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Political Justice

1. Otto Kirchheimer wrote a book analyzing the concept of "political justice" - how governments manipulate legal systems for political ends, and how opposition groups challenge the government through legal means. 2. Kirchheimer defines political justice broadly as anything dominant groups see as relating to community interests. This allows the definition to change over time based on shifting political views. 3. The book provides a wide-ranging analysis of political justice in different countries and regimes, functioning almost as an encyclopedia. However, Kirchheimer's overarching view is that political justice frequently results in injustice, and states cannot escape using law for political purposes.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
224 views8 pages

Political Justice

1. Otto Kirchheimer wrote a book analyzing the concept of "political justice" - how governments manipulate legal systems for political ends, and how opposition groups challenge the government through legal means. 2. Kirchheimer defines political justice broadly as anything dominant groups see as relating to community interests. This allows the definition to change over time based on shifting political views. 3. The book provides a wide-ranging analysis of political justice in different countries and regimes, functioning almost as an encyclopedia. However, Kirchheimer's overarching view is that political justice frequently results in injustice, and states cannot escape using law for political purposes.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends

by Otto Kirchheimer
Princeton University Press
Beginning with the succinct observation that Every political regime has
its foes or in due time creates them, Professor Otto Kirchheimer of
Columbia University and the New School for Social Research has written
a learned treatise on what he calls political justicethe manipulation of
the modern states legal machinery by power holders, and, conversely,
by power challengers. The question of what is and what is not political
may present a pitfall, but Kirchheimer very sensibly labels as political
that which dominant groups and individuals conceive to relate in a
particularly intensive way to the interests of the community. Such a
definition allows for shifting conceptions of what is politically significant:
to Henry VIII his spouses failure to inform him of her premarital loss of
virginity was treasonable; to the Nazis Jewishness was a crime justifying
the imposition of brutal political sanctions. One could, of course,
describe all justice as political, since without the authority of a public
(political) order no legal system would be possible. But Kirchheimers
focus is on a reasonably distinct segment of justice: the use of statutes,
courts, judges, public prosecutors, lawyers, juries, and defendants (also,
perforce, part of the political-legal machinery) to affect power relations.
The theme is broad, but Kirchheimer stays close to his concern with the
forms, motivations, and ends that characterize the relationship between
politics and law in the modern state. Yet his notion of political justice is
necessarily so encompassingtouching on famous treason trials,
political defamation suits, legal repression of political organizations,
asylum and clemencyand the frame of reference so wide-rangingthe
United States; the Soviet Union; the Weimar, Nazi, and post-World War II
German regimes; and the periodically changing French systemsthat
the book seems almost encyclopedic. Some may conclude that it is
indeed essentially a reference work. Yet, throughout, runs the connecting
link of Kirchheimers conviction: that political justice, which frequently
turns into the epitome of injustice, is an imperative which states cannot
escape. No one can put down Kirchheimers large-scale study without

having acquired a new insight into the way modern governmental


systems make political use of law and legal apparatuses.
_____________

Indeed, almost every chapter offers a few refreshing insights.


Kirchheimer points, for example, to the troublesome dilemma which
hostile minority groups create for democratic governments: that
repression, when it is foreseeably effective . . . seems unnecessary;
when advisable in the face of a serious threat to democratic institutions,
it tends to be of only limited usefulness and it carries the germs of new,
perhaps even more menacing dangers to democracy. This limited
usefulness arises from the fact that, though seriously threatened,
democratic regimes often find it expedient to repress minority groups
when these represent significant interests and portions of the
population. Thus, the Weimar Republicans in the late 1920s had to
contend with the dual threats presented by the Nazi and the Communist
parties. And the postwar Italian and French governments faced a similar
problem in dealing with the militant and well-disciplined Communist
organizations. As Kirchheimer observes, Any attempt, repulsive per se
to a democratic society, to deflect such mass aggressions into
government-chartered and government-operated channels, would be
likely to line up easily maneuverable cohorts of uprooted men under
ordersanother mortal threat to the democratic process. The practical
consequence of this is that only a stable democratic regime, for instance
that of the United States, can afford to repress hostile minorities. And
yet, precisely because it can repressthe minority is insignificant; the
revolutionary appeals it makes fall on deaf earsthere is the least
objective need to do so.
Kirchheimer is much too worldly-wise to believe that this ends the
matter. While an anti-democratic group may not be an objective threat
to the established government, the holders and manipulators of power
may choose legal repression for any number of political and
psychological reasons. By firmly suppressing the neo-Nazi Socialist Reich

