Tutorial 4

1-

It occur when a surface is created, surfaces must be intrinsically less energetically

favorable than the bulk of a material , otherwise there would be a driving force for
surfaces to be created, removing the bulk of the material . The surface energy may
therefore be defined as the excess energy at the surface of a material compared to the
bulk, or it is the work required to build an area of a particular surface.

The surface has to be considered differently from the bulk. For instance,
the pressure in the bulk of an isotropic solid is equal in all directions,
whereas the pressure on the surface plane is highly anisotropic. To
create a surface, e.g., by cleaving, requires to spend energy that is
proportional to the amount of A, the additional surface area created.
U = TS PV + mN + gA
The proportionality factor g is called the surface tension

g = dU/dA
The tendency to minimize surface energy is a defining factor in the
morphology and composition of surfaces and interfaces. Minimization of
energy leads to a spherical equilibrium shape in an isotropic liquid
Surfaces often change their form away from the simple "cleaved bond"(splitting of bonds)
model just implied above. They are found to be highly dynamic regions, which readily
rearrange or react, so that energy is often reduced by such processes
as passivation or adsorption.
23-

Not found

a) * Shock Loading Failures

* Fatigue Failures
* Failures due to Wear
* Failures due to Scuffing

b) fatigue fracture
c) progressive wear damage at the bearing surface during extrusion., presence of quench
cracks, erosion and/or pitting, corrosion, etc.

4
a)it is a component of surface texture. It is quantified by the deviations in the direction of the normal
vector of a real surface from its ideal form. If these deviations are large, the surface is rough; if they
are small, the surface is smooth. Roughness is typically considered to be the high-frequency, shortwavelength component of a measured surface . Roughness can be measured by manual
comparison against a "surface roughness comparator", a sample of known surface
roughnesses, but more generally a surface profile measurement is made with a profilometer that
can be contact
b)
c) Microhardness testing is a method of determining a material's hardness or resistance to
penetration when test samples are very small or thin, or when small regions in a composite
sample or plating are to be measured. "macro indentation" is applied to tests with a larger test
load, such as 1 kgf or more. There are various macroindentation tests, including:

Vickers hardness test (HV), which has one of the widest scales

Brinell hardness test (HB)

Knoop hardness test (HK), for measurement over small areas

Rockwell hardness test for wood

d) A coefficient of friction is a value that shows the relationship between the force
of friction between two objects and the normal reaction between the objects. The coefficient of
static friction is equal to the tangent of the angle at which the objects slide and measured
theoretically
5) Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. The limiting friction is the maximum frictional force that
can arise before an object begins to slide. Typically, it is equal to the product of the static
coefficient of frictionand the perpendicular force between the surfaces. Lubricants reduce
friction because they eliminate the contact resistance between two solid surfaces or
objects. When two solid surfaces come into contact, such as a sled being dragged across a
floor, friction is the force that develops. This friction resists the relative motion between the two
surfaces that are in contact.
6) Wear is related to interactions between surfaces and specifically the removal and
deformation of material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite
surfaceWear occurs when two solids rub against each other and cause damage. Erosion occurs
when a fluid flows over a surface degrading and removing material from the surface

Primary stage or early run-in period, where surfaces adapt to each other and the wearrate might vary between high and low.

Secondary stage or mid-age process, where a steady rate of ageing is in motion. Most of
the components operational life is comprised in this stage.

Tertiary stage or old-age period, where the components are subjected to rapid failure
due to a high rate of ageing.

a) Abrasive wear is the loss of material by the passage of hard particles over a surface.
Erosive wear is caused by the impact of particles against a solid surface.
http://webpages.dcu.ie/~stokesjt/ThermalSpraying/Book/Chapter1.pdf (for further parts)

7) Fatigue failure is defined as the tendency of a material to fracture by means of progressive

brittle cracking under repeated alternating or cyclic stresses of an intensity considerably below
the normal strength.
t is well established that residual stress and work hardening, generated by
machining and surfacetreatment processes, influence the fatigue life of
mechanical parts [1-3]. That is why they are oftenconsidered in fatigue strength
predictive models using multi-axial fatigue criteria [3] and fatigue
lifeassessment by local strain-life approache

the highest stress that a material can withstand for an infinite number of cycles without
breaking called also endurance limit compare fatigue strength. Typical values of the
limit (Se) for steels are 1/2 the ultimate tensile strength, to a maximum of 290 MPa
(42 ksiTension-compression testing : Samples are repeatedly switched between a tensile and a
compressive load.

Tension-tension testing.[15] Samples are placed under an oscillatory tension amplitude.

8) They are called residual stresses because they remain from a previous operation.
Residual stresses exist in most manufactured parts and their potential to improve
or ruin components subjected to millions of load cycles can hardly be
overestimated.As in the compressive stress ,the cracks get closed resulting in the
delay of propagation of crack. They are called residual stresses because they
remain from a previous operation. Residual stresses exist in most manufactured
parts and their potential to improve or ruin components subjected to millions of load
cycles can hardly be overestimated.

