ALGEBRAIC THINKING

What is algebraic thinking?

The development of algebraic thinking is a process, not an event (Seeley, 2004).
Kriegler believes that the term algebraic thinking has become a catch-all phrase for the mathematics
teaching and learning that will prepare students for successful experiences in algebra and beyond
(n.d ).

A Few Key Things:

Equality & the concept of equivalence: Many students have the misconception that the equal sign
means solve or the answer is. In reality, the equal sign just means the same as. Teachers need to
expose students to true/false equations about equality (i.e. 9+0=9 or 8=5+3). This is especially
important when variables are introduced.
Inequality: Students need to reach a conceptual understanding of the greater than and less than
symbols without memory tricks.
Positive & Negative Numbers: Early on, students need to be exposed to some negative numbers. If
we always say You cant take 4 away from 2, then pretty soon they will think that problem is impossible
to solve.
Problem Solving & Critical Thinking: If students have these skills they can solve problems in new
contexts and situations by applying conjectures and generalizations.
Making Generalizations/Conjectures: As students discover patterns and mathematical rules, it is
helpful to make a growing conjecture chart for students to refer to.
Patterns: Patterns exist in math all of the time. Bahr insists, We need to trainchildren to look for, and
to expect to find, patterns in all math work that they do (2008). Starting in kindergarten, students
should frequently make and find patterns. As they do this, they will become more skilled with basic
problems, which will prepare them to find patterns in their natural world, notice growing patterns, and
make generalizations to harder problems. Likewise, when students find patterns in smaller problems,
they are learning mathematical concepts that will equip them to solve more complex problems.
(Seehttp://www.learner.org/courses/learningmath/algebra/session1/part_b/index.html)
In the early grades, working with blocks and recognizing patterns in simple multiplication prepares
students for later algebraic thinking, such as proportionality.
Variables: Variables are unknown and can change. They are represented by symbols. This may sound
complicated, but children start solving for this unknown with simple problems as early as kindergarten.
However, it is helpful to explicitly explain that we can abbreviate our thinking into one-letter symbols
(Bahr, 2008).
Relationships Between Numbers (Relational Thinking): Relational thinking focuses on the why
behind the right answer. Yes, 89 is72 but why? It is because we are solving for 8 groups that are size 9.
Bahr emphasizes that this kind of thinking can be practiced with number sentences such as: 58-27=59r where students solve for r. These kinds of math tasks require students to explain and justify their
conjectures.
Symbolic Representation of Mathematical Ideas: Students need to learn to use equations to
communicate relationships between numbers. However, it is crucial that they understand the meaning
behind the symbols (i.e. variables, equal sign, etc.).

TOOLS vs. IDEAS

Many experts in the field of mathematics view algebra as tools and ideas. Tools include problem solving
skills, representation skills, and reasoning skills. Conversely, mathematical ideas include viewing algebra
as generalized arithmetic, algebra as a language, and mathematical modeling.
In her article Just What Is Algebraic Thinking, Kriegler shared this figure about the components of
algebraic thinking:
COMPONENTS OF ALGEBRAIC THINKING
Mathematical Thinking
Tools Problem solving skills
o

Using problem
solving strategies

Informal Algebraic Ideas Algebra as abstract arithmetic

o

Conceptually based computational strategies

Ratio and proportion

Algebra as the language of mathematics

Exploring multiple

Meaning of variables and variable expressions

approaches/multipl

Meaning of solutions

e solutions

Understanding and using properties of the

Representation skills
o

Displaying

number system
o

relationships
visually,

symbols using algebraic conventions

o

Using equivalent symbolic representations to

symbolically,

manipulate formulas, expressions, equations,

numerically,

inequalities

verbally

Algebra as a tool to study functions and mathematical

Translating among

modeling

different

representations
o

Reading, writing, manipulating numbers and

Interpreting

rules in real-world contexts

o

information within
representations
Reasoning skills
o

Inductive reasoning

Deductive

Seeking, expressing, generalizing patterns and

Representing mathematical ideas using

equations, tables, graphs, or words

Working with input/output patterns

Developing coordinate graphing skills

reasoning
But What Does This Mean?
Problem Solving: Having a toolkit of sorts that helps you solve unfamiliar problems. If you can see
patterns and relationships, you can solve more complex problems (Kriegler, n.d.).
Multiple Representations: Explaining thinking in a variety of ways deepens our mathematical
understanding.
Reasoning: Being able to reason is crucial to algebra and math. Inductive reasoning involves finding
patterns in specific problems and applying them to other situations. Students use deductive reasoning
when they reach particular conclusions from problem types.