party and the Communist party, both weak and numerically small, the
West German Federal Republic responded to a number of factors and
served a number of ends: it reacted to the bitter experience of the past
with anti-democratic groups; it enhanced its world image as a new
nation which rejects Nazism and takes a no-nonsense attitude toward
anti-democratic forces; and (in outlawing the CP) it aligned its domestic
policy with its hard foreign policy line toward Moscow. Similarly, the
United States governments policy toward the Communist party in its
midst (a policy which, in practice, if not in form, aims to destroy the
party) is heavily influenced by the desire of our political leaders to
demonstrate their vigilance in guarding America against the threat of
Communism. I would suggest, too, that this reaction ties in with the felt
need of the American people to lash out at their tormentors in one of the
few tangible ways short of war that seems open to them.
For his part, Kirchheimer here favors a policy of toleration as
harmonizing with democratic theory; he argues that legal repression
against weak anti-democratic groups damages the ligaments of
democratic institutions. The discussion significantly underlines
Kirchheimers general observation that permanent repression of hostile
mass organizations is inexpedient while repression of tiny minorities is
unnecessary. If this conclusion in itself may seem even trite, it
nevertheless conveys a profound truth: that only by removing the
causes of mass dissatisfaction can a regime attain the luxury of not
needing to suppress hostile minorities. It is a conclusion that one wishes
would sink through to the rulers of a country like South Vietnamand to
the American Congress when it votes on foreign trade and aid bills.
_____________

Thus, despite a coolly analytical approach, Kirchheimer does not shy


away from expressing his views on such questions as the legal
repression of minority organizations, the correctness of the Nuremberg
War Crimes Trials, or the thoroughly politicized legal systems
characteristic of totalitarian states. In this respect, he is unlike those

many writers in the social sciences who are addicted to a maddening


neutralism which decrees that personal opinions are to be scrupulously
avoideda sort of forbidden fruit not to be tasted by social scientists.
Nevertheless, an inconclusive tone does permeate Kirchheimers study
a fascination with ironies and sociopolitical paradoxes. He ends his
chapter on Legal Repression of Political Organizations by commenting
on the irony that forces those who advocate repression in a democratic
society to justify each repressive act, adding, Is this not at least a
remarkable testimonial to the merits of constitutional processes rooted
in the democratic system? He concludes the book by invoking Clio, the
Muse of History, who, in her compassion may hide from both defendant
and judge what and whose titles will eventually be disproven. And Clio
may well refuse an unambiguous answer, indicating that both were on
fools errands. Meanwhile, he writes, may we pray for both potential
brethren in error?
To an extent, Kirchheimers disinterestedness and his fondness for
paradoxical observation and ironical questions bespeaks an
understandable skepticism about the exaggerated claims of lightness
raised by those who are participantseither as users or usedin the
drama of political justice. But beyond this, Kirchheimers resigned and
quizzical tone reflects a deep pessimism overlaying his personal
humanitarianism. He expects little from man; at the very best, man may
refrain from treating his brother with inhumanity, but never will he show
much capacity for justice. To the past, present, and future victims of
political justice, Otto Kirchheimer dedicates his book. That, inevitably,
there will be future victims of political justice is the implicit assumption
which binds this multifaceted work together.

Justicia poltica. El uso del procedimiento legal para fines polticos


por Otto Kirchheimer
Princeton University Press
A partir de la observacin sucinta que Todo rgimen poltico tiene sus
enemigos, o en su debido tiempo los crea", el profesor Otto Kirchheimer

