A special case of mass-independent fractionation is the phenomenon
that 17O16O in the atmospheric oxygen is affected by collisions of atmospheric gases with
cosmic particles and photochemical reactions in the higher atmosphere.
Isotope fractionation (isotopic enrichment of lighter isotopes):
Stable isotopes of water varies in time and space due to equilibrium fractionation or

kinetic fractionation.
Equilibrium isotope fractionation occurs during phase changes, transportation, oxidation

or chemical reaction. An example is phase change of water from liquid to vapor.

Kinetic isotope fractionation occurs during evaporation, diffusion or chemical dissociation

or biologically mediated reactions.

Radioisotopes decay by emitting particles and radiant energy.

Theory of Isotope Fractionation:

Fractionation refers to the partial separation of two isotopes of the same element,
producing reservoirs with different ratios of the isotopes. These differences are called
isotopic anomalies.
Two classes of basic mechanisms and two strange ones exist for fractionating
isotopes:
The two basic mechanisms are:
equilibrium isotope fractionation, which is due to differences in bond
energies of isotopes in compounds
kinetic isotope fractionation, which is due to differences in average
velocity or reaction rates of different isotopes
Both depend only on the mass of the isotope and are called mass
dependent fractionation; both will fractionate, say 18O/16O about twice
as much as 17O/16O
The strange mechanisms are mass-independent fractionation; one depends
on quantum mechanical symmetry terms that occur for molecules like O3 and
SO2 and reflects only the identity (not mass) of atoms, so fractionates 17O and
18
O equally. The other depends on isotope-specific wavelengths of photodissociation reactions and is thought perhaps to have been relevant in the
solar nebula.

Stable isotopes and the Hydrologic Cycle:

The ice-seawater difference reflects general aspects of the fractionation of oxygen

(and hydrogen) isotopes in the hydrologic cycle
These are mostly kinetic factors, since evaporation and precipitation of water
vapor, rain, and snow are nearly Rayleigh processes

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 9 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Fig. 5: Fractionation of stable isotopes in the hydrologic cycle

Since hydrologic processes involve only mass fractionation, the hydrogen isotopes
and oxygen isotopes co-vary quite closely, defining the meteoric water line D = 8 *
18O + 10
On a global scale, the transfers of water to the atmosphere from the oceans, and the
return via rainout and runoff, are close to a dynamic equilibrium (steady state).
Because of this, there is a linear relationship between 18O and 2H in precipitation, as
discovered by Craig (1961). The slope of the line relating 18O and 2H has a value
of 8, because 2H is 8 times more depleted in water vapor than is 18O (due to
differences in vapor pressures).

6. Global meteoric water line

Isotopic fractionation of water molecules due to evaporation of seawater and subsequent
precipitation in rainfall was recognised by Craig (1961). Based on about 400 water samples
from rivers, lakes and precipitation, a linear correlation between deuterium and oxygen-18
was established for average global meteoric waters, which is called the global meteoric
water line (GMWL). The line is defined by the equation:
D = 8*18O + 10 VSMOW

(6.1)

This Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) provides a useful benchmark against which
regional or local waters can be compared and their isotopic composition interpreted. The
slope of this curve represents Rayleigh fractionation due to repeated evaporation and
precipitation, the intercept (termed the deuterium excess) is largely a function of the mean
relative humidity of the atmosphere above the ocean water (Clark and Fritz,, 1997). Local
meteoric water lines can be established from isotopic analysis of local precipitation events.
The relationship has been confirmed in many later studies, including that of Rozanski et al.
(1993). The deuterium excess (d-excess) value is defined as:
d = D 8* 18O VSMOW (Dansgaard, 1964)

(6.2)

A d-excess of 10 is the average value for global precipitation and derived waters formed
from the vapour that was evaporated in the global average humidity of 85% over oceans
(Merlivat & Jouzel 1979; Gonfiantini 1986). Essentially, the d-excess is a measure that
characterizes the meteoric conditions prevailing in the initial moisture source (Merlivat &
Jouzel 1979). In addition, it is affected by secondary processes such as the evaporation of
raindrops beneath a cloud or evaporation of continental water bodies adding extra moisture
to the air mass (Rozanski 1984; Froehlich et al. 2002). The latter would increase the dexcess in precipitation, whereas sub-cloud evaporation, induced for example by the lowered
Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 10 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

relative humidity of terrestrial areas, would decrease the d-excess. Seasonal variations in dexcess values are distinctive, especially for the precipitation of the northern hemisphere.
Through the combination of all primary and secondary processes, the d-excess in global
atmospheric precipitation generally varies from -2 to 15 (Froehlich et al. 2002). Waters
with low 18O and D values are fairly systematically encountered in cold regions and those
with high values in warm regions (Craig 1961).