Abstract Arithmetic: Early on, teachers should turn student focus to the multiplicative nature of
arithmetic. Students develop primitive algebraic thinking at an early age. This can be as simple as
representing a quantity with a model (i.e. holding up three fingers to show their age).
Interesting Video: http://www.learner.org/courses/learningmath/algebra/session1/part_a/
Later, students see relationships between addition (10+20=30 and 20+10=30) and they extend these
patterns to all addition problems. Project M 3, a 5-year collaborative research group from several
universities believes that finding generalizations like this is early algebraic thinking (Project M 3, n.d.).
Language of Math: Some teachers purport that algebra is the language of math. In short, being fluent
in the language of algebra requires both understanding the meaning of its vocabulary (i.e. symbols and
variables) and flexibility to use its grammar rules (i.e. mathematical properties and conventions)
(Kriegler, n.d.). However, similar to oral language, if students do not understand the words, they will
not be able to effectively communicate. For students to be able to use algebra to communicate their
thinking, they must understand the meaning behind symbols, the relationships between numbers, and
the enduring patterns in numbers.
Tool to Study Functions & Mathematical Modeling: Algebra can be extended to the real world.
Further, students can use equations and graphs to illustrate mathematical patterns and relationships.

Additional Helpful Websites:

http://www2.edc.org/cope/projsupport/msp_reta/opd_demo/lc/sessions/session1.asp
http://www.learner.org/courses/learningmath/algebra/session1/index.html

National StandardsNational Council of Teachers of Mathematics

(NCTM, 2006)
Kindergarten: Children identify, duplicate, and extend simple number patterns and sequential and
growing patterns (e.g., patterns made with shapes) as preparation for creating rules that describe
relationships.
Grade One: Through identifying, describing, and applying number patterns and properties in developing
strategies for basic facts, children learn about other properties of numbers and operations, such as odd
and even (e.g., Even numbers of objects can be paired, with none left over), and 0 as the identity
element for addition.
Grade Two: Children use number patterns to extend their knowledge of properties of numbers and
operations. For example, when skip counting, they build foundations for understanding multiples and
factors.
Grade Three: Understanding properties of multiplication and the relationship between multiplication
and division is a part of algebra readiness that develops at grade 3. The creation and analysis of patterns
and relationships involving multiplication and division should occur at this grade level. Students build a
foundation for later understanding of functional relationships by describing relationships in context with
such statements as, The number of legs is 4 times the number of chairs.
Grade Four: Students continue identifying, describing, and extending numeric patterns involving all
operations and nonnumeric growing or repeating patterns. Through these experiences, they develop an
understanding of the use of a rule to describe a sequence of numbers or objects.
Grade Five: Students use patterns, models, and relationships as contexts for writing and solving simple
equations and inequalities. They create graphs of simple equations. They explore prime and composite

numbers and discover concepts related to the addition and subtraction of fractions as they use factors
and multiples, including applications of common factors and common multiples. They develop an
understanding of the order of operations and use it for all operations.
Grade Six: Students use the commutative, associative, and distributive properties to show that two
expressions are equivalent. They also illustrate properties of operations by showing that two expressions
are equivalent in a given context (e.g., determining the area in two different ways for a rectangle whose
dimensions are x + 3 by 5). Sequences, including those that arise in the context of finding possible rules
for patterns of figures or stacks of objects, provide opportunities for students to develop formulas.
Bibliography
Bahr, D., & de Garcia, L.A. (2008). Elementary mathematics is anything but elementary. Boston: Cengage
Learning.
Kriegler, S. Just what is algebraic thinking? Retrieved December 16, 2008,
fromhttp://www.math.ucla.edu/~kriegler/pub/algebrat.html
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 2006. Curriculum focal points for prekindergarten through
grade 8 mathematics: A quest for coherence. Reston,VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Project M3. Awesome algebra: Looking for patterns and generalizations. Retrieved December 16, 2008,
fromhttp://www.gifted.uconn.edu/ProjectM3/teachers_curriculum_3_unit4.htm.
Seeley, C.L., (2004). A journey in algebraic thinking. NCTM News Bulletin, September 2004. Retrieved
December 16, 2008 from http://www.nctm.org/about/content.aspx?id=936.

It's Elementary: Introducing Algebraic

Thinking Before High School
by Leslie Blair
Published in SEDL Letter Volume XV, Number 1, December 2003, Improving Achievement In
Mathematics and Science

Sitting in Mrs. Peavey's Algebra I class, I experienced

algebra much like millions of other Americansas an intensive
study of the last three letters of the alphabet.
I failed to grasp the importance of algebrahow it provides
support for almost all of mathematics or to understand its
power as a tool for analytical thinking. It was a course I
endured to get into college.