de la Universidad de Columbia y la New School for Social Research ha


escrito un tratado aprendido sobre lo que l llama la justicia poltica de
la manipulacin de la maquinaria legal del Estado moderno por quienes
detentan el poder, y, a la inversa, por los rivales de poder. La cuestin
de qu es y qu no es "poltica" puede representar un escollo, pero
Kirchheimer etiqueta muy sensatamente como poltica la que los grupos
dominantes y los individuos conciben "para relacionarse de una manera
particularmente intensa a los intereses de la comunidad. Tal definicin
permite concepciones de lo que es polticamente significativo
cambiando: a Enrique VIII el fracaso de su esposa para informarle de su
prdida de la virginidad antes del matrimonio fue una traicin; para los
nazis judasmo era un delito que justifique la imposicin de sanciones
polticas brutales. Se podra, por supuesto, describir toda justicia como
poltica, ya que sin la autoridad de un pblico (poltica) pedir ningn
sistema legal sera posible. Pero el enfoque de Kirchheimer est en un
segmento bastante distinta de la justicia: el uso de las leyes, tribunales,
jueces, fiscales, abogados, jurados, y los acusados (tambin, por fuerza,
parte de la maquinaria poltico-legal) para afectar las relaciones de
poder.
El tema es amplio, pero Kirchheimer se mantiene cerca de su
preocupacin por las formas, las motivaciones y los fines que
caracterizan la relacin entre la poltica y la ley en el Estado moderno.
Sin embargo, su idea de la justicia poltica es necesariamente lo que
abarca, tocando en juicios por traicin famosos, demandas por
difamacin polticos, la represin legal de las organizaciones polticas, de
asilo y de clemencia y el marco de referencia de manera amplia, los
Estados Unidos; la Unin Sovitica; el Weimar, nazi y la Segunda Guerra
Mundial despus de los regmenes alemanes; y los sistemas que
franceses cambian peridicamente el libro parece casi enciclopdica.
Algunos pueden llegar a la conclusin de que s es esencialmente una
obra de referencia. Sin embargo, a lo largo, corre el nexo de unin de la
conviccin de Kirchheimer: que la justicia poltica, que se convierte con
frecuencia en el eptome de la injusticia, es un imperativo que los
estados no pueden escapar. Nadie puede poner en el suelo estudio a
gran escala de Kirchheimer sin haber adquirido una nueva visin de la
forma en los sistemas gubernamentales modernos hacen uso poltico de
la ley y aparatos legales.
_____________

De hecho, casi todos los captulos ofrece algunas ideas refrescantes.


Puntos Kirchheimer, por ejemplo, para el dilema problemtico que los
grupos minoritarios hostiles crean para los gobiernos democrticos: que
la represin, cuando es "previsiblemente eficaz. . . parece innecesaria;
cuando sea aconsejable frente a una grave amenaza para las
instituciones democrticas, que tiende a ser de una utilidad limitada y
lleva los grmenes de nuevos peligros, tal vez ms amenazantes para la
democracia ". Esta" utilidad limitada "surge del hecho de que, aunque
seriamente amenazada, los regmenes democrticos a menudo les
resulta conveniente reprimir grupos minoritarios cuando stos
representan los intereses y las porciones de la poblacin importantes.
Por lo tanto, los republicanos de Weimar en la dcada de 1920 tuvo que
enfrentarse a la doble amenaza que presenta el nazi y los partidos
comunistas. Y los gobiernos de Italia y Francia de la posguerra enfrentan
un problema similar en el trato con las organizaciones comunistas
militantes y bien disciplinados. Como observa Kirchheimer, "Todo
intento, repulsivo per se a una sociedad democrtica, para desviar esas
agresiones masivas en los canales fletado por el gobierno y operado por
el gobierno, sera probable que alinear cohortes fcilmente maniobrables
de hombres desarraigadas bajo rdenes, otra amenaza mortal para el
proceso democrtico". La consecuencia prctica de esto es que slo un
rgimen democrtico estable, por ejemplo la de los Estados Unidos,
puede darse el lujo de reprimir a las minoras hostiles. Y, sin embargo,
precisamente porque se puede reprimir, la minora es insignificante; los
llamamientos revolucionarios que hace caer en odos sordos, hay la
necesidad al menos objetiva para hacerlo.
Kirchheimer es demasiado mundano para creer que esto termina el
asunto. Mientras un grupo anti-democrtica no puede ser una "amenaza
objetiva" al gobierno establecido, los titulares y los manipuladores del
poder pueden optar por la represin legal para cualquier nmero de
razones polticas y psicolgicas. Al suprimir firmemente el partido neonazi Socialista del Reich y el Partido Comunista, tanto dbil y
numricamente pequea, la Repblica Federal de Alemania Occidental
respondi a una serie de factores y se sirve una serie de extremos: que
reaccion a la amarga experiencia del pasado con anti grupos
democrtico se; que mejor su imagen del mundo como una nueva
nacin que rechaza el nazismo y toma una actitud "sin sentido" hacia las
fuerzas anti-democrticas; y (en la proscripcin del CP) se alinea su

