Human Growth and Development

Learning Objectives:
Identify the different life stages of growth & development;
Describe characteristics and behavior types and factors affecting the
stages of growth & development;
Understand the necessity of physical activity for optimal growth &
development; and
Recognize and understand gender and individual differences in growth &
development.
Growth and Development Life Stages
Begins at birth and ends at death
During an entire lifetime, individuals have needs that must be met
Health care workers need to be aware of the various stages and needs of
the individual to provide quality health care
Growth and Development Types
Physical: body growth
Cognitive: mind development
Self-Concept & Personality: Ex. Emotional: feelings
Psychosocial, Work & Family life: Incudes Dynamics, interactions and
relationships
with others
All four types above occur in each stage
Growth and Development Types
Question: What is the importance of studying the development using the
lifespan perspective?
Studying development using the lifespan perspective illustrates how lives
are unique;
Contain information about who we are;
How we came to be the way we are; and
Where future will likely lead us.
Shows that development involves both growth and decline as well as
changes that occur from conception until death.
Early Stimulation
Introduction
One must consider a few important influences that affect individual
growth & development, including:
*Early Exposure to Physical Activities
*Critical Periods

 *Readiness
Question: What are 8 characteristics of the lifespan perspective?
A. lifelong includes changes from conception until death
B. multidimensional body, mind and emotions and relationships change
and affect each other throughout life;
involves biological, cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions
C. multidirectional in all phases of life some abilities improve while
others decline;
example is ability to learn second and third languages decreases as we
grow older.
D. plastic involves capacity for change and growth during different
stages of life in terms of cognition, physiology and social and emotional
functioning.
E. multidisciplinary lifespan perspective integrates information from
psychology, sociology, anthropology, neurology and medicine to help us
to understand development
F. contextual lifespan perspective emphasizes that development occurs
in a particular setting or context (cultural, social, geographical).
context of development has 3 types of influence on development:
1)normative age-graded; 2)normative history-graded; and
3)nonnormative.
G. involves 3 goals of growth, maintenance and regulating loss of
functioning.
H. involves interaction of factors associated with biology, culture and
individual experiences;
biology includes physiological and genetic factors suggesting tendencies
and possibilities;
culture provides environment and context;
individual experience contributes a unique dimension to each persons
life.
Early Exposure to Physical Activities
Encouragement to participate in various physical activities from a young
age
Early development of balance, coordination, strength, flexibility, and
endurance
Positive experiences when engaged in physical activities
The benefits of early exposure to physical activity has motivated many
parents to involve children in education programs for many sports at a
young age
Critical Periods
Times of particular sensitivity to environmental stimuli
Potential for optimal development is affected by the presence or absence
of appropriate stimuli at this critical period

 This critical period is quite early in development

Readiness
Implies that the individual is prepared, or ready, to acquire a particular
behaviour or skill
Performance requires:
Desire to perform
Information
Ability
Acquisition of physical characteristics
Question: What are 4 contemporary concerns regarding lifespan development?
A. health and well-being
mental and physical health professionals help us to improve our physical
and mental state and feeling of well-being;
physical and psychological lifestyle and state affects both mental and
physical health.
B. parenting and education
Understanding lifespan perspective helps us to answer questions about
pressures on the family and problems facing educators;
other issues: child care, divorce, parenting styles, intergenerational
relationships, early childhood education, efforts to promote lifelong
learning.
C. social and cultural contexts and diversity
4 concepts:
1)culture: behavior patterns, beliefs of a particular group;
2)ethnicity: related to cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion and
language;
3)socioeconomic status:
position in society with regard to occupation, education and economic
resources;
4)gender: psychological and social and cultural experience of being male
or female.
D. social policy
governments course of action for protecting and promoting the welfare of
citizens;
involves values, economics and politics;
special concern for children and elderly individuals.
3)socioeconomic status:
position in society with regard to occupation, education and economic
resources;
4)gender: psychological and social and cultural experience of being male
or female.
Question 4:What are 4 features of the nature of development?
A. biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes

 1)biological processes:
changes in physiology;
examples, genes from parents, brain development, height and weight
gain, hormonal changes in adolescence;
2) cognitive processes:
changes in thinking, intelligence and language;
examples, watching a crib mobile, creating multiword sentences,
imagining what is would be like to president of the United States.
3)social and emotional processes:
changes in relationships with other people, emotions and personality;
examples, infant smile in response to cuddling,
toddlers aggressive behavior toward a playmate,
mutual affection expressed by elderly couple.
Progress Before Birth: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
1)prenatal period:
conception to birth;
from single cell to complete organism with complex brain and nervous
system capable to variety of behaviors;
Conception occurs when fertilization creates a ZYGOTE-a one celled
organism formed a union of the sperm and egg cell.
Extends from conception to birth encompassing 9 months of
pregnancy.
The Course of Prenatal Development
The 3 Phases
PHASES
BRIEFS
st
1 GERMINAL STAGE
*The 1st two weeks after conception. Created Zygote
within 36 hours rapid cell division begins , zygote
becomes microscopic mass of multiplying cells
migrates to the uterine cavity . Implanted to the
uterine wall. Other zygotes are rejected.
nd
2 EMBRYONIC STAGE *In two weeks to two months. Vital organs and bodily
systems begins in the developing organism called
Embryo. Structures are specialized like: the heart,
spine, and brain emerge gradually.
3rd FETAL STAGE
* In two months to Birth. Fetal development
summarized in Table 11.1 next slide. The 1st two
months bring rapid bodily growth as muscles and
bones begin to form called Fetus. Capable of physical
movement as skeletal structure hardens. Organs
formed in the embryonic stage continue to grow and
gradually begins to function

Table 11.1 Overview of the Fetal Development.

The table outlines some of the highlights of development during the
FETAL STAGE.
Since
Weeks FETAL STAGE DEVELOPMENT HIGHLIGHTS
Conception
9 weeks
Formation of brain; differentiation of ovaries and
testes.
12
Can smile and frown, circulatory system working
16
Heart beat is strong; mother feels movement
20
Hiccups begin; Hair forms
24
Visual and Auditory senses functional; eyes open
28
Body/fat is added; brain specialization
32
Periods of sleep and wakefulness
36
Rapid increase in weight; gains immunity from
mother
38 Full term
BIRTH
Stages of Growth & Development
1. Infancy
2. Childhood
3. Adolescence
Infancy
BIRTH ONE YEAR (1)
Period of rapid growth
Males are usually heavier and taller than females at birth
Childhood
ONE YEAR (1) ELEVEN YEARS (11)
Consists of:
Early childhood
Mid-Childhood
Late Childhood
Early Childhood
One year to six years of age
Gradual loss of baby fat
Girls lose less fat than boys
Rapid growth but not as rapid as infancy
Quite flexible
Muscle development while at play
Mid-Childhood
Six to ten years of age
Slower, more constant growth
Improved coordination and motor functioning

Late Childhood
Ten to sixteen years of age
Increased rate of growth
Fat deposition just prior to adolescent growth spurt
9-10 years of age in girls
11-12 years of age in boys
Individual differences in maturation
Development of the reproductive system
Appearance of secondary sex characteristics
Breasts
Pubic Hair
Redistribution of body weight
Boys - muscle tissue, body fat
Girls - slight body fat
Earlier onset of maturation in females may account for their ability to
achieve world-class status across many sports
For example, Tara Lipinski, is the youngest US ladies figure skating
champion
Adolescence
Fourteen to twenty years of age
Following puberty
Ends with onset of adulthood
Obvious differences in physical growth cease with the end of adolescence
The variability of body types (somatotypes) become more evident
Ectomorph
Mesomorph
Endomorph
Usually individuals are a combination of these body types
Somatotypes