Algebra for All

Thirty years later, algebra is not just for those who plan
to attend college, but for everyone. Robert Moses, founder
of the Algebra Project, says that in today's technological
society, algebra has become a gatekeeper for citizenship and
economic access. As the world has become more technological,
the reasoning and problem solving that algebra demands are
required in a variety of workplace settings. We also see evidence
of the growing importance of algebra in standards and assessments.
National and state assessments include algebraic skills at
the eighth-grade level and many high school exit exams now
test algebraic proficiency. It seems the mantra "algebra for
all" has been firmly established. Johnny Lott, president of
the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), agrees.
"I think most everybody recognizes the importance of algebra.
It is a question of how they introduce it and when," he says.
James Kaput, a researcher from the University of Massachusetts,
Dartmouth, believes that by "algebrafying" the K12 curriculum,
we can fulfill the promise of algebra for all and eliminate
"the most pernicious curricular element of today's school
mathematics late, abrupt, isolated, and superficial high
school algebra courses" (Kaput, 2000). The idea isn't new.
Kaput, other researchers and educators, and the NCTM have
been promoting algebra as a K12 experience, integrating algebraic
thinking and reasoning throughout the mathematics curriculum.
University of Wisconsin researcher Linda Levi, who has been
working on a study called the Early Algebra Project for the
past eight years, emphasizes, "We're not saying you should
be teaching high school algebra to elementary school children."
Instead, Levi and her colleagues in the Early Algebra Project,
Thomas Carpenter and Megan Loef Franke, believe teachers should
engage children in learning about the general principles of
mathematics as they are learning arithmetic. They say that
the learning of arithmetic is often isolated from other related
mathematical ideas. This deprives students of powerful ways
of thinking about mathematics and can make it more difficult
for students to learn algebra later on. Many students studying
high school algebra don't see the procedures they use to solve
equations or simplify expressions as based on the same properties
that they used in arithmetic computation (Carpenter, Franke,
& Levi, 2003).

The Early Algebra Research Project

The Early Algebra Research Project began in 1996 under
the direction of Thomas Carpenter, director of the National
Center for Improving Student Learning and Achievement
in Mathematics; Megan Loef Franke, an associate professor
at the University of California, Los Angeles, and director
of Center X: Where Research and Practice Intersect for
Urban School Professionals; and Linda Levi, associate
researcher at the Wisconsin Center for Education Research.
It grew out of the Cognitively Guided Instruction research
program begun in 1985.
The study, which initially began in Madison, Wisconsin,
involved approximately 240 elementary school students
and their teachers. It found that innovative professional
development and refocused mathematics instruction paved
the way for elementary school children to begin to reason
algebraically.
The researchers are now conducting a large-scale experimental
study in Los Angeles, involving about 5,000 elementary
school students and their teachers. The study is examining
the effects of the teacher professional development
program on students' algebraic understandings.
Levi says the researchers have collected achievement
data for the students involved and will complete their
analysis in 2004.
Levi explains, "Kids come to school with a very rich understanding
of numbers and operations. They may still make mistakes when
counting but they solve many math problems. A lot of kindergartners
come in knowing that when you add zero to a number, the number
doesn't change. That is a big principle in mathematics. And
they can talk about it. Maybe they can't write it down or can't
read it if you write it down, but they can start talking about
things that they know to always be true in math." Levi adds
that teachers often don't realize how powerful the patterns
or generalizations that their students express can be. These
expressions should be seen as opportunities for class discussions
so that all of the students have access to these ideas. "As
teachers, it's really our job to understand how children think
about mathematics when they come to school and build on this
informal understanding," she says.

Fostering Students' Thinking

According
to Blanton and Kaput (2003), teachers must find ways to support
algebraic thinking and create a classroom culture that values
"students modeling, exploring, arguing, predicting, conjecturing,
and testing their ideas, as well as practicing computational
skills." They suggest that teachers "algebrafy" current curriculum
materials by using existing arithmetic activities and word
problems, transforming them from problems with a single numerical
answer to opportunities for discovering patterns and making
conjectures or generalizations about mathematical facts and
relationships and justifying them. This can be as simple as
encouraging children to discuss why they believe a mathematical
statement or solution to a problem is correct. Blanton and
Kaput suggest teachers use the following prompts as ways to
extend student thinking:

Tell me what you were thinking.

Did you solve this in a different way?

How do you know this is true?

Does this always work?

In their pilot study involving 240 students, Carpenter, Franke,

and Levi found that teachers have good luck beginning discussions
among students and eliciting generalizations from students
using true-false and open-number sentences (see examples in
the sidebar "Number Sentences Used to Elicit Generalizations").
For students in upper elementary school this can lead to discussion
of what is required to justify a generalization.

Number Sentences Used to Elicit Generalizations

Below are examples of number sentences teachers used
to help students articulate mathematical generalizations.
E XAM P LE S

78 + 0 = 78; 23 + 7 = 23
*

"When you add zero to a number, you

get the number you started with."
E XAM P LE S

96 - 96 = 0; 74 - ____
= 74

"When you subtract a number from itself,

you get zero."
E XAM P LE S

96 x 0 = 0; 43 x 0 = 43*

"When you multiply a number times

zero, you get zero."
E XAM P LE S

65 x 54 = 54 x 65; 94 x
71 = 71 x ____

"When multiplying two numbers, you

can change the order of the numbers."

*denotes a false number sentence

Source: National Center for Improving
Student Learning & Achievement in Mathematics
and Science. (2000).Building a Foundation
for Learning Algebra in the Elementary Grades.

