RECIPROCATING ENGINES

INTRODUCTION
The lack of an efficient and practical propulsion system has been a limiting factor in aircraft development throughout history. For example, in 1483 Leonardo daVinci conceived a flying machine he called the aerial screw.
However, since there were no means of propulsion at that time, the aerial screw was never developed. In fact, the
first patent for a heat engine was not taken out until 1791 by John Barber. Unfortunately, Barber's engine was neither efficient nor practical. It was not until 1860 that a truly practical piston engine was built by Etienne Lenoir of
France. Lenoir's engine, employing a battery ignition system and natural gas as fuel, was used to operate industrial
machinery such as lathes. The next major breakthrough in piston engine development came in 1876 when Dr.
August Otto developed the four-stroke, five-event cycle which is the operating cycle used by most modern reciprocating aircraft engines.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

All heat engines convert heat energy into mechanical energy by taking in a specific volume of air and
heating it through the combustion of a fuel. The
heated air expands, creating a force that is converted
into mechanical energy to drive a propeller or other
device. The most common type of heat engine is the
reciprocating engine. Reciprocating engines derive
their name from the back-and-forth, or reciprocating
movement of their pistons. It is this reciprocating
motion that produces the mechanical energy needed
to accomplish work.

TYPES OF RECIPROCATING
ENGINES
Many types of reciprocating engines have been
designed for aircraft since the Wright Brothers first
used a four-cylinder in-line engine to make aviation
history. The two most common means of classifying
reciprocating engines are by cylinder arrangment
with respect to the crankshaft (radial, in-line,
V-type, or opposed) and the method of cooling
(liquid-cooled or air-cooled).
RADIAL ENGINES
A radial engine consists of a row, or rows of cylinders arranged radially about a central crankcase.
The two basic types of radial engines include the
rotary-type radial engine and the static-type radial
engine. During World War I, rotary-type radial
engines were used almost exclusively because they
produced the greatest horsepower for their weight.
The cylinders of a rotary-type radial engine are
mounted radially around a small crankcase and
rotate with the propeller, while the crankshaft
remains stationary. Some of the more popular rotary
engines were the Bently, the Gnome, and the
LeRhone. [Figure 1-1]
Probably the biggest disadvantage rotary-type radial
engines possessed was that the torque effect produced by the large rotating mass of the propeller and
cylinders made aircraft somewhat difficult to con-

Figure 1-1. On rotary-type radial engines, the propeller and

cylinders are physically bolted to the crankcase and rotate
around the stationary crankshaft.

trol. This difficulty, coupled with carburetion, lubrication, and exhaust system problems, limited development of the rotary-type radial engine.
In the late 1920s, the Wright Aeronautical
Corporation, in cooperation with the U.S. Navy,
developed a series of five-, seven-, and nine-cylinder static-type radial engines. These engines
demonstrated reliability far greater than any other
previous designs. The radial engine enabled the
long distance flights accomplished by Charles
Lindbergh and other aviation pioneers to wake up
the world to the realization that the airplane was a
practical means of travel.
Static-type radial engines differ from rotary-type
radial engines in that the crankcase is bolted to the
airframe and remains stationary. This dictates that
the crankshaft rotate to turn the propeller.
Static-type radial engines have as few as three
cylinders and as many as 28, but it was the higher
horsepower

Reciprocating Engines

1-3

sometimes referred to as a double-row radial

engine and typically has a total of 14 or 18 cylinders. To help cool a multiple-row radial engine, the
rear rows of cylinders are staggered so they are
behind the spaces between the front cylinders. This
configuration increases the amount of airflow past
each cylinder.
One of the largest multiple-row radial engines was
the Pratt and Whitney R-4360, which consisted of
28 cylinders arranged in four staggered rows of
seven cylinders each. The R-4360 developed a maximum 3,400 horsepower and represented the most
powerful production radial engine ever used at that
time. [Figure 1-3]
Figure 1-2. Radial engines helped revolutionize aviation
with their high power and dependability.

IN-LINE ENGINES

applications that proved most useful. Outstanding

reliability coupled with a high power-to-weight
ratio made them ideal for powering early military
and civilian transport aircraft. [Figure 1-2]

An in-line engine generally has an even number of

cylinders that are aligned in a single row parallel
with the crankshaft. This engine can be either liquid-cooled or air cooled and the pistons can be
located either upright above the crankshaft or
inverted below the crankshaft. [Figure 1-4]

To increase their operational flexibility, static radial

engines have been designed with a varying number
of cylinder rows. One of the most common is the
single-row radial engine which has an odd number
of cylinders attached radially to a crankcase. A typical configuration consists of five to nine cylinders
evenly spaced on the same circular plane with all
pistons connected to a single crankshaft. To further
increase a radial engine's power, while maintaining
a reasonable engine frontal area, multiple-row
radial engines were developed. One of the most
common multiple-row radial engines consisted of
two single row engines in line with each other connected to a single crankshaft. This type of engine is

An in-line engine has a comparatively small frontal

area and, therefore, allows for better streamlining.
Because of this, in-line engines were popular among
early racing aircraft. Another advantage of the inline engine is that, when mounted with the cylinders inverted, the crankshaft is higher off the
ground. The higher crankshaft allowed greater propeller ground clearance which, in turn, permitted
the use of shorter landing gear. Since in-line engines
were used primarily on tail-wheel aircraft, the
shorter main gear provided for increased forward
visibility on the ground.
Although in-line engines offered some advantages
over radial engines, they did have certain drawbacks
that limited their usefulness. For example, in-line

Figure 1-3. The Pratt and Whitney R-4360 engine was the
largest practical radial engine used in aviation. However,
the advent of both the turbojet and turboprop engines has
all but eliminated the usefulness of large multiple-row
radial engines on modern aircraft designs.

Figure 1-4. A popular version of the in-line engine consisted

of cylinders that were inverted. A typical in-line engine consists of four to six cylinders and develops anywhere from 90
to 200 horsepower.

1-4

Reciprocating Engines

engines have relatively low power-to-weight ratios.

In addition, the rearmost cylinders of an air-cooled
in-line engine receive relatively little cooling air, so
in-line engines were typically limited to only four
or six cylinders. With these limitations, most in-line
engine designs were confined to low- and
medium-horsepower engines used in light aircraft.

engines always have an even number of cylinders,

and a cylinder on one side of a crankcase "opposes"
a cylinder on the other side. While some opposed
engines are liquid-cooled, the majority are air
cooled. Opposed engines are typically mounted in a
horizontal position when installed on fixed-wing
aircraft, but can be mounted vertically to power
helicopters.

V-TYPE ENGINES

Opposed-type engines have high power-to-weight

ratios because they have a comparatively small,
lightweight crankcase. In addition, an opposed
engine's compact cylinder arrangement reduces the
engine's frontal area and allows a streamlined
installation that minimizes aerodynamic drag.
Furthermore, opposed engines typically vibrate less
than other engines because an opposed engine's
power impulses tend to cancel each other. [Figure
1-6]

Further evolution of the reciprocating engine led to

the development of the V-type engine. As the name
implies, the cylinders of a V-type engine are
arranged around a single crankshaft in two in-line
banks that are 45, 60, or 90 degrees apart. Since
V-type engines had two rows of cylinders, they
were typically capable of producing more
horsepower than an in-line engine. Furthermore,
since only one crankcase and one crankshaft were
used, most V-type engines had a reasonable
power-to-weight ratio while retaining a small
frontal area. The cylinders on a V-type engine
could be above the crankshaft or below it, in which
case the engine is referred to as an inverted V-type
engine. Most V-type engines had 8 or 12 cylinders
and were either liquid-cooled or air cooled. The
V-12 engines developed during World War II
achieved some of the highest horsepower ratings
of any reciprocating engines, and today are
typically found on restored military and racing
aircraft. [Figure 1-5]

Today, opposed-type engines are the most popular

reciprocating engines used on light aircraft. A typical opposed engine can produce as little as 36 horsepower to as much as 400 horsepower. Opposed

In the 1980s, Porsche Aviation Products developed

an FAA certificated aircraft engine that was based
on one of their automotive engines. The Porsche
Flugmotoren (PFM) 3200 is a direct descendant of
the 214 horsepower engine used in the Porsche 911
sports car. The PFM 3200 is a geared,
horizontally-opposed six cylinder engine that
displaces 193 cubic inches and produces
approximately 200 horsepower. The Porsche
engine employs a dual electronic ignition system
and dual electrical system consisting of two
alternators, two batteries, and two electrical buses.
In addition, the PFM 3200 utilizes a single engine
control called a power lever. The power lever
automatically governs the throttle, mixture, and
propeller pitch settings. This reduces pilot
workload and, at the same time, maintains the
engine's peak performance for the given conditions.

Figure 1-5. V-type engines provide an excellent combination of weight, power, and small frontal area.

Figure 1-6. A horizontally opposed engine combines a good

power-to-weight ratio with a relatively small frontal area.
These engines power most light aircraft in use today.

OPPOSED-TYPE ENGINES

Reciprocating Engines

ENGINE COMPONENTS
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must be
familiar with an engine's components in order to
understand its operating principles. Furthermore,
having an understanding of an engine's basic construction greatly enhances your ability to perform
routine maintenance operations.
The basic parts of a reciprocating engine include the
crankcase, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods,
valves, valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft.
The valves, pistons, and spark plugs are located in
the cylinder while the valve operating mechanism,
crankshaft, and connecting rods are located in the
crankcase. [Figure 1-7]

1-5

Although a number of engine configurations have

had their place in aircraft development, the horizontally opposed and static-type radial designs represent the vast majority of reciprocating engines in
service today. Because of this, the discussion on
engine components centers on these types.
CRANKCASE
The crankcase is the foundation of a reciprocating
engine. It contains the engine's internal parts and
provides a mounting surface for the engine cylinders and external accessories. In addition, the
crankcase provides a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil as well as a means of attaching a complete engine to an airframe. Given the requirements
placed on a crankcase, as well as the internal and
external forces they are subjected to, crankcases
must be extremely rigid and strong. For example,
due to the internal combustion forces exerted on
the cylinders and the unbalanced centrifugal and
inertial forces inflicted by a propeller, a crankcase
is constantly subjected to bending moments which
change continuously in direction and magnitude.
Therefore, to remain functional, a crankcase must
be capable of absorbing these forces and still maintain its integrity.
Today, most crankcases consist of at least two
pieces; however, there are some one-piece and up to
five-piece case assemblies. To provide the strength
and rigidity required while maintaining a relatively
light weight, most aircraft crankcases are made of
cast aluminum alloys.
OPPOSED ENGINE CRANKCASES

Figure 1-7. In a basic reciprocating engine, the cylinder

forms a chamber where the fuel/air mixture is compressed
and burned. The piston, on the other hand, compresses

the fuel mixture and transmits the power produced by

combustion to the crankshaft through the connecting
rods. The intake valve allows the fuel/air mixture into the
cylinder while the exhaust valve lets the exhaust gases out
of the cylinder.

A typical horizontally opposed engine crankcase

consists of two halves of cast aluminum alloy that
are manufactured either with sand castings or by
using permanent molds. Crankcases manufactured
through the permanent mold process, or
per-mamold, as it is called by some manufacturers,
are denser than those made by sand casting. This
denser construction allows molded crankcases to
have somewhat thinner walls than a sand cast
crankcase and exhibit less tendency to crack due
to fatigue. Most opposed crankcases are
approximately cylindrical, with smooth areas
machined to serve as cylinder pads. A cylinder
pad is simply a surface where a cylinder is
mounted to a crankcase.
To allow a crankcase to support a crankshaft, a
series of transverse webs are cast directly into a
crankcase parallel to the case's longitudinal axis.

1-6

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-8. In addition to the transverse webs that support the main bearings, a set of camshaft bosses are typically cast into a
crankcase. These bosses support the camshaft which is part of the valve operating mechanism.

These webs form an integral part of the structure

and, in addition to housing the bearings that support the crankshaft, the webs add strength to the
crankcase. [Figure 1-8]
The crankcase is also an integral part of the lubrication system. Oil passages are drilled throughout the
case halves to allow lubricating oil to be delivered
to the moving parts housed within the crankcase. In
addition, oil galleries are machined into the case
halves to scavenge, or collect, oil and return it to the
main oil tank or sump.
Most crankcase halves split vertically and are
aligned and held together with studs and bolts.
Through bolts are typically used at the crankshaft
bearings while smaller bolts and nuts are used
around the case perimeter. Since the oil supply in
most modern horizontally opposed engines is car-

ried inside the crankcase, provisions are made to

seal the case to prevent leakage. To ensure that the
seal does not interfere with the tight fit for the bearings, most crankcase halves are sealed with a very
thin coating of a non-hardening gasket compound.
In addition, on some engines a fine silk thread
extending around the entire case perimeter is
imbedded in the compound. With this type of setup, when the crankcase halves are bolted together
with the proper torque, the gasket material and silk
thread form an effective oil seal without interfering
with bearing fit.
RADIAL ENGINE CRANKCASES

Unlike opposed engine crankcases, radial engine

crankcases are divided into distinct sections. The
number of sections can be as few as three or as
many as seven depending on the size and type of
engine. In general, a typical radial engine crankcase

Reciprocating Engines

separates into four main sections: the nose section,

the power section, the supercharger section, and
the accessory section. [Figure 1-9]
The nose section is mounted at the front of a radial
engine crankcase and bolts directly to the power
section. A typical nose section is made of an aluminum alloy that is cast as one piece with a domed
or convex shape. The nose section usually houses
and supports a propeller governor drive shaft, the
propeller shaft, a cam ring, and a propeller reduction gear assembly if required. In addition, many
nose sections have mounting points for magnetos
and other engine accessories.
The second portion of a crankcase is referred to as
the power section and represents the section of the
crankcase where the reciprocating motion of the pistons is converted to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. Like an opposed engine crankcase, the power
section absorbs intense stress from the crankshaft
assembly and the cylinders. A power section can be
either one, two, or three pieces. A one-piece power
section usually consists of a solid piece of aluminum alloy. A split power section, on the other
hand, is typically manufactured from aluminum or
magnesium and then bolted together. As with an
opposed engine crankcase, a radial engine power
section contains machined bosses that rigidly support the crankshaft bearings and the crankshaft.

1-7

Cylinders are attached around the perimeter of the

power section to machined cylinder pads. In general, studs are installed into threaded holes in the
power section to provide a means of retaining the
cylinders. The inner circumference of a cylinder
pad is sometimes chamfered or tapered to permit the
installation of a large rubber O-ring around the
cylinder skirt. This O-ring effectively seals the joint
between the cylinder and the cylinder pads.
The diffuser or supercharger section is located
directly behind the power section and is generally
made of cast aluminum alloy or magnesium. As its
name implies, this section houses the supercharger
and its related components. A supercharger is an
engine accessory that is used to compress air and
distribute it to the engine's cylinders. This compression increases the air density so the engine can operate at high altitudes and still produce the same
amount of power as it would at sea level. The supercharger section also incorporates mounting lugs to
secure the engine assembly to the engine mounts.
The accessory section is usually cast of either an aluminum alloy or magnesium. On some engines, it is
cast in one piece and then machined to provide a
means for mounting accessories such as magnetos,
carburetors, pumps, starters, and generators.
However, on other engines, the accessory section
consists of an aluminum alloy casting and a separate

Figure 1-9. The four basic sections of a radial engine crankcase are the nose section, power section, supercharger section, and
accessory section.

1-8

Reciprocating Engines

cast magnesium cover plate on which the accessories are mounted.

A typical accessory section houses gear trains
containing both spur- and bevel-type gears that
drive various engine components and accessories.
Spur-type gears are generally used to drive more
heavily loaded accessories or those requiring the
least play or backlash in the gear train. On the
other hand, bevel gears permit angular location of
short stub shafts leading to the various accessory
mounting pads.
ENGINE MOUNTING POINTS

For opposed engines, mounting points, sometimes

called mounting lugs, are typically cast as part of
the crankcase. However, some mounting lugs may
be a bolt-on addition. As a general rule,
lower-horsepower engines use mounting lugs that
are cast into the crankcase, while higher-powered
engines employ mounting lugs that are bolted to
the crankcase. On all engines, the mounting
arrangement supports the entire powerplant
including the propeller and, therefore, must be
designed to withstand various engine, centrifugal,
and g-loading conditions.
As previously discussed, mounting lugs for radial
engines are spaced about the periphery of the supercharger section to attach the engine to the engine
mount. The mounting lugs may either be integral
with the diffuser section or detachable.
CRANKSHAFTS
The crankshaft is the backbone of a reciprocating
engine. Its main purpose is to transform the reciprocating motion of the pistons and connecting rods
into rotary motion to turn a propeller. A typical
crankshaft has one or more cranks, or throws,
located at specified points along its length. These
throws are formed by forging offsets into a crankshaft before it is machined. Since crankshafts must
withstand high stress, they are generally forged from
a strong alloy such as chromium-nickel molybdenum steel.
Some crankshafts are made from a single piece of
steel, while others consist of several components. A
typical crankshaft can have as few as one throw or
as many as eight and varies depending on the number of cylinders and engine type. Regardless of the
number of throws or the number of pieces used in
construction, all crankshafts utilize the same basic

Figure 1-10. All crankshafts consist of a main bearing journal, one or more crankpins, and several crank cheeks.

parts. These parts include the main bearing journal,

the crankpin, and the crank cheek. In addition,
although they are not true parts of the crankshaft,
counterweights and dampers are often installed on
many crankshafts to reduce engine vibration.
[Figure 1-10]
The main bearing journals, or main journals, repre
sent the centerline of a crankshaft and support the
crankshaft as it rotates in the main bearings. All
crankshafts require at least two main journals to
support the crankshaft, absorb the operational loads,
and transmit stress from the crankshaft to the
crankcase. To help minimize wear, most main bear
ing journals, or crank journals, as they are some
times called, are hardened through nitriding to
resist wear.
. : ' . . . ......
Crankpins, or connecting-rod bearing journals,
serve as attachment points for the connecting rods.
Most crankpins are forged directly into a crankshaft
and are offset from the main bearing journal. This
offset design means that any force applied to a
crankpin in a direction other than parallel to the
crankshaft center line causes the crankshaft to
rotate. Like main journals, crankpins are nitrided to
resist wear and provide a suitable bearing surface.
To reduce total crankshaft weight, crankpins are
usually hollow. This hollow construction also provides a passage for lubricating oil. In addition, a hollow crankpin serves as a collection chamber for
sludge, dirt, carbon deposits, and other foreign
material. Once these substances reach a crankpin
chamber, or sludge chamber, centrifugal force
throws them to the outside of the chamber to keep
them from reaching the outside crankpin surfaces.
On some engines, a passage is drilled in the
crankpin to allow oil from the hollow crankshaft to
be sprayed onto the cylinder walls.(FAA)
On opposed engines, the number of crankpins must
correspond with an engine's cylinder arrangement.

Reciprocating Engines

1-9

Figure 1-11. On a four cylinder engine, the number one and four throws are 180 degrees apart from the number two and
three throws.

The arrangement of the crankpins varies with the

type engine and allows each piston to be at a different position in the cranking cycle as the crankshaft
rotates. The position of the crankpins on a crankshaft in relation to each other is expressed in
degrees. [Figure 1-11]
Two crank cheeks, or crank arms, are required to
connect the crankpin to the crankshaft. In some
designs, the cheek extends beyond the journal to
form a counterweight that helps balance the crankshaft. In addition, most crank cheeks have drilled
passage ways that allow oil to flow from the main
journal to the crankpin.

crankshaft and the impact forces created by an

engine's power impulses. The most common means
of dynamically balancing a crankshaft is through the
use of dynamic dampers. A dynamic damper is a
weight which is fastened to a crankshaft's crank
cheek assembly in such a way that it is free to move
back and forth in a small arc. Some crankshafts utilize two or more of these assemblies, each being
attached to a different crank cheek. The construction of the dynamic damper used in one type of
engine consists of a movable slotted-steel counterweight attached to a crank cheek by two
spool-shaped steel pins that extend through
oversized holes in the counterweight and crank
cheek. The difference in diameter between the
pins and the holes allows the dynamic damper to
oscillate back and forth. [Figure 1-12]

CRANKSHAFT BALANCE

Excessive engine vibration can cause metal structures to become fatigued and fail or wear excessively. In some instances, excessive vibration is
caused by an unbalanced crankshaft. Therefore, to
prevent unwanted vibration, most crankshafts are
balanced both statically and dynamically.
A crankshaft is statically balanced when the weight
of an entire crankshaft assembly is balanced around
its axis of rotation. To test a crankshaft for static balance, the outside main journals are placed on two
knife edge balancing blocks. If the shaft tends to
rotate toward any one position during the test, it is
out of static balance.
Once a crankshaft is statically balanced it must be
dynamically balanced. Dynamic balance refers to
balancing the centrifugal forces created by a rotating

Figure 1-12. Movable counterweights serve(

reduce torsional vibrationsdynamic vibrations)FAA
as dynamic dampers to reduce the centrifugal and
impact vibrations in an aircraft engine..

7-70

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-13. Think of the crankshaft as a pendulum that

swings at its natural frequency once a force is applied. The
greater the force, the greater the distance the pendulum
swings. However, if a second pendulum is suspended from
the first and a force is applied, the second pendulum begins
to oscillate opposite the applied force. This opposite oscillation dampens the oscillation of the first pendulum leaving it
nearly stationary. You can think of a dynamic damper as a
short pendulum hung from a crankshaft that is tuned to the
frequency of the power impulses.

Each time a cylinder fires, a pulse is transmitted into

the crankshaft that causes it to flex. When the engine
is running, the crankshaft receives hundreds of
these pulses each minute and flexes, or vibrates,
constantly. To help minimize these vibrations, the
dynamic damper oscillates, or swings, each time the
crankshaft receives a pulse from a firing cylinder.
These oscillations are opposite the crankshaft vibrations and, therefore, absorb some of the force produced by the power impulse. [Figure 1-13]
CRANKSHAFT TYPES
The type of crankshaft used on a particular engine
depends on the number and arrangement of an
engine's cylinders. The most common types of
crankshafts are the single-throw, two-throw,
four-throw, and six-throw crankshafts. The
simplest crankshaft is the single-throw or 360
degree crankshaft used on single-row radial engines.
As its name implies, a single-throw crankshaft
consists of a single crankpin with two main
journals that support the crankshaft in the
crankcase. A single-throw crankshaft may be
constructed out of either one or two pieces.
One-piece crankshafts are used with a connecting
rod that splits so it can be installed on the
crankpin. However, with a two-piece, the
crankpin separates, allowing the use of a one piece
connecting rod. [Figure 1-14]

Figure 1-14. With a one-piece, single-throw crankshaft, the

entire crankshaft is cast as one solid piece. However, with a
clamp type two-piece crankshaft, the two pieces are held
together by a bolt that passes through the crankpin.

Twin-row radial engines require a two-throw crankshaft, one throw for each bank of cylinders. The
throws on a two-throw crankshaft are typically set
180 degrees from each other and may consist of
either one or three pieces. Although they are not
commonly encountered, two cylinder opposed
engines also use two-throw crankshafts.
Four cylinder opposed engines and four cylinder inline engines use four-throw crankshafts. On some
four-throw crankshafts two throws are arranged 180
degrees apart from the other two throws.
Furthermore, depending on the size of the crankshaft and power output of the engine, a four-throw
crankshaft has either three or five main bearings.
[Figure 1-15]

1-11

Reciprocating Engines

BEARINGS

Figure 1-15. A typical four-throw crankshaft used in a horizontally opposed engine is machined as one piece with
throws that are 180 degrees apart.

Figure 1-16. With a typical six-throw crankshaft, the throws

are 60 degrees apart. On the six throw crankshaft pictured
above, the crank journals are numbered from the flanged end.
If you were to number each throw in 60 increments from the
flanged end, the order would be 1,4,5, 2,3,6.

Six cylinder opposed and in-line engines and 12

cylinder V-type engines use six-throw crankshafts.
A typical six-throw crankshaft is forged as one piece
and consists of four main bearings and six throws
that are 60 degrees apart. [Figure 1-16]

A bearing is any surface which supports and

reduces friction between two moving parts. Typical
areas where bearings are used in an aircraft engine
include the main journals, crankpins, connecting
rod ends, and accessory drive shafts. A good bearing
must be composed of material that is strong enough
to withstand the pressure imposed on it, while
allowing rotation or movement between two parts
with a minimum of friction and wear. For a bearing
to provide efficient and quiet operation, it must hold
two parts in a nearly fixed position with very close
tolerances. Furthermore, bearings must be able to
withstand radial loads, thrust loads, or a combination of the two.
There are two ways in which bearing surfaces move
in relation to each other. One is by the sliding movement of one metal against another, and the second is
for one surface to roll over another. Reciprocating
engines use bearings that rely on both types of
movement. The three different types of bearings typically used in aircraft reciprocating engines include
the plain bearing, the ball bearing, and the roller
bearing. [Figure 1-17]
PLAIN BEARINGS

Plain bearings are generally used for crankshaft

main bearings, cam ring and camshaft bearings, connecting rod end bearings, and accessory drive shaft
bearings. These bearings are typically subject to

Figure 1-17. Of the three most common types of bearings used in reciprocating engines, the plain bearing relies on the sliding
movement of one metal against another, while both roller and ball bearings have one surface roll over another.