Ectomorph
Linear shape
Delicate bone structure
Little fat
Long limbs relative to the body
Mesomorph
Well-muscled
Little body fat
Broad shoulders
Narrow waist
Endomorph
Rounded appearance
Heavy bone structure
Little bone and muscle definition
ADOLESCENCE
External social pressures for the ideal body type
Combined with many physical, hormonal, and psychological changes that
occur at this time
Factors Affecting Growth & Development
Large variation among individuals
A number of factors affect growth and development, including:
Heredity
Nutrition
Socioeconomic status
Exercise

HEREDITY
Mechanism of Heredity
The egg and sperm cell unites creating new organism that incorporates
some characteristics of each parent.
Each egg and sperm cell has 23 CHROMOSOMES, looks as a threadlike
structure in the nucleus that contain genetic material
When sperm penetrates an egg their chromosomes combine to produce
23 pairs of chromosomes.
First 22 pairs of chromosomes are called AUTOSOMES.
The 23rd pair determines the sex of the child known as SEX CHROMOSOMES
COLORS are Red, Blue, Green and Yellow
* If a Red bead appears on one string, a Blue bead appears on the other,
whenever a Green bead appears on one string, a Yellow one appears on
the other.
Genetic information that is passed on from generation to generation
These genes are also affected by environmental factors
For example, malnutrition may prevent an individual from growing to their
maximum potential height
SEX CHROMOSOMES
*An X and a Y result to a BOY
*An X and a X produce a GIRL
Each chromosomes consists of one molecule of DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
DNA.
Structure of DNA imagine 4 different colors of beads placed on two
strings. Which complements each other.
DNA is organized that way except:
4 color of beads known as 4 different chemical compounds:
*Adenine
*Thymine
*Guanine
*Cytosine
Strings are made up of :
*Phosphates and Sugars wrap around each other , creating a double
helix.
Order of the chemical compound Beads appear really causes the cell to
create:
*Specific Animo Acids, Proteins and Enzymes an important biological
building blocks.
The THYMINE BEADS
Create the amino acid phenylalanine.
*GENE is known when group of compounds provides a specific set of
biochemical instructions.

Nutrition
dequate nutrients are essential for growth & development
Carbohydrates and fats are primarily used for energy
Proteins contribute to the growth and repair of body tissues, including
muscle
Vitamins, minerals and water are also essential for various functions and
reactions that occur in the body
Undernourishment or malnutrition can delay growth
Undernourishment exists even in countries with abundant food supplies
Overeating is also a problem in these countries and can lead to obesity
when combined with a sedentary lifestyle
Socioeconomic Status
Body size is positively related to socioeconomic status and may be related
to nutrition
That is, socioeconomic status affects
Income (money to spend on food)
Education (knowledge about healthy food)
Time (food selection and preparation time)
Availability (access to stores with healthy food choices)
Other factors may contribute to the differences observed in growth &
development among individuals, such as
Lower levels of stress;
Better sleeping patterns; and
Regular exercise
These factors are easier to ensure when the basic necessities are met
Exercise & Bone Development
Regular exercise tends to increase the diameter and density of bone
Increased strength and durability
Increased length of non-weight bearing bones such as the arms
Overuse injuries can be incurred by young children who over-train
Too much strain on a bone during a period of growth can lead to
osteochondrosis, or the de-arrangement of the normal process of bone
growth
Exercise & Body Composition
Active children and teenagers show:
An increase in lean body mass
A decrease in percent body fat
Muscle hypertrophy with exercise
Exercise & Social Development
Team sports that stress positive interaction and cooperation facilitate
social development in children and teens