The Notion of Equality and Relational Thinking

One of the major concepts that Carpenter, Franke, Levi, and
other researchers have written a lot about is getting children
to understand that the equal sign represents a relationship.
At the beginning of the Early Algebra Project, participating
teachers presented the following problem to their students:
8 + 4 =____ + 5

Eighty-four percent of 145 sixth-grade students gave

the
solution to the problem as "12." Another 14 percent gave the
solution as "17." It became clear through subsequent class
discussions that to these students, the equal sign meant "carry
out the operation." They had not learned that the equal sign
expresses a relationship between the numbers on each side
of the equal sign. Levi says, "We're advocating that when
teachers begin using the equal sign with children, they use
it in a way that encourages an understanding of a relationship
between two quantities rather than just a signal to perform
the operation. Number sentences such as 6 = 6 and 8 = 7 +
1 need to be included when teachers begin introducing the
equal sign."
This type of relational thinking is crucial to students who
are learning algebra but it also enhances computation skills.
"If you look at algebra in a more general sense," says Levi, "what
you are really looking for is the major unifying principles
and properties of mathematics. As soon as kids start learning
how to count, and then add, subtract, multiply, and divide,
they are encountering these major principles. It makes computation
a lot more efficient and accurate. For example, if kids understand
the distributive property, their multiplication strategies
are much more efficient and accurate than if they are trying
to do repeated addition over and over again." Teachers can
also provide opportunities for building computation skill
in the context of finding and generalizing mathematical patterns
and relationships.
How do teachers know if a student is using relational thinking?
Levi explains, "We eventually want children to solve a problem
like 397 + 248 = 396 + t without computing. Initially children
will solve this problem by adding 397 and 248 getting 645

and then figuring out what they have to add to 396 to get
645. But by the end of elementary school, I want kids to look
at the whole number sentence and realize that since 397 is
1 more than 396, t has to be one more than 248. There are
relationships such as this one for subtraction, multiplication,
and division as well. I want children to fully understand
the operations with known quantities before they start a formal
study of algebra where many of the quantities are variables
or unknowns."

Why Understanding Equality Matters

Children must understand that equality is a relationship
that expresses the idea that two mathematical expressions
hold the same value. It is important for children to
understand this idea for two reasons. First, children
need this understanding to think about the relationships
expressed by number sentences. For example, the number
sentence 7 + 8 = 7 + 7 + 1 expresses a mathematical
relationship that is central to arithmetic. When a child
says, "I don't remember what 7 plus 8 is, but I do know
that 7 plus 7 is 14 and then 1 more would make 15,"
he or she is explaining a very important relationship
that is expressed by that number sentence. Children
who understand equality will have a way of representing
such arithmetic ideas; thus they will be able to communicate
and further reflect on these ideas. A child who has
many opportunities to express and reflect on such number
sentences as 17 - 9 = 17 - 10 + 1 might be able
to solve more difficult problems, such as 45-18, by
expressing 45 - 18 = 45 - 20 + 2. This example
shows the advantages of integrating the teaching of
arithmetic with the teaching of algebra. By doing so,
teachers can help children increase their understanding
of arithmetic at the same time that they learn algebraic
concepts.
A second reason that understanding equality as a relationship
is important is that a lack of such understanding is
one of the major stumbling blocks for students when
they move from arithmetic to algebra (Kieran, 1981 &
Matz, 1982). Consider, for example, the equation 4x
+ 27 = 87. Many would begin to solve this equation by
subtracting 27 from both sides of the equal sign. Why

may we do so? If the equal sign signifies a relationship

between two expressions, it makes sense that if two
quantities are equal, then 27 less of the first quantity
must equal 27 less of the second quantity. What about
children who think that the equal sign means that they
should do something? What chance do they have of being
able to understand the reason that subtracting 27 from
both sides of an equation maintains the equality relationship?
These students can only try to memorize a series of
rules for solving equations. Because such rules are
not embedded in understanding, students are highly likely
to remember them incorrectly and not be able to apply
them flexibly. For these reasons, children must understand
that equality is a relationship rather than a signal
to do something.
Source: Falkner, K. P., L. Levi, and
T. P. Carpenter (1999). Children's understanding of
equality: A foundation for algebra. Teaching Children
Mathematics, 6(1), p. 234. Reprinted with permission
from the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.

How Do We Get Teachers to Think Algebraically?

Elementary school teachers will need professional development
to integrate algebraic thinking into their classrooms, as
they typically have experienced algebra much like the majority
of usas Algebra I and II in high school and college. Blanton
and Kaput (2003) write, "Elementary teachers need their own
experiences with a richer and more connected algebra and an
understanding of how to build these opportunities for their
students."
A critical component of the Early Algebra Project has been
its professional development for the teachers involved in
the project. The project enabled teachers to spend time together
discussing mathematics and their students' thinking. One of
the principals in the Early Algebra Project requested that
teachers bring in examples of their students' work and discuss
with her what they were learning in the project. Such support
can go a long way in encouraging teacher development.