Reciprocating Engines

1-12
radial loads only; however, flange-type plain bearings are often used as thrust bearings in opposed
reciprocating engines.
Plain bearings are usually made of nonferrous metals such as silver, bronze, babbit, tin, or lead. One
type of plain bearing consists of thin shells of
silver-plated steel, with lead-tin plated over the
silver on the inside surface only. Smaller bearings,
such as those used to support various accessory
drive shafts, are called bushings. One type of
bushing that is used in aviation is the oil impregnated
porous oilite bushing. With this type of bushing, the
heat produced by friction draws the impregnated
oil to the bearing surface to provide lubrication
during engine operation.
BALL BEARINGS

A ball bearing assembly consists of grooved inner

and outer races, one or more sets of polished steel
balls, and a bearing retainer. The balls of a ball bearing are held in place and kept evenly spaced by the
bearing retainer, while the inner and outer bearing
races provide a smooth surface for the balls to roll
over. However, some races have a deep groove that
matches the curvature of the balls to provide more
support and allow a bearing to carry high radial
loads. Because the balls of a ball bearing offer such a
small contact area, ball bearings have the least
amount of rolling friction.
Because of their construction, ball bearings are well
suited to withstand thrust loads and are, therefore,
used as thrust bearings in large radial and gas turbine engines. In applications where thrust loads are
heavier in one direction, a larger race is used on the
side of the increased load.
Most of the ball bearings you will work with as a
technician are used in accessories such as magnetos, alternators, turbochargers, and vacuum pumps.
Many of these bearings are prelubricated and sealed
to provide trouble-free operation between overhauls. However, if a sealed ball bearing must be
removed or replaced, it is important that you use
the proper tools to avoid damaging the bearing and
its seals.
ROLLER BEARINGS

Roller bearings are similar in construction to ball

bearings except that polished steel rollers are used
instead of balls. The rollers provide a greater contact
area and a corresponding increase in rolling friction

over that of a ball bearing. Roller bearings are available in many styles and sizes, but most aircraft
engine applications use either a straight roller or
tapered roller bearing. Straight roller bearings are
suitable when the bearing is subjected to radial
loads only. For example, most high-power aircraft
engines use straight roller bearings as crankshaft
main bearings. Tapered roller bearings, on the other
hand, have cone-shaped inner and outer races that
allow the bearing to withstand both radial and
thrust loads.
CONNECTING RODS
The connecting rod is the link which transmits the
force exerted on a piston to a crankshaft. Most connecting rods are made of a durable steel alloy; however, aluminum can be used with low horsepower
engines. The lighter a connecting rod is, the less
inertia it produces when the rod and piston stop and
then accelerate in the opposite direction at the end
of each stroke. A typical connecting rod is forged
and has a cross-sectional shape of either an "H" or
an "I." However, there are a few connecting rods that
are tubular. One end of a connecting rod connects to
the crankshaft and is called the crankpin end, while
the other end connects to the piston and is called
the piston end. The three types of connecting rod
assemblies you should be familiar with are the
plain-type, the master-and-articulated-rod type, and
the fork-and-blade type.
PLAIN CONNECTING ROD

Plain connecting rods are used in opposed and inline engines. The piston end of a plain connecting
rod is fitted with a bronze bushing to accommodate
the piston pin. The bushing is typically pressed
into the connecting rod and then reamed to the
dimension required by the piston pin. The crankpin
end, on the other hand, is usually fitted with a
two-piece bearing and cap which is held on the
end of the rod by bolts or studs. In this case, the
main bearing insert is typically made of steel that
is lined with a nonferrous alloy such as babbitt,
lead, bronze, or copper.
To provide proper fit and balance, connecting rods
are often matched with pistons and crankpins.
Therefore, if a connecting rod is ever removed, it
should always be replaced in the same cylinder and
in the same relative position. To help do this, connecting rods and caps are sometimes stamped with
numbers to identify the cylinder and piston assembly with which they should be paired. For example,

Reciprocating Engines

1-13

Figure 1-18. On a typical plain connecting rod, a two piece

bearing shell fits tightly in the crankpin end of the connecting rod. The bearing is held in place by pins or tangs that fit
into slots cut into the cap and connecting rod. The piston
end of the connecting rod contains a bushing that is
pressed into place.

a number "1" indicates the connecting rod or cap

belong with the number 1 cylinder and piston
assembly. [Figure 1-18]
MASTER-AND-ARTICULATED ROD ASSEMBLY

The master-and-articulated rod assembly is commonly used in radial engines. With this type of
assembly, one piston in each row of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a master rod. The
remaining pistons are connected to the master rod
by articulated rods. Therefore, in a nine cylinder
engine there is one master rod and eight articulating
rods, while a double row 18 cylinder engine has two
master rods and 16 articulating rods.
Master rods are typically manufactured from a steel
alloy forging that is machined and heat-treated for
maximum strength. Articulated rods are constructed
of a forged steel alloy in either an I- or H- cross-sectional profile. Bronze bushings are pressed into the
bores in each end of the articulated rod to serve as
bearings.
The master rod serves as the only connecting link
between all the pistons and the crankpin. The small
end, or piston end of a master rod, contains a plain
bearing called a piston pin bearing which receives
the piston pin. The crankpin end of a master rod
contains the crankpin bearing, sometimes called a
master rod bearing. A typical crankpin bearing consists of a plain bearing that is able to withstand the
radial loads placed on the rod assembly. A set of

Figure 1-19. With a single piece master rod, the

master-and-articulated
rods
are
assembled
and
installed on the crankpin before the crankshaft sections
are joined together. On the other hand, with a multiple
piece master rod, the crankpin end of the master rod and
its bearing are split and installed on the crankpin. The
bearing cap is then set in place and bolted to the master
rod.

flange holes are machined around the crankpin end

of a master rod to provide an attachment point for
the articulated rods.
A master rod may be one piece or multiple pieces.
As a general rule, a one piece rod is used on multiple piece crankshafts while a multiple piece, or split
type master rod is used with single piece crankshafts. [Figure 1-19]
Each articulated rod is hinged to the master rod by a
knuckle pin. Some knuckle pins are pressed into the

Reciprocating Engines

7-74

Figure 1-20. Articulated rods are attached to the master rod

by knuckle pins, that are pressed into holes in the master
rod flanges during assembly. A knuckle pin lock plate is
then installed to retain the pins.

master rod so they do not rotate in the flange holes,

while other full floating knuckle pins have a loose
fit that allows them to rotate in both the flange holes
and articulated rods. In either type of installation, a
lock plate on each side retains the knuckle pins and
prevents lateral movement. [Figure 1-20]
Since the flange holes on a master rod encircle the
center of the crankpin, the crankpin is the only portion of a master rod assembly that travels in a true circle as the crankshaft rotates. The remaining knuckle
pins travel in an elliptical path. [Figure 1-21]

Figure 1-22. A fork-and-blade rod assembly used in a V-type

engine consists of a blade connecting rod whose crankpin
end fits between the prongs of the fork connecting rod.

Because of the varying angularity, all pistons do not

move an equal amount in each cylinder for a given
number of degrees of crankshaft rotation. To compensate for this, the knuckle pin holes in the master
rod flange are positioned at varying distances from
the center of the crankpin.
FORK-AND-BLADE ROD ASSEMBLY

The fork-and-blade rod assembly is used primarily

in V-type engines and consists of a fork connecting
rod and a blade connecting rod. The forked rod is
split at the crankpin end to allow space for the blade
rod to fit between the prongs. The fork-and-blade
assembly is then fastened to a crankpin with a
two-piece bearing. [Figure 1-22]
PISTONS
The piston in a reciprocating engine is a cylindrical
plunger that moves up and down within a cylinder.
Pistons perform two primary functions; first, they
draw fuel and air into a cylinder, compress the
gases, and purge burned exhaust gases from the
cylinder; second, they transmit the force produced
by combustion to the crankshaft.

Figure 1-21. You can see that each knuckle pin rotates in a
different elliptical path. As a result, each articulated rod has
a varying degree of angularity relative to the center of the
crank throw.

Most aircraft engine pistons are machined from aluminum alloy forgings. Ring grooves are then cut into
a piston's outside surface to hold a set of piston
rings. As many as six ring grooves may be machined
around a piston. The portion of the piston between
the ring grooves is commonly referred to as a ring
land. The piston's top surface is called the piston
head and is directly exposed to the heat of combustion. The piston pin boss is an enlarged area inside
the piston that provides additional bearing area for a

1-15

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-23. A typical piston has ring grooves cut into its
outside surface to support piston rings. In addition, cooling
fins are sometimes cast into the piston interior to help dissipate heat, while the piston pin boss provides support for
the piston pin.

piston pin which passes through the piston pin boss

to attach the piston to a connecting rod. To help
align a piston in a cylinder, the piston base is
extended to form the piston skirt. On some pistons,
cooling fins are cast into the underside of the piston
to provide for greater heat transfer to the engine oil.
[Figure 1-23]
Pistons are often classified according to their head
design. The most common types of head designs are
the flat, recessed, cupped, and domed. In addition,
piston skirts can be the simple trunk type, the trunk
type that is relieved at the piston boss, and the slipper type which is relieved along the piston base to
reduce friction. [Figure 1-24]

Figure 1-25. Several engines now use cam ground pistons

to compensate for the greater expansion parallel to the piston boss during engine operation. The diameter of a cam
ground piston measures several thousandths of an inch
larger perpendicular to the piston boss than parallel to the
piston boss.

All pistons expand as they heat up. However, due to

the added mass at the piston boss, most pistons
expand more along the piston boss than perpendicular to the piston boss. This uneven expansion can
cause a piston to take on an oblong, or oval shape, at
normal engine operating temperatures, resulting in
uneven piston and cylinder wear. One way to compensate for this is with a cam ground piston. A cam
ground piston is machined with a slightly oval
shape. That is, the diameter of the piston parallel to
the piston boss is slightly less than the diameter perpendicular to the piston boss. This oval shape compensates for any differential expansion and
produces a round piston at normal operating temperatures. Furthermore, the oval shape holds the
piston centered in the cylinder during engine
warmup and helps prevent the piston from moving
laterally within a cylinder. [Figure 1-25]
PISTON RINGS
Piston rings perform three functions in aircraft reciprocating engines. They prevent leakage of gas pressure from the combustion chamber, reduce oil
seepage into the combustion chamber, and transfer
heat from the piston to the cylinder walls. The rings
fit into the piston grooves but spring out to press
against the cylinder walls. When properly lubricated, piston rings form an effective seal.

Figure 1-24. Most modern aircraft engines use flat-head pistons. However, as an aviation technician, you should be
familiar with all piston head designs.

Most piston rings are made of high-grade gray cast

iron. However, in some engines, chrome-plated mild
steel piston rings are used because of their ability to
withstand high temperatures. After a ring is made, it
is ground to the desired cross-section and then split
so it can be slipped over a piston and into a ring

1-16

Figure 1-26. Of the three types of joints used in piston ring

gaps, the butt joint is the most common in aircraft engines.

groove. The point where a piston ring is split is

called the piston ring gap. The gap can be a simple
butt joint with flat faces, an angle joint with angled
faces, or a step joint. [Figure 1-26]
Since the piston rings expand when the engine
reaches operating temperature, the ring must have a
specified clearance between the ring gap faces. If the
gap is too large, the two forces will not close up
enough to provide an adequate seal. On the other
hand, an insufficient gap will result in the ring faces
binding against each other and the cylinder wall
causing cylinder wall scoring.
When installing piston rings, the ring gaps must be
staggered, or offset, to ensure that they do not align
with each other. This helps prevent combustion
chamber gases from flowing past the rings into the
crankcase. This blow-by, as it is often called, results
in a loss of power and increased oil consumption. If
three piston rings are installed on one piston, it is
common practice to stagger the ring gaps 120
degrees from each other.

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-27. Compression rings are installed in the upper

ring grooves and help prevent the combustion gases from
escaping by a piston. Oil rings, on the other hand, are
installed near the middle and bottom of a piston and control the amount of oil applied to the cylinder wall.

use two or three compression rings on each piston.

The cross section of a compression ring can be rectangular, wedge shaped, or tapered. A rectangular
compression ring fits flat against a cylinder wall
with a large contact area to provide a tight seal.
However, the large contact area also takes longer to
seat, or wear enough so that the contour of the ring
exactly matches the contour of the cylinder wall. On
the other hand, tapered rings are beveled to reduce
their contact area which help reduce friction and
hasten ring seating. [Figure 1-28]
Wedge shaped rings also have a beveled face that
promotes ring seating. In addition, wedge shaped
rings are beveled and, therefore, require a beveled
ring groove. However, less material is cut away in
making a beveled ring groove so both the ring land
and groove are stronger. The beveled shape also

In order for piston rings to seal against the cylinder

wall, the rings must press against the cylinder wall
snugly. Furthermore, the rings must exert equal
pressure on the entire cylinder wall as well as provide a gas-tight fit against the sides of the ring
grooves. The two broad types of piston rings used in
reciprocating engines are compression rings or oil
rings. [Figure 1-27]
Compression rings prevent gas from escaping past
the piston during engine operation and are placed
in the ring grooves immediately below the piston
head. The number of compression rings used on
each piston is determined by the type of engine and
its design. However, most aircraft engines typically

Figure 1-28. Of the three different ring cross sections, the

tapered face presents the narrowest bearing edge to the
cylinder wall to help reduce friction and hasten ring seating.

1-17

Reciprocating Engines

helps prevent the ring from sticking in the groove.

Since compression rings receive the least amount of
lubrication and are closest to the heat of combustion, they are more prone to sticking. Therefore,
most compression rings are wedge shaped.
Oil rings control the amount of oil that is applied to
the cylinder walls as well as prevent oil from entering the combustion chamber. The two types of oil
rings that are found on most engines are oil control
rings and oil scraper rings. Oil control rings are
placed in the grooves immediately below the compression rings. Pistons may have one or more oil
control rings and, depending on the type of piston,
as many as two rings can be installed in a single
ring groove. The primary purpose of oil control
rings is to regulate the thickness of the oil film on
the cylinder wall. To allow an oil control ring to
remove excess oil and return it to the crankcase,
small holes are drilled in the piston ring grooves, or
ring lands. In addition, some pistons use
venti-lated-type oil control rings which typically
consist of two or more pieces with small slots
machined around the ring. These slots allow
excess oil to drain into the ring groove so it can
return to the crankcase.
If too much oil enters the combustion chamber, the
oil will burn and leave a thick coating of carbon on
the combustion chamber walls, the piston head,
the spark plugs, and the valves. If this carbon
should enter the ring grooves or valve guides it can
cause the valves and piston rings to stick.
Furthermore, carbon buildup can cause spark plug
misfiring as well as detonation, preignition, or
excessive oil consumption. To help prevent this,
an oil scraper ring is used to regulate the amount
of oil that passes between the piston skirt and the
cylinder wall.
An oil scraper ring, sometimes called an oil wiper
ring, usually has a beveled face and is installed in a
ring groove at the bottom of the piston skirt. The ring
can be installed with the beveled edge away from
the piston head or in the reverse position, depending upon cylinder position and engine design. If the
bevel is installed so that it faces the piston head, the
ring pushes oil downward toward the crankcase. On
the other hand, in the reverse position the scraper
ring retains surplus oil above the ring on the upward
piston stroke, and this oil is returned to the
crankcase by the oil control rings on the downward
stroke. It is very important that these rings be
installed in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions. [Figure 1-29]

Figure 1-29. An oil scraper ring installed with its beveled

edge away from the cylinder head forces oil upward along
the cylinder wall when the piston moves upward. However,
if the beveled edge is facing the cylinder head, the ring
scrapes oil downward to the crankcase when the piston
moves down.

PISTON PINS
A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod.
A typical piston pin is machined in the form of a
tube from a nickel-steel alloy forging that is
case-hardened. Piston pins are sometimes called
wrist pins because of the similarity between the
relative motions of the piston and the connecting
rod and that of the human arm.
Piston pins may be stationary, semifloating, or
full-floating. As their name implies, stationary
piston pins are held tightly in place by a setscrew
that prevents movement. Semifloating piston pins,
on the other hand, are retained stationary in the
connecting rod by a set clamp that engages a slot in
the pin. Full-floating piston pins are free to rotate in
both the connecting rod and the piston, and are used
in most modern aircraft engines.
A piston pin must be held in place laterally to prevent it from rubbing and scoring the cylinder walls.
Three devices that are used to hold a piston pin in
place are circlets, spring rings, and metal plugs. A
circlet is similar to a snap ring that fits into a groove
cut into each end of the piston boss. A spring ring
also fits into grooves cut into the ends of a piston
boss but consists of a single circular spring-steel
coil. Both circlets and spring rings are used primarily on earlier piston engines. The more current practice is to install a plug of relatively soft aluminum
called a piston-pin plug. These plugs are inserted
into the open ends of the piston pins and provide a
good bearing surface against the cylinder walls.
However, due to the plug's soft aluminum construction and cylinder lubrication, the metal-to-metal
contact causes no damage to the cylinder walls.

Reciprocating Engines

1-18

CYLINDERS

CYLINDER BARRELS

The cylinder provides a combustion chamber where

the burning and expansion of gases takes place to
produce power. Furthermore, a cylinder houses the
piston and connecting rod assembly as well as the
valves and spark plugs. When designing and constructing a cylinder, manufacturers must look at several factors. For example, a cylinder must be strong
enough to withstand the internal pressures developed during engine operation yet be lightweight to
minimize engine weight. In addition, the materials
used in the construction of a cylinder must have
good heat-conducting properties for efficient cooling. And finally, a cylinder assembly must be comparatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture,
inspect, and maintain.

Generally speaking, the material used to construct a

cylinder barrel must be as light as possible, yet have
the proper characteristics for operating under high
temperatures and pressures. Furthermore, a cylinder
barrel must possess good bearing characteristics as
well as high tensile strength. The most commonly
used material that meets these requirements is a
high-strength
steel
alloy
such
as
chromium-molybdenum steel, or nickel chromium
molybdenum steel.

A typical air-cooled engine cylinder consists of a

cylinder head, barrel, mounting flange, skirt, cooling fins, and valve assembly. On some of the earliest
two- and four-cylinder horizontally opposed
engines, the cylinder barrels were cast as part of the
crankcase halves. This required the use of removable cylinder heads. However, on almost all modern
engines, the individual cylinders are cast as a component, separate from the crankcase, and the heads
are permanently attached during the manufacturing
process. To do this, the cylinder head is expanded
through heating and then screwed down onto a
chilled cylinder barrel. A gas-tight joint results
when the head cools and contracts and the barrel
warms up and expands. [Figure 1-30]

Cylinder barrels are machined from a forged blank,

with a skirt that projects into the crankcase and a
mounting flange that is used to attach the cylinder to
the crankcase. The lower cylinders on radial engines
and all the cylinders on inverted engines typically
employ cylinders with extended cylinder skirts. The
longer skirt helps keep oil from draining into the
combustion chamber and causing hydraulic lock
after an engine has been shut down. The exterior of a
cylinder barrel consists of several thin cooling fins
that are machined into the exterior cylinder wall and
a set of threads that are cut at the top of the barrel so
that it can be screwed into the cylinder head.
The inside of a cylinder, or cylinder bore, is usually
machined smooth to a uniform, initial dimension
and then honed to a final dimension. However,
some cylinder bores are machined with a slight
taper. In other words, the diameter of the top por
tion of the barrel is slightly smaller than the diame
ter at the cylinder skirt. This is called a choke bore
cylinder and is designed to compensate for the
uneven expansion caused by the higher operating
temperatures and larger mass near the cylinder
head. With a choke bore cylinder, the greater expan
sion at the top of the cylinder is compensated for by
the taper, resulting in a uniform cylinder diameter
at normal operating temperatures. The amount of
choke is usually between .003 and .005 inches.
[Figure 1-31]
..
.
.
The inside wall of a cylinder barrel is continually
subject to the reciprocating motion of the piston
rings. Therefore, in an effort to minimize cylinder
barrel wear and increase barrel life, most cylinder
walls are hardened. The two most common methods
used to provide a hard wearing surface are through
nitriding and chrome plating. Nitriding is a form of
case hardening that changes the surface strength of
steel by infusing the metal with a hardening agent.

Figure 1-30. The cylinder assembly along with the piston

assembly, connecting rods, crankshaft, and crankcase constitute the power section of a reciprocating engine.

During the nitriding process, a cylinder barrel is

first ground to the required size and smoothness
and then placed in a special furnace filled with

1-19

Reciprocating Engines

out of service for any extended period, the cylinder walls should be coated 'with a sticky preservative oil.
Chrome plating refers to a method of hardening a
cylinder by applying a thin coating of chromium to
the inside of aircraft cylinder barrels. Chromium is a
hard, natural element which has a high melting
point, high heat conductivity, and a very low coefficient of friction. The process used to chrome plate a
cylinder is known as electroplating.
Chromed cylinders have many advantages over both
plain steel and nitrided cylinders. For example,
chromed cylinders are less susceptible to rust or corrosion because of chromium's natural corrosion resistance. Therefore, chromed cylinders tend to wear
longer. Another benefit of chrome plating is that once
a cylinder wears beyond its usable limits, it may be
chrome plated back to its original size. To help you
identify a cylinder that has been chrome plated, a
band of orange paint may be applied around the
cylinder base or to some of the cooling fins.
Figure 1-31. In most reciprocating engines, the greater mass
of the cylinder head retains heat and expands thereby causing the upper portion of the cylinder to expand more than
the lower portion. However, with a choke-bored cylinder,
the diameter at the top of the cylinder is less than the diameter at the bottom of the cylinder which helps compensate
for the uneven expansion.

ammonia gas. The furnace heats a cylinder barrel to

approximately 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit and breaks
down the ammonia gas into nitrogen and hydrogen.
The steel in the cylinder barrel contains a small percentage of aluminum and the nitrogen combines
with the aluminum to form a layer of hard,
wear-resistant aluminum nitrides. The depth of
a nitrided surface depends on the length of time it
is exposed to the ammonia gas but a typical
thickness is approximately 0.020 inch. However,
the surface hardness gradually decreases with
depth until the hardness is the same as the core
metal.

A problem associated with chrome plating cylinders

is that, in its natural state, chromium is so smooth
that it will not retain enough oil to provide adequate
lubrication for the piston rings. To overcome this
problem, a reverse current is sent through a cylinder
for a controlled period of time after the chromium
has been applied. The current causes microscopic
surface cracks to open up and form a network of
interconnecting cracks that help hold lubricating oil
on the cylinder wall. This procedure is often referred
to as chrome channeling. [Figure 1-32]

Since nitriding is not a plating or coating, it changes

a cylinder bore by only two to four ten thousandths
of an inch. This dimensional change requires a
cylinder to be honed to an accurate, micro-smooth
finish after the nitriding process is complete. Most
manufacturers identify a nitrided cylinder by applying a band of blue paint around the cylinder base, or
to certain cooling fins.
One of the problems with nitrided cylinders is that
they do not hold oil for extended periods of time.
This problem increases a cylinder's susceptibility
to corrosion and, for this reason, if an engine is left

Figure 1-32. This figure illustrates a reproduction of a photomicrograph of the tiny cracks that form in chrome plating
once a reverse current is applied. These cracks retain oil and
thus aid in lubrication.

Reciprocating Engines

7-20

As a general rule, engines with chrome plated

cylinders tend to consume slightly more oil than
engines with nitrided or steel cylinders. The reason
for this is that the plating channels retain more oil
than the piston rings can effectively scavenge.
Furthermore, chrome plated cylinders are typically
more difficult to seal, or break-in, immediately after
an engine is overhauled. This is caused by the oil
film on the cylinder wall not allowing the necessary wear, or seating, of the piston rings during the
break-in period.
In an effort to overcome the shortcomings of
chrome plated and nitrided cylinders, some new
plating processes have been developed. One of
these processes involves mechanically impregnating silicon carbide particles onto a chromed cylinder wall, instead of channeling. The silicon
carbide provides a somewhat rough finish so it
retains lubricating oil, yet is still smooth enough
to allow effective oil scavenging. Furthermore, the
silicon carbide provides a surface finish that is
more conducive to piston ring seating during the
engine break-in period. This plating process is
commonly referred to as either CermiCrome or
NuChrome plating.
In another type of plating process called
CermiNil, nickel with silicon carbide particles, is
used for the plating material. The nickel, although
not as durable as chromium, provides for an
extremely hard finish while the silicon carbide
particles increase the hardness of the material and
aid in lubricating oil retention. A unique characteristic in this process is that the silicon carbide
particles are infused throughout the plating
instead of only to the surface. This tends to further increase the cylinders wearability while the
surface finish is smooth enough to allow for effective oil scavenging.
CYLINDER FINISHES

In the past, engine manufacturers applied special

paints to the exterior of cylinder barrels to protect
the cylinder from corrosion. In addition, this special paint would change color when exposed to
high temperatures, indicating a possible overheat
condition that may have damaged the cylinders.
Textron-Lycoming cylinders are typically painted
with a gray enamel that appears burned when
exposed to excessive heat. Similarly, Teledyne
Continental cylinders are treated with a gold paint
that turns pink when subjected to an overheat
condition.

CYLINDER HEADS

The cylinder head acts as a lid on the cylinder barrel to provide an enclosed chamber for combustion.
In addition, cylinder heads contain intake and
exhaust valve ports, spark plugs, valve actuating
mechanisms, and also serve to conduct heat away
from the cylinder barrels. Air-cooled cylinder heads
are generally made of either forged or die-cast aluminum alloy because aluminum conducts heat well,
is lightweight, and is durable. The inner shape of a
cylinder head may be flat, semi-spherical, or
peaked, to resemble the shape of a house roof.
However, the semi-spherical type has proved to be
the most satisfactory because it is stronger and provides for more rapid and thorough scavenging of
exhaust gases.
Cooling fins are cast or machined onto the outside of
a cylinder head and provide an effective means of
transferring heat from the cylinder head to the surrounding air. However, due to the temperature differences across the cylinder head, it is necessary to
provide more cooling-fin area on various sections of
a cylinder head. For example, since the exhaust valve
region is typically the hottest part of the internal surface, more fin area is provided around the portion of
the cylinder head that contains the exhaust valve. On
the other hand, the intake portion of the cylinder
head typically has few cooling fins because the
fuel/air mixture cools this area sufficiently.
After a cylinder head is cast, spark plug bushings,
or inserts, are installed. Typically, each cylinder
head has two spark plugs for increased performance. On older engines, spark plug openings consisting of bronze or steel bushings were shrunk and
screwed into the cylinder head. However, in most
modern engines, stainless steel Heli-Coil spark
plug inserts are used. The use of Heli-Coil inserts
allows for the repair of damaged threads by replacing the insert.
To allow the fuel/air mixture to enter the cylinder as
well as let the exhaust gases exit, intake and exhaust
ports are machined into each cylinder head. The surfaces around each of these ports are also machined
to permit the attachment of the intake and exhaust
manifolds. To provide an adequate seal, a synthetic
rubber seal is typically used between the cylinder
head and intake manifold. However, because of the
heat associated with the exhaust gases, a metal seal
is generally used with the exhaust manifold. Each
manifold is held in place by a mounting flange and a
series of mounting studs that are threaded into the
cylinder head. [Figure 1-33]

1-21

Reciprocating Engines

CONTINENTAL
SIX-CYLINDER

ENGINE

CONTINENTAL
FOUR-CYLINDER
ENGINE

Figure 1-33. The threaded studs used to attach the intake

and exhaust manifolds typically remain threaded into the
cylinder head unless a stud needs to be replaced.

CYLINDER NUMBERING

It is sometimes necessary to refer to a specific area

on an engine or a specific cylinder. Therefore, it is
important that you be familiar with the established
engine directions and the manufacturer's system of
cylinder numbering. For example, regardless of how
an engine is mounted in an aircraft, the propeller
shaft end is always referred to as the front of an
engine, and the accessory end is always the rear of
an engine. Furthermore, when referring to either the
right or left side of an engine, always assume you
are viewing the engine from the rear, or accessory,
end. By the same token, crankshaft rotation is also
referenced from the rear of an engine and is specified as either clockwise or counterclockwise.
In order to identify a specific cylinder, all engine
cylinders are numbered. However, the numbering
system used on an opposed engine is not standard.
For example, while both Teledyne Continental and
Textron-Lycoming make four- and six-cylinder horizontally opposed engines, each manufacturer uses a
different cylinder numbering system. As an example, Continental starts its cylinder numbering with
the most rearward cylinder while Lycoming begins
with the most forward. About the only similarity
between the two systems is that the odd numbered
cylinders are on the right while the even numbered
cylinders are on the left. [Figure 1-34]
Unlike opposed engines, all radial engines are numbered in the same way. For example, single-row

LYCOMING
FOUR-CYLINDER
ENGINE

LYCOMING
SIX-CYLINDER
ENGINE

LYCOMING
EIGHT-CYLINDER
ENGINE

Figure 1-34. Since the cylinder numbering varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, you should always refer to the
appropriate service information or the numbers indicated
on each cylinder flange to determine how the cylinders on a
specific engine are numbered.

radial engine cylinders are numbered consecutively

starting with the top cylinder and progressing clockwise as viewed from the rear of the engine. However,
on double-row radial engines, all odd-numbered
cylinders are in the rear row, and all even numbered
cylinders are in the front row. For example, the top
cylinder of the rear row is the number one cylinder,
while the number two cylinder is the first cylinder
in the front row clockwise from the number one
cylinder. The number three cylinder is the next

7-22

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-36. The basic components of a poppet valve

include the valve head, valve face, valve neck, valve stem,
and valve tip.

operating stresses. Therefore, valves must be constructed of metals that are able to resist these
attri-tional factors. For example, intake valves
operate at lower temperatures than exhaust valves
and, therefore, are typically made of chrome, nickel,
or tungsten steel. However, since exhaust valves
must endure much higher temperatures they are
usually made of more heat resistant metals such as
inconel, silicon-chromium or cobalt-chromium
alloys.

