CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION :
Ultrasonic : Ultra means beyond ; Sonic means audible range of sound .
Then Ultrasonic is the sound energy having the frequency beyond the frequency of
audible sound.
What is the frequency of audible sound ?
20 to 20000 Hz. or 20 Hz to 20 KHz. is the range of frequency of audible sound.
Then Ultrasonic is sound energy having frequency above 20,000 Hz or 20 KHz. The
sound is the vibration means back and forth movements.
For example if you strike a drum, the top surface moves back and forth. Or hit the
key on piano wire, it start to vibrate by back and forth movements in air.
Similarly the sound can travel in solid material. For example if a jack hammer put
on solid metal hear the sound in air and you put the ear in the metal also can hear the
sound. So the sound can travel through solid also. But if you put the probe on the
same material cant hear the sound because the probe injecting the ultrasonic
vibration, which is beyond the audible range. So sound is the mechanical vibration.

.
Vibration is the displacement of a mass from its rest position. There is no
permanent displacement.
Ultrasonic energy travel through the medium in the form of wave by the movement
of the particles in different manner or mode.
1) Frequency is the number of cycles per second , denoted by f, and unit in Hz ).

2) Wavelength is the horizontal distance covered by one cycle and denoted

by and
v
= -where v = velocity and f = frequency.
f
3) Velocity is the speed at which sound waves travel through a medium
(V in meters / second). This depends on elastic properties & density of
a medium and wave mode.
4) Propagation is advancement of a wave through a medium.
5) Mode is the manner in which acoustic energy is propagated through a
material as characterized by the particle motion of the wave.
There are various modes of ultrasonic vibrations which will travel through
solids. The modes most widely used in ultrasonic testing are : longitudinal,
shear, surface and plate waves. Each mode, or wave type, causes a specific
movement in the elements of a medium.

Longitudinal ( compression rarefaction ) waves are waves in which the

particle vibrations are restrained to a back-and-forth motion in the direction of
wave propagation. They have a high velocity in most materials and will travel
through liquids, solids and gases. Longitudinal waves are also known as
compressional or L waves.

Longitudinal waves produce vibrations in the same direction ( parallel ) to the

motion of the sound.

A wave having particle vibrations perpendicular ( normal ) to the direction of

wave motion is called a shear or transverse wave. A shear wave may
also be known as a T wave. The velocity of shear waves is approximately
half that of longitudinal waves. Because of this lower velocity, the wavelength
of shear waves is much shorter than that of longitudinal waves. Another
characteristic we should remember is that shear waves will not travel through
liquids or gases, as they sustain no shear stress.
Longitudinal and Shear Wave Modes Compared

Surface or Rayleigh wave occurs when the particle motion is elliptical with
the major axis at right angle to the direction of propagation and it travels

through solid only. The velocity of surface waves is approximate 0.9 times
that of transverse wave velocity in the same material and more sensitive to
surface defects but can penetrate the depth of one wavelength only. At this
point the energy is 1/25th of wave energy at the surface. It follows contoured
3

surfaces and reflects from sharp edges. It dampens easily by foreign particles
in their path and the reflector can be pin-pointed by tapping a finger on the
surface.
The velocities of propagation ( sound velocities ) of longitudinal, transverse
and surface waves are material constants, and are independent of frequency
and material dimensions. There are following co-relations :
Cl =

Ct

CS
Where

Cl
Ct
CS
E

1+

) (1 2 )

1
2 (1 +

0.9 Ct

= velocity of longitudinal wave

= velocity of transverse wave
= velocity of surface wave
= Youngs modulus of elasticity
= density
= Poissons constant

Plate or Lamb waves produced in thin sheets when beaming is done by

angle probe at particular angle. Plate or Lamb waves are two types Symmetrical
and Asymmetrical. The particle motion is elliptical on both the surfaces,

where is in the centre it is longitudinal for Symmetrical & transverse for

Asymmetrical waves. Its are used for testing of thin plates, for lamination and
for debonding in cladded materials.
The velocity is no longer dependent upon the type of material and the type
of wave. The wave velocity that is dependent on the frequency, the angle of
incidence and, of course, the type of material. The theory describing Lamb
waves developed by Horace Lamb, because of his name, this is known as Lamb
Wave .

Acoustic Impedance
Acoustic Impedance is the factor which controls the propagation of an
ultrasonic wave at a boundary interface. It is the product of the material
density and the acoustic wave velocity within the material, denoted by Z.
Acoustic Impedance ( Z ) = Density ( ) x Velocity ( V )
Reflection is the return of sound wave at an interface (R in factor or %).
Transmission is a portion of the sound wave travelling through an interface
into the second medium (T in factor or %).
Law of Reflection is the intensity of an ultrasonic wave is partly reflected
and partly transmitted at a boundary surface when there is normal incidence.
The factor of reflection R and the factor of transmission T are determined
by the Acoustic Impedance Z 1 = 1V1 and Z2 = 2V2 of the two
neighbouring materials.

Formula :

Intensity

Amplitude

T + R = 100 %

100 % + R = T

(Z2 Z1)2
R = ------------------ x 100 %
(Z2 + Z1)2
4 Z2 x Z1
T = ----------------- x 100 %
(Z2 + Z1)2

Z2 Z1
R = -------------- x 100 %
Z2 + Z1

T =

2 Z2
----------- x 100 %
Z2 + Z1

Z1 = Steel = 45 x 106 kg / m2 sec.

Z2 = Water = 1.5 x 106 kg / m2 / sec.

Example

Intensity

Amplitude
Steel to water

R =

(1.5 45)2
--------------- = 0.88 = 88 %
(1.5 + 45)2

4 x 1.5 x 45
T = ------------------- = 0.12 = 12 %
(1.5 + 45)2

1.5 45
R = ----------- = 0.935 = 93.5 %
1.5 + 45
2 x 1.5
T = ------------- = 0.065 = 6.5 %
1.5 + 45

Water to Steel
2

(45 1.5)
R = ---------------- = 0.88 = 88 %
(45 + 1.5)2
4 x 1.5 x 45
T = ------------------- = 0.12 = 12 %
(45 + 1.5)2

45 1.5
R = ------------ = 0.935 = 93.5 %
45 + 1.5
2 x 45
T = ------------ = 1.935 = 193.5 %
46.5

Table for Density, Sound Velocity & Acoustic Impedance :

Material

Density
Kg / m3

Aluminum
2700
Aluminum Oxide
3600
Bismuth
9800
Brass
8100
Cadmium
8600
Cast Iron
6900
Concrete
2000
Copper
8900
Glass
3600
Glycerine
1300
Gold
19300
Grey Casting
7200
Hard Metal
11000
Lead
11400
Magnesium
1700
Motor Oil
870
Nickel
8800
Perspex
1180
Platinum
21400
Polyamide (nylon)
1100
Polyethylene
940
Polystyrol
1060
Polyvinyl Chloride
1400
( PVC Hard )
Porcelain
2400
Quartz
2650
Quartz Glass
2600
Silver
10500
Steel (Low Alloy)
7850
Steel (Calibration Block) 7850
Tin
7300
Titanium
4540
Tungsten
19100
Uranium
18700
0
Water (20 C)
1000
Zinc
7100

Long.
Velocity
m/s

Trans.
Velocity
m/s

Acoustic
Impedance
103 kg / m2 / s

6320
9000
2180
4430
2780
3500
4600
4700
4260
1920
3240
4600
6800
2160
5770
1740
5630
2730
3960
2620
2340
2380
2395

3130
5500
1100
2120
1500
2200
--2260
2560
--1200
2650
4000
700
3050
--2960
1430
1670
1080
925
1150
1060

17 064
32 400
21 364
35 883
23 908
24 150
9200
41 830
5 336
2 496
62 532
33 120
74 800
24 624
9 809
1 514
49 544
3 221
84 744
2 882
2 200
2 523
3 353

5600
5760
5570
3600
5940
5920
3320
6230
5460
3200
1480
4170

3500
--3515
1590
3250
3250
1670
3180
2680
----2410

13 440
15 264
14 482
37 800
46 629
46 672
24 236
28 284
104 286
59 840
1 480
29 607

In a steel block of 100 mm thickness, when an ultrasonic wave is propagated,

it travels to the back of the material and returns. What we do with UFD is
to measure this time at the specific speed of 5920 meters / sec. i.e. approximate
6000 meters / sec. and it will take 33.3 seconds.
Distance
200 mm
Time = -------------------- = ------------------ = 33.3 secs.
Speed (velocity)
6000 m / s
Now if there is a reflector which is at half way e.g. 50 mm, then the time
taken will be the half of 33.3 sacs. It the reflections at these two different
times, are displayed on a linear scale from 0 10 divisions, then each division
would be 3.33 sacs. ( equivalent to a distance of 20 mm or a thickness of
10 mm ) and reflection of 16.66 sacs. Will be displayed at 5 division. This
is how our instrument reads distance of a reflector.

16.66 s
50 mm metal path

33.3 s
100 mm metal path

Couplants :
In order to transmit the ultrasonic energy from probe to the test sample the
air has to be totally removed as we know that the air is a bad conductor and
8

good reflector of the energy. So a liquid medium is used to remove that air
interface between the probe and work piece to transmit the sound energy. This liquid
medium is known as couplant. There are variety of couplants and according to the
condition proper couplant should be used :
1. Surface finish of the test piece : a) smooth flat surface water can be used as
couplant.
b) rough , vertical, overhead and curved surface
thick oil or grease shall be used as couplant.
2. High surface temperature : Special high temperature couplant shall be used.
Couplant shall be selected considering the the following points :
a) Harmless to the test specimen ; b) Easy to apply & easy to remove ;
c) Acoustic impedance of couplant shall be in between the crystal and test piece.
So the ideal acoustic impedance of the couplant : Z= (Z1x Z2)
Where Z = Ideal acoustic impedance of couplant.
Z1 = Acoustic impedance of crystal.
Z2 = Acoustic impedance of test specimen.
Influence of test specimen on soundbeam :
Surface roughness :
Rough surfaces distort ultrasonic indications as follows : Loss of echo
amplitude from discontinuities within the part. This loss may be due to scatter
at the surface of the part or to roughness of the surface on the discontinuity.
Loss of resolving power which is caused by a lengthening of the front-surface
echo caused by reflection of transducer side or secondary lobe energy. This is
seen as a wide front-surface pip on the oscilloscope. Side lobe energy is
normally not reflected back into the transducer from smooth surfaces. This
condition may mask the presence of a discontinuity just below the surface.
Widening of the sonic beam due to scatter from the rough surface or due to
a requirement for a lower frequency to reduce scatter.