7. Application of Environmental Isotopes in Hydrology

Although isotopes occur naturally for virtually all elements, those commonly used in waterrelated studies are for hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O) and sulfur (S).
These elements are very common, and, because of their low total masses, the difference in
the masses of the isotopes of a given element are proportionally large. As a result, small
changes in the environment can produce a readily measurable difference in the ratios of the
isotopes.
Isotopes are applied in several categories of hydrologic investigations. These include tracing
water through the hydrologic cycle, paleothermometry, determining the origin of groundwater,
the chemical environment of an aquifer, the age of groundwater, and the tracing and
identification of pollutant sources. Commonly, the factors that are most important in
determining the isotopic composition of a given element are the source (reservoir) of the
element (e.g., atmosphere, sea water, rocks, organic matter), the characteristics of the
environment (e.g., temperature, pH, redox conditions), and the types of reactions that take
place (e.g., photosynthesis, dissolution of rock, oxidizing reactions).
Table 3 compiles major issues in (ground) water resources assessment, which can be
addressed by the various isotopes or isotope systems.
Table 3: Isotopic contributions to the assessment of groundwater resources

AQUIFER CHARACTERISTICS
Porosity, dispersivity, transmissivity

artif. Tracers, 222Rn

Storativity, residence time, vulnerability to

pollution

H-18O, 3H(-3He),
Kr, CFCs, 14C-13C

85

GROUNDWATER QUANTITY
Area and rate of recharge

H-18O, 3H(-3He)
Kr, CFCs, 14C-13C
3
H(-3He), 85Kr, CFCs
14
C-13C, 36Cl, ...
2
H-18O, 3H, 222Rn
85

Flow regime
Interaction surface groundwater
Interaction between aquifers
Verification of conceptual models

H-18O, 3H, 14C, ...

All

Calibration of hydr. Models

All

GROUNDWATER QUALITY
Pollution sources
Transport of contaminants
Chemical and biological processes

isotopes of B, C, N, S, Cl
3
H(-3He), 85Kr, CFCs,
14
C-13C, U/Th series RN
isotopes of B, C, N, S

Calibration of mass transport models

all incl. U/Th series RN

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 11 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Often isotope techniques are required as a complementary approach, and often they are
considered to be more cost-effective than conventional approaches. But there are a number
of problems where the use of isotope techniques is indispensable (Table 4).
Table 4: Fields in which the Application of Isotope Techniques is Indispensable

1. Recharge/discharge in arid and semi-arid regions

Identification of sources and areas of recent recharge
(2H, 18O, tritium, CFCs)
Mixing between surface and groundwater
(proportion of components: 2H, 18O, art. tracers)
Determination of recharge rates
(unconfined, shallow aquifers: tritium, CFCs, art. tracers)
Evaporative discharge of groundwater (2H, 18O, 14C)
Identification of sites for artificial recharge
(2H, 18O, 3H, CFCs)
2. Non-renewable groundwater in arid regions
Mapping (delineation) of resources
(14C, 13C, 2H, 18O, noble gases)
Interconnection of aquifers
(14C, 2H, 18O, 87Sr/86Sr, noble gases)
Estimation of available resources
(flow rate: 14C (+ 13C), other long-lived radioisotopes)
3. Groundwater flow dynamics
Flow rate in deep, confined aquifers
(especially great artesian aquifer systems: low flow rates,
leakage between aquifers: 14C, long-lived radioisotopes
such as 36Cl, 234U/238U etc.)
Verification of groundwater flow models
(especially through parameter identification: 3H, 14C (+ 13C)
4. Groundwater pollution
Identification of pollution sources
(stable isotopes of B, C, N, S, Cl)
Identification and evaluation of natural
(self)purification processes (15N/14N, 34S/32S)
Verification of mass transport models
(3H, CFCs, 14C (+ 13C)
Aquifer vulnerability to pollution (3H, CFCs, 14C)
Hydrological appraisal of waste disposal sites
(2H, 18O, noble gases, 14C, 36Cl, U/Th
series radioisotopes)
Groundwater salinization, sea water encroachment
(2H, 18O)
5. Surface water management
Leakage of reservoirs (artificial tracers)
1)

FP fingerprint (qualitative)

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

2)

FP1)
QE2)
QE
FP
FP

FP
FP
QE

QE

QE

FP
FP/QE
QE

FP/QE

FP/QE

FP/QE

QE quantitative evaluation

Page 12 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

8. Artificial Radioisotopes as Tracers

In any dynamic system it is a normal practice to trace its path using a tracer. The most
important requirement of a tracer for hydrological applications is that it should behave similar
to that of water it should not be lost by chemical reaction, adsorption, etc. The tracer
should be detectable at maximum dilutions envisaged.
Artificial tracer tests can be used to evaluate the extent to which aquifers interact with
surface water features, providing information on groundwater flow paths, travel times,
velocities, dispersion, flow rates and the degree of hydraulic connection. These tests involve
the introduction of a tracer material and subsequent monitoring of its movement. This differs
from environmental tracer methods which rely on the measurement and interpretation of
background concentrations of the chemical constituents of water, such as major ions, stable
or radioactive isotopes.
Artificial tracer applications in hydrology involve the injection of a minor quantity of a given
radioactive isotope to trace the water movement. Artificial radioisotopes commonly used in
hydrological investigations are compiled in Table 5, and Table 6 summarizes major fields of
applications.
Table 5: Artificial radioisotopes commonly used as tracers in hydrological studies.

