Chapter 13 (13.1-13.

5)
Vector-Valued Functions and Motion in
Space
Dr. Suresh Kumar, Department of Mathematics, BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Note:

Some concepts from Chapter 13 are briefly described here just to help the students. Therefore,

the following study material is expected to be useful but not exhaustive. For detailed study, the students
are advised to attend the lecture/tutorial classes regularly, and consult the text book (Thomas Calculus,
12th edition) prescribed in the hand out of the course. Report the typos in the document, if any, through
e-mail ([email protected]). Suggestions are also welcome.

Appeal: Please do not print this document. Develop a habit of reading soft copy of the notes.

Contents
SECTION 13.1 (Curves in space and their tangents) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vector-valued functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Limit of a vector-valued function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Derivatives and motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Differentiation rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SECTION 13.2 (Integrals of vector functions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SECTION 13.3 (Arc length in space)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Length of a smooth curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Arc length parameter from a fixed point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Unit tangent vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SECTION 13.4 (Curvature and normal vectors of a curve) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Curvature of a plane curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Principal unit normal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Circle of curvature for plane curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SECTION 13.5 (Tangential and normal components of acceleration) . . . . . . . . .

Torsion and the unit binormal vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Derivation of the tangential and normal components of acceleration . . . . . . . . . .

11

Useful formulas for curvature and torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

SECTION 13.6 (Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates) . . . . . . . . . . .

12

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

SECTION 13.1 (Curves in space and their tangents)

Vector-valued functions
Let x = x(t), y = y(t) and z = z(t) are continuous functions for t I. Then the points (x, y, z) trace a

Then
curve C is space. Let OP =
r (t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k.
r (t) is the position vector of an arbitrary
point P (x(t), y(t), z(t)) on the curve C, and defines a vector-valued function of the real variable t.
Ex. x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 0, t [0, 2]
are the parametric equations of a circle with centre at origin and radius 1 in the XY-plane. The corre
sponding vector-valued function is
r (t) = cos t i + sin t j.

where t is any real number.

Ex.
r (t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k,
The graph of this vector-valued function is a helix. (See Figure 1)

where t is any real number.

Ex.
r (t) = (x0 + lt) i + (y0 + mt) j + (z0 + nt) k,
Its graph is a straight line with drs l, m, n and passing through the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ).

Figure 1: Blue curve is the helix ~r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k

Limit of a vector-valued function

The limit of a vector-valued function

r (t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k is l = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k as t t0 if

lim |
r (t) l | = 0. Further,
tt0

lim
r (t) =

tt0







lim x(t) i + lim y(t) j + lim z(t) k = l1 i + l2 j + l3 k.

tt0

tt0

tt0

= cos(/4) i + sin(/4) j + (/4) k = (1/ 2) i + (1/ 2) j + (/4) k.

Ex. lim (cos t i + sin t j + t k)

t/4

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

Continuity

A vector-valued function
r (t) = x(t)i+y(t)j+z(t)k is said to be continuous at t = t0 if lim
r (t) =
r (t0 ),
tt0

that is, lim x(t) = x(t ), lim y(t) = y(t ), lim z(t) = z(t ). Thus,
r (t) is continuous at t if and only if
tt0

tt0

tt0

its component functions are continuous at t0 .

Ex. The function

r (t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k is continuous for all real values of t.

Ex. The function

r (t) = cos t i + sin t j + [t] k is not continuous at any integer value of t since the
greatest integer function [t] is not continuous for integer values of t.

Derivatives and motion

Let P and Q be the positions of a moving particle along a curve C at times t and t + t, respectively as

shown in Figure 2. Let OP =

r (t) and OQ =
r (t + t) so that P Q =
r =
r (t + t)
r (t). So

displacement of the particle in time t is

r . Therefore, velocity of the particle at the point P is given
by

r (t + t)
r (t)

r
d
r

v = lim
= lim
=
,
t0
t0 t
t
dt

known as the derivative of

r with respect to t.

Figure 2: As 0, the point P tends to point Q along the curve C. In the limit, the vector P~Q/t becomes the tangent
vector ~r 0 (t) at P .

then
If
r (t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k,

d
r
dx dy dz

v =
=
i+
j+
k.
dt
dt
dt
dt

The curve traced by

r (t) is said to be smooth if

d
r
dt

is continuous and non-zero for all values of t in

the interval under consideration. Further, the non-zero vector

d
r
dt

is along the tangent to the curve at

Vector Functions

P . Therefore,

d
r
dt

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

is defined as the vector tangent to the curve at P . Thus, a smooth curve has a unique

tangent at each of its points.