Probe

Shape or contour of test specimen :

Angular ( non-parallel ) boundaries or contoured surfaces of the test specimen
cause partial or total loss of reflection. For a test specimen with an irregular
back surface, as shown below, in the area where the back surface is parallel
to the front surface, the sound waves are returned to the transducer. On the
left side, in the area where the back surface is sloped at an angle from the
front surface, the sound waves are reflected from one boundary to another
until they die out from attenuation. In actual practice, portions of the
soundbeam are spread from each reflection point so that a few weak signals
are received by the transducer. These signals create confusing indications.

Irregular back surface effect

When the sound beam incident on convex surface of test specimen, this sound
beam will diverge or spread-out by refraction as shown below. Signals
reflected from back surface or from the discontinuity have less amplitude than
signals received from the same sized discontinuity in a flat test specimen.

10

Convex surface effect

When the sound beam incident on concave surface of the test specimen, this
sound beam will converge or focused. The reflected signal from back surface
or from the discontinuity are relatively high in amplitude than signals received
from same size of discontinuity and back surface in flat specimen.

Concave surface effect

Mode conversion within test specimen :
When the shape or contour of the test specimen is such that the sound beam,
or a portion of it, is not reflected directly back to the transducer, mode
conversion occurs at the boundary points contacted by the beam. If a direct
reflection is obtained, mode conversion indications may be identified as they
will appear behind the first reflection. These echoes are slow to appear
because they are slowed by velocity changes when they are changed from
longitudinal waves to shear waves and then back to longitudinal waves during
mode conversion.

11

Mode conversion caused by Beam Spread

on-relevant indications from long bar specimen

12

CHAPTER

Shear wave theory :

The characteristics of refraction and mode conversion are created as ultrasound
passed through an interface between materials that have different acoustical
properties.
The four results of striking through an interface are reflection, transmission,
refraction and mode conversion. All of these are important aspects of interface
reactions.

We have earlier that wave propagated at a normal incidence ( 90 0 ) to an

interface, ultrasound will be reflected and transmitted in quantities based on
the ratio of the acoustic impedance ( Z ) values of the materials that make up
the interface.

13

As the incidence changes from normal to angular in the first medium, the
refraction and mode conversion will take place in the second medium. All of
the reactions are predictable, rather than random, and are based on the
principles of acoustic physics ( some laws of physics are shared by both
sound and light ).
When ultrasound strikes on an interface at an angle other than normal, the
angle of reflection will also be equal to the angle of incidence. ( Angular
measurements are taken from a line perpendicular to the interface ) Ultrasound
at certain incident angle, at a Lucite/ perspex to steel interface, part of it will be
reflected at same angle and rest of them will be transmitted, provided there is
good coupling between the two materials / medium.
As the ultrasound travels from the Lucite / perspex to the steel, a part of it
will be reflected and a part of it will be refracted and mode conversion will
take place in the second medium.
Refraction is defined as the bending of or change in direction of ultrasound
as it propagates through an interface between materials having different
velocities.
Mode conversion is the changing from one form of particle vibration to
another.
When incident sound at an angle in perspex reaches an interface of steel,
some energy is reflected and some refracted into the steel in longitudinal and
shear mode upto certain angle of incidence. The corresponding angle of reflection,
Refraction can be established by a formula, which is known as Snells Law and used
to establish the angular relationship.
Snells law expresses this change of angle and velocity thus :
Sin
------Sin

velocity in medium 1
----------------------------velocity in medium 2
= Angle of incidence
= Angle of reflection / refraction

First critical angle :

When the incident beam in perspex reaches at particular angle, at which the
refracted longitudinal wave in steel reaches 90 0 and travel along the surface of
steel and only the shear waves will exist in the steel. This particular angle of
incidence in the Perspex is known as first critical angle and 27.5
14

Thus, Shear wave probes for testing steel are always greater than 33 0 , i.e. 350
, 450 , 600 , 700 , 800 .
Second critical angle :
The second critical angle is the angle of the angle of incidence for which the
refracted shear wave angle will create 90. Second critical angle or the angle of
incidence between the perspex and steel is 570 .

Thus, between the first and second critical angles only shear waves exist in
second medium i.e. angle of incidence between Perspex and steel should be above
27.5 and below 57
Example :
First critical angle perspex to steel
Sin
Velocity in perspex
------- = --------------------------Sin
Velocity in steel
Given : Velocity of perspex 2730 m / sec,
Velocity of steel ( long.) 5920 m / sec
= 900
Sin 900 = 1
1) x Velocity in perspex
1 x 2730
Sin = --------------------------------- = ------------- = 0.4627 = 27.50
Velocity in steel
5920
Similarly the second critical angle between perspex & steel is 57
15

Note : Although the example taken refer to steel as the refracting material, it
must be borne in mind that the first and second critical angles will vary for
other test materials.
Example : Calculate the incident angle in perspex to produce 70 0 shear wave
in steel.
Given : Velocity in perspex 2730 m / sec and velocity in steel (shear) 3250 m / sec.
Sin
------ =
Sin

velocity in perspex
-------------------------velocity in steel

or Sin

0.9396 x 2730
or Sin = ---------------------3250
so, incident angle = 520

Sin x velocity in perspex

= -----------------------------------velocity in steel

= 0.7905

The varying amplitude of the two waves is a matter of considerable

importance, however, this is shown in a simplified way. One must be aware
that at certain angle of incidence, the refracted wave is almost completely
converted into the other type of wave. The phenomenon can cause a
complicated situation when both the wave types are supplementing to a right
angle, and a rectangular edge of the workpiece is within the sound path.
This can be calculated for steel :
Sinin
V1
By Snells Law : -------- = ---Sinout
V2
Where incoming wave is Longitudinal, at angle
Outgoing wave is transverse, at an angle
V1 is the velocity of Long. wave in steel = 5920 m / sec
V2 is the velocity of Trans. wave in steel = 3250 m / sec
+ = 900
Sin = Cos
Sin
---------- =
Cos
= 610

or
V1
---V2

= 900
5920
or tan = -------- = 1.82
3250

and = 90 61 = 290

This means the incoming longitudinal wave traveling at 61 0 will be converted

into 290 shear wave and vice versa. The effect of this will be seen in using
600 angle probe.
16

CHAPTER

GENERATION OF ULTRASOUND
Piezo-electric Effect :
The generation of ultrasound is dependent on the special properties possessed
by a crystal either naturally occurring or artificially manufactured.
This piezo-electriceffect/propertyis the property, which electrical energy converted
to mechanical vibration and again that mechanical vibration converted to electric
energy means, the crystal is activated by electrical energy, which produce the
mechanical vibration or sound wave passing through and get reflected from the far
boundary in the form of mechanical vibration received by the crystal produce
electrical display on the CRT.
Quartz : A natural and well known transducer crystals are the Quartz Crystals.
Quartz crystals were prepared for use in construction transducers by cutting
them in one of two planes, Xcut or Ycut. The Xcut crystals will provide
a longitudinal mode and the Ycut will provide a transverse mode. However
due to the poor conversion efficiency of one form of energy to another, the
Quartz Crystals are seldom used and are replaced by the poly-crystalline
ceramic materials.
Polarized Ceramics : Another type of crystal materials used today for transducer
construction are made from ferro-electric materials because of their high
efficiency in converting electrical energy to ultrasonic energy. These materials
are commonly referred to as polarized ceramics because their mechanical
properties resemble that of a ceramic material.In their natural state, ferroelectrics do not exhibit piezo-electric effect. This is accomplished by heating
the ferro-electric material to its curie temperature and applying an electric
field. The electric field is maintained across the element while the temperature
is lowered. The treated ferro-electric element now has piezo-electric capability.
Curie temperature is the temperature at which the piezo-electric element
looses its property of energy conversion. Two commonly used ferro-electric
materials are barium titanate and lead zirconate titanate ( PZT ), good
transmitters of ultrasound, but are somewhat less effective as receivers when
compared to quartz. They are also prone to ageing and are insoluble in water.
Lithium sulphate : is another type of material used in the construction of
transducer elements. It is a natural piezo-electric material, as is quartz.
Lithium sulphate is highly soluble in water and slightly prone to ageing.

17

The three most common groups of transducers are :

Quartz
Lithium sulphate
Polarized ceramics

Natural or artificially grown crystals

Crystals grown from solution
The common ones now used are :
Barium titanate
Lead zirconate
Lead metabionate
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT)

Properties of transducers:
Quartz

: High resistance to wear

Insoluble in water
Resists ageing
Limitations : Least efficient generator of acoustic energy
Requires high voltage to drive at low frequency

Lithium sulphate

: Most efficient receiver of ultrasound

Low electrical impedance
Operates well on low voltage
No ageing
Limitations : Low mechanical strength
Soluble in water
Crystal decomposes at 1600F

Polarized ceramics

: Efficient generator of sound

Operates on low voltage
Used up to temperature of 3000C
They age with use.
Transducer construction : The piezo-electric element in a transducer is
protected from abrasion by a protective coating in front of the crystal. Usually
made of an aluminum oxide or synthetic material, this will protect from
wearing of the transducers.
Normal probes can be used with a protective cover of Neoprene called also
as protective membrane. This protective membrane reduces the expense of
repairs because it prevents wear and tear of the crystal and extend the life of
the probes, particularly useful on rough surfaces scanning. It has the further
advantage of some adaptability to the surface and consequently gives more
uniform coupling at less pressure. A drawback in some cases is the fact that
the transmitted pulse and the echoes are somewhat larger and reduce the near
surface resolution. The temperature of the specimen surface must not exceed
800C whenever a probe with protective membrane is used.
.
18

Probes are of many types & shapes and vary in type of crystal, frequency,
surface area, shape, type of backing material & degree of loading.
Transducers are classified into groups according to the purpose they serve.
The two main categories are contact and immersion. Contact transducers for
both the straight and angle beam methods use an element that produces a
longitudinal wave. In straight beam testing, this longitudinal wave is used as
the probing medium. In angle beam testing, the longitudinal wave is converted
to a transverse wave by means of perspex wedge.
Angle beam transducers can be constructed in two ways. The perspex wedge
can be in integral part of the transducer, or can be detachable. When using
the detachable type, it is important to maintain coupling between the
transducer and the wedge itself, ensuring ultrasonic transmission through the
transducer to perspex interface. All perspex wedges are geometrically
constructed to provide two functions.
(1) The wedge, is cut at an angle to provide a specifically oriented transverse
wave in the part being examined.
(2) They are shaped in such a manner that the reflected ultrasound at the
perspex to material interface will be attenuated in the perspex itself,
preventing noise on the CRT sweep. Commonly, wedge also have
serrations cut on their outer surface to aid in scattering ultrasound from
internal reflectors.
Straight beam transducers can also incorporate detachable perspex delay
block. The lucite serves to increase near surface resolution. The dead zone of
the sound beam will be in the lucite instead of in the material that is being
examined. These blocks can also be made from temperature resistant materials,
which makes them ideal for testing materials at elevated temperatures. As with