 Pressure by parents and coaches can hinder the development of an active

lifestyle and cause stress
Perceptual Motor Development Across the Growth & Development
Cycle
The importance of physical education as an integral part of the school
curriculum is often overlooked
Some parents discourage physical education and emphasize academics
Other parents encourage physical activity pursuits by enrolling their
children in organized physical activity programs
Perceptual Motor Development:
The use of movement activities to enhance academic or intellectual
performance
Theory developed by Kephart over 30 years ago
Kepharts Theory of Perceptual-Motor Development
Believed that learning deficiencies resulted from the inability to properly
integrate present stimuli with the stored information concerning past
stimuli
Suggests that participation in basic forms of movement may improve
reading and writing skills
Gender Body Structure Differences Across the Growth & Development
Cycle
Stature
Refers to a persons standing height
The distance between the floor and the highest point on the skull
Body length is measured in infants while the child is supine
Little difference in average length between males and females at birth
50.5 cm (boys) vs. 49.9 cm (girls)
By the end of the first year, boys are longer on average
75 cm (boys) vs. 73.1 cm (girls)
After 2 years, stature increases more slowly, until adolescence
The age of onset of the adolescent growth spurt can vary by 3+ years
Usually occurs at 10 or 11 years in girls and at 12 or 13 years in boys

Boys grow 10cm/year on average

Girls grow 8cm/year on average

Due to hormonal changes that trigger growth to a peak height by
adulthood
Peak height achieved by 18 years in boys, on
average
Peak height achieved by 16.5 years in girls, on average
Usually no change in stature after age 30
Sometime after age 45, height begins to decrease due to a degeneration
of vertebral disks
Weight

 Little difference in body weight exists between boys and girls from birth
until adolescence
Rapid weight gain occurs from birth to 6 months, such that by 5 months,
an infant can double its weight since birth (20g/day)
Weight gain decelerates during the second year of life
Weight gain continues for the next 3 years (approximately 2kg/year or
4.5lbs/year)
Slight increase in rate of weight gain per year from 6 years to adolescence
(approximately 3kg/year or 6.5lbs/year)
Sharp increase in body weight at adolescence
Boys gain 20kg (45lbs) on average
Girls gain 16kg (35lbs) on average
This adolescent weight gain can be attributed to increases in height and
changes in body composition
Gender Fitness Differences Across the Growth & Development Cycle
Four Components of Fitness
Fitness is NOT synonymous with leanness.
There are four components to fitness, including:
Cardiovascular Endurance
Body Composition
Flexibility
Muscular Strength
Cardiovascular Fitness
The efficiency of the heart, lungs, and vascular system in delivering
oxygen to working muscles in order to maintain physical work
Delivery of oxygen to muscles is affected by:
Heart rate
Stroke volume
Cardiac output
Heart Rate:
The number of times the heart beats each minute
Boys heart rates are approximately 10% lower than girls rates
Children under 6 years have an average HR of 100 bpm (beats per
minute)
The average heart rate is 72 bpm
HR increases with physical activity
Stroke Volume:
The amount of blood that is ejected from the heart with each contraction
Stroke volume is lower in children than in adults because children have
smaller hearts
Thus, heart rate needs to be higher in children
Exercise training greatly increases stroke volume
Females generally have a lower stroke volume than males at rest and
during exercise

 Cardiac Output:
The amount of blood that can be pumped from the heart in 1 minute
Cardiac Output = HR x Stroke Volume
C.O. is lower in children than adults
Training increases C.O.
o improve cardiovascular fitness, get into the habit of achieving:
Repetitive motion activity that involves large muscles
20-30 minutes of sustained activity
An increase in breathing depth and frequency
A regular schedule, 3-5 days per week
Body Composition
Refers to the amount of lean body tissue (muscle and bone) and fat in the
body
Fat is stored fat cells called adipocytes
The number of adipocytes in the body increases during childhood,
especially during the first year of life and during puberty
After puberty, girls usually have a greater percentage of fat than boys
Fat is necessary for many functions, including:
Insulation
Protection of internal organs
Energy reserve for the body
Healthy and recommended body fat content:
Males
Healthy: 10-22%
Minimal: 3-7%
Recommended: 15%
Females
Healthy: 20-32%
Minimal: 10-20%
Recommended: 25%
Calipers are the instruments used to determine body fat
There is a gradual increase in body fat with age
Women generally accumulate more fat than men; distributed evenly over
the body
Men tend to collect fat around the trunk
Flexibility
The range of motion about a joint or series of joints
Factors affecting flexibility:
Anatomical structure of joint (bony structure, muscles,
ligaments, tendons)
Exercise habits
Stretching habits
Age (natural decrease with age)
Gender (women are generally more flexible)