In the Classroom
"Build a Foundation for Learning Algebra"

Here are a few ways to provide a foundation for learning

algebra.
Ask questions that provide a window into children's
understanding of important mathematical ideas. For
example, students' responses to the number sentence
9 + 6 = __ + 8 tells a great deal about their
understanding of the meaning of the equal sign. Probe
students' reasons for their answers. Ask students
why they answered as they did.
Provide students opportunities to discuss and resolve
different conceptions of mathematical ideas. For example,
different conceptions of the equal sign that emerge
from students' solutions to the open number sentence
9 + 6 = __ + 8 can provide the basis for a productive
discussion.
Provide students with equations that help them understand
that the equal sign represents a relation between
numbers, not a signal to carry out the preceding calculation.
Examples include __= 8 + 9, 8 + 6 = 6 + , 9 + 6 = __
+ 8, Vary the format of number sentences. Include
sentences in which the answer does not come right
after the equal sign.
Provide students with true and false number sentences
that challenge their misconceptions about the equal
sign (e.g., 8 = 5 + 3, 9 = 9, 7 - 4 = 7 - 4).
Provide students problems that encourage them to
make generalizations about basic number properties
(see "Number Sentences to Elicit Generalizations.")
When they provide an answer to one of the problems,
ask them how they know their answer is correct. That
often will result in their stating a generalization
such as "When you subtract a number from itself, you
get zero." When they do state a generalization like
this, ask for example, "Is that true for all numbers?"
Have students justify generalizations they or their
peers propose. Justification of generalizations requires
more than providing a lot of examples (e.g., 8

x 5 = 5 x 8). By expecting children to justify

their claims, you can help them gain skills in presenting
mathematical arguments and proofs. Use the questions
"Will that be true for all numbers?" and "How do you
know that is true for all numbers?" repeatedly to
encourage students to recognize that they need to
justify their claims in mathematics.
Reprinted from K12 Mathematics &
Science: Teaching Considerations (Fall 2000), published
by the National Center for Improving Student Learning
& Achievement in Mathematics and Science, Wisconsin
Center for Education Research, Madison, Wisconsin.

References and Suggested Reading

Blanton, M. L., & Kaput, J. J. (2003). Developing elementary

teachers' "algebra eyes and ears." Teaching Children
Mathematics, 10(2).

Carpenter, T.C., et al. (1999). Children's Mathematics:

Cognitively Guided Instruction (with two multimedia CDs).
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Carpenter, T. C., Franke, M. L., & Levi, L. (2003). Thinking

Mathematically: Integrating Arithmetic and Algebra in Elementary
School. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Falkner, K. P., Levi, L., & Carpenter, T. P. (1999). Children's

understanding of equality: A foundation for algebra. Teaching
Children Mathematics, 6(1).

Kaput, J. J. (2000). Transforming algebra from an engine

of inequity to an engine of mathematical power by "algebrafying"
the K12 curriculum. Dartmouth, MA: National Center for
Improving Student Learning and Achievement in Mathematics
and Science. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED
441 664).

Moses, R. P., & Cobb, C. E. (2001). Radical Equations:

Math Literacy and Civil Rights. Boston: Beacon Press.

National Center for Improving Student Learning & Achievement

in Mathematics & Science. (2000). Building a foundation

for learning algebra in the elementary grades. In Brief:

K-12 Mathematics & Science Research Implications, 1(2).

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1999). Algebraic

thinking: Grades K-12. Reston, VA: NCTM.

Web sites
Eisenhower National Clearinghouse (ENC)
www.enc.org
Most mathematics and science teachers are probably
familiar with the ENC and its magazine, ENC Focus. The
Web site contains all sorts of lesson plans, activities,
and resources. Most materials are free and online. A
search for "algebraic thinking" on www.enc.org yielded
300 suggestions.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
www.nctm.org
The Web site of the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics is geared to members of the organization,
but includes a problem of the week for elementary, middle
school, and high school levels as well as some lesson
plans and activities that everyone may access. Also
online are abstracts for recent issues of NCTM journals
such as Teaching Children Mathematics and Mathematics
Teaching in High School.
standards.nctm.org/
This is the NCTM Web site focused on the NCTM Principles
and Standards for School Mathematics. It contains activities,
resources, and lesson plans based on the standards and
includes interactive and multimedia math investigations.
www.figurethis.org
Figure This! is a Web site cosponsored
by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics,
the National Action Committee for Minorities in Engineering,
and Widemeyer Communications. It features mathematics
challenges for families of middle school students and
includes interesting problems and math facts. "Teacher's