9) Brittleness is the main limitation of glasses, as impacts, scratches or vibrations

can result in undesirable or even dangerous fracture. Indeed, glasses lack a stable
shearing mechanism, thus showing very poor ductility and, consequently, high
brittleness [1, 2]. This is a serious safety concern, as the number of injuries related
to glass and also strength, toughness and stiffness are a major bottleneck for
further development of short-haul highcapacity telecommunication and fiber-to-thehome technologies,
Thanks to their internal flexibility, their networks rather deform to prevent the
fracture from occurring

Surface hardening treatment of steel by heat or mechanical means to

increase the hardness of the outer surface while the core remains relatively
soft. The combination of a hard surface and a soft interior is greatly valued in
modern engineering because it can withstand very high stress and fatigue, a
property that is required in such items as gears and anti-friction bearings.
Surface-hardened steel is also valued for its low cost and superior flexibility in
manufacturing. Surface hardening of steel can be achieved by localized heating
10)

and quenching, without any chemical modification of the surface. The more
common methods currently used to harden the surface of steels include flame and
induction hardening. However, each of these methods has shortcomings that can
prevent its use in some applications
Laser surface heat treatment is widely used to harden localized areas of steel and
cast iron machine components. This process is sometimes referred to as laser
transformation hardening to differentiate it from laser surface melting phenomena
(Fig. 9). There is no chemistry change produced by laser transformation hardening,
and the process, like induction and flame hardening, provides an effective technique
to harden ferrous materials selectively. Carbonitriding is a surface-hardening heat
treatment that introduces carbon and nitrogen into the austenite of steel. This
treatment is similar to carburizing in that the austenite composition is changed and
high surface hardness is produced by quenching to form martensite

11) Shot peening is a cold work process used to finish metal parts to prevent fatigue and stress
corrosion failures and prolong product life for the part. In shot peening, small spherical shot bombards the
surface of the part to be finished. The shot acts like a peen hammer, dimpling the surface and causing
compression stresses under the dimple. As the media continues to strike the part, it forms multiple
overlapping dimples throughout the metal surface being treated. The surface compression stress
strengthens the metal, ensuring that the finished part will resist fatigue failures, corrosion fatigue and
cracking, and galling and erosion from cavitation. Shot peening is the most economical and effective
method of producing and making surface residual compressive stresses to increase the product life of
treated metal parts. Shot peening is also used for work hardening to improve wear characteristics,
straightening distortions, surface texturing and for creating aerodynamic curvatures for aerospace
designs. The increased strength of treated parts allows for lighter-weight parts that exhibit high wear and
fatigue resistance

12) They are cold working process used to produce a compressive residual stress layer and modify
mechanical properties of metalsand composites. It entails impacting a surface with shot (round
metallic, glass, or ceramic particles) with force sufficient to create plastic deformation. . Ultrasonic
impact treatment can result in controlled residual compressive stress, grain
refinement and grain size reduction
Results show that shot peening can enhance the fatigue property, especially for
high strength alloys. Laser shock peening and ultrasonic peening are the high
intensity peening processes and can induce both the deeper residual compressive

stress layer and the fine microstructure in surface strained layer, therefore they
should have more important engineering applications in future
13) It treats a specific part of the piece (hardening profile)

Frequency Control and heating times

Cooling control
Energy saving
No physical contact
Control and located heat
Can be integrated in production lines
Increase performance and saves space
And the disadvantages of flame hardening are:

14) Not found

15) It is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbonwhile the metal is heated in

the presence of a carbon-bearing material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide. The intent is to
make the metal harder
Plasma carburization is increasingly used to improve the surface characteristics (such as
wear, corrosion resistance, hardness, load-bearing capacity, in addition to quality-based variables) of
various metals, notably stainless steels
Gas carburizing is normally carried out at a temperature within the range of 900 to 950 C.
The process of carburization works via the diffusion of carbon atoms into the surface layers of a
metal. As metals are made up of atoms bound tightly into a metallic crystalline lattice, the carbon
atoms diffuse into the crystal structure of the metal and either remain in solution (dissolved within the
metal crystalline matrix this normally occurs at lower temperatures) or react with elements in the
host metal to form carbides (normally at higher temperatures, due to the higher mobility of the host
metal's atoms). If the carbon remains in solid solution, the steel is then heat treated to harden it.
Both of these mechanisms strengthen the surface of the metal, the former by forming pearlite or
martensite, and the latter via the formation of carbides
In oxy-acetylene welding, a carburizing flame is one with little oxygen, which produces a sooty,
lower-temperature flame. It is often used to anneal metal, making it more malleable and flexible
during the welding process

There are different types of elements or materials that can be used to perform this process, but
these mainly consist of high carbon content material. A few typical hardening agents include carbon
monoxide gas (CO), sodium cyanide and barium carbonate, or hardwood charcoal. In gas
carburizing, the CO is given off by propane or natural gas. In liquid carburizing, the CO is derived
from a molten salt composed mainly of sodium cyanide (NaCN) and barium chloride (BaCl 2). In pack
carburizing, carbon monoxide is given off by coke or hardwood charcoal.
In general, pack carburizing equipment can accommodate larger workpieces than liquid or gas
carburizing equipment, but liquid or gas carburizing methods are faster and lend themselves to
mechanized material handling. Also the advantages of carburizing over carbonitriding are greater
case depth (case depths of greater than 0.3 inch are possible), less distortion, and better impact
strength. This makes it perfect for high strength and wear applications (e.g. scissors or swords). The
disadvantages include added expense, higher working temperatures, and increased time
16,17&18)Not found in detail,arrange from asati
19) Nitriding is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a metal to create
a case-hardened surface. These processes are most commonly used on low-carbon, low-alloy
steels. At the nitriding temperature, the nitrogen ions, activated nitrogen atoms and neutrals
effect the nitriding reactions through the diffusion of nitrogen into the component. ... It can be
seen that a 'white' layer and a nitrogen diffusion zoon with very fine CrN precipitates formed on
the surface.

It has been known that Nitriding can offer more surface hardness compared to carburising and also as nitriding
introduces a significant amount of Compressive stress by increase in volume it has very much beneficial w.r.t.
component's fatigue performance life

And Wikipedia till 22