Figure 1-35. Looking from the accessory end forward, all single-row radial engines are numbered consecutively beginning at the top cylinder and progressing clockwise. On
twin-row radials, however, the front row of cylinders are all
even numbered while the rear row of cylinders are odd numbered.

cylinder clockwise from the number two cylinder

but is in the rear row. [Figure 1-35]
VALVES
Engine valves regulate the flow of gases into and out
of a cylinder by opening and closing at predetermined times in the combustion process. Each cylinder has at least one intake valve and one exhaust
valve. The intake valve controls the amount of
fuel/air mixture that enters a cylinder through the
intake port, while the exhaust valve allows the
exhaust gases to exit the cylinder through the
exhaust port.
The valves used in aircraft engine cylinders are subject to high temperatures, corrosion, and extreme

As mentioned, each cylinder must have at least one

intake and one exhaust valve; however, on some
high powered engines, two intake and two exhaust
valves are provided for each cylinder. The most
common type of valve used in aircraft engines is the
poppet valve which gets its name from the popping
action of the valve. [Figure 1-36]
Poppet valves are classified according to their head
shape which may come in four basic designs: the
flat-headed valve, the semi-tulip valve, the tulip
valve, and the mushroom valve. As its name
implies, the flat-head valve has a flat head and is
typically used only as an intake valve in aircraft
engines. The semi-tulip valve has a slightly concave
area on its head while the tulip design has a deep,
wide indented area on its head. On the other hand,
mushroom valves have convex heads and are not
commonly found on aircraft engines. [Figure 1-37]
The valve face is that portion of the valve that creates a seal at the intake and exhaust ports. A valve
face is typically ground to an angle of between 30
and 60 degrees to form a seal against the valve seat
when the valve is closed. In some engines, the
intake valve face is ground to 30 degrees while the
exhaust valve face is ground to 45 degrees. The

1-23

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-37. Aircraft engine valves are classified according

to their head profile.

engine manufacturer specifies the exact angle which

is based on airflow, efficiency, and sealing ability.
Valve faces are often made more durable by welding
Stellite, an alloy of cobalt and chromium, to the
valve face. Once applied, the face is ground to the
correct angle. Stellite resists high temperatures and
corrosion and withstands the shock and wear associated with valve operation.
The valve stem acts as a pilot to keep the valve head
properly aligned as it moves back and forth. Most
valve stems are surface hardened to resist wear and
are joined to the valve head at the valve neck. The
tip of a valve stem is also hardened to withstand
both wear and hammering. In some cases, a rotator
cap is placed over a valve tip to increase service life.
A groove is machined around the valve stem near
the tip for a split key or keeper key which acts as a
lock ring to keep the valve spring retaining washers
in place and hold the valve in the cylinder head.
[Figure 1-38]

with metallic sodium. When installed in an operating engine, the sodium melts when the valve stem
reaches approximately 208 degrees Fahrenheit. The
melted sodium circulates naturally due to the up
and down motion of the valve and helps carry heat
from the valve head into the stem where it is dissipated through the cylinder head. In some cases,
sodium filled valves can reduce a valve's operating
temperature by as much as 400 degrees Fahrenheit.
[Figure 1-39]
When overhauling an aircraft engine, you must
determine if the old valves are sodium filled or not.
As a general rule, Teledyne Continental engines do
not use sodium filled valves, while many Textron
Lycoming engines use sodium filled exhaust valves.
In all cases, determine which type of valve should
be installed and follow the manufacturer's recommendations and instructions.
Sodium is a dangerous material that burns violently
when exposed to air. Because of this, sodium filled
valves should never be cut, broken, or handled in a
manner that would allow the sodium to come in
contact with air. In all cases, sodium valves must be
disposed of in an appropriate manner.
VALVE SEATING COMPONENTS

As discussed earlier, a valve's face must seat firmly

against the cylinder head. To accomplish this, several

On some radial engines, the valve stems have an

additional groove below the split key groove. This
second groove is used to hold a safety circlet or
spring ring, which prevents the valve from falling
into the cylinder in the event the valve tip breaks off.
To help dissipate heat better, some exhaust valve
stems are hollowed out and then partially filled

Figure 1-38. The groove near the tip of a valve stem allows
a split retainer key to hold spring tension on a valve as well
as keep the valve from falling into the cylinder.

Figure 1-39. Some valves are filled with metallic sodium to

reduce their operating temperatures. During operation, the
sodium melts and transfers heat to the valve stem where
the heat is conducted away by the cylinder head.

7-24

individual components are utilized, including valve

seats, valve guides, valve springs, and valve spring
retainers. [Figure 1-40]
A valve seat is a circular ring of hardened metal that
provides a uniform sealing surface for the valve face.
A typical valve seat is made of either bronze or steel
and machined to an oversize fit. To install a valve
seat, the cylinder head is heated and the valve seat
is chilled and then pressed into the head with a special tool called a mandrel. When the assembly cools,
the cylinder head shrinks and firmly retains the
valve seat. Once installed, the valve seat is precisely
ground to provide a sealing surface for the valve
face. Typically, the valve seat is ground to the same
angle as the valve face. However, there are some
instances where a valve face may be ground to an
angle that is one quarter to one degree shallower
than the valve seat. The angular difference produces
an interference fit that sometimes results in more
positive seating.
A valve guide is a cylindrical sleeve that provides
support to the valve stem and keeps the valve face
aligned with the valve seat. A typical valve guide is
made of steel, tin-bronze, or aluminum-bronze and
is installed in a cylinder head with a shrink fit in
the same manner as a valve seat.

Figure 1-40. The valve seat insert provides a sealing surface

for the valve face while the valve guide supports the valve
and keeps it aligned with the seat. Valve springs close the
valve and are held in place by a valve retainer and a split
valve key.

Reciprocating Engines

Valve springs are helical-coiled springs that are

installed in the cylinder head and provide the force
that holds the valve face firmly against the valve
seat. Most aircraft engines utilize two or more valve
springs of different sizes and diameters to prevent a
phenomenon called valve float or valve surge. Valve
float occurs when the frequency of a valve spring
begins to vibrate at its resonant frequency. When
this occurs, the spring loses its ability to hold the
valve closed. By installing two or more springs of
different sizes, it is nearly impossible for both
springs to vibrate at the same time, leaving one
spring free to close the valve. Furthermore, two or
more springs reduce the chance of failure due to
breakage caused by heat or metal fatigue.
The valve springs are held in place by a valve spring
retainer and a split valve key. A valve spring retainer
seat is usually located between the cylinder head
and the bottom of the valve spring, while a valve
spring retainer is installed on the top of the valve
spring. The retainer is fitted with a split valve key
that locks the valve spring retainer to the valve stem.
VALVE OPERATING MECHANISMS
All reciprocating engines require a valve operating
mechanism to open each valve at the correct time,
hold it open for a certain period, and then close the
valve. A typical valve-operating mechanism consists of an internally driven camshaft or cam ring
that pushes against a valve lifter. The valve lifter, or
tappet, transmits the force from the cam to a push
rod, which in turn, actuates a rocker arm to depress
and open the valve against the valve spring tension
that holds the valve closed. [Figure 1-41]

Figure 1-41. The components in a typical valve operating

mechanism, include a camshaft or cam ring, a tappet or
lifter, a push rod, and a rocker arm.

Reciprocating Engines

1-25

Figure 1-42. The raised lobe on a camshaft transforms the rotary motion of the camshaft to linear motion.
OPPOSED ENGINES

On an opposed engine, valve operation begins with

a camshaft. A typical camshaft consists of a round
shaft with a series of cams, or lobes, that transform
the circular motion of the crankshaft to the linear
motion needed to actuate a valve. The shape of a
cam lobe determines valve lift, which is the distance
a valve is lifted off its seat, and valve duration, the
length of time a valve is held open. Since a cam lobe
bears against another surface, all lobes are hardened
to resist wear. [Figure 1-42]

Most
opposed engines
use
hydraulic
lifters.
Hydraulic lifters differ from solid lifters in that a
hydraulic lifter uses oil pressure to cushion the
impact of the cam lobe striking the lifter and
removes any play within the valve operating mechanism. A typical hydraulic lifter consists of a movable cam follower face, a lifter body, a hydraulic
plunger and plunger spring, a check valve, and a

The camshaft is supported by several bearing journals that ride in a set of camshaft bosses which are
cast into the crankcase. The force used to rotate a
camshaft is derived from the crankshaft through a
set of gears. The speed of rotation is always one-half
that of the crankshaft. The reason for this is that on
a four-stroke engine, each cylinder fires once for
every two crankshaft rotations. Therefore, each
valve must open and close once for every two rotations of the crankshaft. [Figure 1-43]
As the camshaft rotates, the lobe raises the valve
lifter. A valve lifter, or tappet, transmits the lifting
force of the cam to the push rod. Valve lifters in
opposed engines can be solid or hydraulic. As its
name implies, a solid lifter consists of a solid metal
cylinder that transmits the lifting force from the
camshaft to the push rod. The camshaft end of a
solid lifter is flat with a polished surface, while the
push rod end contains a spherical cavity that houses
the push rod. Holes drilled in the lifter allow oil to
flow through the lifter to lubricate the push rod.

Figure 1-43. In a typical opposed engine, the camshaft timing gear has twice as many teeth as the gear on the crankshaft. In this configuration, the camshaft is driven at
one-half the crankshaft's rotational speed.

7-26

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-44. A typical hydraulic lifter consists of a push rod socket, a hydraulic plunger and plunger spring, a check valve, a lifter
body, and a cam follower face.

push rod socket. The entire lifter assembly sits in a

hole in the crankcase and rests on the camshaft.
[Figure 1-44]
The cam follower face is the smooth hardened surface of the lifter that rides on the cam lobe. When
the follower face is on the back side of a cam lobe,
the hydraulic plunger spring forces the hydraulic
plunger outward so that the push rod socket
presses firmly against the push rod. As the
hydraulic plunger moves outward, a ball check
valve moves off its seat and allows oil to flow from
the oil supply chamber to the oil pressure chamber.

of a valve operating mechanism, thereby reducing

the amount of hammering and wear. [Figure 1-45]
As mentioned earlier, the lifting force of the cam
lobe is transmitted through a lifter and a push rod.
A typical push rod consists of a hollow steel or aluminum alloy tube with polished ends. One end of
the push rod rides in the valve lifter socket while
the other end fits into a socket in the rocker arm.
Push rods typically have holes drilled on each end
to allow oil to flow from the valve lifter to the valve
components in the cylinder head. On most aircraft
reciprocating engines, the push rods are enclosed by
a thin metal shroud, or tube, that runs from the

Once the camshaft rotates and the cam lobe strikes

the follower face, the lifter body and cylinder move
outward. This action causes the check valve to seat
and trap oil in the oil pressure chamber. This
trapped oil acts as a cushion to dampen the abrupt
pressure applied to the push rod. Once the valve is
off its seat, some oil leaks between the plunger and
the cylinder to compensate for any dimensional
changes in the valve operating mechanism caused
by heating. Immediately after the valve closes, the
ball check valve moves back off its seat and oil flows
from the supply chamber to the pressure chamber in
preparation for another cycle.
A second type of hydraulic lifter is similar in construction to the lifter just discussed, except a
disk-type check valve is used instead of a ball
check valve. In either case, the hydraulic lifter
eliminates all the clearances between the various
components

Figure 1-45. A second type of hydraulic lifter uses a

disk-type check valve instead of a ball check valve.

Reciprocating Engines

1-27

cylinder head to the crankcase. In many cases, these

tubes also provide a return path for the oil that is
pumped up to the cylinder head.
A rocker arm is a pivoting lever located in the cylinder head that changes the lifting movement of the
push rod into the downward motion needed to open
a valve. A typical rocker arm is made of forged steel
and has a cup-shaped socket to hold the push rod
end and a flat surface that pushes against the valve
tip. [Figure 1-46]
The entire rocker arm pivots on a shaft that is suspended between two rocker arm bosses that are cast
into the cylinder head. Each rocker arm boss contains a bronze bushing that provides a bearing surface for the shaft. Each rocker shaft is machined
with a press fit and held in place by the rocker-box
cover or by covers inserted over the outside of each
rocker arm boss. When the push rod pivots the
rocker arm, the rocker arm exerts force against the
valve springs to open the valve. The amount the
valve opens and the length of time the valve remains
open is based on the shape of the cam lobes. [Figure
1-47]
For many engines, the FAA has approved the use of
a more modern style rocker arm. This newer style
rocker arm is forged out of a single piece of stainless
steel and rotates on a roller bearing that is pressed
into the rocker arm. In addition, the valve end of the
rocker arm is fitted with a roller. The use of a roller

Figure 1-47. A rocker arm is supported by a shaft that is suspended between a set of rocker arm bosses.

helps eliminate side loads when the valve is

depressed which, in turn, helps minimize valve
guide and valve stem wear.
RADIAL ENGINES

Radial engines utilize some of the same components

in their valve operating mechanisms as opposed
engines, but there are some significant differences.
For example, in place of a camshaft, a radial engine
uses one or two cam rings, depending on the number of cylinder rows. A cam ring is a circular piece
of steel with a series of raised cam lobes on its outer
edge. A cam ring for a typical seven cylinder engine
has three or four lobes while a cam ring in a nine
cylinder engine has four or five lobes. The cam lobes
in a radial engine differ from those in an opposed
engine in that each lobe is constructed with a cam
ramp on each side of a lobe. This ramp reduces the
initial shock of an abruptly rising lobe. The smooth
area between the lobes is called the cam track. On a
single row radial engine a single cam ring with two
cam tracks is used. One track operates the intake
valve while the second track operates the exhaust
valve.
In a single row radial engine, the cam ring is usually
located between the propeller reduction gearing and
the front end of the power section. In a twin row
radial engine, a second cam for the valves in the rear
row is installed between the rear end of the power
section and the supercharger section.

Figure 1-46. One end of this rocker arm is cup-shaped to

hold a push rod, while the other end is machined smooth to
push against the tip of a valve stem. When rotated by the
push rod, the rocker arm pivots on its center bushing and
depresses the valve.

The cam ring is mounted concentrically with the

crankshaft and is driven by the crankshaft through a
series of gears. However, unlike a camshaft, the

1-28

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-48. Assume that you want to know how fast the
cam turns on a certain nine cylinder engine. If the cam ring
has four lobes and rotates opposite the crankshaft, the cam
ring turns at 1/8 the crankshaft speed.

speed at which a cam ring rotates varies. To determine a given cam ring's rotation speed, you must
know the number of lobes on the cam ring, the cam
ring's direction of rotation relative to the crankshaft,
and the number of cylinders on the engine. The
direction of cam ring rotation varies on different
engines and depends on whether the cam ring has
internal or external drive teeth. Externally driven
cam rings turn in the same direction as the crankshaft, while internally driven rings turn opposite
from crankshaft rotation. [Figure 1-48]
If a table is not available, cam ring speed can be
determined by using the formula:

In place of a cam follower face, a radial engine uses

cam rollers. A cam roller consists of a small wheel
that rolls along the cam track. When the cam roller
rides over a lobe on the cam ring, the roller pushes
against a tappet that is enclosed in a tappet guide.
The tappet, in turn, actuates a push rod that performs the same function as an opposed engine push
rod. Radial engine rocker arms have adjusting
screws and lock screws that allow adjustment of the
push rod-to-rocker arm clearance. In addition, many
radial engine rocker arms are equipped with rollers
on their valve ends to reduce friction, eliminate side
loading on the valve stem, and lessen tip deformation. [Figure 1-49]

VALVE CLEARANCE ADJUSTMENT

Valve clearance describes the clearance, or space,
between the tip of the valve stem and the rocker
arm face. For an engine to run properly, the correct
valve clearance must be maintained. During normal
engine operating temperatures, the cylinder assemblies expand and force the cylinder head, along

Figure 1-49. A radial engine valve operating mechanism performs the same functions as the mechanism used in an
opposed engine.

with its valve operating components, further away

from the crankcase. However, due to their relatively
small mass, the push rods expand less. As a result,
the clearance between the rocker arm and valve
stem increases. If this valve clearance is not controlled, an engine will run poorly, and valve damage could result.
An engine manufacturer's maintenance manual
specifies either a cold or hot valve clearance. As its
name implies, a cold clearance is set when the
engine is cold and, due to the expansion properties
discussed earlier, is typically less than the hot or
running clearance, which is set when the engine is
hot. Engines that require valve adjustments have
adjustment screws and locknuts mounted in their
rocker arms at the push rod fitting. To set the valve

1-29

Reciprocating Engines

clearance, the engine is turned until the piston in

the cylinder being adjusted is at the beginning of the
power stroke. With the piston in this position, there
is no pressure applied to either of the push rods and
the rocker arm is as far from the valve tip as possible. Once this is done a thickness gauge of the correct dimension is placed between the rocker arm
and the valve stem. If you cannot insert the thickness gauge between the two surfaces, or if the thickness gauge moves too freely between the surfaces,
the clearance must be adjusted. To do this, the
lock-nut in the rocker arm is loosened and the
adjustment screw is turned until the face of the
rocker arm just touches the feeler gauge. The
locknut is then tightened to hold the adjustment
screw in place.
Engines utilizing hydraulic lifters do not require periodic valve adjustments since they automatically maintain a zero running valve clearance during normal
operation. Because of this, hydraulic lifters are often
called zero clearance, or zero lash lifters. However,
the valve operating mechanism clearance is typically
checked during engine overhaul. If the clearance is not
within specifications, push rods of varying lengths are
installed until the correct clearance is achieved. For
example, if the valve clearance is too great, a longer
push rod is installed whereas, if the valve clearance is
too small, a shorter push rod is used.
Some large radial engines incorporate a floating cam
ring that requires a special procedure when adjusting valve clearance. To obtain the correct adjustment, the cam ring must be seated to eliminate cam
bearing clearance. This usually involves depressing
two valves to seat the cam ring, allowing an accurate
measurement on a third valve. This procedure is
repeated for each cylinder.
PROPELLER REDUCTION GEARS
The amount of power produced by an aircraft reciprocating engine is determined by several factors,
including the amount of pressure exerted on the pistons during each power stroke and the number of
power strokes completed in a given time period. As
a general rule, the faster an engine turns, the more
power it produces; however, this same rule does not
apply to propellers. For example, as a propeller
blade tip approaches the speed of sound, the propeller can no longer efficiently convert the power
produced by an engine into thrust. In other words,
most propellers must be operated at a specific speed
to achieve maximum efficiency. Therefore, to allow
an engine to run at the speed required to produce its
maximum rated power output while, at the same
time, maintain a reasonable propeller speed, some

high-powered engines must use a propeller reduction gear system. As its name implies, a propeller
reduction gear system permits a propeller to turn
slower than the engine. This allows an engine to
turn at a relatively fast speed and a propeller to turn
at a more efficient slower speed. Reduction gear systems currently used on aircraft engines utilize spur
gears, planetary gears, or a combination of the two.
If you recall from your General textbook, spur gears
have their teeth cut straight across their circumference and can be either external or internal. The simplest type of reduction gearing consists of two
external tooth spur gears, one small gear on an
engine crankshaft and one larger gear on the propeller shaft. When configured this way, the amount
of reduction is based primarily on the size of the
propeller shaft gear. The larger the gear, the slower
the propeller turns. However, this reduction system
does have some disadvantages. For example, when
using two external tooth spur gears, the propeller
turns opposite the crankshaft. Furthermore, since
the propeller shaft is off-center from the engine
crankshaft, the propeller acts like a gyroscope and
places severe torsional loads on the engine case.
This requires the use of a stronger and heavier
crankcase. [Figure 1-50]
One way to overcome some of the drawbacks of a
simple spur gear arrangement is to use an
internal-tooth spur gear on the propeller shaft and
an external-tooth spur gear on the crankshaft. In

addition to
Figure 1-50. With a gear reduction system that uses two
externally driven spur gears, the amount of reduction is
determined by the ratio of the gear teeth. For example, if
the drive gear has 25 teeth and the driven gear has 50 teeth,
a ratio of 1:2 exists and the propeller turns at one half the
crankshaft speed.

Reciprocating Engines

7-30

Figure 1-51. With a gear reduction system that uses one

internal-tooth gear and one external-tooth gear the propeller and crankshaft turn in the same direction and are
more closely aligned.

allowing the propeller to turn in the same direction

as the engine, this arrangement keeps the propeller
shaft more closely aligned with the crankshaft,
thereby eliminating much of the stress placed on the
crankcase. [Figure 1-51]
Whenever a reduction gear is used that does not
keep the propeller shaft perfectly aligned with the
crankshaft, additional vibration is induced into an
engine. To help minimize this vibration, some
engines use a quill shaft between the crankshaft and
propeller shaft. A quill shaft is a hardened steel
shaft that is splined on both ends and installed
between two gears, or shafts, to absorb torsional
vibration. One end of the quill shaft fits into the
front end of the crankshaft, while the opposite end
is inserted into the front end of the propeller drive
shaft. With this arrangement, the quill shaft drives
the propeller and absorbs vibration from the gear
reduction mechanism. [Figure 1-52]

Figure 1-52. A quill shaft minimizes torsional vibration

between the propeller shaft and the crankshaft.

One of the best ways to reduce vibration is to keep

the propeller shaft and crankshaft perfectly aligned.
A gear reduction system that does this is the planetary reduction gear. In a planetary gear system, the
propeller shaft is attached to a housing which contains several small gears called planetary gears. The
planetary gears rotate between a sun gear and a ring
or bell gear. The crankshaft drives either the sun
gear or ring gear, depending on the individual installation. The planetary gear reduction system keeps
the propeller shaft aligned with the crankshaft,
transmits power with a minimum of weight and
space, and keeps the propeller's direction of rotation
the same as the engine. Planetary gears are used on
some horizontally opposed engines, as well as radial
and turboprop engines. [Figure 1-53]
The reduction rate that a particular gearing arrangement achieves is found by the formula:
Gear Ratio=Teeth On Ring Gear + Teeth On Sun Gear
Teeth On Ring Gear
Notice that neither the number of teeth on the planetary gears nor the number of planetary gears
attached to the spider enter into the computation
for gear reduction. For example, if there are 72 teeth
on the ring gear and 36 teeth on the sun gear, the
propeller turns at a ratio of 1.5 to 1. However,
reduction ratios are traditionally expressed in
whole numbers, so this example is expressed as a
3-to-2 reduction. In other words, the crankshaft

Figure 1-53. In a planetary gear reduction system, the propeller is attached to the planetary gear spider and the crankshaft turns either the sun gear or the ring gear.

must

1-31

Reciproca ting Engines

turn three revolutions for every two revolutions of

the propeller shaft.
PROPELLER SHAFTS
All aircraft reciprocating engines are equipped with
a propeller shaft. As an aviation technician you
must be familiar with the various types of propeller
shafts including the tapered, splined, and flanged.
Tapered propeller shafts were used on most of the
early, low-powered engines. On a tapered propeller
shaft, the shaft tapers, or gets smaller in diameter, as
you move out toward the end of the shaft. To prevent a propeller hub from rotating on a tapered
shaft, one or more key slots are milled into the shaft.
In addition, the end of the shaft is threaded to
receive a propeller retaining nut. [Figure 1-54]

Figure 1-56. Before you remove a propeller from a flanged

propeller shaft, it is a good practice to mark the propeller
hub and flange. This makes reattaching the propeller easier since you can identify how the propeller should be positioned.

Most modern horizontally opposed aircraft engines

use a flanged propeller shaft. With this type of propeller shaft, a flat flange is forged directly onto the
end of a crankshaft and a propeller is bolted to the
flange. To provide additional support for the propeller, most flanged propeller shafts incorporate a
short shaft forward of the flange and a series of studs
around the flange circumference. [Figure 1-56]
ENGINE IDENTIFICATION

Figure 1-54. As you can see, a tapered propeller shaft

changes in diameter along its length and utilizes a metal
key to keep a propeller from rotating.

Increases in engine power demanded a stronger

method of attaching propellers. Therefore, most
high powered radial engines use splined propeller
shafts. A spline is a rectangular groove that is
machined into the propeller shaft. Most splined
shafts have a master spline that is approximately
twice the size of any other spline. This master spline
assures that a propeller is attached to a propeller
shaft a specific way so that vibration is kept to a
minimum. [Figure 1-55]

Figure 1-55. All splined propeller shafts are identified by an

SAE number. For example, SAE 50 identifies a splined shaft
that meets SAE design specifications for a 50 size shaft. The
SAE number does not refer to the actual number of splines.

Today, almost all reciprocating engines are identified by a series of letters and numbers that indicate
the type and size of the engine. For simplicity, most
manufacturers use the same identification system.
In most cases, an engine identification code consists
of a letter or series of letters followed by a number
and model designation. The first letters indicate an
engine's cylinder arrangement and basic configuration. A list of the letters used include:
0 - Horizontally opposed engine
R - Radial engine
1 - In-line engine
V - V-type engine
T - Turbo charged
I -Fuel injected
S - Supercharged
G - Geared nose section (propeller reduction
gearing)
L - Left-hand rotation (for multi-engine
installations) H - Horizontal mounting
(for helicopters)
V - Vertical mounting (for helicopters)
A - Modified for aerobatics
The numbers in an engine identification code indicate an engine's piston displacement in cubic inches.
For example, an 0-320 indicates a horizontally

7-32

opposed engine with a displacement of 320 cubic

inches. Some engine identification codes include a
letter designation after the displacement to indicate a
model change or modification to a basic engine. You
must check with the manufacturer's specification
sheets to correctly interpret these letters, since their
meaning differs among manufacturers.

Reciprocating Engines

Consider an LIO-360-C engine. This code designates

an engine that has left hand rotation, is fuel injected
and horizontally opposed, displaces 360 cubic
inches, and is a C model. As a second example, a
GTSIO-520-F engine is geared, turbo-supercharged,
fuel injected, horizontally opposed, displaces 520
cubic inches, and is an F model.