It would be useful to memorize the following formulas related to motion.

d
r

(1) Velocity:
v =
.

 dt

d r 

.
(2) Speed: |
v | = 
dt 

d
v
d2
r

.
(3) Acceleration:
a =
=
2
dt
dt

v
(4) Unit vector in the direction of motion: n
=
.

|
v
|



= |
v|n
=(Speed)(Direction)

v = |
v|

|v|

Ex. A person on a hang glider is spiralling upward due rapidly rising air on a path
r (t) = 3 cos t i +
Find the velocity vector, acceleration vector, gliders speed at time t, and the times when
3 sin t j + t2 k.
the gliders acceleration is orthogonal to its velocity.

Sol. We find

v = 3 sin t i + 3 cos t j + 2t k.

a = 3 cos t i 3 sin t j + 2 k.

Gliders Speed= |
v | = 9 + 4t2 .

When
v is orthogonal to
a , we have
v .
a = 0, which gives t = 0.

Differentiation rules

c be a constant vector; h be a scalar

Let
u and
v be differentiable vector functions of a real variable t;
constant and f be any differentiable scalar function of t. Then we have

d
d
d
u

(1) (
c ) = 0, (h
u) =h
.
dt
dt
dt

d
df
du
u) =
u +f
. (Scalar multiple rule)
(2) (f
dt
dt
dt

d
du
dv
(3) (
u
v)=

. (Sum/Difference rule)
dt
dt
dt

d
du
d
v

(4) (
u .
v)=
.
v +
u.
. (Dot product rule)
dt
dt
dt

d
du
d
v

(5) (
u
v)=

v +
u
. (Cross product rule)
dt
dt
dt

d
d
u df
(6) [
u (f (t))] =
. (Chain rule)
dt
dt dt

Ex. Show that a vector function

r (t) is of constant length if and only if it is orthogonal to its first

d
r

derivative, that is, |

r (t)| is constant if and only if
r.
= 0.
dt

d
d
r

Sol. We have
r .
r = |
r |2 = a2 (say) iff (
r .
r ) = 0 iff
r.
= 0.
dt
dt

For example, consider

r (t) = cos t i + sin t j + k.

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

d
r

Then |
r (t)| = 2. Also,
r.
= 0.
dt

SECTION 13.2 (Integrals of vector functions)

Note: Projectile motion is excluded from this section.

A differentiable function R (t) is said to be an antiderivative of a vector function

r (t) on an interval

dR

c is any constant vector, then R (t) +

c is also an antiderivative of
I if
=
r (t) for all t I. If
dt

r (t), which we define as indefinite integral of

r (t) on I and we write
Z

c .
r (t)dt = R (t) +

If the components of
r (t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k are integrable over [a, b], then so is
r (t) and the definite

integral of
r (t) from a to b is Further,
Z b

Z b

Z b

Z b

r (t)dt =
x(t)dt i +
y(t)dt j +
z(t)dt k.
a

For example,
Z
Z

(cos t i + j 2tk)dt =


Z

cos t dt i +


dt

j +

Z

2t dt k = j 2 k.

SECTION 13.3 (Arc length in space)

Length of a smooth curve

a t b, that is traced exactly once at t

The length of a smooth curve
r (t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k,
increases from a to b, is
s

Z b  2  2  2
Z b
Z b
 d

r
dx
dy
dz


 dt =
L=
+
+
dt =
|
v | dt
 dt 
dt
dt
dt
a
a
a

How far does the glider travel

Ex. A glider soaring upward along the helix
r (t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k.
along its path from t = 0 to t = 2.
Z 2 p

Sol. L =
( sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + 12 dt = 2 2.
0

Arc length parameter from a fixed point

The length from a fixed point P (t0 ) to any point Q(t) is given by
Z t

s(t) =
|
v ( )| d.
t0

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

From this relation, we can obtain t in terms of the arc length s. So

r (t) =
r (t(s)).

Ex. Find the arc length parameter along the helix r (t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k from t0 = 0.
Z tp
Z t

| v ( )| d =
( sin )2 + (cos )2 + 12 dt = 2t.
Sol. s(t) =
0

Therefore t =

s ,
2

r (s) = cos

and the helix in terms of the arc length parameter s reads as

i + sin

j +

k.
Z

Rk. By fundamental theorem of calculus, the relation s(t) =

|
v ( )| d gives

t0

ds

= |
v (t)| ,
dt
which is the speed of the particle at time t. Notice that it is independent of t0 .