Normal Probe / Straight Beam Probe

19

/
detachable wedges, the block must be coupled to the transducer by the use of
a suitable couplant. High temperature resistant couplants are also available for
the inspection of hot materials.
Transducer size : In most cases round transducers with a diameter ranging
between approx. 2 mm and 80 mm are used. The standard probe diameters are
5 mm to 24 mm. In special cases square or rectangular transducers are used.
Here the transducer is attached to a plane parallel protective face.
Frequency : The most common application of the probes ( testing of steel )
requires a resonant frequency of transducers ranging between 2 MHz and 6
MHz. For different applications probes with smaller frequencies up to 500
KHz and with higher frequencies up to approx. 25 MHz are built.
t

Velocity of crystal material

V
crystal = --- = --------------------------------------- = ---2
2 x frequency
2f

Mechanical damping : At the back side of the crystal a damping element

made of a sound absorbing material is attached. This additionally reduces the
period of the transducer vibrations. This acoustical damping results in shorter
pulses and thus better resolution of the test equipment.
Damping it controls pulse length / pulse width / duration of pulse or vibration.
Damping near surface resolution depth of penetration
Function of backing material :
1. Absorbs ultrasonic energy emitted at the back surface of crystal.
2. Maintain proper alignment of crystal.
3. Provide proper amount of crystal damping.
Sensitivity: The ability to detect smallest discontinuities.
Resolution : The ability to show separate indications from discontinuities lying
closer in depth.
Band width : Each transducer has central, frequency at which it is designed
to vibrate the easiest, for example 5.0 megahertz, 10.0 megahertz etc. A
transducer will also respond over a band of frequencies on either side of the
central frequency. The width of the frequency band depends on the amplitude
( strength ) of the central frequency.
20

To determine the bandwidth we must look for those frequencies that have
amplitudes above 70 % of the amplitude of the central frequency. To do this
we go up the left-hand side of the chart to 70 %. Then draw a line ( shown
dashed ) to the right to find the points where the line crosses the curve.
Coming down from these points, we find the frequencies at the bottom of the
chart. Here, the bandwidth in the above graph will be in between 3.0 to 7.0
MHz.
Bandwidth ( f) = f2 f1
Bandwidth

Sensitivity

Resolution

High
Low

Low
High

High
Low

Dual element transducers : They are used to increase near surface resolution.
They are constructed with separate transmitting and receiving elements. The
receiving element has the ability to continuously receive, even when the
transmitter is being pulsed. Dual element transducers are constructed in such a
way that they are intended to be used for a specific thickness range of
material, using them on other material thicknesses will limit their performance.

21

Paint Brush Transducers : Can be used to cut down on inspection time. This
type of probe has characteristically a large element dimension and constructed
of a mosaic or series of matched crystal elements, making it very effective
when large surface areas are to be scanned. The large element dimension does
reduce sensitivity and resolution for the detection of small discontinuities, but
remains effective when inspecting for laminar conditions. Often a smaller
straight beam transducer will be used to map out a lamination after it is
detected by the use paint brush transducer.

Typical Paint-Brush Transducer

22

Immersion Transducers: are designed specifically to operate in a liquid. Electrical

connections are all made watertight by the use of rubber O rings. They
generally range in frequencies from 10 to 25 MHz. The advantage include speed
of inspection, ability to control and direct sound beams, and adaptability for
automated scanning, angulation is used to identify more accurately the
orientation of flaws below the surface of the test piece.

Convention Immersion Technique

There are three broadly classified scanning methods that utilize Immersion
type search units :
a. Conventional Immersion methods in which both the search nits and
the test piece are immersed in liquid.
b. Squirter & Bubbler methods in which the sound is transmitted in a
column of flowing water.

Bubbler and Wheel transducer techniques

c. Wheel-type search unit where the transducer itself is immersed.
In conventional Straight beam immersion inspection, the water path ( distance
from the face of the search unit to the front surface of the test piece ) is
23

generally adjusted equal to one-fourth the test piece thickness plus to

avoid water multiples in the range of test piece thickness.
Water column designs : In many instances, the shape or size of a test piece
does not lend itself to conventional immersion inspection in tank. In the
Squirter method the sound beam is projected into the material through a
column of water that flows through a nozzle in the search unit. The Bubbler
method is a minor modification of the Squirter method that gives a less
directional flow of couplant.
Wheel-type search units : An immersion-type search unit, mounted on a fixed
axle inside a liquid-filled rubber tyre, is held in one position relative to the
surface of the test piece while the tyre rotates freely. The position and angle
of the transducer element are adjusted by varying the position of either the
immersion unit inside the tyre or the mounting yoke of the entire unit.
Applications of the straight-beam technique include the inspection of plate for
lamination and of billet stock for primary and secondary pipe.

Stationary and Moving Wheel transducers

Wheel Transducer Angular Capabilities

24

Angle Probe Or Shear Wave Probe : Crystal is mounted on the Perspex

wedge to maintain the incident angle for specific angle of refraction.
The crystal is connected to the connector and damping material is provided at
the back side of the crystal. The angle marked on the probe is the refracted
shear wave angle in steel only.
Universal Angle Probe : There is one special angle probe available in which
any desired angle can be adjusted by setting the particular angle of incident
on the wedge marked. This type of probe is known as Universal Angle probe.
Focused units : Sound can be focused by acoustic lenses in a manner similar
to that in which light is focused by optic lenses. Most acoustic lenses are
designed to concentrate sound energy, acoustic lenses are two types a
cylindrical ( line-focus ) and a spherical ( spot-focus ).
Advantage of focused search units are : high sensitivity to small flaws and high
resolving power.

25

CHAPTER

The Ultrasonic Beam : The beam of sound waves emerging from an

ultrasonic probe is rather like the beam of light from a torch. The beam will
spread out into an elongated cone shape, and the further away you go from
the source, the weaker will be the beam called is Attenuation. This is the
loss of ultrasonic energy whilst traveling through a medium due to scattering
and absorption.
Scattering, just as light is scattered by smoke or fog, ultrasonic waves are
scattered by pores, boundaries or non-metallic precipitates or defects.
Absorption is the loss due to mechanical interaction of the molecules, thus
causing friction and finally being dissipated in the form of heat.
Diffraction : Diffraction at the extremes of a very narrow reflector, directional
change termed scatter occurs where the above rules do not apply.
If we consider a point source of sound energy, then the sound wave will
radiate outwards from the point in an ever increasing circle, just like the
ripples on a pond spreading out when you drop a stone into it. So sound
radiates in all directions from a point source. Our transducer, however, is not
a point source, but a plate of piezo-electric material of finite dimensions.
Huyghens principle considers a finite source to be made up of an infinite
number of point sources. When you energize the transducer, sound will radiate
out from each of these point sources, just as it did for the stone dropping
into the pond.
Due to the interference of all these waves are complicated system of
maximum & minimum energy levels can be seen. This is known as Fresnel
effect. This will extend for distance in front of the transducer. This region is
known as Near Field or Near Zone or Fresnel Zone. In short Near Zone is
the term given to the parallel section of sound path after leaving the
transducer, where the interaction of various wave fronts travelling in opposite
directions causes phase changes and intensity fluctuations.

26

Near Zone calculation :

D2
D2 x f (frequency)
Near Zone = ------------ or
-----------------------4x
4xV
D = Transducer diameter, = Wavelength, V = Velocity of test material.
The above formula are valid for circular transducers. For rectangular transducers
the relations are somewhat more complicated; here the near field length is
calculated as follows :
1
a
2
2
L0 = ---- ( a + b ) ( 1 --- )
.
2b
where a = shorter, b = longer side of the oblong, = wavelength
This formula covers the total distance from the transducer whether the beam
is developing in a plastic stand-off wedge or not. Therefore, when calculating
the near zone of an angle probe, allowance must be made for the
development time in perspex.
Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone : The far zone is the portion of the ultrasonic
beam that extends beyond the near zone and continues until the ultrasound is
attenuated. This area exhibits a relatively constant drop in ultrasound
intensities over its entire length due to the attenuation characteristics of the
material being inspected. This allows a predictable amplitude response from a
discontinuity as a function of discontinuity depth and reflective surface.

Beam Spread : The far zone is also characterized by spreading of the beam
away from its central axis, with an increase in distance. Acoustic pressures
will be highest in the centre of the beam and diminish toward the outer
edges. A discontinuity will produce a maximum amplitude indication when

27

positioned in the axis of the beam. The amount of beam spread can be
calculated by the following formula :

V
Sin = 1.22 ---- or 1.22 ---- where = Half angle of Beam spread.
D
Df
A decrease in transducer diameter or in its frequency will increase the beam
spread of ultrasound in a given material.
For 50 % reduction of beam intensity the corresponding Beam spread

Sin 50 % = 0.56 ---- or

D

V
0.56 ---Df

Dead Zone : The dead zone is an area directly below the surface of the
specimen where a transducer is coupled. The depth of this zone is sometimes
estimated by the position of the initial pulse displayed on a CRT.
Discontinuity detection is impossible in this zone of the sound beam. Dead
zone depth corresponds to the elapsed time duration of the transducer element
excitation pulse. This means a small portion of the material directly below the
transducer cannot be adequately inspected when using a straight beam
transducer.
When detection of near surface discontinuities is important to the inspection,
and access to both sides of the part is available, simply inspecting from the
opposite side may be an easy solution. In a situation where two sided access
is not available, a delay line or dual element probe to indicate near surface
defects is used.
For a single crystal probe, Dead Zone is the initial envelope of sound
displayed on the screen, caused by the probe ringing due to :
Pulse length
Dual function of the transducer
Amplifier gain time
Gain setting
The effects of transducer diameter and frequency on sound propagation :
Transducer diameter :
Greater the diameter --------------- smaller the beam spread
Greater the diameter --------------- greater the output of energy
Greater the diameter ------------- larger the near zone
Probe frequency :
Higher the frequency --------------- smaller the beam spread
Higher the frequency --------------- larger the near zone
Higher the frequency --------------- smaller the dead zone
Higher the frequency --------------- lower the penetrating power

28

CHAPTER

The Decibel Measurement of sound intensity:

In electrical power the unit Bel on a logarithmic base has always been used
to compare the ratio of two powers.
This unit is always expressed by the common logarithm of the ratio of two
quantities.
An instrument whose power is increased from P1 to P2 is expressed as :
P2
Power level or gain = Log10 --- Bels.
P1
The unit Bel was found to be too large for certain systems and subdivided by
10 to give the unit decibel ( dB ).
P2
Thus, Gain = 10 Log10 --- dB.
P1
Since the UFD measures voltages and not power, and power is proportional to
the square of the voltage, the gain or amplification can be expressed thus :
2

V2
Voltage level or gain = 10 Log10
--V1
V2
= 20 Log10 --V1

( removal of the square )

The attenuation or amplification is measured on a logarithmic base, thus the

difference in decibels will be the same whatever the initial setting on the gain
or attenuator control of the flaw detector.
Example 1 : If two echoes have amplitudes of 20 mm and 10 mm,
express the ratio in dB.
Example 2: Express the ratio of 10: 1 in decibels.