OPERATING PRINCIPLES
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
An aircraft engine is a form of heat engine that converts the chemical energy of fuel into heat energy.
Once converted, the heat energy causes an increase
in gas pressure within a cylinder. The increased gas
pressure is then converted into mechanical energy
when the expanding gases force the piston downward. Since the fuel used to produce heat is burned
inside the engine, an aircraft engine is referred to as
an internal combustion engine. When fuel is burned
outside an engine to produce mechanical energy, the
process is called external combustion.
A steam engine is an example of an external combustion engine. Fuel is burned in a boiler to heat
water and produce steam. The steam is then channeled into an engine to force pistons to turn a crankshaft or spin a turbine. However, since external
combustion engines do not effectively convert the
heat provided by the fuel into work, they are relatively inefficient. This is offset somewhat by the low
cost fuels required to operate an external combustion engine. As a result, external combustion
engines remain a viable alternative for applications
such as electrical powerplants.
Unlike external combustion engines, internal combustion engines require a specific type of fuel. For
example, some automotive engines only burn liquified petroleum gases such as butane or propane,
while others use diesel fuel, gasoline, or alcohol.
Since aircraft reciprocating engines are internal
combustion engines, they too require the use of a
specific type of fuel. For example, most aircraft reciprocating engines require leaded fuel to provide
upper cylinder lubrication and a specific octane rating to alleviate excessive operating temperatures.
For a fuel to be used in a type certificated aircraft,
the Federal Aviation Administration and engine
manufacturer must approve its use.
Regardless of the type of internal combustion
engine, the process of converting the chemical
energy of fuel into mechanical energy is essentially
the same. A fuel metering device, such as a carbure-

tor or fuel manifold, first measures liquid fuel and

then converts it into fuel vapor. Next, this vapor is
mixed with the correct amount of air to produce a
combustible mixture which is compressed and
ignited within a cylinder. When the mixture burns,
it releases energy and causes the noncombustible
gases, such as nitrogen, to expand. Since air is composed of approximately 78% nitrogen, the expansion potential is substantial. The expanding gas
exerts pressure on an engine's pistons, driving them
downward to rotate the crankshaft and create
mechanical energy. For simplicity, the process just
described can be divided into a set sequence of
timed events. This sequence is identical for all
4-stroke reciprocating engines. The individual
events and the sequence in which they occur are
listed here.
Intake Fuel and air are drawn into a cylinder
when the intake valve opens and the piston travels
downward.
Compression
The fuel-air mixture is
compressed in the cylinder by the upward motion
of the piston.
Ignition Once compressed, the fuel-air mixture
is ignited by a spark.
Power The burning gases expand and force
the piston downward which, in turn, rotates the
crankshaft to produce work.
Exhaust The burned gases are scavenged and
forced out of a cylinder through the exhaust port as
the piston moves upward a second time. Once the
piston reaches the top of the cylinder, the sequence
is repeated.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
CYCLES
All engines continually repeat a cycle when they
operate. One cycle represents one complete series of
events that an internal combustion engine goes
through to produce mechanical energy. In other
words, one cycle includes the intake, compression,
ignition, power, and exhaust events.

Reciprocating Engines

7-34

Figure 1-57. One stroke is equivalent to the distance a piston head travels between bottom dead center and top dead
center. In all reciprocating engines, one complete stroke
occurs with each 180 degrees of crankshaft rotation.

The two operating cycles in general use today are

the four-stroke, or Otto cycle developed by August
Otto, and the two-stroke cycle. The majority of piston engines operate on the more efficient four-stroke
cycle; however, there are several small, nonaviation
powerplants that use the two-stroke cycle. A stroke
is simply the total distance a piston travels between
the outward and inward limits within a cylinder. In
a cylinder, the most outward limit is referred to as
top dead center (TDC) while the most inward limit
is known as bottom dead center (BDC). [Figure 1-57]

Figure 1-58. The four strokes that take place in a four-stroke.

Otto cycle include the intake, compression, power, and
exhaust.

In the four-stroke cycle, the exact timing of when the

valves open and close and when ignition occurs
varies considerably among engine types. However,
timing is always determined by crankshaft position.
In the following discussion, the timing of each event
is specified in terms of crankshaft travel, and is measured in degrees of rotation, during the stroke that
the event occurs. For example, the intake valve on a
specific engine may open 15 degrees before top dead
center while on the exhaust stroke. Since a certain
amount of travel is required to fully open a valve,
the specified timing represents the start of valve
opening rather than the full-open valve position.

FOUR-STROKE CYCLE
As the name implies, the four-stroke cycle consists
of four strokes, intake, compression, power, and
exhaust. One complete four-stroke cycle requires
two revolutions of the crankshaft. The four-stroke
cycle is sometimes referred to as a constant volume
cycle because the burning fuel inside the cylinder
increases the gas pressure with almost no change in
volume. [Figure 1-58]

INTAKE STROKE

The intake stroke begins with the piston at top dead

center and the intake valve open. During this stroke,
crankshaft rotation pulls the piston downward
thereby reducing the pressure within the cylinder.
Lower pressure inside the cylinder allows air that is
under atmospheric pressure to flow through the carburetor where it is mixed with the correct amount of

Reciprocating Engines

fuel. The resulting fuel/air mixture then passes

through an intake manifold pipe, down through an
intake port, and past an intake valve into the cylinder. The quantity, or weight, of fuel and air that
enters the cylinder is determined by the throttle
position. For example, when the throttle is full
open, the greatest amount of fuel and air enters a
cylinder and the engine runs at its fastest speed.
COMPRESSION STROKE

Once a piston reaches bottom dead center on the

intake stroke, the piston reverses direction and
begins the compression stroke. Depending on the
specific engine, the intake valve typically closes
about 50 to 75 degrees past bottom dead center on
the compression stroke. Delaying the closing of the
intake valve until the piston is past bottom dead
center allows the momentum of the incoming
gases to charge the cylinder more completely.
After the intake valve closes, the piston's continued upward travel compresses the fuel/air mixture
to obtain the most favorable burning characteristics. As the piston approaches top dead center, the
mixture is ignited by an electric spark provided by
two spark plugs installed in each cylinder head.
The exact time ignition occurs varies depending
on the requirements of the specific engine, but is
typically from 20 to 35 degrees before top dead
center. By igniting the mixture before the piston
reaches top dead center, complete combustion and
maximum pressure are ensured when the piston
begins the power stroke. Each manufacturer determines the optimum ignition point for each engine
model.
POWER STROKE

As a piston moves through top dead center on the

compression stroke, it reverses direction again to
begin the power stroke. During the power stroke, the
piston is pushed downward by the rapidly expanding gases within the cylinder. The temperature of
these gases can exceed 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit
while pushing down on the piston with a force in
excess of 15 tons. However, as the burning gases
expand, they cool considerably, exiting the cylinder
at a reasonable temperature.
The linear motion produced by the back and forth
movement of a piston is converted to rotary motion
through the use of a connecting rod and crankshaft.
The rotary motion is then used to drive a propeller
or a gear case.

1-35

To aid in scavenging the exhaust gases out of a

cylinder, the exhaust valve opens well before bottom dead center on the power stroke while there is
still pressure in the cylinder. This positive pressure
helps expel the exhaust gases out the exhaust port
after the desired expansion of hot gases has been
obtained. Proper exhaust gas scavenging is an
important consideration in engine design since any
exhaust products remaining in a cylinder will
dilute the incoming fuel/air charge during the subsequent intake stroke. In addition, thorough
exhaust gas scavenging helps control cylinder operating temperatures.
The rapid burning of a fuel/air charge in an engine
produces a power impulse. If an engine is designed
with uneven or widely spaced power impulses,
excessive engine vibration may occur. For example,
one and two cylinder engines have relatively few
power impulses compared to four and six cylinder
engines and, therefore, vibrate more. Consequently,
more cylinders produce more power impulses and
less vibration.
EXHAUST STROKE

As a piston travels through bottom dead center on

the power stroke and starts upward on an exhaust
stroke, it begins to expel the burned exhaust gases
out the exhaust port. The speed at which exhaust
gases leave a cylinder tends to cause the pressure
within the cylinder to drop, leaving an area of low
pressure. This low pressure speeds the flow of fuel
and air into the cylinder as the intake valve begins to
open. In order to maximize usage of the reduced
cylinder pressure, the intake valve on a typical
engine is timed to open anywhere from 8 to 55
degrees before top dead center, on the exhaust stroke.
VALVE TIMING

Proper valve timing is crucial for efficient engine performance. Valve timing is the term used to describe
the point at which the intake and exhaust valves begin
to open and close during the four-stroke cycle. For
example, as previously discussed, the intake valve
begins to open before the piston reaches top dead center on the exhaust stroke. This allows the piston to
draw a greater quantity of fuel and air into the cylinder. The number of crankshaft degrees that the intake
valve opens before the piston reaches top dead center
is called valve lead. If the valve does not open at the
proper time, the volume of fuel and air taken into the
cylinder will be affected, causing the engine to run
rough or not at all.

7-36

Reciprocating Engines

You may also recall that the exhaust valve remains

open beyond top dead center and into the intake
stroke. The number of degrees the exhaust valve
remains open past top dead center is called valve
lag. The combination of valve lead and lag is called
valve overlap and represents the number of degrees
that both the intake and exhaust valves are
unseated. The primary purpose of valve overlap is
to allow the fuel/air charge to enter the cylinder as
early as possible to increase engine efficiency and
aid in cylinder cooling. In addition, valve overlap
takes advantage of the inertia in the outflowing
exhaust gases to provide more complete exhaust gas
scavenging.
As a piston passes bottom dead center on the intake
stroke, valve lag is used again to keep the intake
valve open into the compression stroke. This permits the maximum amount of fuel and air to enter
the combustion chamber prior to compression.
Valve lead, on the other hand, is incorporated a second time when the exhaust valve is opened prior to
bottom dead center on the power stroke. If you
recall, the exhaust valve is opened early to improve
exhaust gas scavenging and to help remove heat
from the cylinder. To help you better visualize valve
movement through a complete engine cycle, some
engine manufacturers provide a timing diagram in
their maintenance manuals. [Figure 1-59]
In this example, notice that the valve lead and lag is
greater near bottom center than it is near top center.
The exhaust valve leads bottom center by 60 degrees
and the intake valve lags by 60 degrees. On the other
hand, when the piston is near top center, the intake
valve leads top center by 15 degrees while the
exhaust valve lags by 10 degrees. The reason for this
is that the linear distance a piston travels for a given
degree of crankshaft rotation varies from top center
to bottom center. In other words, when the piston is
at or near top center, it moves more per degree of
crankshaft rotation than if the piston were at bottom
center. [Figure 1-60]
As you can see, a piston moves further in the first 90
degrees of rotation than in the second 90 degrees. In
addition, piston velocity is highest at the 90 degree
point and lowest at top and bottom center positions.
This reduction in speed at both top center and bottom center provides a smoother transition for the
piston when it is changing its direction of travel.
Once you know the specific valve timing for an
engine, you can calculate the amount of crankshaft
rotation that each valve is open or closed. For example, given an intake valve that opens 15 degrees

Figure 1-59. To read this diagram, begin at the inside of the

spiral. Notice that the intake valve opens 15 degrees before
top center on the exhaust stroke while the exhaust valve
remains open 10 degrees into the intake stroke. As you follow the spiral into the compression stroke, notice that the
intake valve closes 60 degrees past bottom center on the
compression stroke. At this point, both valves are closed
and ignition takes place at 30 degrees before top center on
the compression stroke. As the cycle proceeds, the exhaust
valve opens 60 degrees before bottom center on the power
stroke and remains open throughout the exhaust stroke.
The intake valve, on the other hand, opens 15 degrees prior
to top center on the exhaust stroke.

before top dead center and closes 45 degrees after

bottom dead center, you can calculate the intake
valve's duration, which is the amount of time the
valve is open. In this example, once the intake valve
opens, the piston travels 15 degrees to reach top center, 180 degrees to reach bottom center, and then 45
degrees past bottom center for a total of 240 degrees
of rotation. By the same token, if an exhaust valve
opens 70 degrees before bottom dead center and
closes 10 degrees after top dead center, the piston
travels 70 degrees to reach bottom center, 180
degrees to reach top center, and then an additional
10 degrees past top center for a total duration of 260
degrees. To determine how many degrees a crankshaft will rotate with both valves closed, or seated,
you must determine the number of degrees between
the point where the intake valve closes and the
point where the exhaust valve opens. Given that the
intake valve closes 45 degrees after bottom dead
center on the compression stroke and the exhaust
valve opens 70 degrees before bottom center on the

Reciprocating Engines

Figure 1-60. The circle divided into even segments represents the travel of a crankpin while the vertical line above
the circle represents the path of a piston. To represent the
connecting rod length, equal length lines are drawn from
each segment line to the piston path. From the figure, you
can see that a piston moves more per degree of travel when
the piston is near top center than when it is near bottom
center.

intake stroke, the degree of travel with both valves

seated is 245 degrees.
FIRING ORDER

An engine's firing order represents the sequence in

which the ignition event occurs in different cylinders. Each engine is designed with a specific firing
order to maintain balance and reduce vibration. For
example, a four cylinder Continental model
O-200-A has a firing order of 1-3-2-4. By the same
token, a four cylinder Lycoming model O-320-E3D
has the same firing order, but the cylinders are
numbered differently. For this reason, caution
should be exercised and manufacturer's
maintenance instructions followed carefully.
[Figure 1-61]
In radial engines, the firing order must follow a specific pattern that allows the power impulses to follow the motion of the crank throw during rotation.
For example, on all single-row radial engines, the
odd numbered cylinders fire in succession first, followed by the even cylinders. Therefore, the firing

1-37

Figure 1-61. Notice that the firing pattern and cylinder numbering method varies between engine manufacturers and
engine models.

order on a seven cylinder radial engine is

1-3-5-7-2-4-6 while the firing order on a nine
cylinder radial engine is 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8.
A double-row radial engine is essentially two single-row radial engines that share a common crankshaft. Like the single-row radial, the power pulses
must occur between alternate cylinders in each row,
in sequence. In other words, two cylinders in the
same row can never fire in succession. In addition,
to balance the power pulses between the two rows,
when a cylinder fires in one row, its opposite cylinder must fire in the second row. For example, consider a 14 cylinder double-row radial engine,
consisting of two rows of seven cylinders each. If
you recall from the discussion in the previous section, on a double-row radial engine, all the odd
numbered cylinders are in the rear row while all the
even numbered cylinders are in the front row.
Therefore, if the number 1 cylinder fires in the back
row, the cylinder opposite the number 1 cylinder in
the front row must fire. In a 14 cylinder double-row
engine, the number 10 cylinder is opposite the number 1 cylinder. The power pulses then go back and
forth between rows in alternating cylinders to obtain
a firing order of 1-10-5-14-9-4-13-8-3-12-7-2-11-6.

1-38

A method for computing the firing order of a 14

cylinder, double-row radial engine is to start with
any cylinder number, 1 through 14 and either add 9
or subtract 5, whichever results in a number
between 1 and 14. For example, if you start with the
number 1 cylinder, 5 cannot be subtracted to arrive
at a number between 1 and 14, so you add 9 to arrive
at 10. Then, since you cannot add 9 to 10 without
exceeding 14, you need to subtract 5 to arrive at 5.
Now, add 9 to 5 to get 14, and subtract 5 from 14 to
get 9. Continue this pattern until you have the complete 14 cylinder firing order. Once complete, the
identical
firing
order
of
1-10-5-14-9-4-13-8-3-12-7-2-11-6 results.
To determine the firing order of an 18 cylinder, double-row radial engine, the numbers 11 and 7 are used;
that is, begin with any cylinder number from 1 to 18
and either add 11 or subtract 7, whichever will result
in a number between 1 and 18. Once these numbers
are applied, you should arrive at a firing order of
1-12-5-16-9-2-13-6-17-10-3-14-7-18-11-4-15-8.
TWO-STROKE CYCLE
The two-stroke cycle is similar to the four-stroke
cycle in that the same five events occur in each operating cycle. However, the five events occur in two
piston strokes rather than four strokes. This means
that one cycle is completed in one crankshaft revolution. [Figure 1-62]

Reciprocating Engines

As a two-stroke cycle begins, the piston moves up

and two events occur simultaneously. The piston
compresses the fuel/air charge in the cylinder and
creates an area of low pressure within the crankcase.
This low pressure pulls fuel and air into the
crankcase through a check valve. Once the piston is
a few degrees before top dead center, ignition occurs
and the fuel/air mixture begins to burn. As the piston passes top dead center the pressure from the
expanding gases begin to force the piston downward
on the power stroke. This downward stroke also
compresses the fuel/air charge in the crankcase. As
the piston approaches the bottom of the power
stroke, the exhaust port is uncovered and spent
gases are purged from the cylinder. A split second
later, the piston uncovers the intake port and allows
the pressurized fuel/air charge in the crankcase to
enter the cylinder. The cycle then repeats itself as
the piston compresses the fuel/air charge in the
cylinder and draws a fresh fuel/air charge into the
crankcase.
To help prevent the incoming fuel/air mixture from
mixing with the exhaust gases, most two-stroke
engines utilize pistons with baffled heads that
deflect the fuel/air charge upward away from exiting exhaust gases. Baffled heads do not, however,
completely eliminate the mixing problem. Since
both the exhaust and intake events take place
almost simultaneously, some of the fuel/air charge
becomes diluted by the exhaust gases and some is

Figure 1-62. In a two-stroke engine, the piston controls the flow of gases into and out of the cylinder through the intake and
exhaust ports. This eliminates the need for either an intake or exhaust valve and their associated operating mechanisms. This simplifies a two-stroke engine's construction and minimizes weight.

1-39

Reciprocating Engines

discharged out the exhaust port before being compressed and ignited. This reduces the engine's overall efficiency.
Lubrication for a two-stroke engine is typically provided by the fuel/air mixture as it circulates in the
crankcase. However, the fuel alone does not provide
the lubrication. Instead, oil is typically added to the
fuel when the fuel tank is filled. This eliminates the
need for an oil sump which greatly reduces a
two-stroke engine's weight.
The extreme simplicity and light weight of a
two-stroke cycle engine make it useful for such
applications as chain saws, lawn mowers, and
ultralight aircraft. However, the two-stroke engine's
use is limited for aviation applications because it is
less efficient and more difficult to cool than the
four-cycle engine.

WORK-POWER CONSIDERATIONS
All aircraft engines are tested and rated according to
their ability to do work and produce power. An
engine's design and construction determines how
effective it is in converting a fuel's chemical energy
to work and power. The following discussion provides an explanation of work and power as well as a
means of calculating both. In addition, several of the
factors that affect an engine's power output are also
discussed.
WORK
If a force is applied to an object and the object
moves, work is done. The amount of work done is
directly proportional to the force applied and the
distance the object moves. In mathematical terms,
work is defined as the product of force times distance.
Work (W) = Force (F) x Distance (D)
Example:
If an engine weighing 400 pounds is lifted 10 feet,
the work done is 4,000 foot-pounds.
Work = 400 pounds x 10 feet
= 4,000 foot-pounds
If a force is applied to an object and the object does
not move, no work is done. By the same token, no
work is done if an object moves with no force
applied to it.

In the English system, work is typically measured in

foot-pounds. One foot-pound is equal to one pound
of force applied to an object through the distance of
one foot. In the metric system, the unit of work is
the joule. One joule is the work done by a force of
one newton acting through a distance of one meter.
One pound is equal to 4.448 newtons.
The work produced by an engine is used to turn a
propeller which, in turn, produces thrust to move
an aircraft. In addition, an engine does work by turning electrical generators and hydraulic pumps.
When an engine drives an alternator to produce the
electricity that turns a motor or drives a hydraulic
pump to cycle landing gear, the engine has performed work because the force supplied by the
engine resulted in movement.
POWER
When determining the amount of work done, the
time required to do the work is not considered.
Power, on the other hand, does take time into consideration. For example, a low powered motor can
be geared to lift a large weight if time is not a factor.
However, if it is important to lift the weight quickly,
more power is required. Power is calculated with
the formula:

Power is defined as the time-rate of doing work. In

the English system, power is expressed in footpounds per second, whereas the unit of power in the
metric system is joules per second.
When rating engines, power is a primary consideration because it represents how quickly an
engine-propeller combination can respond to
power demands. Power is a critical factor when
determining whether or not an engine can deliver
the force needed to produce a specific amount of
work in a given time. For example, a large
airplane needs more power to take off in the same
distance as a small airplane because more force is
needed to accelerate a heavier object the same
distance in the same amount of time.
HORSEPOWER
Another unit of measure for power is the horsepower. Horsepower was first used by James Watt to
compare the performance of his steam engine with a
typical English dray horse. One horsepower is the

Reciprocating Engines

7-40

amount of power required to do 33,000 foot-pounds

of work in one minute or 550 foot-pounds of work
in one second. Therefore, the formula used to calculate horsepower is:

the engine is divided by 33,000 to find the indicated

horsepower.
To check your understanding of this formula, compute the indicated horsepower for a six-cylinder
engine that has a bore of five inches, a stroke of five
inches, and is turning at 2,750 rpm with a measured
IMEP of 125 psi per cylinder.

INDICATED HORSEPOWER
Indicated horsepower (IHP) is the total power actually developed in an engine's cylinders without reference to friction losses within the engine. To
calculate indicated horsepower, the average effective pressure within the cylinders must be known.
One way to determine the effective pressure is to
attach a mechanical indicating device to the engine
cylinder that records the actual pressure existing in
the cylinder during a complete operating cycle.
From this data, an average pressure is computed.
This average pressure is referred to as indicated
mean effective pressure and is included in the indicated horsepower calculation with other engine
specifications. The formula used to calculate an
engine's indicated horsepower rating is:

Where:
P = the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure, or IMEP
inside the cylinder during a power stroke. L =
the length of the stroke in feet or fractions of a
foot.
A = the area of the piston head in square inches. N
= the number of power strokes per minute for one
cylinder. On a four-stroke engine, this is found
by dividing the rpm by two. K = the
number of cylinders on the engine.
In the formula above, the area of the piston times the
mean effective pressure provides the force acting on
the piston in pounds. This force multiplied by the
length of the stroke in feet results in the work performed in one power stroke, which, when multiplied by the number of power strokes per minute,
gives the number of foot-pounds per minute of work
produced by one cylinder. Multiplying this result
by the number of cylinders in the engine gives the
amount of work performed, in foot-pounds, by the
engine. Since horsepower is defined as work done
at the rate of 33,000 foot-pounds per minute, the
total number of foot-pounds of work performed by

FRICTION HORSEPOWER
The indicated horsepower calculation discussed in
the preceeding paragraph is the theoretical power of
a frictionless engine. However, there is no such
thing as a frictionless engine. All engines require
energy to draw a fuel/air charge into the combustion
chamber, compress it, and expel exhaust gases.
Furthermore, gears, pistons, and accessories create
friction that must be overcome. Engine lubrication
is crucial in limiting friction and wear, but friction
cannot be completely eliminated. Therefore, not all
of the horsepower developed in an engine goes to
driving the propeller. The power required to overcome the friction and energy losses is known as friction horsepower and is measured by driving an
engine with a calibrated motor and measuring
power needed to turn the engine at a given speed.
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
The actual amount of power delivered to the propeller shaft is called brake horsepower. One way to

1-41

Reciprocating Engines

determine brake horsepower is to subtract an

engine's friction horsepower from its indicated
horsepower. In practice, the measurement of an
engine's brake horsepower involves the measurement of a quantity known as torque, or twisting
moment. Torque is a measure of load and is properly expressed in pound-inches or pound-feet.
There are a number of devices that are capable of
measuring torque, including the dynamometer and
torquemeter. Early powerplant design engineers
measured brake horsepower using a Prony brake
dynamometer, which consists of a hinged collar, or
brake, clamped to the propeller shaft. The collar acts
as an adjustable friction brake. An arm of a known
length is rigidly attached to the hinged collar and
bears on a set of scales. As the propeller shaft
rotates, it tries to spin the brake which, in turn,
applies force to a scale. If the resulting force registered on the scale is multiplied by the length of the
arm, the resulting product represents the torque
exerted by the rotating shaft.
Once the torque is known, the work done per revolution of the propeller shaft is computed using the
equation:
Work per revolution = 2K X Torque
If the work per revolution is multiplied by the rpm,
the result is work per minute, or power. Since work
is expressed in foot-pounds per minute, this quantity is divided by 33,000 to arrive at an engine's
brake horsepower. The resulting formula for calculating brake horsepower is:

If the friction between the brake collar and propeller shaft imposes a load without stopping the
engine, brake horsepower can be computed without

Figure 1-63. In the example above, the 3-foot arm of the

prony brake is exerting a force of 200 pounds on the scale.
This results in a torque of 600 foot-pounds.

knowing the amount of friction between the collar

and drum. As long as the torque increase is proportional to the rpm decrease, the horsepower delivered at the shaft remains unchanged. [Figure 1-63]
Today, the brake horsepower on most modern
engines is measured with an electric or hydraulic
dynamometer. With an electric dynamometer, an
engine drives an electrical generator. The output of
the generator is used to do work, and the amount of
work done in a given time is used to calculate the
power the engine is producing. [Figure 1-64]
PISTON DISPLACEMENT
Piston displacement is defined as the volume of air
displaced by a piston as it moves from bottom center to top center. To determine a piston's displacement, you must multiply the area of a piston head
by the length of the piston stroke. If you recall from

Figure 1-64. With a dynamometer, the power produced by

an engine is used to drive an electrical generator or fluid
pump so the power output can be accurately measured.

Reciprocating Engines

7-42

your previous study of mathematics and the discussion on indicated horsepower (PLANK), the area of
a circle is calculated with the formula:

For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft

engine has a bore, or diameter, of four inches. What
is the area of the piston head?

potential, or chemical energy stored in fuel into heat

energy during the combustion process. The heat
energy is then converted to kinetic energy by
mechanical means. Engine design and construction,
fuel type, and environmental conditions all play a
part in how efficiently an engine converts a fuel's
potential energy. To determine how efficient an
engine is, several factors must be examined, including an engine's thermal, volumetric, and mechanical efficiency.

Given:
THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Bore = 4 inches
2

Area = 7tr
= 3.14X22
= 12.56 square inches
Once the area of one piston is known, total piston
displacement is calculated with the formula:
Total Piston Displacement = A x L x N
Where:

. ..,-.. -.

A = area of piston head in square inches L =

length of the stroke in inches N = number
of cylinders
Using the example presented earlier, determine the
total displacement if each of the four cylinders has a
stroke of six inches.
Given:
Area = 12.56 square inches
Stroke = 6 inches Number
of cylinders = 4
;

Piston Displacement = A x L x N
=12.56X6X4
= 301.44 cubic inches

The total engine displacement is 301.44 cubic

inches. Since the amount of work done by the
expanding gases is determined in part by the piston
area and the piston stroke, it should be evident that
increasing either the cylinder bore or the piston
stroke increases piston displacement.
ENGINE EFFICIENCY
Energy is the capacity for doing work and cannot be
created or destroyed. However, energy can be transformed from potential, or stored energy into kinetic
energy. Aircraft reciprocating engines transform the

An engine's thermal efficiency (TE) is a ratio of the

amount of heat energy converted to useful work to
the amount of heat energy contained in the fuel used
to support combustion. In other words, thermal efficiency is a measure of the inefficiencies experienced
when converting the heat energy in fuel to work. For
example, consider two engines that produce the
same amount of horsepower, but consume different
amounts of fuel. The engine using less fuel converts
a greater portion of the available energy into useful
work and, therefore, has a higher thermal efficiency.
Thermal efficiency is found by the formula:
,
, .,,,. .
Horsepower
x 33,000
Thermal Efficiency = ----- F x BTTJ x K------------Where:
Horsepower = An engine's brake or indicated horsepower 33,000 = Number of foot-pounds of
work per
minute in one horsepower F = Weight of
fuel burned per minute BTU = Heat value of
the fuel burned measured in BTU's
K = Constant representing the number of
foot-pounds of work each BTU is
capable of doing in one second.
Thermal efficiency can be calculated using either
brake or indicated horsepower. If brake horsepower
is used, the result is brake thermal efficiency (BTE),
and if indicated horsepower is used, you get indicated thermal efficiency (ITE).
The constant, 33,000, is the number of foot-pounds
of work per minute in one horsepower. Therefore,
when horsepower is multiplied by 33,000, the output of an engine in foot-pounds per minute results.
Almost all engine performance data relating to fuel
consumption is expressed in terms of gallons per
hour. Therefore, you must be able to convert gallons

1-43

Reciprocating Engines

per hour to pounds per minute. For example, the

weight of 100LL aviation gasoline is six pounds per
gallon. If a particular engine burns 10 gallons per
hour, you must multiply the gallons consumed per
hour by six pounds and divide the product by 60,
the number of minutes per hour. The resulting fuel
burn is one pound per minute (10 x 6 -f- 60 = 1).
In the English system of measurement, the relationship between heat and work is the British Thermal
Unit, or BTU, of heat energy. Each pound of aviation
gasoline contains 20,000 BTU's of heat energy,
therefore, the number 20,000 is typically used in the
formula for determining thermal efficiency.
By multiplying the pounds per minute of fuel an
engine burns by 20,000, you get the total number of
BTU's, or total heat energy that is produced in a
given engine. One BTU is capable of doing 778 footpounds of work. Therefore, when you multiply the
total number of BTU's by the constant 778, both the
top and bottom of the formula produce a product
that is in foot-pounds.
Based on the information just presented, the formula used to calculate thermal efficiency can be
simplified to read:

.
, rr. .
Horsepower
x 33,000
Thermal efficiency = --------------------------To check your understanding of this formula, determine the brake thermal efficiency of a piston engine
that produces 150 brake horsepower while burning
8 gallons of aviation gasoline per hour.