poltica nacional con su lnea de poltica exterior "dura" hacia Mosc. Del
mismo modo, la poltica del gobierno de Estados Unidos hacia el Partido
Comunista en su seno (una poltica que, en la prctica, si no en la forma,
tiene como objetivo destruir el partido) est fuertemente influenciado
por el deseo de nuestros lderes polticos para demostrar su vigilancia en
la vigilancia de los Estados Unidos contra la amenaza del comunismo. Yo
sugerira, tambin, que esta lazos de reaccin en la necesidad sentida
del pueblo estadounidense para arremeter contra sus torturadores en
una de las pocas maneras tangibles cortos de guerra que parece que se
les ofrecen.
Por su parte, Kirchheimer aqu a favor de una poltica de tolerancia como
la armonizacin con la teora democrtica; argumenta que la represin
legal contra dbiles grupos antidemocrticos daos "los ligamentos de
las instituciones democrticas." La discusin subraya significativamente
la observacin general de Kirchheimer que la represin permanente de
las organizaciones de masas hostiles es inconveniente, mientras la
represin de pequeas minoras es innecesario. Si esta conclusin en s
mismo puede parecer incluso trivial, sin embargo transmite una
profunda verdad: que slo mediante la eliminacin de las causas de la
insatisfaccin de masas puede un rgimen alcanzar el lujo de no tener
que suprimir las minoras hostiles. Es una conclusin que uno desea se
hundiran hasta los gobernantes de un pas como Vietnam y del Sur al
Congreso estadounidense cuando se vota en las facturas de comercio
exterior y de ayuda.
_____________

Por lo tanto, a pesar de un acercamiento con frialdad analtica,


Kirchheimer no se asusta de expresar sus puntos de vista sobre
cuestiones como la represin legal de las organizaciones de las minoras,
la correccin de los juicios de Nuremberg por crmenes de guerra, o de
los sistemas jurdicos caracterstica completamente politizado de los
estados totalitarios. En este sentido, no se parece a esos muchos
escritores en las ciencias sociales que son adictos a un neutralismo
enloquecedora que decreta que las opiniones personales se deben
evitar-una escrupulosa especie de fruto prohibido no ser probado por los
cientficos sociales. Sin embargo, un tono concluyente no impregne
estudio de una fascinacin de Kirchheimer con ironas y "paradojas
sociopolticas." l termina su captulo sobre "La represin legal de las

Organizaciones Polticas" comentando la irona de que obliga a los que


abogan por la represin en una sociedad democrtica para justificar
cada una acto represivo, y agreg: "No es ste al menos un testimonio
notable de los mritos de los procesos constitucionales arraigadas en el
sistema democrtico?" Concluye el libro invocando Clio, la musa de la
historia, que, "en su compasin puede esconderse de ambos
eventualmente sern refutadas acusado y juez qu y cuyos ttulos. "Y
Clio tambin pueden rechazar una respuesta inequvoca, lo que indica
que ambos fueron a hacer recados tontos '. "Mientras tanto", escribe,
"podemos orar por los dos hermanos potenciales en error?"
Hasta cierto punto, el desinters de Kirchheimer y su aficin a la
observacin paradjica y preguntas irnicas, reflejan esencialmente un
escepticismo comprensible sobre las afirmaciones exageradas de
ligereza planteadas por quienes son los participantes-ya sea como
usuarios o utilizado en el drama de la justicia poltica. Pero ms all de
esto, el tono resignado y burlona de Kirchheimer refleja un profundo
pesimismo superponiendo su humanitarismo personal. l espera poco
del hombre; a lo mejor, el hombre puede abstenerse de tratar a su
hermano con la inhumanidad, pero nunca se le mostrar mucha
capacidad para la justicia. "Para el pasado, presente y futuras vctimas
de la justicia poltica," Otto Kirchheimer dedica su libro. Eso,
inevitablemente, habr futuras vctimas de la justicia poltica es la
suposicin implcita de que se une este trabajo multifactico juntos.

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