Amplitude ratio in decibels :

29

h1
--h2

dB

1.00
1.12
1.25
1.40
1.60
1.80
2.00
2.20
2.50
3.20

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
9
10

Examples : 27 dB = 20 +

dB

3.2
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.6
6.3
7.1
8.9
10.0

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20

7 dB

38 dB = 20 + 18 dB
66 dB = 60 +

h1
--h2

6 dB

10 x 2.2 = 22
h1
---h2

10 x 8 = 80
1000 x 2.0 = 2000

26 dB = 20 6 dB

0.1 x 0.5 = 0.05

46 dB = 40 6 dB

0.01 x 0.5 = 0.005

1st echo height = 64 dB, 2nd echo height = 48 dB,

Difference = 16 dB.
h1
Ratio --- = 6.3
i.e. the 1st echo is 6.3 times as high as the second.
h2
The advantage of the dB unit are that :
a. Large voltage ratios can be given in small figures, e.g.
1000: 1 =
60 dB
1000000: 1 = 120 dB
b. A reversal of the voltage ratios only requires a change of the sign, e.g.
10 : 1 = 20 dB
1 : 10 = 20 dB
c. A multiplication of the voltage ratio corresponds to a simple addition
of a dB values ( as shown before ).
d. Echo heights beyond full scale can be used for comparison.

CHAPTER

6
30

Ultrasonic Equipment :
Ultrasonic equipment is produced by many manufacturers. It is possible that
they use different terminology for equipment controls and their functions. Here
we will use common terms for identification purposes. Remember, even
though the same control has several different terms used to identify it, its
basic function will remain the same.
Block diagram : There are five basic blocks
The clock / Timer / Synchronizer
The Transmitter / Sender / Pulser
The Sweep Generator
The Receiver / Amplifier
The Display Unit

Block Diagram
Clock
/ Timer : The clock timer provides a constant rate of pulses to be
used as a coordinator for all other functions. The number of these pulses in a
31

unit of time is varied by the pulse repetition rate control. The clock timer
provides electrical energy to both the transmitter and the sweep generator.
Transmitter : The transmitter will transmit a high voltage pulse of short
duration to the piezo-electric element in the transducer and also provide a
reference indication ( called as initial pulse ) on Display Unit through Receiver
/ Amplifier. The start of the initial pulse is referred to as electrical zero and
is distinguished from acoustical zero. The location of the initial pulse is not
used for calibration purposes, because a time lag exists between the display of
the initial pulse and ultrasound entering the part. This lag is referred to as the
electrical zero to acoustical zero time lag.
Sweep Generator : This makes the electrons in the display unit to move
(sweep) from left to right at a selected speed forming a sweep line. As it
also represents time, it is known as time base. The waveform used to
generate sweep line is called the Saw tooth waveform.
Receiver : The receiver in the instrument senses the relatively low voltage
created when the piezo-electric element in the transducer converts received
mechanical energy to electrical energy. The receiver will amplify, filter, and
rectify the electrical pulses and pass them to the display unit.
Cathode Ray Tube ( CRT ) : The CRT is a device similar to a picture tube
in a television set. The CRT consists of a vacuum glass tube and at base
connector, there is an electron gun , which generates a stream of electrons focused

Cathode Ray Tube

32

and accelerated by a tube. There are two sets of vertical and horizontal deflection
plates that deflect the electron stream, producing vertical and horizontal display on
the viewing screen, which is coated with phosphor material .
Equipment Controls : Each control on an ultrasonic instrument is in some
way connected to one of these circuits and provides a specific function. The
clock timer operation is varied by the pulse repetition rate control.
Pulse Repetition Rate : Changing the pulse repetition rate will affect the gap
of time between transmitted pulses. A sufficient amount of time between
pulses is necessary to allow ultrasound to travel through the specimen being
inspected. Spurious indications may be encountered if the pulse repetition rate
is too high for a given material type and thickness. In modern equipment Pulse
Repetition Rate is controlled by adjusting the material range and velocity.
Pulse Energy : The transmitter may be affected by several controls. Some
instruments have a pulse energy control that changes the voltage applied to
the piezo-electric element. The voltage may range from 200 volts up to and
in excess of 1200 volts, depending on the instruments capabilities. Higher
voltage excitation pulses will result in deeper material penetration

33

.EQUIPMENT CONTROL :
1. Power key
2. Zoom key
3. Freeze key

: ON / OFF
: Menu parameters disappear from LCD screen.
: Pressing this key once A- Scan display can freeze and pressing
second time can select peak freeze.
4. Lock key
: Pressing this key all function key get locked.
5. LCD Screen
: Displays A Scan Trace pattern and Menu Parameters.
6.Battery status
:All the threecells are displayed empty, battery need to recharged.
7. Gain Step
: Change of Gain value in step of 0.5, 1, 2, 6, 12 and 20 dB as
selected by dB step key.
8. Menu key
: This key change the different Menu.
9. Hot key
: Pressed simultaneously with any parameter key change the
value in larger steps.
10.dB Step key
: Setting of Gain step to 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 6.0, 12 & 20 dB.
11. Gain Control : Operating the gain to higher and lower value,
12. UP/DN key
: Respective Menu parameter can be increased or decreased.
13. Reject key
: Reject function activation indicator.
14. Monitor Led
: Alarm Monitor indicator triggered by Gate 1 or 2.
15. ParameterValue : All Parameter Menus are displayed in this area for operation.
16. RX Connector
: Receiver probe connector.
17. TX Connector
: Transmitter probe connector.
18. Charger Point
: Connection point for battery charging.
19. RS- 232 Connector
: Serial interface connector to PC / Printer.
20. Battery Compartment : Li Ion batteries fitted in this compartment.
21. Mode Status Indicator : Selected / Active mode display
34

CHAPTER

NORMAL PROBE / STRAIGHT BEAM PROBE

Range Calibration : To accurately determine how deep a reflector is located
in a material or to perform precise material thickness measurements, it is
essential that the horizontal display of an instrument be calibrated to a
distance that corresponds to a specific material thickness and velocity. This is
accomplished by the use of instrument delay and range controls.
By placing a straight beam transducer on a known material of known
thickness ( for example, 25 mm of steel ), indications will appear on the
cathode ray tube ( CRT ). The indications corresponds to the elapsed time it
took for the ultrasound to travel from the front to the back surface and return
to the transducer. In order to calibrate the range of the instrument, these
indications must be positioned on the time base so that an equal material
thickness is represented between each. In this example the back echo and the
first multiple are used from the 25 mm calibration block to calibrate the range
to 100 mm of sound travel.
Two things to remember are :
1. Never use the Initial Pulse for calibration purposes because of the electrical
to acoustical zero time lag, and
2. Always use the leading edge of the indications for alignment, never the
trailing edge.

When calibrating, the initial pulse can be identified by lifting the probe. The
initial pulse will be the signal that appears first in time. The leading edges of
back surface reflections and multiples are used. They are representative of the
total elapsed time necessary for sound to travel from the front surface of the
material to the back surface and back to the front again.
35

The main objective is to make the X Axis represent a desired material

thickness. The time base is graduated in equal distance increments, much the
same as a tape measure. Typically, 10 main divisions, each divided 5 subdivisions marked and numbered on the face of the CRT. This system of
dividing the X-Axis on change from one instrument to another, but its
purpose remains the same.
One range calibration is not suitable for every inspection encountered. For
example, a 100 mm range sweep would not be suitable for inspecting 200 mm
material.
Sequence for Range Calibration :
1. Identify the material type to be inspected and select a calibration
block
with equal acoustical properties. In some situations, the actual component
material will be used for calibration blocks.
2. Set the range of the instrument compatible to the material dimension to
.
be tested and also set the longitudinal velocity compatible to the material.
3. Couple a straight beam probe to a calibration block ( 25 mm of steel, for
example ) and observe the indications displayed.
4. Using the zero control of the 1st. Menu, adjust the leading edge of the
back reflection to a compatible scale value.
Minimum range of calibration = thickness of Calibration Block (t)
For example with 100 mm calibration block thickness, minimum range can be
calibrated 100 mm and more but less than 100 mm range can not be
calibrated.
For 25 mm range calibration using 25 mm thickness of IIW V1 Block
(single back wall calibration), the following steps to be followed :
1.

Set the range 25 mm. and velocity 5920 m / sec. if material is steel.

2.

Bring the initial pulse near to zero of CRT, because initial pulse is
the electrical zero.
3. Couple a straight beam probe to the calibration block and observe
the 1st first back wall echo displayed.
4. Adjust the 1st BWE at 25mm on the screen with zero control.

36

.
Range 0 to 100 mm with 25 mm thickness ( multiple echo calibration )

Range 0 to 100 mm with 100 mm width of V1 Block

37

(Note : If a narrow width block with longer depth is used, e.g. 100 mm depth
of V1 block you will find there are many geometrical echoes between BWE 1
& BWE2. You should be able to identify the 2nd BWE ).

Partial Range Calibration : The least count that can be measured on our Xaxis is 0.2 div. i.e. if full scale range (FSR) is calibrated as 100 mm, this
would be 2 mm. For longer ranges like 1000 mm, it would be 20 mm.
Suppose while testing a 1 meter long part you have noticed some indications
at 5.3 main div. ( 530 mm ), The measuring error will be 20 mm. This can
be improved by selecting certain portion of interest to full scale and this is
called as Partial Range Calibration.
Example : Calibrate partial range from 80 to 105 mm.

38

Steps :

1. The difference between the starting point and the end point ( 105
80 = 25 mm ).
2. Calibrate range of 25 mm with suitable block ( 0 to 25 mm ).
3. Calculate which BWE can be seen in above range ( 4th BWE
corresponds to 100 mm ).
4. Work out the screen reading for this echo ( 100 80 = 20 mm on
25 mm FSR will be at 8 main div. ).
5. Shift the pattern with delay control till 4th BWE from 25 mm thick
block is at eighth division.