12,448,000
.398 39.8
percent
Most reciprocating engines are between 30 and 40
percent efficient. The remaining heat is lost through
the exhaust gases, the cooling system, and the friction within the engine. In fact, of the total heat produced in a reciprocating engine, 30 to 40 percent is

utilized for power output; 15 to 20 percent is lost in

cooling; 5 to 10 percent is lost in overcoming friction of moving parts; and 40 to 45 percent is lost
through the exhaust.
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

Volumetric efficiency (VE) is the ratio of the volume

of fuel and air an engine takes into its cylinders to
the total piston displacement. For example, if an
engine draws in a volume of fuel and air that is
exactly equal to the engine's total piston displacement, volumetric efficiency would be 100 percent.
By the same token, if an engine draws in 288 cubic
inches of fuel and air and has a total piston displacement of 320 cubic inches, the volumetric efficiency would be 90 percent.
Because the density of the air drawn into an engine
varies with changes in atmospheric conditions, the
only way to accurately calculate volumetric efficiency is to correct for nonstandard temperature and
pressure. If you recall from your earlier studies,
standard temperature and pressure at sea level is
59 (15) and 29.92 inches of mercury (1013.2
millibars) respectively. Based on this, the formula
for determining volumetric efficiency is:
The volumetric efficiency of most normally aspirated engines is less than 100 percent. The reason
for this is because bends, surface roughness, and
obstructions inside the induction system slow the
flow of air which, in turn, reduces the air pressure
within the manifold. On the other hand,
tur-bocharged engines compress the air before it
enters the cylinders, and often have volumetric
efficiencies greater than 100 percent.
Anything that decreases the density, or volume of
air entering a cylinder decreases volumetric efficiency. Some of the typical factors that affect volumetric efficiency of a non-turbocharged engine
include:
1. Part throttle operation This restricts the vol
ume of air that flows into the cylinders.
2. Long, small diameter, intake pipes As air flows
through an induction system, friction slows the air
flow, causing a decrease in air density. The amount of
friction created is directly proportional to the length
of the intake pipes and inversely proportional to their
cross-sectional area. In other words, long, small
diameter intake pipes create the most friction while
short, large diameter intake pipes create less friction.

Reciprocating Engines

7-44

3. Induction systems with sharp bends Each

time
intake air turns a corner in an induction system, air
flow slows and less air enters the cylinders.
4. High carburetor air temperatures As the tem
perature of the intake air increases, air density
decreases. A lower air density means less air enters
the cylinders.

/ .
>
c
. .u 5. High cylinder head temperatures As the cylin
der heads and corresponding combustion chambers
heat up, air density in the cylinders decreases and
volumetric efficiency decreases.
6. Incomplete scavenging If the valve overlap in
an engine is incorrect, exhaust gases will displace
some of the incoming fuel/air mixture. When this
happens, less fuel and air is drawn into the cylin
ders and a lower volumetric efficiency results.
7. Improper valve timing If the intake valve does
not remain open long enough to allow a complete
charge of fuel and air to enter a cylinder, volumetric
efficiency drops.
8. Increases in altitude As an aircraft climbs,
ambient air pressure drops and air
density
decreases. As an engine draws the "thin" air into its
cylinders, its volumetric efficiency drops.
This
problem can be overcome, to a certain degree, by
turbocharging an engine. Turbocharging increases
the induction air pressure above atmospheric pres
sure which, in turn, increases the density of the
fuel/air charge entering the cylinders.
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of brake horsepower to indicated horsepower and represents the
percentage of power developed in the cylinders that
reaches the propeller shaft. For example, if an
engine develops 160 brake horsepower and 180
indicated horsepower, the ratio of brake horsepower
to indicated horsepower is 160:180, which represents a mechanical efficiency of 89 percent. Since
aircraft engines are mechanically efficient, it is not
unusual for ninety percent of the indicated horsepower to be converted into brake horsepower.
The factor that has the greatest effect on mechanical
efficiency is the friction within the engine itself. The
friction between moving parts in an engine remains
relatively consistent throughout an engine's speed
range. Therefore, the mechanical efficiency of an
engine is highest when the engine is running at an
rpm that maximum brake horsepower is developed.
FACTORS AFFECTING POWER
According to the general gas law which combines
Boyle's Law and Charles' Law, a definite relation-

ship between gas volume, temperature, and pressure

exists. That relationship is the reason why the internal combustion process must be precisely controlled for an engine to produce power efficiently.
MANIFOLD PRESSURE

Changes in manifold air pressure affect the amount

of power an engine can produce for a given rpm.
Manifold air pressure, or manifold absolute pressure
(MAP) readings are monitored by a gauge and provide a means of selecting power settings. Absolute
pressure is the pressure above a complete vacuum
indicated in inches of mercury (in. Hg.) or pounds
per square inch absolute (psia). MAP gauges indicate absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture at a
point just outside a cylinder intake port.
Excessive pressures and temperatures shorten
engine life by overstressing cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, bearings, crankshaft journals, and
valves. Continued operation past upper manifold
absolute pressure limits leads to worn engine parts,
decreasing power output and lower efficiency, or
worse, engine failure.
DETONATION AND PREIGNITION

A fuel/air mixture burns in a very controlled and

predictable way when normal combustion takes
place. Even though the process happens in a fraction of a second, the mixture starts burning at the
point where it is ignited by the spark plugs, then
burns away from the plugs until it is all consumed.
The dual spark plug design common in most aircraft
reciprocating engines promotes a complete even
burn of the fuel/air charge by providing two ignition
sparks at the same time. The plugs are arranged
across from one another so that, as the flame
advances from each spark plug, the mixture burns
in a wavelike form toward the center of the cylinder.
This type of combustion causes a smooth buildup of
temperature and pressure so that maximum force is
applied to the piston at exactly the right time in the
power stroke. [Figure 1-65]
Detonation is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition of
the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder. Detonation
causes high cylinder temperatures and pressures
which lead to a rough running engine, overheating,
and power loss. If detonation occurs in an engine,
damage or even failure of pistons, cylinders, or valves
can happen. The high pressures and temperatures,
combined with the high turbulence generated, cause
a "hammering" or "scrubbing" action on a cylinder
and piston that can burn a hole completely through
either of them in seconds. You can detect detonation
as a "knock" in the engine. [Figure 1-66]

Reciprocating Engines

1-45

Figure 1-65. During normal combustion, the fuel/air mixture

burns evenly, producing a steady force similar to the even
pressure of someone pushing down on the piston.

Figure 1-66. When detonation occurs, the fuel/air charge

burns in an explosive fashion causing a rapid increase in
pressure that produces a "hammering" action on the piston.

Detonation is caused by several conditions such as

using a fuel grade lower than recommended and
allowing the engine to overheat. Wrong ignition tim-

ing, heavy engine load at low rpm, fuel/air mixture

too lean, and compression ratios of 12:1 or higher
are also possible causes of detonation. [Figure 1-67]

Figure 1-67. This chart illustrates the pressure created in a cylinder as it passes through its various strokes. As you can see, when
normal combustion occurs, cylinder pressure builds and dissipates evenly. However, when detonation occurs, cylinder pressure
fluctuates dramatically.

7-46

Preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixture

ignites too soon. It is caused by hot spots in a cylinder that ignite the fuel/air mixture before the spark
plugs fire. A hot spot can be caused by something as
simple as a carbon particle, overheated valve edges,
silica deposits on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark
plug electrode. Hot spots are caused by poor engine
cooling, dirty intake air filters, or shutting down the
engine at high rpm. When the engine continues running after the ignition is turned off, preignition may
be the cause.
Preignition and detonation can occur simultaneously, and one may cause the other. Sometimes it is
difficult distinguishing between the two, but they
both cause engine roughness and high operating
temperatures.

COMPRESSION RATIO

All internal combustion engines must compress the

fuel/mixture to receive a reasonable amount of work
from each power stroke. The fuel/air charge in the

Reciprocating Engines

cylinder can be compared to a coil spring, in that the

more it is compressed, the more work it is potentially capable of doing.
An engine's compression ratio is defined as the
ratio of cylinder volume with the piston at the bottom of its stroke to the volume with the piston at the
top of its stroke. For example, if there are 140 cubic
inches of space in a cylinder when the piston is at
bottom center and 20 cubic inches of space when
the piston is at top center, the compression ratio is
140 to 20. When this ratio is expressed in fraction
form, it becomes 140/20, or 7 to 1, usually represented as 7:1. [Figure 1-68]
To a great extent, an engine's compression ratio
determines the amount of heat energy that is converted into useful work. Specifically, high compression ratios allow the fuel/air mixture to release its
energy rapidly and produce maximum pressure
inside a cylinder just as the piston begins the power
stroke. As a general rule, the higher the compression
ratio, the greater an engine's power output.

Figure 1-68. A cylinder's compression ratio compares cylinder volume with a piston at bottom dead center to the cylinder volume
when the piston is at top dead center. In this example, the compression ratio is 7:1.

1-47

Reciprocating Engines

Compression ratios can be increased or decreased

by altering an engine's design. For example, if the
crankshaft "throw" is lengthened, a piston's stroke
increases which, in turn, increases the compression ratio. By the same token, if you shave a cylinder head's mating surface, you effectively decrease
the distance between the cylinder head and piston
head which increases the compression ratio.
Another way to increase compression ratios without
changing the piston stroke length include installing
domed pistons.
To some degree, the characteristics of available
fuels determine the practical limits of compression
ratios that can be used in engine design. For example, if the compression ratio of an engine is
increased up to or beyond a fuel's critical pressure,
detonation will occur. Because of this, engine manufacturers specify the correct grade of fuel to be
used based, in part, on an engine's compression
ratio. Use of fuel grades lower than recommended
should be avoided.
If an engine is turbocharged, the degree of
tur-bocharging limits the engine's compression
ratio. Although turbocharging does not change an
engine's compression ratio, it does increase
manifold pressure as well as each cylinder's mean
effective pressure. If you recall from your study of
the gas laws, as the pressure of a gas increases, the
temperature also increases. As a result,
turbocharging raises the temperature of the fuel/air
mixture in an engine's cylinders and increases the
possibility of detonation. Therefore, compression
ratios in turbocharged engines must be limited to
allow for the increased operating temperatures.

IGNITION TIMING

When the ignition event is properly timed, complete

combustion and maximum pressure occur just after
the piston passes top dead center at the beginning of
the power stroke. To accomplish this, ignition timing is typically set to ignite the fuel/air charge
shortly before a piston reaches top center on the
compression stroke. For example, some small
Continental engines ignite the fuel/air charge
between 25 and 32 degrees before top center on the
compression stroke.
An automobile engine employs a variable timing
device on the ignition distributor to change the igni-

tion timing as engine operating conditions change.

Aircraft engines, on the other hand, use fixed timing, which is a compromise between the timing
required to give best performance for takeoff and
best performance at cruise.

If the ignition event occurs too early, an engine

loses power because maximum cylinder pressure
builds too early. In other words, when the fuel/air
charge is ignited early, the force of the expanding
gases opposes the engine's rotational inertia
because the piston is still moving upward. On the
other hand, late ignition also causes a loss of
power, since cylinder volume is increasing at the
same time the gases are expanding. The result is
that gas pressure on the piston head does not build
to expected levels. Furthermore, late ignition does
not allow enough time for complete combustion
before the exhaust valve opens. Burning gases then
engulf the valve, increase its temperature, and
often lead to detonation or engine damage due to
overheating.

ENGINE SPEED

The amount of power an aircraft engine produces

is determined by cylinder pressure, piston area,
the distance a piston moves on each stroke, and
the number of times this movement occurs in one
minute. Stated in simple terms, the faster an
engine runs, the more power it produces.
However, there are some limitations to how fast an
engine can rotate. Some of these limitations
include ignition timing, valve timing, and the inertia of rapidly moving pistons. For example, when
intake and exhaust valves move too quickly, they
can "float," or not seat properly. In addition, the
inertia of pistons reversing their direction of travel
thousands of times per minute can overstress
crankshaft journals and bearings when engine rpm
exceeds safe limits.

Another limitation on an engine's maximum rotational speed is propeller tip speed. In order to efficiently produce thrust, the tip speed of a propeller
blade must not exceed the speed of sound. If you
recall, the further from the propeller hub a point is,
the faster that point moves through the air.
Therefore, engines that operate at high rpm's must
either be fitted with short propeller blades or some
form of propeller reduction gearing. Reduction gears
allow an engine to turn at higher speeds to produce

Reciprocating Engines

1-48

Figure 1-70. Aircraft engines operate most efficiently

around 2,400 rpm. Below 2,400 rpm an engine is not developing as much power as it is capable of for the amount of
fuel it is using. On the other hand, above 2,400 rpm, friction
horsepower increases, causing an overall drop in brake
horsepower. As shown by the lower curve, a typical engine
requires about 0.51 pounds of fuel per hour for each horsepower it produces at 2,400 rpm.

ALTITUDE

Figure 1-69. As this figure illustrates, a propelleris speed is

highest at the blade tips. If you recall from Section A, when
propeller tip speeds exceed the speed of sound, propeller
efficiency drops.

more power while the propeller rotates at a slower,

more efficient speed. [Figure 1-69]
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

An engine's specific fuel consumption is the number of pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce
one horsepower. For example, if an engine burns 12
gallons per hour while producing 180 brake horsepower, the brake specific fuel consumption is .4
pounds per horsepower hour. Most modern aircraft
reciprocating engines have a brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) that is between .4 and .5 pounds
per horsepower hour. While not actually a measure
of power, specific fuel consumption is useful for
comparing engine efficiencies.
An engine's specific fuel consumption varies with
several factors including: engine speed, engine
design, volumetric efficiency, and friction losses. The
best specific fuel consumption for most engines
occurs at a cruise power setting when producing
approximately 75 percent power. The amount an
engine's specific fuel consumption varies with
engine rpm can be illustrated in a chart. [Figure 1-70]

As an aircraft climbs, ambient air pressure drops

and air density decreases. Density altitude is a term
that describes the density of the air at a given altitude corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature. Any time an aircraft engine operates at a
density altitude that is higher than sea level, less air
is drawn into the engine for combustion. Whenever
less air is available for combustion, engine power
output decreases.
Even though the actual, or true altitude at a location
does not change, density altitude can change constantly. For example, on a hot day as the air heats
and pressure drops, air becomes less dense, causing
the density altitude to increase. One way to overcome the problems associated with high density
altitudes is by turbocharging an engine.
Turbocharging increases the induction air pressure
above atmospheric pressure which, in turn,
increases the density of the fuel/air charge entering
the cylinders.
FUEL/AIR RATIO

Gasoline and other liquid fuels must be converted

from their liquid state to a vapor before they will
burn. In addition, the ratio of fuel vapor to oxygen
in the air must be chemically correct for complete
combustion. A stoichiometric mixture is a perfectly
balanced fuel/air mixture of 15 parts of air to 1 part
of fuel, by weight. A fuel/air mixture that is leaner
than 15:1 has less fuel in the fuel/air mixture, while
a rich mixture has more fuel. Combustible fuel/air
ratios range from 8:1 to 18:1.

Reciprocating Engines

Mixture controls allow adjustment of the fuel/air

ratio from idle cut-off to full rich conditions. Leaning
raises engine operating temperatures while enriching provides a cooling effect. Leaning becomes necessary as altitude increases, because air density
drops, causing the fuel/air ratio to gradually become
richer. Best power mixture develops maximum
power at a particular rpm and is typically used during takeoff. Best economy mixture provides the best
specific fuel consumption which results in an aircraft's maximum range and optimum fuel economy.
DISTRIBUTION OF POWER

1-49

by an engine must be converted into thrust. Since a

propeller converts only about 90% of the torque it
receives into thrust, the actual thrust horsepower
delivered by the propeller is 180 horsepower. Thrust
horsepower represents the actual horsepower developed by the thrust of the propeller. [Figure 1-71]
POWER CURVES

Most engine manufacturers produce a set of power

curves for each engine they build. These charts
show the power developed for each rpm as well as
indicate the specific fuel consumption at each
power setting. [Figure 1-72]

When considering the amount of power that is available in aviation gasoline compared to the amount of
power that is actually delivered to the propeller
shaft, you can easily see that an aircraft engine is a
fairly inefficient machine. For example, a typical six
cylinder engine develops 200 brake horsepower
when burning 14 gallons of fuel per hour. However,
the burning fuel releases enough heat energy to produce 667 horsepower. When you examine the distribution of power you will see that 200 of the 667
horsepower is delivered to the propeller while
approximately 33 horsepower is used to turn the
engine and compress the air in the cylinders. In
addition, an equivalent of about 434 horsepower is
lost to the air through the cooling and exhaust systems. The power loss continues when power is
delivered to the propeller, because in order to propel an aircraft through the air, the torque produced

Figure 1-71. The distribution of power in 14 gallons of aviation gasoline when consumed by a typical 200 bhp engine.

Figure 1-72. This figure illustrates a typical power curve for

a four-cylinder aircraft engine. The upper curve shows the
maximum amount of power produced at full throttle on a
dynamometer. The diagonal power curve represents the
amount of horsepower produced with less than full throttle.
The two bottom curves represent the specific fuel consumptions for full throttle operations and propeller load
conditions. To use this chart, let's assume you have an
engine operating at a cruise power setting of 2,400 rpm
(item 1). At this power setting, the specific fuel consumption is 0.51 LB/BHP/HR (item 2), and the engine produces
118 brake horsepower (item 3). By multiplying the specific
fuel consumption by the brake horsepower, you can determine the engine's fuel consumption of 60.18 pounds per
hour (.51 x 118 = 60.18).

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
OPERATION, MAINTENANCE,
INSPECTION, AND OVERHAUL

INTRODUCTION
As a powerplant technician, you must be able to operate, maintain, inspect, and overhaul aircraft engines.
Performing those tasks requires you to develop the ability to determine when an engine is running normally and
when engine performance is deteriorating. In addition, you must acquire the knowledge to effectively troubleshoot
engine problems, then perform the necessary repair work. Furthermore, you are required to be proficient in special skills and processes that are commonly used during an engine overhaul. Therefore, the following information
is provided as a foundation to your future experiences in the operation, maintenance, inspection, and overhaul of
reciprocating engines.

ENGINE OPERATION, MAINTENANCE,

AND INSPECTION
ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION

OPERATION
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must be
thoroughly familiar with the procedures for operating a reciprocating engine from the cockpit. This
includes understanding the engine instrumentation,
ground run procedures, and safety items associated
with starting and running an aircraft engine. A good
place to begin is with the location and movement of
the engine controls. To aid in this process, all modern aircraft are equipped with standardized engine
controls. [Figure 2-1]
Once you are familiar with the engine controls, you
should locate each of the engine instruments. In
addition, you should locate and read all placards
and other markings on or near the instruments.
Important engine operating information is displayed
by the engine instruments and must be monitored
continuously during an engine run. Therefore, you,
as an engine operator, must be skilled in the interpretation of instrument readings to prevent engine
damage.

A basic understanding of how engine instruments

work is an important part of the knowledge you
must have as an engine operator and troubleshooter.
Part of this knowledge includes knowing how to
interpret the instrument markings so you can comprehend how an engine is performing. Instrument
markings establish operational ranges as well as
minimum and maximum limits. In addition, the
markings allow you to distinguish between normal
operation, time limited operation, and unauthorized
operating conditions. Engine instrument range
markings are based on limits found in the engine's
Type Certificate Data Sheet. Traditionally, instrument markings consist of green, blue, yellow, and
red lines or arcs and intermediate blank spaces.
Green arcs are the most widely used of all the
instrument markings and usually indicate a safe, or
normal range of operation. Usually, the upper end of
a green arc indicates the maximum limit for continuous operation while the low end indicates the min-

Figure 2-1. For standardization purposes, the primary engine controls are arranged from left to right beginning with the throttle,
propeller control, and mixture. In addition, each lever is color coded and uniquely shaped.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

imum limit for continuous operation. Operation

within a green arc is typically not time restricted.
Blue arcs are used to indicate an allowable range of
operations under a unique set of circumstances. For
example, a blue arc may indicate an acceptable fuel
flow when flying above a specific altitude. Blue arcs
are rarely used and may only be seen on certain
engine instruments, such as the tachometer, fuel
flow, manifold pressure, cylinder head temperature,
or torque meter.
A yellow arc indicates a precautionary range of time
limited operation permitted by the manufacturer.
However, in some cases, a yellow arc may be
omitted on instruments if it is too small to be clearly
visible. When this is the case, the manufacturer's
instructions will specify a caution range. Engine
operation in the yellow arc is typically an indication of an impending problem or a warning to
change an operational setting.
A red line indicates a maximum or minimum safe
operating limit. Operation beyond a red line typically results in a dangerous operating condition. In
addition, other limits of a transient or momentary
nature may be indicated by a red triangle, dot, or
diamond mark. A red arc, on the other hand, indicates a restricted operating range where excessive
vibration or other stresses could endanger the
engine or airframe.

2-3

CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE

Carburetor air temperature (CAT) is measured at the

carburetor entrance by a temperature sensing bulb
in the ram air intake duct. The sensing bulb senses
the air temperature in the carburetor and then sends
a signal to a cockpit instrument that is calibrated in
degrees Centigrade. The primary purpose of a CAT
gauge is to inform a pilot when the temperature at
the carburetor can support the formation of ice.
[Figure 2-2]
In addition to identifying the conditions necessary
for the formation of ice, excessively high carburetor
air temperatures can indicate the onset of detonation. For example, if a CAT gauge has a red line
identifying a maximum operating temperature,
engine operation above that temperature increases
the chance of detonation occurring.
Observation of the CAT before engine startup and
just after shutdown provides an indication of fuel
temperature in the carburetor body. During startup,
this information can be used to determine if the fuel
is warm enough to support vaporization. On the
other hand, a high CAT after engine shutdown is a
warning that fuel trapped in a pressure-type carburetor could expand and produce potentially damaging fuel pressures. High CAT temperatures after
shutdown can also indicate the onset of vapor lock,
which is the formation of vaporized fuel bubbles in
a fuel line that interfere with the flow of fuel to the
engine. Any time high CAT readings are observed
after shutdown, the fuel selector valve and throttle

The colored arcs and lines on engine instruments

are typically painted directly on the instrument
face. However, some older aircraft instrument markings may be painted on the instrument glass. If this
is the case, a white line is used as an index mark
between the instrument glass and case. Any discontinuity in the white radial line indicates the instrument glass has moved. Since misalignment between
the glass and case renders the instrument range and
limit markings inaccurate and unreliable, the glass
must be repositioned and secured.
Now that you understand how to interpret the markings on engine instruments, the following discussion looks at some of the typical instruments found
on reciprocating engine powered aircraft. As each
instrument is discussed, it is important to keep in
mind that the performance limits of individual
engine models vary considerably. Therefore, the
procedures and operational ranges that are used in
this section do not necessarily correspond to any
specific engine.

Figure 2-2. The carburetor air temperature gauge depicted

above indicates that the danger of induction system icing
exists when the temperature is between - 15 to + 5

2-4

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

should be left open until the engine cools. This

helps relieve fuel pressure by allowing expanding
fuel to return to the tank.
Information provided by CAT gauges can also be
useful in troubleshooting. For example, if severe
enough, backfiring may cause a momentary rise in
CAT. On the other hand, an induction fire would be
indicated by a steady increase in CAT readings.
FUEL PRESSURE

Some engines have a fuel pressure gauge that displays the pressure of fuel supplied to the carburetor
or fuel control unit. Most fuel pressure instruments
display fuel pressure in pounds per square inch (psi),
and provide indications to the pilot that the engine is
receiving the fuel needed for a given power setting. A
pilot also uses fuel pressure gauges to verify the operation of an auxiliary fuel pump. [Figure 2-3]
One type of fuel pressure gauge uses a Bourdon tube
which is a metal tube that is formed in a circular
shape with a flattened cross section. One end of the
tube is open, while the other end is sealed. The open
end of the Bourdon tube is connected to a capillary
tube containing pressurized fuel. As the pressurized
fuel enters the Bourdon tube, the tube tends to
straighten. Through a series of gears, this movement

Figure 2-3. The top fuel pressure gauge is typical for an

engine equipped with a float type carburetor. Notice the
minimum fuel pressure of approximately 0.5 psi and the
maximum of approximately 8 psi. However, the bottom fuel
pressure is mr e typical for engines equipped with a fuel
injection system.

Figure 2-4. As pressurized fuel enters a Bourdon tube, the

tube straightens and causes an indicator needle to move.
Since the amount a Bourdon tube straightens is proportional to the pressure applied, they are often used to indicate pressure.

is used to move an indicating needle on the instrument face. [Figure 2-4]

Another type of fuel pressure indicator utilizes a
pressure capsule, or diaphragm. Like the Bourdon
tube, a diaphragm type pressure indicator is
attached to a capillary tube, which attaches to the
fuel system and carries pressurized fuel to the
diaphragm. As the diaphragm becomes pressurized,
it expands, causing an indicator needle to rotate.
[Figure 2-5]
,-,

Figure 2-5. Pressure applied internally to a diaphragm

causes it to expand, thereby causing rotation of a sector
gear. The sector gear, in turn, rotates a pinion gear which is
attached to a pointer on a common shaft.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

A third type of fuel pressure indicator uses a bellows that is attached to a capillary tube. The advantage of bellows over a Bourdon tube or diaphragm is
its ability to provide a greater range of motion. The
bellows inside the instrument case expands and
moves an indicator needle as the fuel pressure
increases. [Figure 2-6]
Electric fuel pressure indicating systems are used
when the distances between the engine and cockpit
become prohibitive for the use of capillary tubing.
Another reason for using electric fuel pressure indicators is to avoid bringing fuel into the cockpit.
Aircraft with electric fuel pressure indicating systems typically use pressure sensors, or transducers,
that transmit electrical signals proportional to the
fuel pressure to the cockpit. An electric fuel pressure gauge in the cockpit receives the signals and
displays fuel pressure information.
On aircraft with direct fuel injection or
continuous-flow fuel injection systems, fuel
pressure is measured as a pressure drop across
the injection nozzles. The pressure drop at the
nozzles is proportional .to the amount of fuel
being supplied to the engine as well as engine
power output. Therefore, the gauges in this type of
fuel pressure indication system may also be
calibrated in percentages of power as well as psi.