 The stretch reflex protects stretched muscles from injury

Muscle spindles signal an increase in length of the muscle when stretched
When the stretch reflex is invoked, the muscle contracts in order to
prevent over-stretching and potential injury
Slow, gentle stretches will prevent the stretch reflex by activating Golgi
tendon organs that act in opposition to the stretch reflex
Stretches that are held allow the muscle to relax and lengthen
Stretches should cause tension but not pain within the muscle
Warm-up prior to stretching
Hold the stretched position for 15-20 seconds
Muscular Strength
The maximum tension or force a muscle can exert in a single contraction
Muscular strength is important because muscle contraction allows
movement to occur
Without muscular strength, a sedentary life often results
A hand grip dynamometer is commonly used to measure muscular
strength or grip strength
The instrument is used to measure the force exerted when a hand
squeezes as hard as possible
Strength gains in adolescence are rapid for both males and females
In females, strength begins to peak by the late teens
In males, strength begins to peak during the twenties
Difference in muscle strength in males versus females becomes apparent
after puberty
Testosterone is responsible for increases in muscularity and exists in
smaller amounts in women compared to men
Thus, women tend to develop less muscle and more body fat as adults
Strength peaks between 20-30 years of age and then slowly declines with
age in both sexes
Resistance training with weights increases muscular strength
Significant strength gains can be achieved in prepubescent individuals
with resistance training
Weight-lifting is NOT recommended for prepubescent children
Regular strength training can slow the decline in strength seen with age in
both men and women
Strength training practiced regularly throughout adulthood can increase
mobility and independence when elderly
Social and Psychological Factors Across the Growth & Development
Cycle
Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
Self-Esteem: the value we place on ourselves as persons
Self-Concept: the perception that we have of ourselves
Athletic Competence: a perceived level of success in competitive sporting
activities

 Involvement in physical activity has been shown to enhance self-esteem

and self-concept
Athletic competence is not necessary to achieve the self-esteem benefits
of physical activity
Though athletic competence can have a positive effect on self-esteem in
itself
Social Influences

Family

Social

Peers

Influenc
es

Family
Family influences childrens choice to participate in physical activities and
the success attained
Parents approval or disapproval of physical activity impacts the childs
future involvement in sports
The familys views concerning physical activity are instilled at a young age
Peers
As adolescence approaches, the familys influence diminishes
The peer group becomes an important social force
The need for peer approval can affect decisions concerning participation
in physical activity positively or negatively
Youth Sports
Why Children Participate in Sports
Children have cited many reasons for sport participation. Of these, which is the
most important to them?
To improve skills
To have fun
To be with friends
To be part of a team
To experience excitement
To receive awards
To win
To become more physically fit
Why Children Drop Out of Sports

 Interpersonal problems (disliking the coach or peers)

To pursue other leisure activity interests
To become involved in a different sport activity
Excessive stress
It is more common for children to drop out due to interpersonal problems than
due to excessive stress.
Youth Sport Coaching
It is important to offer youth sport programs that are led by competent
coaches
Too often, coaches are volunteers or parents and have little formal
training
Coaches should be encouraged to become certified prior to coaching
Childrens first experiences in organized sport should be positive in order
to develop healthy attitudes towards sports and physical activity