39

CHAPTER

Calibration standards : The horizontal scale can be adjusted to represent a

great variety of different time intervals, and these for a given material and
velocity, can be translated into depth values.
The vertical scale gives an indication of the amplitude of signal being
detected, provided you know the size of defect causing that reflection. The
easy way to get more information about the specimen from the CRT, is to
compare signals from the specimen with those from specially machined
blocks. These blocks we normally classify under one of 2 headings, depending
on the function of the block.
Calibration Blocks : A piece of material of specified composition, heat
treatment, geometric form, and surface finish, by means of which ultrasonic
equipment is calibrated for the examination of material of the same general
composition. So a calibration block may be a simple step wedge in a
particular material to allow the time base to be calibrated for accurate
thickness measurement, or it may be a more complex block like V1 which
allows calibration of time base, plus calibration of probe index, angle,
resolution etc.

40

IIW - V1 Block : This was designed by International Institute of Welding so

called as IIW Block and is covered under IS 4904 1982 ( Indian Standard ),
BS 2704 ( British Standard ), DIN 54 120 ( German Standard ).

The blocks can be used for the following assessment :

a. Calibration of range with Normal Probe.
b. Assessment of Dead Zone.
c. Checking linearity of the time base.
d. Checking linearity of the Amplifier.
e. Assessing overall sensitivity of Probe & Amplifier.
f. Checking resolution.

RESOLUTION CHECKING

41

g.

Determination of Probe Index.

h.
i.

Determination of Angle of refraction.

Calibration of Range with Angle Probe.

PROBE INDEX

RANGE CALIBRATION WITH IIW-V1 BLOCK

RANGE CALIBRATION WITH IIW-V2 BLOCK

42

J.

Sensitivity setting with Normal Probe & Angle Probe.

SENSITIVITY CHECKING

Miniature Calibration Block : Also known as IIW - V2 Block. This is more

compact form of a V1 Block suitable for site use, although somewhat less
versatile in its functions. The block is mainly used for the purpose of angle
probe adjustments listed from g to j but its thickness can also be used for
assessment under a.

IIW V2 Block
Step Wedge : This is used mainly for calibration of UFD for the purpose of
thickness measurement. They are similar in material composition as to that of
test material whose thickness is to be measured.

43

Reference Standards : In ultrasonic testing, all discontinuity indications are

compared to indications received from testing a reference standard. The
reference standard may be any one of many calibration blocks, or set of
blocks containing natural flaws, or ones with artificial flaws or percentage of
back refection.
The block with natural flaws have only limited use as standards because they
are difficult to procure that give identical responses. Natural flaws vary in
shape, surface characteristics, and orientation and echoes from natural flaws
vary accordingly. It is often difficult to determine the exact nature of a
natural flaw existing in the test block without destroying.
For the above reasons, mostly the blocks with the artificial flaws like notches
slots or drilled holes are acceptable and widely used. They have two fold use.
a.

It standardizes the UT system and establishes the sensitivity or gain at

which all the discontinuities of the size specified or larger will be
detected.
b. Evaluate the discontinuities by comparing their indications with
the
indications received from artificial discontinuity in the similar material.
The characteristics of an ultrasonic beam in a test piece are affected by the
following variables, and these should be considered when selecting standard
reference blocks.
1. Nature of the test piece.
2. Alloy type.
3. Grain size.
4. Effects of thermal or mechanical processing.
5. Distance amplitude effects.
6. Flaw size.
7. Direction of the ultrasonic beam
Standard blocks are made from carefully selected ultrasonically tested defect
free material. Discontinuities are represented by carefully drilled Flat Bottomed
Holes (FBH). FBH reflect the sound proportional to their area.
Some of the common Reference Standards are :
Area Amplitude Set : This is also known as ALCOA (Aluminum Company
of America) Series A and consists of eight blocks, each 3 long and, 115/16 square or 2 dia. A deep FBH is drilled at the bottom centre of
each block. The hole diameters vary from 1/64 in the No.1 block through
8/64 in the No.8 blocks are used for checking the linearity of the test

44

system by recording the amplitude indication with the increase in size of

discontinuity.
Each block is identified by code number e.g. 3-0075. The first digit is the
diameter of the hole in one sixty-fourths of an inch. The four other digits are
the metal distance from the top (entry) surface to the hole bottom in one
hundredth of an inch.

Distance Amplitude Set : This set is called ALCOA B or Hitt, consists of

nineteen, 2 diameter, cylinder blocks all with deep FBH of the same
diameter drilled in the centre at one end. The metal distances vary from
1/16, 1/8 through 1 in eighth-inch increments and through 5 in halfinch increments. The sets are available with 3/64, 5/64 or 8/64 diameter.
FBH are used to check actual variations of amplitude with distance.
Basic Blocks Set : The ASTM basic set consists of ten, 2 diameter blocks.
The metal distance & FBH diameter are as per the table :
Metal distance, Inches
FBH dia in 64ths Inch

1/8
5

1
5

3
3

3
5

3
8

6
5

6
8

In this set the three, No. 6, 7, 8 blocks with the 3 metal distance, provide
area amplitude relationship, and the seven blocks with 5/64 diameter FBH
with varying metal distance provide distance amplitude relationship.
ASME Reference Block : This block is made from the same thickness and
grade of material as the work piece and contains an artificial flaw ( a drilled
hole ). The change of echo height with changes in scanning distance ( multiple
skips ) is noted and plotted on the CRT as a DAC ( distance-amplitude
correction ) curve so that an accept / reject signal height level can be specified
to cover all depths within the working range.
45

In the inspection of sheet, strip, plate, tubing & pipe, angle beam inspection
may have to be used. This type of inspection generally requires a reference
standard in the form of a block that has a notches machined into the block.
The notch width, depth, length and included angle are usually defined by the
applicable specification.
Sometimes it may be necessary to make one of the parts being inspected into
a test block with simulating discontinuities at the expected locations.
Percentage of back Reflection : With this method a search unit is placed
over an indication free area of the part being inspected, the instrument gain
controls are adjusted to a particular height of the first back wall reflection,
and a part is evaluated on the basis of the presence or absence of indications
that equal or exceed certain percentage of predetermined height.

46

CHAPTER

Code Requirements : Almost all codes that utilize ultrasonic as an inspection

method have specific requirements concerning the performance of the
instrumentation used during an ultrasonic examination. These requirements and
performance tolerances vary from one code to another but their basic intent
remains the same, to assure accurate and linear data presentation.
Tolerance specified in this lesson generally reflect the requirements of ASME
Section V, they are for guidance and may or may not satisfy a particular
code requirement.
Linearity : Instruments linearity is to be checked at the beginning of each
period of extended use or on periodically basis. Linearity can be best defined
as the signals occurring after equal time interval ( e.g. multiple echoes from
back wall ) should appear with equal spacing from CRT.
The horizontal linearity of an instrument can be determined by placing a
straight beam transducer on a suitable calibration block and adjusting delay
and sweep controls to display multiple echo pattern. Instrument reject control
should be off for all linearity checks. These echoes should then be adjusted
as close as possible to their respective scale divisions.
The relationship between the displayed thickness and the true material
thickness is used to verify horizontal linearity. For example, if a 25 mm
calibration block was selected for the check, each of the ten echoes should
represent 25 mm of material thickness and should be precisely located at 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 respectively.
The tolerance is + or 2% of the full screen width in order to provide
adequate linearity.
Also procedure may require that this check be performed at each range setting
on the instrument or each range setting to be used during the examination. A
non-linear horizontal sweep will provide incorrect depth data during an
examination.
Vertical linearity : The vertical linearity of an instrument can be assessed by
displaying two indications ( 1ST & 2nd BWE ) on X-axis. This can be
accomplished by coupling a straight beam transducer on calibration block to
47

get echoes near mid position on X-axis. The echoes should be adjusted to
100 % and 50 % full screen height by use of the instrument gain control.
After these adjustments have been made, The transducer must be held steady
and remain free of movement throughout the rest of the check. To do this,
generally, special probe with small calibration block fitted ( e.g. KK N23 ) is
used. The relationship between the 100 % and the 50 % full screen height
echoes is a 2 to 1 ratio ( 100 / 50 = 2 ). This ratio is then observed as the
gain control of the instrument is decreased in 2 dB increments to the point
where the first echo is at 10 % full screen height
Maintaining a 2 to 1 ratio at each gain setting is evidence of vertical
linearity. A typical allowance for error in vertical linearity is 5 % of full
screen at each gain setting. Instrument error in vertical linearity will result in
inaccurate amplitude response relationships from discontinuities or reference
reflectors.
Amplitude ( Gain / Attenuator ) Control Linearity : To check the accuracy of
this control, a transducer is placed on a suitable calibration block to produce
one echo at horizontal midscreen. With this echo adjusted to 80 % full screen
height, increase and decrease the gain control for various echo heights. This
should be within the tolerances proper amplitude control linearity will ensure
accurate dB comparisons from one discontinuity to another over the full
screen height of the CRT. Records of these linearity checks should be
maintained and be traceable to the instrument.
If an instrument is incapable of conforming of conforming to the linearity
requirements of a code, it will require internal electronic adjustment to the
instrument to correct its linearity error.

48

CHAPTER

10

Angle Probe : Probes which transmit their sound beams at an angle are
known as angle beam probes because they send and receive the sound pulses
into and from the test specimen at a certain angle to the surface.
Most of the standard angle beam probes transmit and receive transverse wave
having a particle displacement perpendicular to the propagating direction.
When testing with an angle beam probe, the sound travels from the crystal in
the probe through the plastic delay block to the surface of the test specimen
and is refracted at the interface probe front to test specimen. A very large
percentage of parts tested using angle beam probes are made of steel. That is
why the angles marked on the angle probe are with the transverse refraction
angle it delvers in the steel. The most commonly available angles are 45 0, 600
& 700. Special angles like 350 & 800 are also available.
With the angle probes we do not get reflection from back wall in plane
parallel test piece. The reflection is received either from the quadrant or from
the corner and no doubt from the reflector lying perpendicular to the beam.