Figure 2-6. A bellows offers the advantage of a greater

range of motion than a Bourdon tube or diaphragm and,
therefore, is sometimes used with aircraft.

2-5

FUEL FLOW INDICATOR

A fuel flow indicator measures the rate of fuel an

engine burns in gallons per hour or pounds per
hour. This provides the most accurate indication of
an engine's fuel consumption. In addition, when
combined with other instrument indications, the
amount of fuel an engine burns can be used to determine the power settings necessary to obtain maximum power, speed, range, or economy. [Figure 2-7]
On aircraft with a continuous-flow fuel injection
system, the fuel flow indicator measures the pressure drop across the fuel injection nozzles to determine fuel flow. This can be done because, as you
recall, fuel pressure in a direct fuel injection system
is proportional to fuel flow. With this type of system, a higher fuel flow produces a greater pressure
differential across the injectors, and a corresponding increase in fuel flow is indicated in the cockpit.
However, if an injector nozzle becomes clogged, the
pressure differential across that nozzle increases,
producing a false, or high fuel flow reading.
Another type of fuel flow measurement system
measures the volume of fuel flowing to an engine.
This type of system is commonly referred to as an
autosyn system and incorporates a movable vane
that is in the fuel line leading to the engine. As fuel
flows through the fuel line, the vane is displaced an
amount proportional to the fuel flow. A spring force
opposes the fuel flow and returns the vane to neutral when no fuel is flowing. The vane movement is

Figure 2-7. A typic

jlays the number
of gallons or pounds per hour an engine consumes. In the
fuel flow gauge above, normal fuel flow is from 4.5 to 11.5
gallons per hour.

2-6

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

MANIFOLD PRESSURE

electrically transmitted to the flow indicator in the

cockpit where an indicator needle indicates the
fuel flow.
The movement of the vane must he linear to get an
accurate flow measurement. To do this, the restriction created by the vane must get larger as the vane
increases its rotation. This increase is calibrated into
the design of the flowmeter sender unit.
Because the volume of jet fuel changes dramatically
with temperature, the fuel flow on several turbine
engines is measured in terms of mass rather than
volume. A typical mass flow system works on the
magnesyn principle. The system consists of two
cylinders, an impeller, and a turbine which are
mounted in the main fuel line leading to the engine.
The impeller is driven at a constant speed by a
three-phase motor which is powered by the aircraft
electrical system. The impeller imparts an angular
swirling motion to the fuel as it proceeds to the turbine. As the fuel impacts the turbine, the turbine
rotates until a calibrated restraining spring force
balances the rotational force. The deflection of the
turbine positions a permanent magnet in a transmitter to a position corresponding to the fuel flow
in the line. The position of the permanent magnet is
then transmitted electrically to a permanent magnet
in a receiver which positions the indicator needle
in the cockpit. This system is by far the most accurate means of monitoring fuel flow because it
accounts for changes in fuel viscosity and volume
caused by changes in temperature.
In addition to a fuel flow gauge, some aircraft are
equipped with fuel totalizers. A computerized fuel
system (CFS) with a fuel totalizer is used in both
reciprocating and turbine engine aircraft and provides a pilot with a digital readout on the amount of
fuel used, fuel remaining, current rate of fuel consumption, and the time remaining for flight at the
current power setting. Early totalizers were mechanical counters that responded to electric pulses, however, new systems utilize electronic counters with
digital readouts. Totalizer indicators are usually
mounted on the instrument panel and are electrically connected to a flowmeter installed in the fuel
line to the engine. When the aircraft is serviced with
fuel, the counter is set to the total amount of fuel in
all tanks. As the fuel passes through the metering
element of the flowmeter, it sends a signal to the
microprocessor that automatically calculates the
amount of fuel remaining.

A manifold absolute pressure (MAP) gauge measures the absolute pressure of the fuel/air mixture
within the intake manifold. A MAP gauge is used on
all aircraft that have a constant-speed propeller to
indicate engine power output. Since MAP directly
affects a cylinder's mean effective pressure (mep), a
pilot uses MAP gauge indications to set the engine
power at a pressure level that will not damage the
engine. This is especially true for aircraft with
tur-bocharged engines because it helps the pilot
to avoid excessive manifold pressure. [Figure 2-8]
Before an engine is started, the manifold pressure
gauge displays the local ambient, or atmosphere
pressure. However, once the engine is started, the
manifold pressure drops significantly, sometimes to
half the existing ambient air pressure. At full power,
the manifold pressure in normally aspirated engines
will not exceed ambient pressure, however, in
tur-bocharged engines the manifold pressure
can exceed ambient pressure.
A manifold pressure gauge consists of a sealed
diaphragm constructed from two discs of concentrically corrugated thin metal which are soldered
together at the edges to form a chamber. The chamber is evacuated, creating a partial vacuum which
can be used as a reference point to measure absolute
pressure. Depending on the type of gauge,
the

Figure 2-8. A manifold absolute pressure gauge displays

absolute air pressure in the engine's intake manifold in
inches of mercury. The green arc indicates the normal operating range and the red line shows the maximum allowable
manifold pressure.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-7

engine manifold pressure is either applied to the

inside of the diaphragm or to the outside of the
diaphragm. If the engine manifold pressure is
applied to the outside of the diaphragm, the instrument case must be completely sealed. In either case,
when pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the
diaphragm movement is transmitted to an indicator
pointer through mechanical linkage.
Another manifold pressure gauge uses a series of
stacked diaphragms or bellows which are particularly useful for measuring low or negative pressures.
In a MAP gauge, one of the bellows measures ambient atmospheric pressure while the other measures
pressure in the intake manifold. Differential pressure between the two bellows causes motion, which
is transmitted to the gauge pointer through a
mechanical linkage. Regardless of which type of
sealed chamber exists in the instrument, the pressure line from the manifold to the instrument case
must contain a restriction to prevent pressure surges
from damaging the instrument. In addition, the
restriction causes a slight delay in gauge response to
changes in manifold pressure, preventing jumpy or
erratic instrument pointer motion. [Figure 2-9]

pen, and the gauge continues to indicate atmospheric pressure, the sense line between the instrument and induction manifold may be disconnected,
broken, or collapsed. When engine power is
increased, the manifold pressure should increase
evenly and in proportion to the engine power output. If this does not occur, the restriction in the
sense line is probably too large.

Some aircraft instrument installations provide a

purge valve that allows you to purge moisture that
collects in the pressure line near the MAP gauge.
With the engine running at idle, the purge valve is
opened for 30 seconds or more, then closed. When
this is done, the engine's vacuum creates a strong
suction through the purge valve which effectively
removes the moisture from the pressure line.

The oil temperature gauge allows a pilot to monitor

the temperature of the oil entering the engine. This is
important because oil circulation cools the engine as
it lubricates the moving parts. Most oil temperature
gauges are calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit and sense
oil temperature at the engine's oil inlet. [Figure 2-10]

Whenever you run an engine with a manifold pressure gauge, you should check the gauge for proper
operation. For example, before the engine is started,
the MAP gauge should indicate the local atmospheric pressure. However, once the engine is
started, the MAP should drop. If this does not hap-

Figure 2-9. The differential pressure bellows of a manifold

pressure gauge measures the difference between intake
manifold pressure and a partial vacuum.

Figure 2-10. The green arc between 75 and 245 on this

oil temperature instrument shows the desired oil temperature range for continuous operation. The red line is located
at 245 and indicates the maximum permissible oil temperature.

OIL TEMPERATURE

Most modern oil temperature systems are electrically

operated and use either a Wheatstone bridge circuit or a
ratiometer circuit. A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists
of three fixed resistors and one variable resistor whose
resistance varies with temperature. [Figure 2-11]

Figure 2-11. A typical Wheatstone bridge has three fixed

resistors and one variable resistor. The temperature probe
contains the variable resistor, whose resistance varies with
the temperature of the oil flowing past the probe. The
bridge in the circuit consists of a galvanometer that is calibrated in degrees to indicate temperature.

2-8

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and all four resistances are equal, no difference
in potential exists between the bridge junctions.
However, when the variable resistor is exposed to
heat, its resistance increases, causing more current
to flow through the fixed resistor R3 than the variable resistor. The disproportionate current flow produces a voltage differential between the bridge
junctions, causing current to flow through the galvanometer indicator. The greater the voltage differential, the greater the current flow through the
indicator and the greater the needle deflection.
Since indicator current flow is directly proportional
to the oil temperature, an indicator calibrated in
degrees provides an accurate means of registering
oil temperature.
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is
more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge, especially
when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple
ratiometer circuit consists of two parallel branches
powered by the aircraft electrical system. One
branch consists of a fixed resistor and coil, and the
other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil.
The two coils are wound on a rotor that pivots
between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a
meter movement in the gauge. [Figure 2-12]
The shape of the permanent magnet provides a
larger air gap between the magnet and coils at the
bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density,
or magnetic field, is progressively stronger from the
bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow
through each coil creates an electromagnet that
reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet,
creating torque that repositions the rotor until the

magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of

the temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal,
current flow through each coil is the same and the
indicator pointer remains in the center position.
However, if the probe temperature increases, its
resistance also increases, causing a decrease in current through the temperature sensing branch.
Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the temperature sensing branch decreases, creating an
imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each
coil reaches a null, or balance. The pointer attached
to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature.
Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are
especially useful in applications where accuracy is
critical or large variations of supply voltages are
encountered. Therefore, a ratiometer circuit type oil
temperature sensing system is generally preferred
over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and
engine manufacturers.
Some older oil temperature gauges used a vapor
pressure, or Bourdon tube type instrument. With
this type of instrument, a Bourdon tube is connected
by a capillary tube to a liquid filled temperature
sensing bulb. The bulb is installed in the engine's
oil inlet line where the volatile liquid in the bulb is
heated by the oil. As the liquid in the sensing bulb
heats up, the capillary and Bourdon tubes also heat
up. This causes the vapor pressure within the capillary and Bourdon tubes to increase, which, in turn,
causes the Bourdon tube to straighten. The motion
of the Bourdon tube is then transmitted to an indicator through a mechanical linkage.
OIL PRESSURE

The engine lubrication system supplies oil under

pressure to the moving parts of the engine. To allow
a pilot to monitor the effectiveness of a given lubrication system, all aircraft engines are equipped with
an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in pounds
per square inch. Since inadequate oil pressure can
lead to oil starvation in engine bearings and excessive pressure can rupture gaskets and seals, the oil
pressure in most reciprocating engines is typically
regulated over a fairly narrow operating range.
[Figure 2-13]

Figure 2-12. A ratiometer temperature measuring system

operates with two circuit branches that balance electromagnetic forces. One branch contains a coil and fixed resistor while the other contains a coil and variable resistor,
located in the temperature sensing probe. The coils are
wound on a rotor which pivots in the center of a permanent
magnet air gap.

Many oil pressure gauges utilize a Bourdon tube

because its design enables the gauge to measure relatively high fluid pressures. The gauge is connected
by a metal tube directly to a point immediately
downstream from the engine oil pump. Therefore,
an oil pressure gauge measures the oil pressure
being delivered to the engine. To protect the gauge

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-9

Figure 2-13. The oil pressure limits of 25 psi minimum and

90 psi maximum on this gauge are representative of a typical small aircraft engine. The normal operating range of 60
to 90 psi ensures enough oil pressure to protect bearing surfaces without rupturing engine seals and gaskets.

Figure 2-14. A typical cylinder head temperature gauge consists of a relatively large green arc and a single red line. The
instrument above has a normal operating range that begins
at 200and peaks at a red line of 475.

from occasional pressure surges, most gauges have a

small restriction at their inlet. In addition, most fittings that attach the oil line to the engine also have a
small restriction to limit oil loss in the event the oil
line breaks.

CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE

One disadvantage of this type of oil pressure indicating system is that it does not work well in cold
weather because the oil in the line between the
engine and cockpit gauge tends to congeal. The congealed oil then causes false readings of either low or
no oil pressure. This error can be minimized by filling the oil line with a very light oil.
The trend in larger more modern aircraft is to
replace Bourdon tube pressure instruments with
electrical transmitters. This allows long oil filled
lines between engines and instruments to be
replaced with lightweight wire. In addition to saving weight, electrical transmitters also provide
greater accuracy.
Oil pressure instrument readings are a critical indicator of engine operation and should be monitored
frequently, especially during engine starts. For
example, some aircraft manuals caution you to shut
down an engine after 30 seconds in warm weather
or one minute in extremely cold weather if no sign
of oil pressure is present. Engine shutdown in this
case is a precaution taken to prevent possible damage to an engine until the reason for lack of oil pressure can be determined. On the other hand,
excessive pointer oscillation typically indicates that
air is trapped in the oil line leading to the instrument or that some unit in the oil system is functioning improperly. In addition, low oil pressure or
fluctuations from zero to normal are often signs of
low oil quantity.

The engine temperature can have a dramatic impact

on engine performance. Therefore, most reciprocating engine powered aircraft are equipped with a
cylinder head temperature (CHT) gauge that allows a
pilot to monitor engine temperatures. [Figure 2-14]
Most cylinder head temperature gauges are galvanometer-type meters that display temperatures in
degrees Fahrenheit. If you recall from your study of
electricity, a galvanometer measures the amount of
electrical current produced by a thermocouple. A
thermocouple is a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metal wires connected together at two junctions
to form a loop. Anytime a temperature difference
exists between the two junctions, a small electrical
current is generated that is proportional to the temperature difference and measurable by the galvanometer. Typical dissimilar metal combinations
used are iron and constantan, or chromel and
alumel. Since a thermocouple generates its own
electrical current, it is capable of operating independent of aircraft power.
The two junctions of a thermocouple circuit are
commonly referred to as a hot junction and a cold
junction. The hot junction is installed in the cylinder head in one of two ways; the two dissimilar
wires may be joined inside a bayonet probe which is
then inserted into a special well in the top or rear of
the hottest cylinder, or the wires may be imbedded
in a special copper spark plug gasket. The cold junction, or reference junction, on the other hand, is typically located in the instrument case.
Thermocouple instrument systems are polarized
and extremely sensitive to resistance changes
within their electrical circuits. Therefore, several
precautions must be observed when replacing or

2-70

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

repairing them. First, be sure to observe all

color-coding and polarity markings because
accidentally reversing the wires causes the meter
to move off-scale on the zero side. In addition,
ensure that all electrical connections are clean and
torqued to the correct value.
Thermocouple wiring leads are typically supplied
in matched pairs and secured together by a common
braid. Furthermore, the leads are a specified length,
matched to the system to provide accurate temperature indications. The length of the leads cannot be
altered because doing so changes their resistance. In
some cases, the wiring leads are permanently
attached to a thermocouple, necessitating the
replacement of the entire wiring harness and thermocouple if a wire breaks or becomes damaged.
Simple CHT systems use a single indicator that
monitors the hottest cylinder. With this type of system, overall engine temperature must be interpreted
in a general way. There are, however, more complex
systems which monitor each cylinder and can be set
to warn you when a cylinder approaches its maximum temperature limit.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE

Another performance monitoring instrument often

used in reciprocating engine installations is the
exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge. An EGT gauge
measures the temperature of the exhaust at some
point past the exhaust port. Since the fuel/air mixture setting has a direct effect on the combustion
temperature, a pilot can use an EGT gauge to obtain

the best mixture setting for fuel efficiency. A typical

EGT gauge is calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit with
25divisions. [Figure 2-15]
Like the cylinder head temperature gauge, EGT
gauges also use thermocouples to sense temperature. However, the thermocouple wiring for an EGT
is usually made from alumel and chromel. Alumel
is typically used as the negative lead, and is
enclosed in green insulation, while chromel is the
positive lead and is normally enclosed in white
insulation. The hot junction of an EGT thermocouple is usually mounted somewhere on the exhaust
manifold and is directly exposed to the exhaust gas
stream. The cold junction, on the other hand, is
located in the instrument case.
EGT readings are commonly used to set the fuel/air
mixture for best economy and best power settings.
For example, leaning the fuel/air mixture to obtain a
peak EGT value indicates a mixture that results in
best economy and maximum endurance. However,
most engine manufacturers caution against continuous operation at peak EGT with high power settings.
Depending on the engine manufacturer's instructions, a common method of setting best power is to
adjust the mixture to peak EGT, then enrichen it to
approximately 25cooler than peak EGT.
ENGINE ANALYZERS

Many reciprocating engine-powered aircraft utilize

some form of analyzer to monitor engine performance. Cylinder head temperature gauges and
exhaust gas temperature gauges are used as simple
engine analyzers. A more complex form of engine
analyzer is known as an exhaust gas analyzer
(EGA). An exhaust gas analyzer operates like automotive tailpipe emissions testers in that it samples
an engine's exhaust gas and analyzes its chemical
composition. From the information provided by an
analyzer, a pilot can adjust the mixture for the most
efficient operation.
It is often difficult to detect small changes on engine
instrument indications, yet it is critical for a pilot to
know if a system is operating abnormally. Therefore,
in addition to an engine analyzer, many larger aircraft may be equipped with a system of annunciator
lights to attract the operator's attention when a
gauge indication leaves its normal range.
TACHOMETER

Figure 2-15. The fuel/air mixture can be set for best fuel efficiency by using an EGT gauge and following the aircraft
checklist instructions.

An engine's crankshaft rpm is displayed by a

tachometer that is calibrated in hundreds of rpm.
The tachometer is a primary engine instrument used
extensively by a pilot to monitor engine condition

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-11

Figure 2-17. A mechanical tachometer consists of a set of

flyweights driven by a flexible shaft attached to the engine.
The outward movement of the flyweights is transferred to
the pointer and is proportional to the engine's speed.

Figure 2-16. The tachometer is a primary engine instrument

which provides engine rpm indications. A typical tachometer instrument face is calibrated in hundreds of rpm and has
both a green arc and red line.

and verify that the engine is developing the appropriate rpm and power output for a given throttle setting. Most tachometers are divided into 100 rpm
increments and have a red line that indicates a maximum rpm setting. [Figure 2-16]
There are four common types of tachometers;
mechanical, magnetic, electric, and electronic.
Mechanical tachometers were used on early aircraft
and consisted of a set of flyweights driven by a flexible drive shaft through a set of gears. The flexible
shaft extends from the instrument to the engine
where it attaches to a drive gear in the engine. As
the drive shaft rotates the flyweights in the instrument, centrifugal force pulls the flyweights outward. This outward movement is transferred to a
pointer through a gear mechanism. [Figure 2-17]

tachometers were developed so instrument wiring

could be used in place of a drive shaft. A typical
three phase AC electric tachometer system consists
of a two or four-pole generator, sometimes referred
to as a tachometer generator, or tach generator,
mounted on the engine accessory case and a synchronous motor inside the indicator. As the engine
runs, the tach generator produces an AC voltage
with a frequency that is directly proportional to
engine rpm. The AC voltage produced drives the
synchronous motor in the indicator, causing it to
turn at the same speed as the generator. The synchronous motor spins a magnet and drag
cup

Magnetic tachometers also utilize a flexible drive

shaft, however, a cylindrical magnet inside a drag
cup takes the place of flyweights. As the drive shaft
rotates the magnet inside the drag cup, electromagnetic forces are produced which cause the drag cup
to rotate in the same direction as the magnet.
However, the drag cup is attached to a spring which
opposes the magnetic force of the rotating magnet
and allows the cup to rotate an amount proportional
to the rotational speed of the magnet. [Figure 2-18]
When a flexible drive shaft is used to operate a
tachometer, the distance between the engine and
cockpit is a limiting factor. For this reason, electric

Figure 2-18. Magnetic tachometers utilize a rotating permanent magnet and drag cup to provide rpm indications.
Electromagnetic forces generated by the spinning magnet
are balanced by a spring attached to the drag cup.

2-72

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Figure 2-19. A typical electric tachometer consists of a three phase AC generator mounted on the engine accessory case and a
synchronous motor in the indicator. The tach generator is driven by the accessory gearing in a running engine and produces an
AC voltage at a frequency directly proportional to engine rpm. The synchronous motor in the indicator is, in turn, driven by the
AC voltage from the tach generator at the same speed, or frequency. The motor spins a drag cup assembly to move the instrument pointer.

assembly similar to that of the magnetic tachometer

to provide rpm indications. [Figure 2-19]
Electronic tachometers, on the other hand, produce
engine rpm indications by counting electric pulses
from the magneto ignition system. A special pair of
breaker points in one of the engine magnetos sends
pulses to a module which uses digital circuitry to
convert the pulses to a voltage for powering the
tachometer instrument in the cockpit. As engine
rpm increases, pulse frequency and voltage
increase, causing the meter movement to register
increasing rpm.
A simple electronic tachometer is installed with two
electrical connections; one connection to ground
and one to a magneto. This type of system depends
on magneto pulses strong enough to operate the
instrument without amplification. A more complex
version of the electronic tachometer has an internal
solid state amplifier which requires a third connection for 12 volt power from the aircraft electrical system. The internal amplifier amplifies weak magneto
pulses and provides a uniform pulse voltage to the
digital counter circuitry.
On multi-engine aircraft, each engine may have a
separate tachometer or a single tach may be used for
both engines. If a single tach is used, the indicating
needle for the right engine is identified by an "R"
while the indicating needle for the left engine is
identified by an "L." [Figure 2-20].

FAR Part 27 Airworthiness standards, on the other

hand, require that all helicopters have at least two
tachometer systems. One tachometer indicates
engine rpm, while the second tachometer provides
main rotor rpm.
SUCTION GAUGE
The suction gauge is not officially classified as an
engine instrument since it does not indicate any
engine performance information. However, as an aviation maintenance technician, you will refer to the
suction gauge to adjust the suction regulator and to
verify the operation of the vacuum pump. Most suction gauges are calibrated in inches of mercury and
represent a reductionin pressure below atmospheric
pressure. The normal operating range on a typical
suction gauge is between 3 and 6 inches of mercury.
INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
As an aviation maintenance technician, there is little you can do in terms of making repairs to engine
instruments. However, you can do some basic
pre-ventative maintenance that does not require
you to disassemble an instrument. For example,
tachometers that are mechanically driven with
flexible drive shafts require periodic maintenance
to prevent erratic indications. The drive shaft
must be lubricated with an approved lubricant
such as graphite. In addition, the hardware that
attaches the drive shaft to the instrument, airframe,
and engine should be secure. The drive shaft should
be installed away from excessive heat or fluids
without sharp bends or

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-13

pointer that will not zero out must be corrected by

an approved repair station. In this case, all you can
do as a technician is remove and replace the defective instrument.
GROUND OPERATIONS

Figure 2-20. Multi-engine aircraft are sometimes equipped

with a single tachometer that provides rpm indications for
both engines. The needle with an "R" represents the right
engine while the needle with an "L" represents the left
engine.

kinks, and should not impose any strain on the

instrument. In addition, the drive shaft should be
secured at frequent intervals to prevent whipping,
which causes pointer oscillation.
Electric and electronic tachometer installations
must be checked periodically to be sure the tach
generators and instruments are securely mounted
and do not vibrate when the engine is running.
Furthermore, the tachometer electrical wiring
should be properly laced and clamped to prevent
chafing caused by vibration and looseness. In addition, verify that the wiring bundle is not under tension from being clamped too tightly and is protected
from corrosive fluids and excessive heat.
During a 100-hour or annual inspection, FAR Part
43 Appendix D requires you to check the instruments for poor condition, mounting, marking, and
improper operation. As an A&P technician, you can
correct minor discrepancies on instruments such as
tightening mount screws and B nuts, repairing
chipped paint on the instrument case, or replacing
range markings on a glass instrument face. Chipped
paint on the case is a cosmetic flaw that has no bearing on the proper operation of the instrument, therefore the instrument is serviceable and does not
require immediate correction. However, any discrepancy that requires opening the instrument case
such as a cracked or fogged glass, loose pointer, or

Conducting an engine runup is a ground operation

that can present a safety hazard to personnel and
can damage an aircraft and surrounding equipment.
Therefore, certain precautions must be taken. For
example, all engine runups should be conducted in
an area specifically designated for that purpose.
Furthermore, the aircraft should be positioned on a
clean level surface and aimed so the blast from the
propeller does not blow dirt into any hangar or onto
another aircraft. Rather than relying solely on the
aircraft's brakes, chock the wheels securely, or tie
the aircraft down to prevent movement during
engine power checks.
Ground service equipment such as auxiliary power
carts or hydraulic service units should be positioned
well away from the propeller arc with their wheels
chocked and brakes set. In addition, adequate fire
protection should be stationed nearby, being certain
that personnel and fire extinguishers are well clear
of the propeller area. Furthermore, a reliable means
of communication between the engine operator and
ground personnel should be established.
HYDRAULIC LOCK

Hydraulic lock is a condition that can develop in a

radial engine after shutdown, where oil or liquid
fuel accumulates and pools in the lower cylinders,
or lower intake pipes. Since fluids are not compressible, any attempt to start an engine with
hydraulic lock can cause severe damage to the piston, connecting rod, valves, or cylinder. Therefore,
before attempting to start any radial engine that has
been shut down for more than 30 minutes, you
should check for hydraulic lock. To do this, make
sure the ignition switches are "off," then pull the
propeller through in the direction of rotation a minimum of two complete revolutions. Any liquid present in a cylinder will be indicated by an abnormal
amount of effort required to rotate the propeller.
To eliminate a hydraulic lock, remove either the
front or rear spark plug and pull the propeller
through in the direction of rotation, allowing the
piston to expel any liquid that is present. Never
attempt to clear the hydraulic lock by pulling the
propeller through in the opposite direction
of

2-74

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

is being started, a fire guard should be stationed

near the engine.
Induction system fires are the most common type of
fire and occur most frequently in reciprocating
engines. The reason for this is if an engine is
over-primed and then fires back through the
carburetor, the gasoline in the induction system can
ignite. If an induction fire occurs, continue cranking
the engine to draw the fire back into the cylinders.
If this fails, signal the fire guard to extinguish the
fire.
To start an engine with a typical float-type carburetor, place the mixture control in the full rich position. Almost all reciprocating engines are equipped
with either a carburetor-heat or an alternate-air position on the carburetor air inlet system. For starting
and ground operation these controls should be in
the cold or closed position. Prime the engine as
required, and open the throttle about one-half inch.
Turn the master switch on, and turn the engine over
with the starter switch. When the engine starts,
check for positive oil pressure and adjust the throttle to produce about 1,000 rpm.
Figure 2-21. Oil or fuel can seep past the piston rings on the
lower cylinders of a radial engine, causing hydraulic lock.
The presence of hydraulic lock is identified by an abnormal
amount of effort required to rotate the propeller. If a start is
attempted under these conditions, severe engine damage
can result.

rotation, since that could inject the liquid from the

cylinder into the intake pipe, increasing the possibility of a complete or partial lock on a subsequent
start. [Figure 2-21]
ENGINE STARTING

Starting an aircraft engine is a specialized procedure

and varies with an individual engine and aircraft.
Therefore, before starting any aircraft engine, be
sure to study the procedures in the appropriate airplane flight manual and get instruction from an
experienced operator. However, certain general
guidelines apply to all reciprocating engine powered aircraft. Before attempting an engine start,
check engine fluids and verify that all cockpit
engine controls are intact and fully operational. In
addition, station extra personnel with fire extinguishing equipment nearby in safe areas.
There is always a possibility of fire when starting
an engine. Because of this, you should always
have a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher of adequate capacity available. For starting large aircraft
where it is not possible to see the engine when it

If an engine becomes flooded during a start attempt,

place the mixture control in the idle cutoff position.
This shuts off all fuel flow to the cylinders. With the
mixture in the cutoff position, place the ignition
switch in the off position, open the throttle all the
way, and crank the engine with the starter until the
fuel charge in the cylinders has been cleared. Once
this is done, repeat the normal start procedure.
Fuel-injected engines have several different starting
requirements. For example, once the mixture is
placed in the full rich position and the throttle is
opened about one-half inch, both the master switch
and the fuel pump are turned on until adequate fuel
flow is observed. This procedure is required to
prime the engine. Once primed, the fuel pump is
turned off, the magneto switches are turned on, and
the starter is engaged. When the engine starts, check
for positive oil pressure.
,
ENGINE WARM-UP

Proper engine warm-up is important, particularly

when the condition of the engine is unknown. An
improperly adjusted idle mixture, intermittently firing spark plugs, or improperly adjusted engine
valves all have an overlapping effect on engine stability. Therefore, the warm-up should be made at a
speed that results in maximum engine stability. This
typically results when the engine speed is between
800 and 1,000 rpm.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

During warm-up, monitor the engine instruments to

ensure normal operation. For example, the oil pressure gauge should indicate pressure within 30 seconds after a start. If that does not happen, the engine
should be shut down immediately.
At warm-up rpm, the mixture control's effectiveness
in changing the fuel/air ratio is minimal between the
rich and lean positions. Control of the fuel/air ratio
in this rpm range is predominantly governed by
throttle position. Therefore, you should set the mixture control at the recommended position and
refrain from attempts to try and hasten the warm-up
by leaning the mixture.
Carburetor heat can be used as required when icing
conditions are present. For engines equipped with a
float-type carburetor, it may be desirable to raise the
carburetor air temperature during warm-up to prevent ice formation and to ensure smooth operation.
However, the warm air provided by the carburetor
heat system is not filtered and, therefore, should not
be used if dust and dirt may be ingested.
A magneto safety check can be performed during
warm-up. The purpose of this check is to ensure that
all ignition connections are secure and that the ignition system will permit operation at the higher
power settings used during later phases of the
ground check. This test is accomplished at idle rpm
with the propeller in the high rpm, low pitch position. To conduct the check, move the ignition switch
from the "both" position to "right" then return to
"both," from "both" to "left" and return to "both,"
from "both" to "off" momentarily, and return to
"both." While switching from the "both" position to
a single magneto, a slight but noticeable drop in rpm
should occur. This indicates that the opposite magneto is properly grounded out. Complete cutting out
of the engine when switching from "both" to "off"
indicates that both magnetos are properly grounded.
Failure to obtain any drop in rpm while in a single
magneto position, or failure of the engine to cut out
while switching to "off" indicates that one or both
ground connections are incomplete.
GROUND CHECK

After engine warm-up, a ground check is performed

to verify the operation of the powerplant and accessory equipment. This check typically requires you
to properly interpret instrument readings based on
established performance criteria. Generally, the
ground check items are included in the preflight
runup checklist.

