1.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of a pavement is to carry traffic safely, conveniently and economically over
its extended life. The pavement must provide smooth riding quality with adequate skid
resistance and have adequate thickness to ensure that traffic loads are distributed over
an area so that the stresses and strains at all levels in the pavement and sub-grade are
within the capabilities of the materials at each level.
The performance of the pavement therefore related to its ability to serve traffic over a
period of time. From the day it is opened to traffic, a pavement will suffer progressive
structural deterioration. It is possible that the pavement may not fulfill its intended
function of carrying a projected amount of traffic during its design life, because the degree
of deterioration is such that reconstruction or major structural repair is necessitated before
the end of the design life.
There are two main types of failure, functional and structural, associated with pavement
deterioration. Functional failure is that wherein the pavement is unable to carry traffic
without causing discomfort to the road users. This failure depends primarily upon the
degree of surface roughness. Structural failure, on the other hand, indicates a breakdown of
one or more component making it incapable of sustaining the loads imposed upon its
surface.
In flexible pavements, this failure may result from bituminous surface fatigue,
consolidation, settlement, and shear developing in the sub-grade or inadequate
performance of the subs, road base, and surface, as a result of inadequate pavement
thickness

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavements are those which are surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt) materials.
These types of pavements are called flexible since the total pavement structure bends
or deflects due to traffic loads. A flexible pavement structure is generally composed of
several layers of materials which can accommodate this flexing. Flexible pavements
comprise more than 90 percent of our paved roads.
There are many different types of flexible pavements. It covers three of the more common
types of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) mix types commonly used. Other flexible pavements such
as bituminous surface treatments (BSTs) are considered by most agencies to be a form of
maintenance and are thus covered under maintenance and rehabilitation. HMA mix types
differ from each other mainly in maximum aggregate size, aggregate gradation and asphalt
binder content or type.
Guides are available on dense-graded HMA in most flexible pavement sections because it is
the most common HMA pavement material. (HAPI, 2002).components makes it incapable
of sustaining the loads imposed upon its surface. In flexible pavements, this failure may
result from bituminous surface fatigue, consolidation, settlement, and shear developing in
the sub-grade or inadequate performance of the subs, road base, and surface, as a result
of inadequate pavement thickness.

2.2 Pavement Design

Effective pavement design is one of the important aspects of project design. The pavement
is the portion of the highway, which is most obvious to the motorist. The condition and
adequacy of the highway are often judged by the smoothness or roughness of the
pavement. Deficient pavement conditions can result in increased user costs and travel
delays, braking and fuel consumption, vehicle maintenance repairs and the probability of
increased crashes.
The pavement life is substantially affected by the number of heavy load repetitions
applied, such as single, tandem, tridem and quad axle trucks, buses, tractor trailers and
equipment. A properly designed pavement structure will take into account the applied
loading. (Mass Highway, 2006). The primary function of the pavement structure is to
reduce and distribute the surface stresses (contact tire pressure) to an acceptable level at
the sub-grade (to a level that prevents permanent deformation).
A flexible pavement reduces the stresses by distributing the traffic wheel loads over
greater and greater areas, through the individual layers, until the stress at the sub-grade is
at an acceptably low level. The traffic loads are transmitted to the sub-grade by aggregateto-aggregate particle contact. Confining pressures (lateral forces due to material weight) in
the sub-base and base layers increase the bearing strength of these materials. A cone of
distributed loads reduces and spreads the stresses to the sub-grade. (Fred L. et al, 2004)

2.3 Factors to be considered

The information obtained from the explorations and the test should be adequate to enable
full consideration of all factors affecting the suitability of the subgrade and subsoil. The
primary factors are as follows:
The general characteristics of the sub-grade soils such as soil classification, limits,
etc.
Depth to bed rock.
Depth to water table (including perched water table).
The compaction that can be attained in the sub-grade and the adequacy of the
existing density in the layers below the zone of compaction requirements.
The

CBR

that

the

compacted

sub-grade

and un-compact sub-grade will

have under local environmental conditions. In-place densities are satisfactory.

The presence of weak of soft layers in the sub-soil.
Susceptibility to detrimental frost action
2.4 Selection of Material and Sub Base Course
2.4.1 General
It is common practice in pavement design to use locally available or other readily available
materials between the sub-grade and base course for the economy. These layers are
designated as select materials or sub bases. Those with design CBR values equal to or less
than 20 are designated select materials, and those with CBR values above 20 are designated
sub bases.
Minimum thicknesses of pavement and base have been established to eliminate the need
for sub bases with design CBR values above 50. Where the design CBR value of the subgrade without processing is in the range of 20 to 50, select materials and sub bases may
not be needed. However, the sub-grade cannot be assigned design CBR values of 20 or
higher unless it meets the gradation and plasticity requirements for sub bases.