HALF-MOON BLOCK

So for calibration we need special blocks like V1 or V2 or semi-circle. The

curved surfaces of reference blocks serve as reference reflectors. In this the
echoes used for calibration travel the same distances regardless of the
refraction angle of the probe. After the calibration of sound path (V path),
the echo from the discontinuity does not give any immediate information
regarding the location. It is only after the multiplication of the beam path
(BP) with the sin & cos of the refraction angle that we get surface
distance / projection distance (PD) and depth (d).
The values derived are with respect to a particular point on the probe
radiating maximum energy called as Beam Index / Exit Point / Beam Exit and

49

at a correct angle ( the marked angle may deviate during use ). So these tests
first to be carried out.
Checking Beam Index or Beam Exit Point : Maximize an echo from
quadrant, the probe point coinciding with radius focal point marked on the

BEAM INDEX OR BEAM EXIT POINT

calibration block is correct Beam Index. Instead of marking this point, the
distance from the front of the probe to this point is found and called as Xvalue of the angle probe. Generally for Krautkramer miniature probes it is 12
mm but can vary during use.
( It is better to do the calibration prior to checking the angle of the probe for
no misleading indication ).
Calibration :
1. Calculate the minimum two echo positions from the calibration block set
the range and shear wave velocity 3250 m / sec.
2. Peak the first echo by proper positioning of the probe at radius focal point.
3. Adjust zero and set 1st and 2nd echoes respectively for proper positioning of
Corresponding echoes.

50

Checking Angle : On V1 or V2 block the angles are marked for checking the
angle of the probe. But this can only help you in rough assessment if the
angles deviate. The exact calculation of angle will help you to precisely locate
discontinuities.

51

( Note the angles are in steel, if you have to use the blocks subsequently on
any material whose velocity is different than steel, The angle in that particular
material needs to be calculated ).
There are many ways of calculating correct angles of the probes, but we will
solve the examples with V1 or V2 block.
Correct Angle Measurement :
a. After the instrument is calibrated, direct the beam to the perspex / steel
interface by keeping the probe at the particular angle engraving mark on
V1 block, peak the echo, and note the correct distance. Imagine we are
using 450 and distance on calibrated screen observed in 78 mm.
70
1
Angle of the probe = Cos ----------- mm = 47.260
BP + 25
Similarly, in V2 Block having hole diameter 5.0 mm ,Angle of the probe
20
1
= Cos ------------BP + 2.5
If diameter of hole is 1.5 mm, then = Cos 20
-------BP+0.75
Angle Beam Examination : Ange beam examinations have several distinct
difference from straight beam examinations. Angle beam inspections make use
of shear waves rather than compressional waves. This offers an increase in
sensitivity. Since these shear waves are propagated at an angle to the parts
surfaces, the internal reaction when no discontinuities are present is reflected
away from the transducer.
A discontinuity oriented perpendicular to the sound beam will cause ultrasound
to be reflected back to the transducer along these same angular paths of beam
propagation. Locating a discontinuity is not a simple matter of determining its
depth below the transducer. The discontinuity must be located along an
angular sound path. It is this angular sound path that is represented on the
CRT sweep.
Formulae for Discontinuity Location : In order to determine its location, the
following formulae can be used :
PD = BP x Sin ,

d = BP x Cos .

52

PD = Surface or projection distance. Distance from transducer exist point

to a point on the material surface directly above discontinuity.
BP = Beam Path. Distance displayed on CRT.
Sin = Sine of transducer angle.
d1
= Discontinuity depth below the surface
Cos = Cosine of transducer angle.
When beam path > half V-path then depth
d2 = 2T Beam Path x Cos
As important factor for the application of angle probes is the so called Skip
Distance.
When an angle is coupled to plane parallel work piece and moved inside
from the edge of the block, at one particular position of the angle probe the
ultrasonic wave will be reflected from the lower corner giving a maximum
indication. The distance between the edge of the block to the beam index is
called Skip distance. At this location of the angle probe the distance
observed on the screen is called Beam Path (BP) or V path. Further
movement of the probe gives an echo from the top edge of the block, now
the distance is known as Full Skip Distance or just Skip Distance.
Formulae for Skip Distance SD & V path calculation :

SD
SD
V path
V path

= T tan
= 2T tan
= T sec
= 2T sec

where T = thickness of the test piece.

During depth calculation sometime the calculated depth may work out more
than plate thickness. ( This can happen when the reading of the reflector is
more than V path but less than V path ). The true depth ( depth from
the top surface ) is calculated as :
True depth = Two times thickness Calculated depth of work piece.

53

CHAPTER

11

Transmitter / Receiver or TR or SE Probes : When normal probes are used

for Ultrasonic Testing, the Dead Zone of the Initial Pulse prevents the
detectability of the flaws immediately below the surface also known as Near
Surface Resolution.
The crystals are mounted on the perspex block with little angulation in order
to have the overlap of both the beams near the entry face and to be able to
pick up the near surface discontinuities. The angle given to the perspex block
is called Roof Angle. There is a separation between two crystals of acoustic
barrier and they are housed in one casing for ease of handling. Due to this
overlap, the intensity is highest at the intersectional point of the two beam
axis. There may be small dead zone. The working zone of the double probe
needs to be considered while detecting defects at various depths.
Features of TR probes in comparison to single probes :
a. Separate crystals for transmitting & receiving.
b. Increased sensitivity in near surface zone.
c. The distance between the initial pulse ( electrical zero ) and surface of
the workpiece ( mechanical zero ) is rather great. So the initial pulse is
shifted to the left and the Dead Zone practically is very less.

54

d. Presence of cross-talk echo due to the energy at high gain travelling

through the acoustic barrier or along the surface through the coupling
medium. ( it is a constant indication near zero and does not affect the
testing ).
e. Due to the inclination ( Roof Angle ) of two crystals towards each other,
a refraction and mode conversion would generate at perspex to steel, at
the back-wall and also at the steel to perspex. This will show several
interference echoes after the first back-wall-echo, and it is quite difficult
to identify the 2nd Back-wall-echo.

Therefore, for calibration with TR probes, we do not use multiple echoes

from one thickness but use the first back-wall-echo from two different
thicknesses. Generally a step wedge is used as a calibration block.
Calibration with TR Probes :
a. Take two thicknesses closer to the desired thickness to be measured.
b. Select proper test range and set the velocity.
55

c. Adjust the position of first echo from lower thickness on the screen by probe
zero.
c. Adjust delay for lower thickness and fine range for higher thickness.

Measuring inaccuracy with TR Probes :

a. As our instrument with TR probe are calibrated on low ranges,
the shape of the echo can clearly be seen. The echo you see on
display unit is a high frequency pulse, rectified and modified for
presentation. A mode ( kink portion of the echo ) can also be
noticed. If our gain adjustment is improper, the echo seen may
not be with the total number of nodes, showing us an echo with
Nodal jump. This can cause a relatively big error in both the
calibration and locating the reflectors. This can be avoided by
adjusting all the echoes to reach approximate the same height.
b. Due to the construction the sound travel in the workpiece is
V shape (Detour ) traveling larger distance that the actual
thickness.

56

The actual beam path s is also dependant on the thickness T of the

workpiece as well as on the distance c between the probe index of sound
exit and sound entrance or the formal connection.
s =

T2 + 0.25 c2

Note : Proper coupling of T/R Probe on convex surface should be as

below :

CHAPTER

12

The proper selection of ultrasonic test system mainly depends on probe and
secondly on the test instrument.
Probe Selection : A probe should be able to indicate the discontinuities from
the workpiece. So the probe must comply to the conditions dictated by the
workpiece. The following are the variables related with the probe.
Frequency : Ultrasonic flaw detectors are capable to utilize the frequency ranging
from 0.2 MHz to 25 MHz for material testing but most of the commercial
equipments
are available in the range of 0.5 MHz to 10 or 12 MHz
57

The parameters affected by the frequency are :

Higher the Frequency shorter the higher the sensitivity higher the resolution
higher scattering higher the attenuation lower the
Penetration longer the near zone smaller the beam spread.
a. Penetration Longer / thicker the materials require more penetration
low frequency probe should be used.
b. Coarse grained materials ( stainless steel castings, manganese steel castings
and cast iron) caused high attenuation and scattering, very difficult to
identify the true discontinuities / defects echoes use low frequency probe
2MHz and below
c. Fine grained materials ( forged , rolled & normalized structure ) use high
frequency probe as high sensitivity & resolution less attenuation / scattering.
2 MHz and above considering the other limitations.
d.

Near Zone Interfering zone, where detection of discontinuities is not

reliable due to fluctuation of pressure. Higher the frequency longer the near
zone smaller diameter probe may be the solution.

Size of the Probe: Diameter of the probe js the diameter of the crystal used in the
probe and effective diameter is 0.98 times of actual diameter of crystal used in the
probe. Diameter varies from 5mm to 24 mm generally .
The parameters affected by the diameter of the probe :
Higher the diameter higher the energy output faster inspection longer the near
zone smaller beam spread.
High attenuation & longer material larger diameter probe will be suitable.
Smaller diameter specimen more curvature smaller diameter probe will be
suitable.

Angle Probe : If the orientation of discontinuities is inclined , the straight beam can
not hit perpendicularly and detection is not possible. But scanning
with suitable angle probe can detect those discontinuities

Selection of probe angle :

a. Material other than weld joints : Use lower angle for thick materials to
work on lower beam paths for low losses and higher angle for lower
thickness. As a thumb rule, probe angle = 90 thickness of test material.
Also for thicker materials low frequency and larger size probe shall be used.
b. Weld examination : To hit the fusion zone of groove joints perpendicularly,
58

selection of probe angle shall consider = 90 - bevel angle. For square

groove Tandem method is the best, otherwise 70or 80 probe shall be used.

c. Limiting Angle : For circumferential scanning on pipes and tube the limiting
angle shall be calculated by using this formula
T
= 0.5 ( 1 Sin )
D
Where T is the wall thickness ; D is the outside diameter. If T / D ratio
exceed 0.2, then ID can not be evaluated by the angle probe.
Mode of Operation :
Single Normally preferred except for near surface defect detection or
low thickness measurement because Near zone and Dead zone interference.
Double Detection of near surface flaws and wall thickness measurement of
low thickness materials.
Beam direction : Should be chosen such that expected defects offer the
maximum amount of reflection by beaming the surface of the flaw in
perpendicular direction, Shape, geometry, surface condition may limit the
possible direction.
.