2-15

During the ground check, head the aircraft into

the wind, if possible, to take advantage of the
cooling airflow. A ground check may be performed as follows:
1. Open the cowl flaps.
2. Set the mixture in the full rich position.
3. Verify that the propeller control is in the low
pitch, high rpm position.
4. Place the carburetor heat control in the cold
position.
5. Open the throttle to the specified rpm and lean
the mixture as required.
6. If the engine is carbureted, apply carburetor
heat and observe a slight drop in rpm. Once
rpm stabilizes, return the carburetor heat to the
cold position.
7. Move the magneto
switch from
"both" to
"right" and back to "both." Then, switch from
"both" to "left" and back to "both." You should
observe a slight rpm drop while operating on
the right and left magnetos. The drop on either
magneto should be approximately the same,
and the maximum drop should not exceed that
specified by the engine manufacturer.
8. If the aircraft is equipped with a constant-speed
propeller, check the propeller operation accord
ing to propeller manufacturer's instructions.
9. Check the fuel pressure and oil pressure. They
must be within the established tolerances.
10. Check the ammeter and suction gauge
for
proper system operation.
11. Retard the throttle to the idle position.
In addition to the operations outlined above, check
the aircraft generator and hydraulic systems. The
test procedures for these systems are generally
detailed on the aircraft checklist for runup.
IGNITION OPERATION

By comparing the rpm drop encountered when

checking the magnetos to a known standard, you
can determine if a magneto is properly timed and if
all the ignition leads are properly grounded. For
example, a rapid rpm drop which occurs when you
switch to one magneto may indicate that the spark
plugs or ignition harness is faulty because these
defects take effect immediately. Faulty spark plugs
or a defective ignition harness is often manifested
by dead cylinders or intermittent firing at the instant
the magneto switch is moved. On the other hand, a
slow rpm drop is usually caused by incorrect ignition timing or faulty valve adjustment. These conditions result in a loss of power, but do not occur as
rapidly as a dead spark plug.

2-76

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

An engine that quits firing completely when

switched to one magneto is definite evidence that
the selected magneto ignition system is malfunctioning. On the other hand, an absence of an rpm
drop could indicate a defective ground connection
on one side of the ignition system. Another indication of a defective ignition system is an excessive
rpm difference between the left and right switch
positions which may indicate a difference in timing
between the left and right magnetos.
POWER CHECK

When conducting a ground check, most aircraft

manufacturers also require a power check. The purpose of a power check is to measure an engine's performance against an established standard. The
standard is determined by the manufacturer and
represents the amount of power an engine can
develop at a given rpm and manifold pressure. With
a constant air density, a given propeller and blade
angle always requires the same rpm to absorb the
same horsepower from the engine.
To conduct a power check, place the propeller in the
low pitch, high rpm position and advance the throttle to obtain the target rpm established by the manufacturer. Under these conditions, the manifold
pressure gauge should indicate the pressure specified by the manufacturer if all of the cylinders are
operating properly. However, if the engine is weak,
or if one or more cylinders are dead or intermittently
firing, the operating cylinders must provide more
power for a given rpm. Consequently, the throttle
must be opened further, resulting in higher manifold pressure. Therefore, a higher than normal manifold pressure for a given rpm usually indicates a
dead cylinder or late ignition timing. On the other
hand, an excessively low manifold pressure indicates that the ignition timing is early. In addition to
causing a low manifold pressure, early ignition timing can cause detonation and loss of power at high
power settings.

trol in the cockpit, you should conduct a mixture

check during the ground check to verify that the carburetor mixture screw is properly adjusted. To perform a mixture check, close the throttle and move
the mixture control to the "idle cutoff" position.
Observe the change in rpm just before it drops off
dramatically and return the mixture control to the
"rich" position.
If the mixture is adjusted properly, engine rpm
should increase by an amount recommended by the
manufacturer (usually 20 rpm). If the increase in
rpm is less than that recommended or if no increase
occurs, the idle mixture is too lean. However, if the
rpm increases above the recommended value, the
mixture is too rich.
ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION

Aircraft engines must be capable of accelerating and

decelerating rapidly. Therefore, when conducting a
ground check, you should conduct an acceleration
and deceleration check. To perform an acceleration
test, move the throttle from idle to full power
smoothly and rapidly. The engine should accelerate
without hesitation and with no evidence of engine
backfiring. The deceleration check is made by
retarding the throttle from full power back to idle.
The rpm should decrease smoothly and evenly, with
little or no tendency for the engine to afterfire.
An acceleration and deceleration check often
reveals borderline conditions that are not apparent
during other checks. This is true because the high
cylinder pressures developed during this check put
added strain on both the ignition system and the
fuel metering system. This added strain is typically
sufficient to point out certain defects that otherwise
would go unnoticed.
ENGINE STOPPING

When an engine is operated at idle for long periods

of time, many pilots tend to use an excessively rich
fuel/air mixture to aid in cylinder cooling. However,
after prolonged operation, the excess fuel has a tendency to build up and foul out the spark plugs. With
a properly adjusted idle mixture setting, it is possible to run the engine at idle rpm for long periods.
Such a setting results in minimal plug fouling and
exhaust smoking.

The procedure used to shut down an engine varies

from engine to engine based on the type of carburetor or fuel injection system installed. Therefore, the
shutdown instructions provided by the manufacturer should be followed exactly. As a rule, most
engines are shut down by placing the mixture control in the "idle cut off" position. This procedure
helps ensure that all of the fuel in the cylinders and
induction system is burned. If all the fuel is burned,
the chances of an accidental start caused by propeller movement is minimized. Once the engine
quits, the ignition switch is turned off and the key is
taken out of the ignition.

In addition to properly adjusting the mixture con-

If an engine becomes excessively warm during taxi,

IDLE SPEED AND MIXTURE

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-17

you should allow the engine to idle for a short time

before you shut it down. This allows both the cylinder head temperature and oil temperature to cool to
reasonable levels prior to engine shutdown.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
A reciprocating engine consists of many parts that
must work properly if the engine is to operate efficiently. If a component or system fails or operates
improperly, engine performance suffers. Therefore,
it is important that you understand the interrelationships that exist among various engine systems,
and know that a given malfunction can have an
underlying cause that is seemingly unrelated.
COMPRESSION

In order for an engine to produce power, all cylinder

openings must close and seal completely on the
compression strokes. Based on this, there are three
items that must occur to obtain maximum efficiency. First, the piston rings must be in good condition so that there is no leakage between the piston
and the cylinder walls. Second, the intake and
exhaust valves must close tightly to eliminate compression loss through the valve ports. Third, valve
timing must be correct when the engine is operating
at its normal rated rpm. If any one of these items is
not correct, the cylinder will not seal and poor compression will result. Anytime cylinder compression
is low, engine performance suffers.
FUEL MIXTURE

For best operation, each cylinder must be provided

with the proper fuel/air mixture. If the fuel/air mixture is too rich or too lean, the amount of brake horsepower an engine produces decreases. [Figure 2-22]

Figure 2-22. The power an engine develops is determined in

part by the fuel/air mixture. As you can see in the graph
above, an engine's power output increases to a maximum
point as the fuel mixture is leaned. However, beyond this
point, the power output falls off as the mixture is further
leaned.

vides a cooling effect. As the mixture is leaned, the

amount of excess fuel available decreases and cylinder temperatures increase. However, if the fuel/air
mixture becomes too lean, combustion can not occur
and cylinder temperatures drop off. [Figure 2-23]
INDUCTION MANIFOLD

An engine's induction manifold is responsible for

distributing the fuel/air mixture to the cylinders.
When a carburetor introduces liquid fuel into the
airstream,
air must
vaporize
the
fuel
in the

When an engine is first started, the mixture is typically placed in the full rich position to promote
engine starting. However, once started, a full rich
mixture does not allow the engine to produce its
rated power for any given throttle setting. Therefore,
before an aircraft takes off, the mixture is leaned so
the engine can produce its maximum, or best,
power. Once in cruise, though, the mixture is further leaned to achieve the engine's best economy.
Specific leaning procedures should be in accordance with the respective Pilot/Owner's Handbook.
The temperature of combustion in a cylinder varies
directly with the ratio of the fuel/air mixture. For
example, excessively rich mixtures burn cool
because excess fuel enters the cylinders and pro-

Figure 2-23. Cylinder head temperature varies with the

fuel/air ratio. Notice that excessively rich and excessively
lean mixtures produce lower cylinder temperatures.

2-18

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

induction manifold. Any fuel that does not vaporize

clings to the walls of the induction manifold.
Obviously, this affects the amount of fuel that
reaches the cylinders. This explains why an apparently rich mixture is often required to start a cold
engine. In a cold engine, some of the fuel in the
airstream condenses out and clings to the walls of
the manifold. However, as the engine warms up and
the airflow through the induction manifold
increases, more fuel is vaporized, leaving less fuel
to condense out of the airstream.
Any leak in an engine induction system has an
effect on the mixture reaching the cylinders. This
is particularly true of a leak at the cylinder end of
an intake pipe. If a leak exists, excess air is introduced into the fuel/air mixture, causing the mixture to become excessively lean to the point that
normal combustion can not occur. This is especially true at low rpm settings since the total volume of airflow is relatively low and the additional
air coming in through a leak leans the fuel/air mixture appreciably.
IGNITION TIMING

An ignition system consists of two magnetos, an

ignition harness, and a set of spark plugs. The magneto is a high voltage generating device that generates the electrical energy necessary to ignite the
fuel/air mixture. A magneto generates a series of
peak voltages which are released by the opening of a
set of breaker points. A distributor then routes these
high voltage impulses to the cylinders in proper
order. In order for a magneto to operate correctly, it
must be timed internally so the points open at the
correct time. In addition, a magneto must also be
timed to the engine. Magneto-to-engine timing is
established when the number one firing position on
the distributor is set to fire cylinder number one at
the proper number of degrees before top center of
the compression stroke. Timing the magneto to any
cylinder other than the number one cylinder produces severe backfiring.
The ignition harness consists of a set of insulated
and shielded high tension lines which carry the
impulses from the magneto distributor to the spark
plugs. Each wire in an ignition harness is referred to
as a lead and each spark plug has its own lead.
Although the ignition harness is simple, it is a critical part of the ignition system. A number of things
can cause failure of the ignition harness. For example, insulation may break down on a wire inside the
harness and allow some or all of the high voltage
energy to leak through the shielding to ground. In

addition, open circuits may result from broken

wires or poor connections. In some cases, a bare
wire could be exposed through chafed insulation
and contact the shielding, or two wires could
become shorted together.
Any serious defect in an individual lead prevents
the high voltage impulse from reaching the spark
plug. As a result, only one spark plug in the cylinder fires. This can lead to a substantial power loss
and a corresponding loss in aircraft performance.
Two bad leads to the same cylinder cause the cylinder to go completely dead.
Among the most common ignition harness defects,
and the most difficult to detect, are high voltage
leaks. However, a complete harness check typically
reveals these and other defects.
Although the spark plug is simple both in construction and in operation, it is, nevertheless, the direct
or indirect cause of many malfunctions in aircraft
engines. Therefore, you must make sure you install
the plug specified for a particular engine. One of the
reasons a particular plug is specified is its heat
range. The heat range of a spark plug determines the
temperature at which the nose of the plug operates.

MAINTENANCE
As an aviation maintenance technician performing
engine maintenance, you should bear in mind that
engine reliability is paramount in aircraft operations. The only way to maintain this reliability is to
perform the appropriate engine maintenance on a
regularly scheduled basis. Airworthiness standards
relating to the design, construction, maintenance,
and overhaul of aircraft engines are listed in FAR
Part 33, Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines.
Appendix A of Part 33 requires engine manufacturers to provide a set of instructions for continued airworthiness with each engine they produce.
Instructions for continued airworthiness include
maintenance manuals, operating instructions,
inspection items and intervals, overhaul procedures, and Airworthiness Limitations. Therefore,
engine maintenance tasks and overhaul operations
are established by engine manufacturers to ensure
reliable operation and are scheduled at specified
intervals based on accumulated hours of operation.
ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING
The need for troubleshooting is dictated by unsatisfactory powerplant performance. Efficient troubleshooting is based on a systematic analysis of

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

what is happening so you will be able to determine

the cause of a malfunction. There is no magic in successful troubleshooting, but rather an application of
logic and a thorough knowledge of the basics of
engine operation. For example, if you are faced with
a problem of deteriorating engine performance, the
first thing you should do is get all of the facts. Take
nothing for granted, and ask the pilot questions. For
example, find out if the trouble comes about suddenly or was it a gradual decrease in performance?
Under what conditions of altitude, humidity, temperature, or power setting does this performance
loss show up? Does temporarily switching to one
magneto cause any change in performance? What
effect did leaning the mixture or applying carburetor heat have on the problem? Did switching from
one fuel tank to another, or turning on the fuel boost
pump have any effect on the problem?
After getting all of the facts, perform a ground check
to see if the problem can be duplicated. The next
step is to eliminate all of the areas that are not likely
to cause the trouble. For example, if the magneto
drop is normal, but there is a loss of power, the ignition system more than likely is not the problem. To
assist in the troubleshooting process, some manufacturers provide troubleshooting flow charts or
trouble-cause-remedy charts. [Figure 2-24]
BACKFIRING

When an excessively lean fuel/air mixture passes

into a cylinder, the mixture may not burn at all or
will burn so slowly that combustion continues
through the power and exhaust strokes. If this
occurs, the flame can linger in the cylinder and
ignite the contents of the intake manifold and the
induction system when the intake valve opens. This
causes an explosion known as backfiring, which can
damage the carburetor and other parts of the induction system.
Backfiring is seldom the fault of the carburetor and,
in most cases, is limited to one or two cylinders.
Usually, backfiring is the result of incorrect valve
clearance, defective fuel injector nozzles, or other
conditions which result in a leaner mixture entering
the cylinder. In some instances, an engine backfires
in the idle range, but operates satisfactorily at
medium and high power settings. The most likely
cause, in this case, is an extremely lean idle fuel/air
mixture. Enriching the mixture usually corrects this
difficulty. Because backfiring cylinders fire intermittently, they typically run cooler than cylinders
that are operating normally. Therefore, a backfiring
cylinder can sometimes be detected by a cold cylinder check.

2-19

AFTERFIRING

Afterfiring, sometimes called afterburning, often

results when the fuel/air mixture is too rich. Overly
rich mixtures, like excessively lean mixtures, also
burn slowly. However, the slow burn rate of a rich
mixture is due to the lack of sufficient oxygen. If an
overly rich mixture burns past the power stroke and
into the exhaust stroke, unburned fuel can be forced
out of a cylinder into the exhausted gases. If this
occurs, air from outside the exhaust stacks will mix
with the unburned fuel, causing it to ignite and
explode in the exhaust system. Afterfiring is perhaps more common with engines that have long
exhaust ducting that can retain greater amounts of
unburned fuel. Typical causes of afterfiring include
an improperly adjusted carburetor or an unseated
exhaust valve.
Afterfiring can also be caused by cylinders which
are not firing because of faulty spark plugs, defective fuel injection nozzles, or incorrect valve clearances. The unburned mixture from these dead
cylinders passes into the exhaust system, where it
ignites and burns. Unfortunately, the resulting
after-burn can easily be mistaken for evidence of a
rich carburetor. Cylinders which are afterfiring
intermittently can cause a similar effect. Again, the
malfunction can be remedied by finding the cause
and correcting the defect.
COLD CYLINDER CHECK

A cold cylinder check can help determine the operating characteristics of each cylinder on an engine.
The tendency of any cylinder or cylinders to be cold
or only slightly warm indicates lack of combustion
within the cylinder. A cold cylinder check is made
with a cold cylinder indicator which is simply an
accurate pyrometer with a probe that is touched to a
cylinder. Engine difficulties which can be analyzed
by use of the cold cylinder indicator are:
1. Rough engine operation.
2. Excessive rpm drop or intermittent misfiring dur
ing the ignition system check.
3. High manifold pressure for a given engine rpm
during the ground check when the propeller is in
the full low pitch position.
4. Improper valve clearances.
To conduct a cold cylinder check, you must run the
engine until the cylinders are warm. When doing
this, it is imperative that you head the aircraft into
the wind to minimize irregular cooling and to
ensure even propeller loading. Once the engine is
running, duplicate the conditions that produce the

2-20

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overha ul

Figure 2-24. This trouble-cause-remedy chart lists some general conditions or troubles which may be encountered with reciprocating engines, such as "engine fails to start." The chart then goes on to give probable causes contributing to the condition.
Corrective actions are indicated in the "remedy" column.

2-21

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

difficulties you want to analyze. Operate the engine

at its roughest speed until cylinder head temperatures reach approximately 300, or until temperatures stabilize at a lower reading. Once this occurs,
shut down the engine by moving the mixture to idle
cut off. When the engine ceases firing, turn off the
ignition and master switches.
As soon as the engine is secured, check the temperature of each cylinder using the cold cylinder tester.
Start with the number one cylinder and proceed in
numerical order around the engine as rapidly as
possible. Recheck any low readings.
In interpreting the results of a cold cylinder check,
remember that the temperatures are relative and
cylinder temperature taken alone means little.
However, when the temperature of one cylinder can
be compared with the temperatures of other cylinders, cylinder problems can be identified.
COMPRESSION TESTING

A cylinder compression test determines if the

valves, piston rings, and pistons are adequately sealing the combustion chamber. Cylinders with good
compression provide the most power while cylinders with low compression provide minimal power.
Low compression for the most part can be traced to
valves that leak because of incorrect valve clearances or because the valve timing is too early or too
late. Several other conditions can cause leaking
valves such as carbon particles between the valve
face and seat or valves that have been burned or
warped. In addition, low compression can result
from excessive wear of piston rings and cylinder
walls or pistons that have become worn, scuffed, or
damaged in some way.
Before performing a compression test, you should
run an engine so the piston rings, cylinder walls,
and other parts are freshly lubricated. However, it is
not necessary to operate an engine prior to accomplishing a compression check during engine
buildup or on individually replaced cylinders. In
these cases, spray a small quantity of lubricating oil
into the cylinder or cylinders before conducting the
test and turn the engine over several times to seal
the piston and rings in the cylinder barrel.
The two basic types of compression testers are the
differential compression tester and the direct compression tester. A differential pressure tester checks
the compression of an aircraft engine by measuring
air leakage in a cylinder. Tester operation is based,
in part, on Bernoulli's principle. In other words, for

a given airflow through a fixed opening, a constant

pressure drop across the opening results. Any
change in the speed of airflow past the opening
causes a corresponding change in pressure.
Therefore, if pressurized air is supplied to a cylinder through a pressure gauge with both intake and
exhaust valves closed, the amount of air that leaks
by the valves or piston rings will create a corresponding pressure drop at the indicator. A perfect
cylinder, of course, would have no leakage and no
pressure drop would occur. [Figure 2-25]
When performing a differential compression test,
you must follow the aircraft manufacturer's instructions. However, there are some general guidelines
that apply to most tests. The following is a list of
common steps taken when performing a differential
compression test:
1. Remove the most accessible spark plug from the
cylinder and install the compression
tester
adapter in the spark plug hole.
2. By hand, rotate the engine in the direction of nor
mal operation until the piston in the cylinder you
are testing is at top dead center on the compres
sion stroke. If you pass top center, back the pro
peller up at least 180 degrees prior to turning the
propeller again in the direction of rotation. This
is necessary to eliminate the effect of backlash in
the valve operating mechanism and to keep the
piston rings seated on the lower ring lands.
3. Connect the compression tester to a 100 to 150psi air supply. With the shutoff valve on the com
pression tester closed, adjust the regulator of the
compression tester to obtain 80 psi on the regu
lated pressure gauge.

REGULATED
CYLINDER
>,
PRESSURE

PRESSURE

Figure 2-25. A differential compression tester measures

leakage in a cylinder and is a valuable diagnostic tool.

2-22

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

4. Recheck the compression tester to verify that the

shutoff valve on the tester is closed and connect
the tester to the spark plug adapter. Verify that the
propeller path is clear of all objects and person
nel, then open the shutoff valve on the compres
sion tester. If the piston is past top dead center
when pressure is applied, the propeller will
rotate in the direction of engine rotation.
5. With the regulated pressure at 80 psi, read the cylin
der pressure gauge. If the cylinder pressure gauge
reading is below the minimum specified for the
engine being tested, move the propeller in the direc
tion of rotation to seat the piston rings in their
grooves. However, if you move the propeller while
air pressure is applied to the cylinder, make sure you
have a tight grip on the propeller to prevent its rota
tion. Check all the cylinders and record the readings.
If low compression is indicated on any cylinder,
turn the engine through with the starter or restart
and run the engine to takeoff power and recheck the
low cylinder. When checking the compression, listen carefully to see if you can determine the source
of the leakage. Air can leak from the cylinder in
three places: past the intake valve, past the exhaust
valve, and past the piston rings. Leakage, or blow-by
past the exhaust valve is typically identified by a
hissing or whistling heard at the exhaust stack. On
the other hand, air leaking past the intake valve can
usually be heard through the carburetor. A hissing
sound in the crankcase breather indicates air leaking past the piston rings.
If the piston ring gaps on a piston happen to be
aligned when a compression test is done, a worn or
defective ring indication will result. If this happens,
you should run the engine for a period of time so the
ring gaps have a chance to shift.
A direct compression test indicates the actual pressures within the cylinder. This method is less effective than the differential pressure method in
discerning a particular defective component within
the cylinder. However, the consistency of the readings provided by a direct compression test indicate
an engine's condition as a whole.
In general, most engine maintenance manuals contain instructions on performing a direct compression test. However, some general guidelines apply
to most tests and are presented here:
1. Remove the most accessible spark plug from each
cylinder.
2. Clear the area around the prop arc and rotate the

engine with the starter to eject excess oil
accu
mulations and loose carbon particles from the
cylinders.

3. Install a tester in each cylinder and tighten the

recommended amount. If only one tester is avail
able, check each cylinder individually.
4. With the throttle open, rotate the engine at least
three complete revolutions by
engaging the
starter and record the compression readings. It is
advisable to use external power when cranking
the engine because a weak aircraft battery may
result in a slow engine-turning rate and lower
than expected compression readings.
5. Re-check any cylinder that registers a compres
sion value significantly lower than the other
cylinders to verify accuracy. A reading approxi
mately 15 psi lower than the others indicates a
cylinder leak that must be repaired. To be sure the
low reading is not the result of a faulty tester,
repeat the compression check with a
tester
known to be accurate.
VALVE ADJUSTMENT
As you know, for an engine to produce its maximum
rated power, the valves must open and close properly and seal tightly against their seats. One important aspect of making sure the valves operate
properly is valve clearance. For example, when
valve clearance is excessive, the valves do not open
as wide or remain open as long as they should. This
reduces valve duration and the valve overlap
period. On the other hand, when valve clearance is
less than it should be, the valve overlap period is
lengthened.
When valve clearances are wrong, it is unlikely that
all clearances are wrong in the same direction.
Instead, there is typically too much clearance on
some cylinders and too little on others. Naturally,
this results in a variation in valve overlap between
cylinders. When this happens, it is impossible to set
the idle adjustment to give correct mixtures on all
cylinders, and all cylinders produce differing
amounts of power. Variations in valve clearance of
as little as 0.005 inch have a definite effect on mixture distribution between cylinders.
Another aspect of valve clearance is its effect on volumetric efficiency. For example, excessive intake
valve clearance results in the valve opening late and
closing early. This produces a throttling effect on the
cylinder because the valve is not open long enough
to admit a full charge of fuel and air. This cuts down
on power output, particularly at high power settings. Insufficient intake valve clearance has the
opposite effect. In other words, the intake valve
opens early, closes late, and stays open longer than

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

it should. At low power, early opening of the intake

valve can cause backfiring.
Improper exhaust valve clearance also affects engine
performance, For example, excessive exhaust valve
clearance shortens the exhaust event and causes
poor scavenging. The late opening may also lead to
cylinder overheating because the hot exhaust gases
are held in the cylinder beyond the time specified
for their release. On the other hand, when exhaust
valve clearance is insufficient, the early opening
causes a power loss by shortening the power event.
In other words, the pressure in the cylinder is
released before all the useful expansion has worked
on the piston. In addition, the late valve closing
causes the exhaust valve to remain open for a larger
portion of the intake stroke. This may result in a portion of the fuel/air mixture being lost through the
exhaust port.