Corner" provides details on how to conduct a family

math challenge at your school.
The National Center for Improving Student Learning
and Achievement in Mathematics
ncisla.wceruw.org/
Look under Teachers' Resources on this site for a section
called "Building Students' Algebraic Reasoning." Here
you will find articles, activities, and lesson plans
to extend algebraic thinking. The Web site also includes
research summaries, newsletters, and other publications.
Increasingly, algebra is the focus of mathematics discussions in schools and districts across the United States.
Policymakers, professional organizations, and researchers emphasize the importance of developing algebraic
reasoning at increasingly earlier ages. The National Mathematics Advisory Panel (2007) has issued initial
reports stating that students need to develop understanding of concepts, problem-solving skills, and
computational skills related to algebra in grades preK8. In 2006, the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics published the Curriculum Focal Points for Prekindergarten through Grade 8 Mathematics, which
emphasizes connections to algebra as early as kindergarten and promotes the development of algebraic
reasoning across the elementary and middle school grades. Finally, mathematicians and mathematics educators
are speaking up about the need to increase teachers' awareness and abilities for teaching algebra across the
grades (Wu, 1999).
Multiple factors are driving the increased emphasis on algebra proficiency. For many educators, the primary
concern is the poor performance of U.S. students on national and international assessments of mathematics
ability. On the 2005 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), only 6.9 percent of 17-year-olds
scored at or above proficiency on multistep problem solving and algebra (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2005). On the algebra subtest of the 2003 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Survey
(TIMSS), U.S. 8th graders scored below many economic competitors, such as Japan, the Russian Federation,
Korea, Singapore, and China. These results suggest that a majority of U.S. students are not proficient in algebra
by the time they exit middle school or high school.
Although the academic performance of U.S. youth as a whole is important, No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) emphasizes the need to monitor the progress of subgroup populations that have traditionally
performed below expectations. On the 2005 NAEP, 59 percent of black students, 50 percent of
Hispanic students, and 45 percent of American Indian students did not meet proficiency at the 8th
grade level. Similarly, 69 percent of students with disabilities and 71 percent of English language
learners did not reach this benchmark (National Center for Education Statistics, 2005). These results
highlight the crucial need to develop algebraic thinking across the grades and focus on providing the
best instructional practices for all students.

Why Algebra?

Employers often expect their employees to translate work-related problems into general mathematical
models, from calculating discounts for merchandise to operating technology-based equipment and
machinery. Many careers in the fields of science and technology demand high levels of mathematics
competence to solve complex problems, such as chemical equations involved in the study of drug
interactions. Algebra is also helpful in daily life, from applying formulas for calculating miles per gallon
of gasoline to using functions to determine the profit of a business venture.
Research suggests that students who pass Algebra II in high school are 4.15 times more likely to
graduate from college than other students are (Adelman, 1999). This has led many state education
agencies to raise graduation requirements to include courses in Algebra II. Currently, 13 states require
students to take Algebra II to graduate from high school, up from just two states in 2005 (Achieve,
2007). Many states and school districts are considering implementing higher mathematics standards
to promote college readiness and future success for their graduates.

What Is Algebra?
When we think about algebra in the curriculum, we often think of a separate area of mathematics
concerned with symbols and equations, such as 3x + 7y - 2 = 30. Mathematics curriculums often
reinforce the notion of separateness by identifying algebra as a distinct strand with such subtopics as
patterning, data analysis, simple functions, and coordinate systems. However, arithmetic and algebra
are not mutually exclusive areas of mathematical study.
Basic algebra, as opposed to modern or abstract algebra, extends learners' understanding of
arithmetic and enables them to express arithmetical understandings as generalizations using variable
notation. Much of the difficulty that students encounter in the transition from arithmetic to algebra
stems from their early learning and understanding of arithmetic. Too often, students learn about the
whole-number system and the operations that govern that system as a set of procedures to solve
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems. Teachers may introduce number properties
as truths or axioms without developing students' deep conceptual understanding or providing
multiple experiences applying these properties.
When teachers introduce integers and rational numbers in later elementary grades, many of these
truths about numbers and operations don't generalize to addition and subtraction of positive and
negative numbers or multiplication and division of fractions. By the time algebra is introduced in
middle school, many students view mathematical principles as subjective and arbitrary and rely on
memorization in lieu of conceptual understanding.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics has attempted to bridge the gap between arithmetic
and algebra by embedding algebraic reasoning standards in elementary school mathematics. From
grades 3 to 5, algebra is embedded with number and operations as one of the three main focal points;
beginning in grade 6, algebra is the predominant topic. However, it is not always clear how to develop
students' algebraic thinking as they learn about numbers, operations, properties of numbers, data
display and analysis, and problem solving. Teachers need support in learning how to integrate these
topics and provide rich and explicit instruction to their students in early algebraic thinking.