2.4.2 Materials
The investigations described above will be used to determine the location and
characteristics of suitable soils for select material and sub base construction. Select
materials will normally be locally available coarse grained soils (prefix G or S), although
fine-grained soils in the ML and CL groups may be used in certain cases. Lime rock, coral,
shell, ashes, cinders, cliche, disintegrated granite, and other such materials should be
considered when they are economical.
2.4.3 Sub Base Materials
Sub base materials may consist of naturally occurring coarse- grained soils or blended and
processed soils. Materials such as lime rock, coral, shell, ashes, cinders, cliche, and
disintegrated granite may be used as sub bases when they meet the requirements. The
existing subgrade may meet the requirements for a sub base course or it may be possible
to treat the existing subgrade to produce a sub base.
However, admixing native or processed materials will be done only when the unmixed
subgrade meets the liquid limit and plasticity index requirements for sub bases. It has been
found that "cutting" plasticity in this way is not satisfactory. Material stabilized with
commercial additives may be economical as a sub base. Portland cement, lime, flash, or
bitumen and combinations thereof are commonly employed for this purpose. Also,
it may be possible to decrease the plasticity of some materials by use of lime or Portland
cement in sufficient amounts to make them suitable as sub bases.

3. Comparison between Old Manual and New Manual of PWD Road Design.
Among the improvements that have been made in the new guidelines are
as follows:
a) Method pavement structure design in the new manual takes into
account the use of the latest technologies in road construction such
as soil stabilization methods, the use of polymer as an additive and
so on.
b) Applying the method of "catalog of pavement structure" to
accelerate the design process and get the design of the road
structure that is more "state-of-the-art".
c) Provides design methods to structure a different path by heiraki
road namely from the road traffic is low (ESAL< 10
high-capacity (> 30 10

) to the way

ESAL) depends on the strength of

different origin.
d) The method of calculation and analysis of pavement structure
design is based on a mechanistic approach that takes into account
the ability of the construction materials used.

Instructions for Use

All new road projects and road maintenance projects handled by
PWD is required to use the Technical Directive (road) to ensure that
this new way of complying with the quality criteria set.
Effective

 Letter of Instruction is effective immediately and applies for a period

of FIVE YEARS from the date it is signed unless the current policy
directions or developments that need to be reviewed and updated in
advance or before the period ends.

(Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85 Manual on Pavement Design)

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
This manual consists of the thickness design method, materials specification and the mix
design for asphaltic pavements. The structural design has been based on the AASHO
(American Association of State Highway Officials) Road Test results but the design method
is developed using the multi-layered elastic theory through the use of the Chevron N-layer
computer program. The mix design and material requirements are based on the existing
specifications with modifications to incorporate local experience.
The reports pertaining to the development of this manual are as listed in references 10 & 11.
This manual is to be used for the design of flexible pavements for roads under the jurisdiction
of JKR. It comprises of details for the thickness design, materials specification and the mix
design requirements. When using this manual, the designer should take into account other
relevant factors such as soil properties, economy of design and practical considerations with
regard to the suitability of materials on site. This manual is suitable for the design of major
roads i.e. where the traffic is medium or heavy

Traffic Estimation
1. The equivalent 8.16 tonne standard axle load applications shall be obtained through the
following procedure
2. Estimate the initial Average Daily Traffic ADT (both ways).
3. Estimate the percentage of commercial vehicles Pc. The commercial vehicles referred to
are the medium and. heavy goods vehicles with unladen weight exceeding 1.5 tonne.
4. Estimate the rate of annual traffic growth (r). If there are different rates of annual.
Growths over the design period, then the different rates of annual traffic growth are
applied for the calculation of traffic volume for each period.
5. The initial annual commercial traffic for one direction, Vo is obtained by:
Vo = ADT x 0.5 x 365 Pc/100
where
ADT = Average Daily Traffic
commercial
vehicles
6. ThePC=
totalPercentage
number of of
commercial
vehicles
for one direction (Vc ) is obtained by

where
Vc = total number of commercial vehicles for x years
Vo = initial yearly commercial traffic
r = rate of annual traffic growth

(Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85 Pindaan 2013 Manual on Pavement Design)

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
The purpose of this Manual on design of flexible pavement structures is to
provide JKR and consultants engaged in pavement engineering projects in
Malaysia with a uniform process of designing pavements for all classes of
traffic. This Manual is based on proven, validated pavement design
technologies; it builds on past JKR practice and experience and on design
methodologies that have been successfully used in other countries over
the last twenty years. The design approach recommended in this Manual
combines improved design development data and mechanistic methods of
analysis into a single tool that is presented in the form of a catalogue of
pre-designed pavement structures. In the case of special project
conditions or requirements, mechanistic elastic multi-layer design can be
carried out using project specific input parameters in conjunction with one
of the software programs recommended in this Manual. This Manual
contains procedures for the design of the following pavement structures:

New flexible and semi-flexible pavements containing one or more

bound layers.

New flexible pavements for low volume roads, consisting of unbound

or cement stabilized granular materials capped with a thin
bituminous surface treatment.

New flexible and semi-flexible heavy duty pavements for severe

loading conditions.

For the purpose of this Manual, flexible pavements shall consist of one or
more bituminous paving materials and a bituminous or granular road base
supported by a granular sub-base. Semi-flexible pavements shall include
cement-bound or similarly stabilized base course consisting either of
plant-mixed aggregate stabilized with cement, fly-ash or lime. This Manual

does not contain information related to the structural design of new rigid
pavements.

References
1. http://www.kkr.gov.my/en/node/2366
2. https://www.scribd.com/document/73093719/Arahan-Teknik-Jalan-5-85-Manual-onPavement-Design