Half-Life

Radiation &
[Energy of Interest
in Mev]

Chemical
Form

Bromine-82 (82Br)

35.4 h

[0.55-1.48]

NH4Br

Gold-198 (198Au)

2.7 d

[0.41]

AuCl3

Iodine-131 (131I)

8.1 d

[0.36]

NH4I

Chromium-51 (51Cr)

27.8 d

[0.32]

Cr-EDTA

Scandium-46 (46Sc)

84.0 d

[0.9, 1.1]

Sc2O3

Cobalt-60 (60Co)

5.2 a

[1.17, 1.33]

K3Co (CN)6

6h

[0.140]

Pertechnate

12.4 a

[0.018]

HTO

Isotopes

Technetium-99m (99mTc)
Tritium (3H)

Table 6: Typical Applications of Artificial Radioisotopes in

Hydrology

Seepage and leakage of reservoirs (dam leakage)

Sediment transport at coastal sites and estuaries
In-situ measurement of groundwater flow velocity and
determination of flow direction in boreholes
Measurement of aquifer parameters (permeability,
dispersivity, effective porosity, hydraulic conductivity,
transmissivity, retardation factor, etc.)
Streamflow / river-flow measurement
Soil moisture movement in the unsaturated zone

Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 13 of 14

Basic Nuclear Orientation Course-2014, 21 September 2014, Training Institute, Savar

Advantage of radioactive tracers in comparison with non-radioactive tracers are the

following:
Radioactive tracers can be detected at levels several orders of magnitude lower than
conventional tracers. Hence, a minute amount of tracer is sufficient to generate the
desired response without disturbing the system.
The operational life span of the tracer is limited, due to its spontaneous decay. After a
period of time equal to five or six times its half-life, its activity becomes negligible.
The gamma emitting radioactive tracers (except in the case of tritium beta emitting
tracer) can be detected in-situ in the field without taking a sample for laboratory assay.
Many hydrological processes can be studied only with tracers that fulfill this condition.
The radioactive decay causes disappearance of the tracer from the system with time
and enables repeat measurement.
These tracers have very high measuring sensitivity, which permits the labelling of huge
water volumes using small quantities of tracer solutions.
Disadvantages of these tracers are:

Official authorization for the acquisition and use of the radioactive material is required.
In the case of short-lived radioisotopes, they have to be acquired and used at a
specific time.
In some cases, heavy shielding lead containers have to be used for their transport,
such as for bromine-82 (82Br), scandium-46 (46Sc) and cobalt-60 (60Co).
In some cases, the use of radioactive tracers may result in some kind of risk for the
population and for the field team involved in their use.

Measurement of Radiotracers

Gamma emitting radioactive tracers are measured with the help of a radiation probe
incorporating a NaI (T1) scintillation detector. Field measurements are possible using a
portable rate meter/scaler.
Tritium being a beta emitter is measured using a liquid scintillation counter in the
laboratory.

References:
Clark, I. D. and Fritz, P., 1997. Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology, Lewis Publishers,
Boca Raton, FL, New York, USA.
Fritz, P. and Fontes, J. Ch. (Eds), 1980. Handbook of Environmental Isotope Geochemistry,
Volume 1, The Terrestrial Environment, A. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New
York, USA.
International Atomic Energy Agency, 1981. Stable Isotope Hydrology: Deuterium and
Oxygen-18 in the water cycle, Technical Reports Series, No. 210, IAEA, Vienna, Austria.
International Atomic Energy Agency, 1983. Guidebook on Nuclear Techniques in Hydrology,
Technical Reports Series, No. 91, IAEA, Vienna, Austria.
Kendall, C. and Caldwell, E.A., 1998. Fundamentals of Isotope Geochemistry. Chapter 2 in:
Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology (C. Kendall and J.J. McDonnell, editors), Elsevier,
New York, USA, pp. 51-86.
Mook, W. G. (Ed.), 2000. Environmental Isotope in the Hydrological Cycle, Principles and
Applications, Volume 1, Introduction: Theory, Methods and Review. International
Hydrological Programme, IHP-V, Technical Documents in Hydrology, No. 39, Vol. 1,
UNESCO and IAEA, Paris, France.
Nuclear Methods in Hydrology

Page 14 of 14