CHAPTER

13

We have seen in the last chapter that in order to perform the Ultrasonic Flaw
Detection, the proper probe and Instrument must be selected. The choice
depends on the type, orientation and location of defects.
If the operator does not have the knowledge of the defects as detailed above,
then to cover the entire test sample in different directions and to look for the
defects at any location with unknown orientation will be a task next to
impossible.
59

The discontinuities can be divided into three categories :

a. Inherent.
b. Processing.
c. Service.
Inherent : are related to the melting, solidification and casting processes and
are present from the starting stock (e.g. blow holes, piping, seams, inclusions).
Processing : are related to various manufacturing processes, such
machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding, heat treating & plating.

as

Service : are related to the various service conditions, such as stress corrosion,
fatigue & wear.
The type of defects detailed here are with respect to ultrasonic testing &
major manufacturing processes.
Type of Discontinuities in specific Product
Ingot :
a. Non-metallic Inclusions ( NMI ) Irregular shape due to the impurities
in raw material.
b. Porosity Rounded gas cavities, due to the entrapment of escaping
gases.
c. Pipe / Centre line piping In form of pipe caused due to insufficient
material to fill up the cavities created by contraction of molten metal.
All these defects are generally observed on or near the top surface. Knowing
the likely origination of discontinuities in ingot at top face, this is avoided by
cropping ( cutting ) and then it is known as BLOOM.
Rolling : Billet is stretched to reduce diameter & increase length to produce
bars or reduced in thickness & increase in width & length to form plates.
Plate :
a. Lamination : Large planer & parallel to the surface due to heavy rolling
of non-metallic inclusions & oxidized porosities and raw material with
pipe defect and spreading in all directions but mainly in the direction
of roll, found mostly in the centre.

60

Rolled Bar Stock :

a. Stringer : Inclusions in longitudinal direction due to stretching of nonmetallic inclusions.
b. Intermittent / Elongated Cavities : due to the porosities.
c. Pipe / Centre line piping : smaller round and longer with pipe shape
due to the pipe in the Ingot / Billet.
All these defects are inherent of raw material used for processing and likely
to be more severe at the end, which is the top surface of ingot.
d. Seam : Surface cracks in direction of rolling due to the surface cracks
in ingot and improper rolling or defect in rollers. ( May look spiral if
bar is formed with billet because of angular roller orientation ).
Forging :
a. Forging lap folding of metal on the surface observed in closed Die
Forging due to mismatch of mating surfaces of dies or poor die design.
Always open to surface.
b. Forging Bursts / Cracks Surface or internal ( generally in centre ) due
to the rupture caused by forging of under-heated stock.
Extrusion : The forming of part by forcing it through die. The inherent bar
stock discontinuities, will be present in the formed part. Cracks may be
introduced in extrusion process if the metal flow is not proper.
Pipe ( welded ) :
a. Lamination due to plate used as raw material.
b. Lack of fusion called as seam, appear on inner or outer surface
due to faulty welding process.
Pipe ( Seamless ) :
a. Seam on outer surface due to bar stock used as a raw material.
b. Slugs metal build-up on the inner surface of the pipe during piercing
operation.
c. Gouging on the inner surface, due to the friction during sizing
operation.

61

Grinding Cracks : Processing discontinuity, due to excess heat during

grinding operations. The orientation is at perpendicular to the rotation of
grinding wheel.
Heat Treatment Cracks : No specific direction but are almost likely to be at
any sharp areas such as corners, fillets etc. and at junctions of light & heavy
sections, due to stresses built up in process, if not relieved properly, will give
rise to cracks.
Fatigue Cracks : Service discontinuity, through fatigue ( repeated use or
overloading ). Mostly open to surface but can be sub-surface if propagating
from internal discontinuities occur crosswise to the direction of stress
movement.
Casting :
a. Blow Holes Round gas cavities at or below the surface due to air
entrapment.
b. Gas Porosity Rounded gas cavities at or below the surface due to
the entrapment of escaping gases.
c. Shrinkage Cavities In form of pipe in heavy sections at change of
cross sections caused due to insufficient material to fill up the cavities
created by contraction of molten metal.
d. Hot Tear Cracks at change in cross section, sharp corners, mould
cores, due to restrainment from free contraction during cooling.
e. Inclusions Non-metallic particles like sand etc. due to erosion of the
mould.
f. Cold Shuts Hot metal over solidified metal or intersecting surfaces at
different temperature.
Welding Discontinuities : Process discontinuities. The process is similar to
casting, only the heat input is localized. Most of the defects are due to the
technique of heat input & solidification of weld metal.
a. Porosity Round cavities caused due to entrapment of gases during
solidification.

b. Slag Inclusion Due to entrapment of flux from the coated electrodes

or flux materials. Tungsten inclusions are formed when tungsten
electrode is used in particular welding process.
62

c. Cracks Due to stresses developed during welding. May be in welds

(Longitudinal or transverse) and in parent material in Heat Affected
Zone ( HAZ ), due to lack of ductility or presence of base metal
defects.

d. Lack of Fusion Lack of joint, may be between parent metal & weld
or in weld beads.

e. Incomplete Penetration Inability to penetrate the root of the weld

joint.

63

f. Excessive Penetration Also called as burn through and defined as the

penetration beyond the root of the weld caused by the excessive heat
input.

EXCESS PENETRATION

g. Lamellar Tearing Fractures appearing like horizontal terraces linked

by vertical walls are due to loading in the thickness direction of rolled
product and non-metallic inclusion in elongated form which lead to
short transverse ductility. It occurs often in HAZ and runs parallel to
the weld fusion boundary ( generally observed in T joints ).
The following are the surface defects and can be viewed during visual
examination.
h. Undercut It is a continuous or intermittent groove on the base metal
adjacent to the weld toe.
i. Root Concavity It is a concave groove at the root.

CHAPTER

14

APPLICATIONS :
The ultrasonic testing is performed to meet certain laid down procedures,
considering the intended use of the work piece. The variables in any testing
are likely to be for standard UFD using contact test method. The surface
condition should be adequate to permeate the energy in the material with
minimum loss. Following are the common applications of ultrasonic examination.
1. Thickness Measurement :
To measure the thickness of plates, wall thickness of pipes and tubes, ultrasonic
64

thickness gauges / D- meters are used during manufacturing and also widely used
for corrosion monitoring of pipelines, pressure vessels and storage tanks.
2. Bond Testing :
To evaluate the lack of bonding of cladded plates, lack of bonding between the
cladding interface of steel or cast iron shell to white metal / antifriction bearing
materials of cladded bearings and weld overlay over the plate materials,Ultrasonic
examination is the only method.
Equipment : Ultrasonic Flaw Detector:
Probe : 1 ) Type
: Straight beam dual / TR probe ( as cladding thickness is
small ) to eliminate the Dead zone and Near zone effect.
2) Frequency : As the cladding thickness is small , frequency of the
Probe should be higher for better resolution. 4 MHz and
above shall be the most suitable frequency.
Diameter : Higher diameter for flat surface and smaller diameter for
curved surface . 10 mm and below can match most of the
curvature and sometimes the probe front has to be
curved for better matching.
Velocity Measurement :
In order to measure the velocity of any unknown material, it is necessary to know
the accurate thickness of that unknown material.
For example to establish the velocity of Perspex on IIW V1 Block.
1) Calibrate the 100 mm range on steel of known velocity 5920 m / sec.
2) Put the probe on the Perspex and note down the reading on the screen.
V1
V2
Calculate the velocity by this formula : ----- = ----T1
T2
Where V1 = Velocity of steel ; V2 = Velocity of unknown material ( Perspex)
T1 = thickness reading of unknown material on the screen ( w.r.t steel calibration)
T2 = actual thickness of unknown material ( Perspex )

Attenuation Measurement:
Attenuation is a gradual loss of energy due to scatter and absorption. The
attenuation is more at high frequency ( due to the faster oscillations providing
greater friction ) and also more for transverse wave as compared to
longitudinal wave.
The attenuation is measured for longitudinal wave by comparing two
subsequent Back-Wall-Echoes in Far Zone. The difference in BWEs is not
entirely due to the attenuation but also due to the beam divergence.

65

Amplitude difference = Beam divergence + Attenuation.

(Generally in Far Zone, doubling the distance reduces the back echo by 6
dB).
Attenuation in dB = dB difference in BWE 6 dB.
(The Unit for attenuation measurement is dB / mm or dB / m. The distance is
considered two way i.e. transit path).
Attenuation co-efficient is correlated to material, testing frequency & type
of wave.
Similarly, by using two angle probes and taking the dB difference from V
& W path for transverse wave can be measured.

Flaw detection : Flaw detection is the major application

Forgings:
a. Type of flaws can be expected : Non-metallic inclusions, Center line piping
and forging burst at the center zone.
b. Probe selection : Best possible highest frequency for better sensitivity as the
material is fine grained structure. For lower dimension - higher frequency and
lower diameter probe (4 MHz,10 mm diameter) shall be used to reduce the Near
Zone effect.& for longer material low frequency and higher diameter(2MHz,
24mm dia.) shall be consider for better penetration.
c. For acceptace / rejection shall be evaluated by using Reference DAC /DGS
or by using BWE method.
d. Scan from end face & diametrically (for transverse and longitudinal
discontinuity ) covering two or three direction 90 0 apart or two adjacent faces
in square and rectangular section.
e. Echo height more than reference level of FBH or certain % of
echo Height with reference to BWE and in addition loss of BWE by
certain %.
f. Sometimes it may be necessary to perform test with inclined beam (of
angle 450) to locate seam defects by rotating the probe on the convex portion
of the round material or in the other section from adjacent faces.
Plates :
a. Type of discontinuity : Lamination is the major discontinuity.
b. Orientation : Planer at the centre of plate thickness, parallel to the
surface.
66

c. Probe selection : For standard procedure 4 MHz for lower thickness and
2 MHz for higher thickness and diameter of the probe always larger to reduce
scanning time.
d. Acceptance criteria : Major consideration is the area showing complete loss of
back wall and evaluated by 6 dB drop method.
Castings ( Steel ) :
a) Type of discontinuities : Shrinkage cavities, hot tear, cold shut, porosity,
slag inclusions etc.
b) Selection of probe : Low frequency 2MHz or below(1or 0.5 MHz) Normal
probe use angle probe where back-wall-echo falls to know the cause.
c) Acceptance criteria : Size of discontinuities shall be evaluated by Reference
DAC / DGS or BWE method and area by 6dB drop method.
Welds ( Butt ) :
a. Type of discontinuities : Lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, slag inclusions,
porosities / cluster of porosities, excess penetration, root concavity and undercuts.
b. Selection of probe : For lower thickness high frequency 4 MHz and smaller size
probe shall be used and for high thickness low frequency 2 MHz and larger size
probe shall be used. Probe angle shall be used as per =90 - Bevel angle or as
recommended in specific standard.
c. Acceptance criteria : Size of discontinuities shall be evaluated by reference
DAC / DGS using rcommended reflectors and extension by using 6 dB drop
Method.

Pipe ( Welds ) :
Circumferential - Similar like flat plate butt weld. However, inner &
Outer notches are used as reflectors.
Longitudinal - 1. Probe needs to be contoured.
2. Correction of skip distance & beam path to be done
with graphs or by scaling ( Nomograms are also
available ).
3. Limiting angle to be considered.