Unit tangent vector

v
d
r

is tangent to the curve

r (t), so T =
is unit tangent vector to it.
Since
v =

dt
|v|

d
r
d
r dt
v
Also,
=
=
= T.

ds
dt ds
|v|

So the unit tangent vector to the smooth curve

r (t) is

d
r
v
T =
.
=
ds
|
v|

Ex. For counterclockwise motion around the circle

r (t) = cos t i + sin t j, we find
v (t) == sin t i +

cos t j and |
v (t)| = 1. So unit tangent vector is T == sin t i + cos t j.

SECTION 13.4 (Curvature and normal vectors of a curve)

Curvature of a plane curve

d
r

The curvature of a smooth curve

r (t) is defined as the rate at which the unit tangent vector T =
ds
turns per unit length along the curve. It is denoted by .
  

 
 dT   dT dt 
 dT 
1
  

 
= =
 .
=
 ds   dt ds  |
v |  dt 
It is the mathematical measure of bending of curve.
Ex. Show that curvature of a straight line is 0.
Sol. For a straight line, T always point in the same direction. So T has constant components and
 
1  dT 
consequently = |
= 0, as expected, since a straight line has no bending at any point.

v |  dt 

Ex. Find the curvature of the circle

r (t) = a cos t i + a sin t j.

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

Sol. We have

d
r

v =
= a sin t i + a cos t j and |
v | = a.
dt

v
dT
T =
= sin t i + cos t j and
= cos t i sin t j.

dt
|v|
 
1  dT  1
Finally, =
 = .

| v |  dt  a
We see that curvature of circle is constant, as expected, since circle has uniform bending at all the points.

Figure 3: The vector

dT
ds

is normal to the curve, and points in the direction of turning of T.

Principal unit normal

dT
ds

is orthogonal to T and points in the direction

 
 
in which T turns as we face in the direction of increasing arc length. At a point, where =  ddsT  6= 0, we
Since T has constant length (unity), we have T. ddsT = 0. So

define principal unit normal vector for a smooth curve as

= 1 dT .
N
ds
We can write
dT

dT dt

v
T =
.

|v|

dT

=  ds  =  dt ds  =  dt  ,
N
 dT 
 dT dt 
 dT 
 ds 
 dt ds 
 dt 

where

for
Ex. Find T and N
r (t) = t i + t2 j.
Sol. T =

|
v|

1
1+4t2

i +

2t
1+4t2

=
j, N

dT

 dt 
 dT 
 dt 

2t
1+4t2

i +

1
1+4t2

Circle of curvature for plane curves

The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point P of a plane curve where 6= 0 is the circle in the
plane of the curve that
(i) has the same tangent line at P the curve has

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

(ii) has the same curvature the curve has at P

(iii) lies towards the concave or inner side of the curve.
The radius of curvature of the curve at P is defined as the radius of the osculating circle at P . Then
centre of the osculating circle is defined as the centre of curvature of the curve at P .

Figure 4: Left: The osculating circle at P (x, y). Right: The osculating circle for the parabola y = x2 at the origin.
Ex. Find the osculating circle of the parabola y = x2 at the origin.
Sol. The parametric form of the given parabola is

r (t) = t i + t2 j.
 
1  dT 
The origin corresponds to t = 0. We find =
  = 2 at t = 0. So radius of curvature is
|
v |  dt 
= 1/ = 1/2. It is easy to assess that the centre of the osculating circle is (0, 1/2) that lies on Y-axis.
So equation of the osculating circle is x2 + (y 1/2)2 = 1/2.
Note: For
 space curves also,
 the


dT
1  dT 
= 1 dT =  dt  .
=
  and N


ds
T
 ddt

| v |  dt 

a, b 0, a2 + b2 6= 0.
Ex. Find the curvature of the helix
r (t) = a cos t i + a sin t j + bt k,

Sol. = a/(a2 + b2 ).

SECTION 13.5 (Tangential and normal components of acceleration)

Torsion and the unit binormal vector
points in the direction of turning of the path
As we have seen T points in the direction of motion, and N
is the direction
of motion. The tendency of the motion to twist out of the plane created by T and N
= T N
, known as the binormal vector. The
perpendicular to this plane and is given by the vector B

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

10

and B,
known as Frenet frame, playsan
moving right-handed vector frame formed by the vectors T, N
important role in calculating the paths of particles moving through space.

Figure 5: Left: The TNB frame of mutually orthogonal unit vectors travelling along a curve in space. Right: The three
planes in TNB frame.