Teaching Algebra for Transfer

Teachers' understanding of mathematics influences the quality of their instruction. Many elementary
school teachers have limited experience with mathematics and lack the knowledge and skills to teach
mathematics effectively (Ball, Hill, & Bass, 2005). Moreover, most credentialing programs for
elementary school teachers require minimal college-level mathematics courses despite calls for
considerably more extensive requirements (Conference Board of the Mathematical Sciences, 2001).
Aside from developing their content knowledge in mathematics, these teachers can benefit from some
general instructional practices that can help them teach arithmetic for transfer to algebra.
Whenever possible, teachers should model precisely what they want students to be able to do, using
multiple examples that illustrate the range of problem types that students must solve on their own.
Demonstration models should include careful verbal explanations that explicitly detail for students how
to perform each step of the problem. As students develop expertise, teachers can make fewer verbal
explanations and focus less on each individual step.
Teachers often have difficulty modeling for students how to think about mathematics problems
conceptually. Rather than initially using numeric symbols to solve a problem, teachers might use
concrete objects or semi-concrete representations (such as pictures) to help represent the underlying
concepts behind specific problems. Teachers will find that explaining the concept of 2/3 1/3 is more
complex than explaining how to use the invert and multiply algorithm. To develop deep conceptual
understanding, teachers should draw on different types of examples that represent problems.
For example, teachers can use concrete objects to visually represent that the problem 2/3 1/3 =
means the same thing as how many 1/3s are there in 2/3? Presenting the problem this way helps
students understand what it means to divide any number by a fraction and see that in this example,
there are 2 1/3s in 2/3. However, using visual models to help students understand how to solve
problems involving division by fractions breaks down quickly when the numerical values in the
problem are not artificially constrained, such as in the problem 9/23 11/15 = . Without using the
invert and multiply algorithm, this problem becomes difficult to solve. After students understand the
meaning of division of fractions, instruction should focus on applying the algorithm in a step-by-step
fashion. With clear verbal explanations and explicit modeling, students can understand why the
algorithm works andwhat it means to divide by fractions.
In addition to hearing teachers' verbal explanations, students should share their verbal explanations to
further develop conceptual understanding. Here again, carefully chosen examples can provide a rich
source of discussion as students explain why 2 54 = 2 50 + 2 4 (an application of the distributive
property); why 72 - 6 72 (an application of the identity property of subtraction); or why 5 + 2 = 2 + 5
(an application of the commutative property of addition). Students should be able to describe the
properties of numbers in their own wordssuch as through telling a story or describing what is
happening in a picture that has an obvious numerical focusas well as in symbolic notation, and they
should be able to apply these principles in multiple contexts.
For example, young students might demonstrate the commutative property of addition by using
concrete objects, such as groups of marbles. Students might explain the commutative property by
showing that reordering the groups of marbles does not change the sum of the marbles when the

groups are added together. Once they understand the concept, the teacher might ask the students to
provide multiple representations of the commutative property using symbolic notation.
Students also need to demonstrate their own understanding and skills. Teachers can gauge how well
students solve problems in relatively straightforward ways. Students can work different types of
problems and apply algorithms to solve them. Teachers can set proficiency goals for students and
monitor student progress toward these goals.

Algebra-Specific Instructional Strategies

Algebraic reasoning builds on students' deep understanding of numbers and their relationships. Some
mathematics researchers have identified areas of arithmetic that provide the foundations for algebra.
These include

Numbers and number relationships (quantities and magnitudes).

Operations (functional relationships between numbers).

Field axioms or number properties (commutative, associative,

distributive, identity, inverse, and so on).
Other topics linked to algebra include geometry, data analysis, proportional reasoning, and
measurement. These topics provide rich opportunities for developing early algebraic reasoning as
students learn about functional relationships in these areas (Van de Walle, 2004).
To develop algebraic reasoning, students must understand the following four key components
(Milgram, 2005).

Variables and Constants

As students progress through elementary school, they learn about number systemsfrom counting,
to whole numbers, to integers, to rationals, to real numbers. Studying number systems builds
students' understanding that each new system is an extension of the previous system and that all
number systems are embedded in the real-number system. As such, each system satisfies the basic
rules of associativity, commutativity, and distributivity.
As we introduce students to variables, a key insight for students to grasp is that algebraic
expressions, in which variables replace real numbers, will also satisfy the properties with which they
are familiar. For example, when teachers introduce the distributive property, they can extend
instruction from the context of whole numbers and integers to expressions with variables. They can
follow a discussion of the problem
6 (2 + 9) = 6 2 + 6 9

with a discussion of
6 (t + 9) = 6 t + 6 9.

Representing and Decomposing Word Problems Algebraically

Key to abstract reasoning and using algebra to solve problems is using algebraic expressions to
describe problems. For example, students who think in algebraic terms easily translate the phrase if
you add 3 to a number times itself into n2 + 3. Students need to apply this conversion of phrases to
solve word problems. Teachers can help students master this skill by modeling and using language