67

Some typical scanning of weld joints and interpretation of indications :

LACK OF FUSION

SLAG INCLUSION

68

CLUSTER OF POROSITIES

CHAPTER 15
Defect Sizing :
It should be borne in mind that in UT, the echo height shows us the
reflected energy. The echo height to be representative of area of reflector, the
centre of the reflector should be on beam axis lying perpendicular such as
FBH.
69

The natural reflector in a material is unlikely to be of a nature of FBH so

when a defect is a sized it should be clearly understood that it is Equivalent
Flaw Size ( EFS ) and not Actual Flaw Size.
Defects can be said to be small or large. Large reflector is the one whose
diameter is greater than the beam cross section at the testing range. Small
reflector is encircled at the testing range by the beam cross section.
Large Reflector :
a. Half value / 6 dB drop method Mostly used for plotting of lamination
boundaries in plate testing. The echo indication as compared to the
maximum indication, decreases by 6 dB if half of the sound beam strikes
the reflector and half of it passes by. If by moving the probe, we look
for the 6 dB drop points, then the axis of the beam ( centerline of the
probe ) points directly to the edge of the reflector.
b. 20 dB drop method Used to find the edge of discontinuity by plotting
the points where the indication of discontinuity drops to 10% ( 20 dB ) of
the maximum echo.
Small Reflector :
a. Equivalent Reflector Size Blocks with FBH to compare echo heights.
b. DGS diagram Distance, Gain & Size method is also based on FBH.
Generally for a small reflector, instead of sizing a defect, practical method
used is go / no go indication. That is drawing Distance Amplitude Correction
( DAC ) Curve on the screen called as Reference Level. Any indication above
this is unacceptable.

DAC Curve for Normal and Angle Probe :

DAC Curve can be plotted with Normal Probe using Flat Bottom Hole (FBH)
and Side Drilled Hole ( SDH ) with minimum three distances.
Similarly DAC Curve can be plotted with angle probe using Side Drilled
Hole at least with three different beam paths.

70

DGS ( Distance-Gain-Size ) :
DGS Scale and DGS Diagram also can be used for sizing of discontinuities
as shown below :

CHAPTER 16
IRRELEVANT INDICATIONS :
The echoes presented on CRT are not always the discontinuities echoes.
Because of Mode Conversion and some other reasons, there are likely to be
undesired indications which can not be avoided. So the operator should be
71

able to differentiate between desired and undesired ( irrelevant ) indications.

They are classified in different groups.
Electrical Interference : Noise appears on the screen can be caused due to
faulty co-axial cable or by the defective amplifier of UFD at high gain. In
mains operated UFD, it might be additionally caused due to the electrical
furnaces or welding equipment being connected to the same power line. All
these are easily identifiable and thus can be neglected during testing.
Probe Indications : Loose crystal can cause prolonged ringing / widening
initial pulse / increasing Dead Zone. In angle probes reflection from plastic
wedge can be seen near Initial Pulse, they will remain on the screen even if
probe is lifted.
Surface of the material : In TR probe cross talk echo is an example of this
type of irrelevant indication.
The surface waves traveling in all directions from Normal Probe on a fine
surface, can be reflected from the edge and produce an echo and be identified
by pressing an oily finger in the path of surface wave.
Reflection/ mode conversion : In Normal Probe when the probe is coupled to
a narrow and long work piece, the side wall generates additional echoes due
to mode conversion from longitudinal to transverse and back to probe as
longitudinal. As the travel time is longer because of reduced velocity of
transverse wave, these echoes appear after the 1 st Back-Wall-Echo at the interval
of 0. 76 D or T ; Where D is the diameter& T is the thickness.

MODE CONVERSION CAUSED BY BEAM SPREAD

When the probe is coupled on diameter of round bar, the following

phenomenon will work and we can get additional echoes after 1 st Back-WallEcho at the distance 1.3 D and 1.68 D, where D is the diameter of test specimen.

72

T1 = 1.3 D

T2 = 1.68 D

Shape of the Work Piece : In the specimens of different shapes with fillets
& corners, or in rectangular specimens with internal bores, it might be
difficult to predict the irrelevant indications. To differentiate them, examine the
work piece from more than one surface and with different angle probes.
Material Structure : It plays an important role while testing. A large forging
with low losses ( very fine grained ) may show Ghost echoes. Castings ( not
heat treated ) show a coarse structure giving a noise on the screen. In certain
materials the direction of the sound beam with respect to the direction of
oriented grain structure also needs to be considered.

GRAIN SIZE INDICATIONS

CHAPTER 17
73

TECHNIQUES :
There are two basic Ultrasonic testing techniques :
a. Contact Testing.
b. Immersion Testing.
Contact Testing :
In this method the transducer is placed in direct contact with the test
specimen with a thin liquid film used as a couplant. On some contact type of
probes, plastic wedges, wear plates or flexible membranes are attached over
the face of the crystal.

Immersion Testing :
In this method both the test piece and the probe are totally immersed in
water.
Few important points to be remembered about this testing are :
a. Mostly water is used as a couplant.
b. Because of total immersion of test piece & probe, good coupling is
ensured.
c. Probe should be water tight as completely immersed in water.
d. Generally straight beam probes are used for angle beam testing. Any
desired angle can be performed through manipulation and control of the
sound beam direction.
e. Mounted on carriage assembly for X & Y movement of perpendicular
orientation to the test surface.
f. The water to steel interface, generate extra echo at the entry face of
work piece known as Entrance or Entry Echo. This peaked when the
74

probe is properly oriented. There is fairly wide gap between initial

pulse and the front surface reflection ( Entry Echo ).
g. Minimum water gap should be such that no water multiple echoes
appear between the expectancy range of the work piece. Because of
water to steel velocity ratio being 1 : 4, the water gap must be more
than thickness of test piece. Advisable to keep t + .
h. If water gap is small, then the multiple of entrance echo would appear
between entry surface & back surface, indication making interpretation
difficult.
i. Difficult to test large part as the size of the tank and accessories will
have to be too large to accommodate work piece.

IMMERSION TESTING USING STRAIGHT BEAM

IMMERSION TESTING USING ANGLE BEAM

75

Data Presentation :
Information in UT can be presented in three different formats :
a. A Scan.
b. B Scan.
c. C Scan.

76

A Scan : Most of the UFD for standard applications use CRT showing the
amplitude of the echo signals on the vertical Y direction and the distance of
the corresponding reflectors are represented on the horizontal X direction.
Relative discontinuity size can be determined by comparing amplitude from
known size reference reflector and displayed indication amplitude. Depth of
the reflector can be easily determined by the position on a calibrated
horizontal base line.
B Scan : This will display a cross sectional or Elevation view of the test
object on a long persistent CRT. In this the probe movement is mostly
displayed in the X direction while the distance of the reflector is in the Y
direction.
C Scan : This presentation method displays discontinuity areas relative to
the plan or top view of the test object. Mostly the presentation is in the form
of paper recorders to provide permanent records. However, the depth
information is not available. The pen movement of the recorder and the probe
movement are synchronized and scanning is performed mechanically.

METHODS :
Pulse echo : Also called as reflection method. In this either single or double
transducer is placed on one side of the specimen and the presence of a defect
is indicated by the reception of an echo before that of Back-Wall-Echo. The
exact location and some idea of defect size can be assessed.
Through Transmission : The transmitting & receiving probes are on opposite
sides of the specimen. They are to be in the same axis. The presence of defect
is indicated by the reduction of received echo. It is not possible to get the
depth of defect.
Resonance : It is a characteristic of a vibrating body, and a condition of
resonance exists whenever the thickness of material equals half wavelength or
multiples of sound in that material. Earlier thickness measurement was done
by this method using continuous waves. But now-a-days thickness measuring
instruments like D- Meters use Pulse-Echo method only.

77

PULSE ECHO METHOD

78

THROUGH TRANSMISSION METHOD

79

CHAPTER 18
CODES & REPORTING :
Normally all the documents give an outline of :
What equipment to use.
What scanning procedure to follow.
What sensitivity to use.
What recording level to use.
What defect sizing system to use.
What to accept and what to reject.
What do we report.
The standard would describe :
a. Equipment Performance standards are defined for the flaw detectors.
The probe frequency to be used and the range of angles which may be
used, are also defined.
b. Scanning Procedure The number of scans to be used, and whether they
are compression wave ( straight beam ) or shear wave ( angle
beam )
scans, is defined as well as the coverage of material volume to be
achieved, and the overlap between scans.
c. Sensitivity The procedure for setting test sensitivity is related to a
basic reference block made from the same material and of similar
thickness and surface condition, to the work pieces. The Distance
Amplitude Correction ( DAC ) curve represents the reference level at
various depths in the specimen. The initial test sensitivity is then set at
twice the reference level ( i.e. you add another 6 dB gain ).
d. Recording level Using the test sensitivity described locate defect
indications. The sensitivity has to be adjusted back to reference level (6
dB down). The defect indications are then compared with the DAC
reference levels. All indications greater than 20% of that reference level
must be investigated to determine shape, identify and location of the
defect because cracks are unacceptable regardless of the signal
amplitude. In any case all the indications greater than 50% of
reference level are to be recorded on the Inspection report.
e. Defect sizing system Although the method o be used to size defects
is not specified in each standard. Most of the acceptance criteria
depend
upon defect length and a 6 dB drop method of sizing.
f. Acceptance / Rejection criteria These are specified in many cases
and
80

are generally related amplitude ( in excess of reference level ) and defect

length ( as a function of specimen thickness ). Any indication from a
crack like defect is unacceptable.
g. Reporting Even those standards which do not give acceptance criteria
( leaving these to contractual agreement ) do specify reporting level
indications in excess of 50% of the reference level. The other important
items to be included in each report are also specified.
Summary :
Most standards describe performance characteristics for Ultrasonic equipment.
These are well-known to the equipment manufacturer. The parameters for
sensitivity, defect sizing, reporting levels and acceptance levels are much more
of a problem to the Inspector. Some standards and specifications aim to
producing standardization and repeatability of results. These are the ones
which set sensitivity, recording and reporting levels. Usually these are based
on DAC curves, or DGS diagrams, and known reference targets.
Standards produced by ASTM ( American Society of Testing Materials ) are
commonly practiced. At the end of this chapter we have a list of Reference
numbers of IS ( Indian Standards ) & ASTM.
Reporting :
There are
to how a
the report
same line

several types of report forms available. There is no fixed pattern as

report should be. What is important is that a third person reading
should be able to make sense out of it or repeat the test on the
as done earlier.

The report should contain the following information.

What have you tested ?
a. Can be identified by the customer or drawing No. or description of the
component. If a large quantity of one type of component is tested, is
should be identified by Sl. No.

81