= T N
, so we have
Since B

dB
dT
+ T dN = T dN . ( dT and N
have same direction.)
=
N
ds
ds
ds
ds
ds
It implies that

dB
ds

is of constant length, so
is orthogonal to T. Also, B

dB
ds

Hence B

is orthogonal to B.

and therefore parallel to N

.
is orthogonal to T and B

dB
,
= N
ds

where minus sign is conventional. The scalar is called torsion along the curve. Also, we notice that

dB
= N
.N
= .
.N
ds

dB

.N
ds

and B
constitute a right-handed frame, there are three planes determined by T, N
and
Since T, N
The plane of T and N
is called osculating plane; the plane of N
and B
is called normal plane, and
B.
 
and T is called rectifying plane. The curvature =  dT  can be thought of as the rate at
the plane of B
ds

which the normal plane turns as the point P moves along its path. Similarly, the torsion = ddsB .N
is

the rate of turning of osculating plane about T as P moves along its path. Torsion measures the twist of
the curve.

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

11

If we think of the curve as the path of a moving body, then the curvature of the curve (object path)
 

 dT 
 ds  tells us how much the path turns to the left or right as the object moves along. The torsion ddsB .N
tells how much the bodys path rotates or twists out of its plane of motion as the body moves along.
Every moving body travels with a TNB frame that characterizes the geometry of its path of motion.
(See Figure 6)

Figure 6:

Derivation of the tangential and normal components of acceleration

d
r ds
ds
d
r

=
= T.
We have
v =
dt
ds dt
dt
 2

d
v
d2 s ds dT
d2 s ds dT ds
d2 s
ds

,
a =
= 2T +
= 2T +
= 2T +
N
dt
dt
dt dt
dt
dt ds dt
dt
dt
where

dT
.
= N
ds

d2 s
d

Tangential component of
a = aT = 2 = (|
v |).
dt
dt
 2
ds

= |
v |2 .
Normal component of
a = aN =
dt

and |
Obviously,
a = aT T + aN N
a |2 = |aT |2 + |aN |2 .

, find acceleration vector of the motion

Ex. Without solving T and N
r (t) = (sin t t cos t) i + (cos t +
t sin t) j.

Sol. We have
v = ddtr = t sin t i + t cos t j and ddtv = (sin t + t cos t) i + (cos t t sin t) j.

d
|
v | = t and aT = dt
(|
v |) = 1.
q



Also, |
a | =  ddtv  = t2 +. So aN = |
a |2 a2T = t.

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

12

Figure 7: The tangential and normal components of acceleration.

= T + tN
.
Hence,
a = aT T + aN N

Useful formulas for curvature and torsion

It can be proved that (please try yourself or see from the text book)

|
v
a|
,
=

|
v |3

|
v|=
6 0.

and




 x y z 




x
y z 


... ... ...
x y z 
=
,

|
v
a |2

|
v
a|=
6 0.

Here an overdot denotes the derivative with respect to t.

a, b 0, a2 + b2 6= 0.
Ex. Find the curvature and torsion of the helix
r (t) = a cos t i + a sin t j + bt k,
Sol. = a/(a2 + b2 ), = b/(a2 + b2 ).

SECTION 13.6 (Velocity and Acceleration in Polar Coordinates)

Consider a particle moving along a curve in the polar coordinate plane with position at P (r, ) at time t.
We shall express its velocity, and acceleration in terms of the moving unit vectors
u
r = cos i + sin j,

u
= sin i + cos j

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

13

Figure 8:

shown in Figure 8. The vector u

r points along the position vector OP so that
r = r
ur . The vector u
,
orthogonal to u
r points in the direction of increasing . We find that
d
ur
u ,
= ( sin i + cos j) =
dt
d
u
ur .
= ( cos i sin j) =
dt

Therefore velocity vector

v can be expressed as

d(r
ur )
d
ur
d
r

u
=
= r
ur + r
= r
ur + r
v =
dt
dt
dt

as shown in Figure 9. The acceleration vector

a can be expressed as

Figure 9:

d
d
ur
u
d
v

u ) = ru
u + r
u + r d
a =
= (r
ur + r
r + r
+ r
dt
dt
dt
dt
u + r
u + r
u + r(

ur ) = (
ur .
= ru
r + r
r r2 )
ur + (r + 2r )

To extend these equations of motion to space, we add z k to the right-hand side of the equation
r = r
ur .
Then, in these cylindrical coordinates, we have

r = r
ur + z k,

Vector Functions

Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS Pilani

u + z k
v = r
ur + r

ur + zk.

a = (
r r2 )
ur + (r + 2r )
The vectors u
r , u
and k make a right-handed frame (see Figure 10) in which

u
r u
= k,

u
k = u
r ,

k u
r = u
.

Figure 10:

14