that identifies the unknown in a problem and then translates the process of finding the unknown into
mathematical statements and equations.
Consider the following word problem:
Maria needs to find the weight of a box of cereal using a balancing scale. Maria puts 6 identical boxes
of cereal on one side of the scale. To balance the scale, Maria puts 2 more identical boxes of the
same cereal and 3 4-pound blocks on the other side of the scale. How much does each box of cereal
weigh?
Teachers can model how to solve this problem by first identifying the unknown component (the weight
of each box of cereal, labeled y) and the known components (the number of boxes of cereal and the
weight and number of the blocks). Next, teachers can help students understand how to translate
these elements into a mathematical statement to solve for the unknown (6y = 2y + 12). Students can
check answers by inserting various numerical values into equations to verify solutions. This last step
is about more than just getting the correct answer; it is an important step in problem solving because it
encourages students to reflect on the original problem and determine whether the answer is
reasonable.
For many students, improving skills at translating or converting problems to algebraic expressions will
pose challenges. Students need to learn to break the problem into separate parts and then convert
each part to an expression or equation that acknowledges the restrictions that the problem places on
it (for example, the phrase times itself). Students will also need to recognize when a problem
contains irrelevant information.

Symbol Manipulation
Many adults associate symbol manipulation with algebra because their memories of basic algebra are
with the struggles of moving abstract symbols about the page to solve for x. Although isolating the
variable is still the goal for symbol manipulation, students need to understand that manipulating
symbols in an equation merely simplifies the equation in a manner that enables us to get the answer
we are seeking. Lawful manipulation of the symbols results in an equation that has the same solutions
as the original equation.
Related to this topic is a common misconception about the equality rule and the equal sign. Many
students in the early grades view a number sentence or mathematical formula as something to do,
most often with input on the left and output on the right. Consider the number sentence 5 + 3 = .
Students interpret this as adding the quantities 5 and 3 to find the specific answer of 8. Students may
not view the following as possible solutions to the same problem:
5+3=3+5
5+x=8
8=5+3
5+3=2+6

Teaching equality and the meaning of the equal sign as a symbol that indicates both sides are
balanced (as symbolized, for example, by a balance scale) provides opportunities for students to see
equations as more than something to act on or a problem for which they must seek a single solution.
Encouraging students to generate multiple solutions to 5 + 3 prepares them for working with variables,
understanding and applying the commutative property and the inverse property of addition and
subtraction.

Functions
Students should begin to learn elements of functions early in their school careers. Teachers need to
strategically teach students to build patterns in which each input has only one output. Milgram (2005)
provides an example of how kindergarten teachers can help their students understand simple
functions. By sorting and classifying objects on the basis of unique properties, students can
understand the association between objects in one set and unique objects (or features of the object)
in another set. For example, students can sort objects by color. If each object has a specific color, the
object is the input and the color is the output. Sorting the objects by color is an example of a function.
As students progress in their understanding, teachers can explicitly model symbolic representations of
functions.
Later students will learn to graph the Cartesian coordinates of the members of the input and output
sets (domain and range). Next, they'll develop an understanding of how the domain and range
represent a rule of correspondence that can be described using function notation, a convention in
mathematics. Ultimately, these early insights into functions assist learners in understanding linear
algebra and, later, curvilinear and quadratic functions and the role they play in mathematical
relationships.
Finally, to help students develop algebraic reasoning in problem solving, students must develop a
degree of certainty about the properties of number systems that allow us to manipulate and operate
on numbers. Teachers can build this certainty in students by teaching the process of mathematical
induction so students understand that their actions must be verifiable mathematically to be lawful and
useful (Milgram, 2005). Teachers often teach mathematical induction as a procedure without
sufficiently understanding why induction is so crucial for students' cognitive development in
mathematics.

Starting Early
Because the goal of teaching algebra is to help students develop abstract reasoning in problem
solving, schools should begin to develop these skills in students at the elementary level. By
systematically and explicitly incorporating concepts of algebra in elementary school mathematics,
schools can help students avoid developing many misconceptions about number and number
relationships, operations, and application of number properties. Teaching mathematics in the
elementary grades to transfer to algebraic concepts may promote success for all students engaged in
mathematical reasoning.

My Aha! Moment

Keith Devlin, Professor of Mathematics at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. The Math Guy on
National Public Radio.
Mathematics suddenly interested me when I encountered calculus at age 16. Before then, I never saw much point in
the subject beyond basic arithmetic, and looking back I now realize why. Other than basic number skills and a bit of
trigonometry, no subject generally taught before calculus shows how mathematics makes a difference in the
world.Logical thinking is important in earlier math classes, but not mathematical thinking.
The enormous power of mathematicsand its beautylies in the vast range of the subject beyond high school
mathematics. The mathematics taught in school is what I call abstracted mathand it really amounts to little more
than formalized common sense. You can call it math, but it really isn't.
What our modern world depends onbig timeis what I call constructed math. This is the rule-based, abstract
reasoning system that forms the basis of all science and engineering, and a lot else besides. It isn't really abstracted
from the world; rather, we humans create it to apply to the world. By and large, this kind of mathematics cannot be
learned before the upper levels of high school; it requires too much mental sophistication. But there is no reason
why we can't teach such mathematics descriptively, where the goal is awareness and understanding, not the ability
to do it. I am sure that if I had been taught that way, I would have been interested in math long before I was.

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