2-23

Accurate valve adjustment also establishes the

intended valve seating velocity. If valve clearances
are excessive, the valve seating velocity will be too
high. The result is valve pounding and stem stretching, either of which is conducive to valve failure.
The engine manufacturer specifies the valve
inspection period for each engine. In addition to the
regular inspection periods, inspect and adjust the
valve mechanism any time there is rough engine
operation, backfiring, loss of compression, or hard
starting. Because of variations in engine designs,
various methods are required for setting valves to
obtain correct and consistent clearance. In all cases,
follow the exact procedure described by the engine
manufacturer, since obscure factors may be
involved.

INSPECTIONS
In order for a valve to seat, the valve must be in good
condition, with no significant pressure being
exerted against the end of the valve by the rocker
arm. If the expansion of all parts of the engine were
the same, the problem of ensuring valve seating
would be very easy to solve. Practically no free
space would be necessary in the valve system.
However, since there is a great difference in the
amount of expansion of various parts of the engine,
there is no way of providing a constant operating
clearance in the valve train on engines equipped
with solid lifters.

As an aviation maintenance technician, you will

probably spend the majority of your time inspecting
various aircraft components. In fact, the Federal
Aviation Regulations require specific inspections at
set intervals in order for an aircraft to remain airworthy. When these inspections are done, impending problems are typically found before they become
major. Some of the more common types of inspections you will be involved in include the preflight
inspection, 50-hour inspection, 100-hour inspection, and annual inspection.

The clearance in the valve actuating system is

very small when the engine is cold but increases
when the engine is operating at normal temperature. The disparity is caused by differences in the
expansion characteristics of the various metals
and by the differences in temperatures of the various parts.

PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

Valve clearances decrease with a drop in temperature; therefore, insufficient clearance could result
in a valve being held open when extremely cold
temperatures are encountered. This would make
cold weather starting difficult, if not impossible,
because of the inability of the cylinders to pull a
charge into the combustion chamber. Furthermore,
if an engine with insufficient valve clearance were
started, unseated valves would allow some of the
fuel/air mixture to leak by the valves on the compression stroke.

As an aviation maintenance technician, there may

be times when you are asked to do a preflight
inspection. Although a typical preflight inspection involves checking the entire aircraft, the following discussion is concerned with only the part
of the inspection that applies to the powerplant.
The first step in any inspection is to verify that the
ignition switch is OFF and the mixture is in the idle
cutoff position. The best way to conduct a thorough
inspection on an engine is to open the cowling. With
the engine exposed, start at the rear of the accessory
section near the firewall and inspect all of the fluid
lines. Verify that no lines are loose, chafing against
something, or showing signs of excessive wear or
deterioration. [Figure 2-26]
If all the fluid lines are in good condition, check the
oil level to be sure that it is at the specified operat-

2-24

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, inspection, and Overhaul

Drain the main fuel strainer and take a fuel sample.

There must be no indication of water in the fuel
sample and the correct type of fuel must be used.
Inspect the carburetor air filter for both security and
cleanness. In addition, check as much of the induction system as possible for visible traces of fuel dye
stains. If fuel stains are present, there is probably a
leak in the induction system.

Figure 2-26. The best way to conduct a thorough inspection

on an engine is to open the cowling. On some aircraft, the
access door on the cowl is large enough to conduct an
inspection. However, other aircraft may require the removal
of the top cowl.

ing level. Many engines have a tendency to throw

oil out the crankcase breather if the sump is completely full; therefore, many aircraft are operated
with less than full oil.
Check all of the wire connections to the magneto to
be sure there are no loose connections or chafed
wires. Check the general condition of the spark plug
leads and for any indication of looseness where they
attach to the spark plugs. In addition, be sure that
all of the leads are secured so they cannot be burned
by the exhaust. Check all of the wiring to the generator or alternator and to the voltage regulator. If the
battery and master relay are ahead of the firewall,
check them as well.
Check below the engine for any indication of fuel or
oil leaks. If blue fuel stains or accumulations of oil
are visible on the lower cowl or the nose strut, a leak
exists somewhere on the engine. Examine the
engine baffling paying particular attention to those
around the cylinders. If a piece of the baffling is
cracked or broken, or if it does not seal, localized
hot spots could develop. Check the paint on the
cylinders for any indication of discoloration which
could indicate the maximum temperature limits
were exceeded. Check the primer lines as they enter
the cylinders or, if the engine is fuel injected, the
injector lines where they attach to the nozzles.
Carefully examine the area where the exhaust risers
join the cylinders to be sure that there are no blown
gaskets and that all of the nuts are in place. In addition, you should check all of the exhaust system for
security and any indication of leaks.

Check the propeller for nicks or scratches and, if

possible, all of the attaching bolts or nuts for security and for proper safety. If a constant-speed propeller is installed, check for excessive oil leakage at
the propeller base and verify that the linkage on the
propeller governor is secure.
At times, a customer may request that you runup an
engine as part of a preflight check. If this is the case,
you should start the engine using the appropriate
checklist. Once started, the oil and fuel pressure
should raise to the proper operating range. During
the runup, the engine should develop the required
static rpm and manifold pressure, and the magneto
drop should be within the specified limits with
equal drops on both magnetos. In addition, a magneto safety check should be performed to be sure
that the switch is operating properly. If the aircraft
is equipped with a constant-speed propeller, the
propeller should cycle smoothly between low and
high pitch. In addition, on a carbureted engine,
when the carburetor heat control is pulled a slight
drop in rpm should occur.
50-HOUR INSPECTION
Although a 50-hour inspection is not required by the
Federal Aviation Regulations, it is recommended by
almost all engine manufacturers. A typical 50-hour
inspection requires you to conduct a runup and
check all of the engine's subsystems including the
ignition, fuel, lubrication, exhaust, cooling, and
tur-bocharging systems. In addition, most
manufacturers provide a checklist for conducting
a 50-hour inspection.
IGNITION SYSTEM

The spark plug leads should be checked for security and for any indication of corrosion. All of the
leads should be securely fastened to both the spark
plug and to the magneto distributor block. In addition, there should be no evidence of chafing or wear
to any part of an ignition lead. The spark plugs
should he examined where they screw into the
cylinder heads for any indication of leakage from
the cylinder.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-25

FUEL AND INDUCTION SYSTEM

TURBOCHARGER

Check the primer lines for indication of leaks and for

security. Remove and clean the fuel inlet strainers
and check the mixture control and throttle linkage
for proper travel, freedom of movement, and security. Lubricate the controls if it is necessary. Check
the air intake and air box for leaks and for any indication of filter damage. In addition, look for evidence
of dust or other solid contaminants that may have
leaked past the filter. Check the fuel pump vent lines
to see if there is evidence of fuel or oil seepage which
could indicate that either a fuel or oil seal is leaking.

If an engine is equipped with a turbocharger, the oil

feed and return lines should be checked for leaks or
chafing. In addition, you should check all of the
brackets and heat shielding for security and for any
indication of damage or cracks. Check the waste gate
for freedom of action and the alternate air door for
operation and sealing.

LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Most engine manufacturers recommend that you

drain and replace the engine oil during a 50-hour
inspection. If the engine is equipped with an oil
screen, it should be removed and inspected for
metal particles. However, if the engine is equipped
with an oil filter, the filter is removed and cut open
so you can inspect it for any traces of metal particles. Check all of the oil lines for any indication of
leakage or signs of chafing.
EXHAUST SYSTEM

Check all of the flanges on the exhaust pipes where

they attach to the cylinder head for evidence of leakage. If they are loose or show any signs of warpage,
they must be removed and machined flat before they
are reassembled. In addition, check the general condition of the entire exhaust manifold and muffler
assembly, paying particular attention for evidence
of leaks.
COOLING SYSTEM

Check all of the cowling and baffles for any indication of damage or missing parts. If a small crack is
found, you can usually stop drill it to prevent further growth. However, if substantial cracking exists,
additional structural repair may be necessary.
CYLINDERS

Check the rocker box covers for indication of leaks.

If a leak is found replace the rocker box gasket.
Carefully check the entire cylinder for signs of overheating. Typical indications of a cylinder that has
overheated include burned or discolored paint on
one or more cylinders. If a cylinder has overheated,
further inspection by borescope or by removing the
cylinder may be required.

100-HOUR OR ANNUAL INSPECTION

FAR Part 91 states that all general aviation aircraft
must go through an annual inspection to remain airworthy. All annual inspections are based on calendar months and, therefore, are due on the last day of
the 12th month after the last annual was completed.
For example, if a previous annual was completed on
June 11, 1995, the next annual inspection is due on
June 30, 1996.
Annual inspections must be performed regardless of
the number of hours flown in the previous year.
Furthermore, they may be performed by airframe
and powerplant mechanics holding an inspection
authorization (IA). The IA cannot delegate the
inspection duties to an airframe and powerplant
mechanic, nor may an IA merely supervise an
annual inspection.
If the person performing the annual inspection finds
a discrepancy that renders the aircraft unairworthy,
they must provide the aircraft owner with a written
notice of the defect. Furthermore, the aircraft may
not be operated until the defect is corrected.
However, if the owner wants to fly the aircraft to a
different location to have the repairs performed, a
special flight permit may be obtained to ferry the aircraft to the place where repairs are to be made.
In addition to an annual inspection, all general aviation aircraft that are operated for hire must be
inspected every 100 flight hours. This inspection
covers the same items as the annual inspection. The
major difference is that an A&P technician may perform a 100-hour inspection. As in the case of an
annual inspection, the person conducting a
100-hour inspection cannot delegate inspection
duties.
The operating hours are the primary consideration
for determining when the next 100-hour inspection
is due. As the name implies, a 100-hour inspection
is due 100 hours after the last 100-hour inspection
was completed, regardless of the date. However,
there is a provision for extending the 100-hour inter-

2-26

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

val, up to a maximum of 10 hours, to permit the aircraft to fly to a place where the inspection can be
accomplished. When this is done, the number of
hours in excess of the 100-hour interval are
deducted from the next inspection interval. For
example, if a flight to a place where a 100-hour
hours beyond the 100-hour inspection interval, the
next 100-hour inspection would be due in 94 hours.
In other words, the next inspection interval is shortened by the same amount of time the previous
inspection was extended.
The following paragraphs examine the basic steps
required to complete a 100-hour or annual inspection. However, like any other inspection, the manufacturer's instructions must be followed at all times.

if there is any additional maintenance

recommended or required by the manufacturer.
Once you have reviewed the aircraft paperwork,
perform a conformity inspection to verify that all of
the accessories and equipment on the engine are
approveh.Tir an accessory Araes-iroi appear'm an
equipment list or Type Certificate Data Sheet, check
to see if the item was installed according to a supplemental type certificate. Check the total time on
the engine and propeller and compare it with the list
of life-limited parts to see if any items are nearing
their retirement time. See if there are any Major
Repair and Alteration Forms (FAA 337) on the
engine or propeller. If there are, check the work to
be sure that it was done as described on the form.
CLEANING

INSPECTION CHECKLISTS

FAR 43.15 lists the performance criteria for performing inspections. In addition, FAR 43.15 specifically states that a checklist which meets the
minimum requirements listed in FAR 43 Appendix
D must be used for all annual and 100-hour inspections. This, however, does not preclude you from
developing a more extensive checklist or using one
prepared by a repair station or manufacturer. As
long as the checklist covers the items listed in
Appendix D it may be used. Most major aircraft
manufacturers provide inspection checklists for
their aircraft by type and model number. These
forms are readily available through the manufacturer's representatives and are highly recommended. They meet the minimum requirements of
Appendix D and contain many details covering specific items of equipment installed on a particular
aircraft. In addition, they often include references to
service bulletins and letters which could otherwise
be overlooked. [Figure 2-27]
PRELIMINARY PAPERWORK

One important aspect of conducting a 100-hour or

annual inspection is the paperwork involved. Before
starting the actual inspection, you should review all
of the aircraft records including the Type Certificate
Data Sheets. In addition, you should check and list
all of the Airworthiness Directives that apply to the
engine and all of its components including the carburetor, magnetos, alternator or generator, propeller,
and ignition switches. Check the General Aviation
Airworthiness Alerts to become familiar with the
types of problems other mechanics have found with
similar engines. And, finally, go through the manufacturer's service bulletins and service letters to see

Once the paperwork is done you can move on to the

actual inspection. According to FAR Part 43 the first
step in performing a 100-hour or annual inspection
is to open all necessary inspection plates, access
doors, fairings, and cowling and clean the aircraft
and engine. The cleaning is done to remove any oil,
grease, or dirt that could hide cracks or other defects
during the inspection. As you open a cowl, look for
accumulations of oil or other fluids that may indicate the presence of a leak. If no abnormal amounts
of fluid are present, clean the engine and engine
compartment using stoddard solvent or a commercial degreaser. To prevent damage to electrical components, you should tape over all vent holes on the
magnetos and alternator. In addition, avoid spilling
solvent or water directly onto any electrical component, vacuum pump, or starter.
PRE-INSPECTION RUNUP

Once the engine is clean, perform a pre-inspection

runup to determine if the engine runs properly and
to heat the oil and coat the cylinder walls. During
the runup, verify that the temperatures and pressures are within the correct operating range. In addition, verify that the engine develops its proper static
rpm and that the magneto drop is within an acceptable range. The drop must be the same or nearly so
on both magnetos. Check for any abnormal noises in
the engine and for any vibrations that are not characteristic of that engine.
If the engine is equipped with a constant-speed propeller, cycle it several times to check for proper
operation. When a prop is cycled, it should respond
smoothly and the recovery should be within the
time limit allowed.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-27

Figure 2-27. FAR Part 43 requires the use of a checklist when conducting either a 100-hour or annual inspection. The checklist must
include at least those items contained in FAR Part 43, Appendix D.

2-28

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Figure 2-28. When changing oil during an inspection, the oil

filter should be cut open so you can check for metal particles or other contamination.

After you have checked each of the engine's systems, shut down the engine and bring the aircraft
into the hangar. While the engine is still warm, drain
the oil and remove the top spark plug from each
cylinder so you can perform a compression test.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Once you have done a compression test on each

cylinder and the engine has cooled, remove the oil
filter or screen. If a filter is installed cut the element
apart so you can check for metal particles. If a screen
is installed, inspect both the screen and screen
housing for metal. The presence of some metal particles in the oil is normal; however, an excessive
amount is an indication of impending engine failure
and their source must be found. [Figure 2-28]
Install and torque a new filter element or the original screen in place. Reinstall and safety the drain
plug and fill the oil sump with new oil. Check all of
the oil lines, the oil cooler, and the entire engine for
any indication of oil leakage that might indicate a
leaking gasket or defective component.
IGNITION SYSTEM

Remove the remaining spark plugs and examine all

of them. Once way of determining combustion
chamber problems is by examining the condition of
the spark plugs. For example, normal operation is
indicated by a spark plug having a relatively small
amount of light brown or tan deposit on the nose of
the center electrode insulator. However, if heavy
deposits are found, it is a good indication that the
rings or valve seals are worn allowing oil to seep
into the cylinder. If there is an excess of gray,
clinker-like deposits in a spark plug, lead fouling is
occurring. One cause of lead fouling is using a fuel
with a higher than recommended tetraethyl lead
content. Replacing the spark plug with one having a
hotter heat range may reduce the fouling, but be sure
the hotter plug is approved for the engine.

A dry, black, soot-like deposit on a spark plug indicates that the engine is operating with an excessively rich mixture. If this is the case, check the
induction system for obstructions in the filter or for
a malfunctioning carburetor heat valve. A brown,
shiny glaze on a spark plug could indicate silicon
contamination. If this is the case, you should perform a careful inspection of the carburetor air filter
for air leaks around the filter element or for holes in
the element itself. Any unfiltered air leaking into the
induction system allows sand or dust to enter the
engine. Once in a cylinder, the intense heat inside
the combustion chamber turns the silicon in the
sand into a glass-like contaminant that becomes
conductive at high temperature and causes the spark
plug to fail.
In addition to checking for deposits and lead fouling, any spark plug whose electrodes are worn to
one-half their original dimensions should be
replaced. If the electrodes are not worn, the plugs
may be reconditioned. To recondition a spark plug
begin by removing any lead deposits with a vibrator-type cleaner, then lightly blast the electrodes
with an approved abrasive. The ground electrode is
then carefully moved over with a spark plug gaping
tool to set the proper gap between the ground and
the center electrodes.
Once a plug has been reconditioned, it must be
tested. If the plug fires consistently under pressure in a tester, it may be reinstalled in the engine.
Anytime a spark plug is installed a new gasket
should be used along with a small amount of the
thread lubricant recommended by the engine
manufacturer.
When a spark occurs between the electrodes of a
spark plug, metal is taken from one electrode and
deposited onto another. Therefore, when a spark
plug fires positively, the ground electrodes wear
more than the center electrode and when a spark
plug fires negatively, the center electrode wears
more than the ground electrode. Furthermore, lead
and other impurities produced during the combustion process tend to precipitate to the lower spark
plugs, causing them to wear. To help equalize spark
plug wear, each time spark plugs are removed they
should be replaced in the cylinder next in the firing
order to the one from which they were removed and
switched from top to bottom.
The threads in the spark plug bushing in a cylinder
should he clean enough so a spark plug can be
screwed down against its gasket with finger pressure
only. Once finger tight, a spark plug must be torqued

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

to the manufacturer's recommended torque value

using a torque wrench of known accuracy.
Before installing a lead on each spark plug, wipe the
lead terminal with a rag dampened with
trichloreth-ylene. Once clean, insert the lead
straight into the spark plug and tighten the lead nut
to the torque recommended by the manufacturer.
With all the plugs and leads installed, check the
magneto to engine timing using a timing light. In
addition, inspect the condition of the breaker points
and the inside of the breaker compartment for any
indication of moisture or oil. As a final check, make
sure the magneto grounding or P-leads are secure
and show no signs of wear or chafing.
FUEL SYSTEM

Clean the main fuel strainer and screen along with

the screen in the carburetor or fuel injection unit.
Replace the cleaned screens using a new gasket and,
after testing them under pressure for leaks, safety
the screens in place. Check all of the controls and
lubricate them as specified by the airframe manufacturer, being sure to use an approved lubricant.
If the engine is fuel injected, check the manufacturer's recommendations for cleaning the injector
nozzles. In addition, check all of the injection lines
for security and chafing.

2-29

with deadly carbon monoxide gas. Be sure the cabin

heat valve operates freely and has no obstructions in
either the valve or the hose carrying heated air into
the cabin. Check all of the cylinder heads at the
exhaust port for indication of blown gaskets and for
any indication of cracks or other leakage. Carefully
check where the exhaust gas temperature probes
enter the exhaust pipes, as this is a possible source
of leakage.
TURBOCHARGER
If the engine is equipped with a turbocharger, be
sure to follow the inspection procedure specified by
the manufacturer. As a minimum, the exhaust portion of the turbocharger and waste gate should be
checked. In addition, the induction air section,
including all relief valves, intercoolers, and manifold pressure sensors should be checked and tested.
The lubrication system and mounting should also
be carefully checked for leaks and security.
COOLING SYSTEM

Check all of the cooling fins and baffling for cracks

or damage. In addition, inspect all of the baffles and
seals for general condition and security. If a cooling
fin is cracked, check the manufacturer's specifications for allowable limits. To repair a cracked fin,
you should remove the damaged area of the fin then
contour file the affected area. The cowl flaps should
be checked for security and for full travel, both in
their open and closed position.

INDUCTION SYSTEM

Remove and clean or replace the induction air filter

and check the entire system for leaks or deformation. Check the operation of the carburetor heat or
alternate air valve. Be sure the alternate air doors
open fully so the induction airflow into the engine
will not be restricted.
All flexible induction tubing should be carefully
inspected to be sure that there are no kinks and that
the tubing is in good condition. Furthermore, you
should verify that the wire support within the tubing is intact so the tubing cannot collapse.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

As you know, electrical systems vary between aircraft models and the manufacturer's recommendations must be followed in detail. The alternator and
its mounting should be checked for security and for
any indication of vibration-induced cracks. The voltage regulator and any relays or solenoids in the system should be checked for security. In addition, all
wires attached to electrical components should be
checked for security, proper support, and chafing.
ACCESSORIES AND CONTROLS

EXHAUST SYSTEM

Remove the shroud from the muffler and check it for

any indication of leakage. In some cases, there is an
AD or manufacturer's service bulletin requiring the
muffler or exhaust system to be pressure tested.
Remember, even a pinhole leak can fill the cabin

Check all of the air, fuel, and hydraulic pumps for

indications of leakage, and for the condition of their
seals. Check the vent and breather lines for security
and for proper positioning. Check the instrument air
system to be sure that all filters are changed according to the manufacturer's recommendations and the
oil separator shows no sign of malfunctioning.

2-30

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Check all controls for freedom and for proper travel.

The stops on the engine component should be
reached just before the stop in the cockpit. Check
the condition of the firewall to be sure that all controls, lines, and wires passing through are properly
sealed and there is no corrosion or other indication
of damage. Be sure that all of the engine shock
mounts are in good condition and the mounting
bolts are properly torqued. It is important that the
electrical grounding strap between the engine and
the airframe be in good condition since the rubber
shock mounts will not allow starter current to return
through the airframe.
PROPELLER

The extreme stress a propeller encounters dictates

the need for a thorough inspection. Any nicks,
cracks, or scratches in the blade must be carefully
dressed and any questionable area must be checked
using an approved non-destructive test method. Be
sure the blades are secure in the hubs and that there
is no oil leakage. Check the spinner and spinner
bulkhead for any indication of cracks or damage,
and check the governor for security and for full
travel of its control.

POST-INSPECTION RUNUP AND RECORDS

After an inspection is complete, recowl the engine

and conduct a post-inspection runup. If the engine
checks out satisfactorily, complete the engine maintenance records and fill out all of the shop records.
Federal Aviation Regulations require you to make an
engine log entry whenever maintenance or an
inspection is performed. For example, when maintenance is performed, you must make a log entry that
includes at least the following information.
1. The date the work was completed.
2. A description or reference to data acceptable to
the FAA of the work perfomed.
3. The name of the person performing the work if
you did not actually do it yourself.
4. Your signature.
5. Your certificate number
6. The rating or ratings you hold.

It is important to note that, when a log entry is made

after maintenance is completed, the signature
consi-tutes the approval for return to service for the
work performed.
The log entry for an inspection is somewhat different from an entry for perfoming maintenance. The
following is a list of items that must be included in
an inspection log entry.
1.
2.
3.
4.

The date the inspection is completed.

The total time in service.
The type of inspection performed.
A certification statement that is worded similarly
to "I certify that this aircraft has been inspected
in accordance with a(n) (insert type) inspection
and was determined to be in an airworthy condi
tion."
5. Your signature.
6. Your certificate number.
7. The rating or ratings you hold.
If an aircraft is not approved for return to service
because of needed maintenance, noncompliance
with applicable specifications, airworthiness directives, or other approved data, the certification statement should be worded to say; "I certify that this
aircraft has been inspected in accordance with a(n)
(insert type) inspection and a list of discrepancies
dated (insert date) has been provided for the aircraft
owner."
If either a major repair or major alteration is performed to an aircraft, you must make an appropriate
log entry and complete an FAA 337 form. Once complete, the original 337 form is given to the aircraft
owner while a duplicate is sent to the local FAA
office within 48 hours of completing the work.
To help reduce paperwork, certified repair stations
are permitted to substitute a work order for a 337
form. In this case, the original work order is given to
the aircraft owner and a duplicate is retained by the
repair station for at least two years.

ENGINE REMOVAL AND OVERHAUL

ENGINE REMOVAL
Engine removal is a major task and must be accomplished in an orderly fashion to prevent personal
injury or damage to the aircraft. Although the exact
steps involved in removing a reciprocating engine
vary from one make of aircraft model to another,
there are some general guidelines you can use.
However, these guidelines are no substitute for the
manufacturer's instructions.
REASONS FOR REMOVAL
There are several reasons why an engine may have
to be removed from an aircraft. For example, the
accumulation of the number of hours recommended
between overhauls or degradation in performance
are reasons for removal. Also, a sudden engine stoppage or excessive metal particles found in the oil are
certainly valid reasons for engine removal. In addition, some routine maintenance and repairs may
require an engine to be removed from an aircraft.
However, before you remove or replace an engine,
you should always consult the applicable manufacturer's instructions to determine if engine removal
is required.
ENGINE LIFE SPAN

Engine life is affected by environmental, operational,

and design factors. In addition, the level of quality a
manufacturer builds into the engine and the degree
to which preventive maintenance is accomplished
have a direct bearing on the useful life of an engine.
As a result, it can be difficult to establish definite
engine replacement times. However, by tracking the
service life of several different engines, it is possible
for manufacturers to establish a recommended time
between overhauls (TBO).

Aircraft owners who operate under FAR Part 91 are

not obligated to comply with a manufacturer's recommended TBO. However, if an aircraft is operated
for hire in an air taxi operation, FAA airworthiness
regulations require the operator to adhere to TBO or

the maximum time in service established in their

operating manuals.
When a manufacturer delivers a new engine, a permanent record of the engine's operating time is
established in the powerplant logbook. Anytime
maintenance is done on that engine, a logbook entry
is made referencing the total time (TT) the engine
has accumulated since it was new. After an engine
reaches its TBO, an overhaul should be accomplished and total time records should be continued
without interruption. In addition, accumulated
engine operation time should be referenced as the
amount of time since major overhaul (SMOH).
Engine maintenance requirements are based on
either time since new or time since the most recent
major overhaul.
ATTRITION FACTORS

Whether an engine has reached its recommended

TBO or not, signs or symptoms of severe performance deterioration could require removal and
overhaul. As engine components wear, symptoms
signaling a drop in performance become apparent.
Increased oil consumption, higher engine operating
temperatures, and a general loss of power all point
to a possible need for replacement parts. Careful
monitoring of these conditions may result in the
decision to remove an engine for maintenance prior
to the recommended time before overhaul. Normal
engine life can be shortened due to several environmental and operational reasons. For example, operating at maximum power settings for prolonged
periods of time, frequent starts in extremely cold
temperatures, and lack of preventative maintenance
can all shorten the useful life of an engine.
SUDDEN STOPPAGE

A sudden stoppage is defined as a very rapid and

complete arrest of the engine. With a typical sudden
engine stoppage, engine rpm drops to zero in less
than one complete propeller revolution. Common
causes of a sudden stoppage include engine seizure

2-32

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

or a propeller blade striking an object. Whenever an

engine is stopped suddenly, the inertia of the moving parts creates high torque forces that can result
in cracked or broken flywheel gear teeth, timing
gear damage, a bent or broken crankshaft, or damaged crankshaft bearings. When a sudden stoppage
occurs, an engine manufacturer's instructions usually require a complete engine teardown and
inspection.
SUDDEN SPEED REDUCTION

A sudden reduction in engine speed occurs when

one or more propeller blades strike a movable object
such as a runway light, tool box, hangar, or another
aircraft. When this occurs, engine rpm drops rapidly
until the object struck is cleared. However, the
engine continues to run and the rpm typically
returns to its previous value. Whenever a sudden
reduction in engine speed occurs, the engine should
be shut down as quickly as possible to prevent further damage. Inspections of engines that experience
a sudden speed reduction reveal varying amounts of
damage. For example, if the speed reduction occurs
at a low rpm, very little internal damage typically
results. The reason for this is that at low rpm, engine
power output is also low and the propeller absorbs
most of the shock. However, when a sudden speed
reduction occurs at a high engine rpm, the potential
for severe internal engine damage is much greater.
When an engine is subjected to a sudden reduction
in speed, you must comply with the manufacturer's
inspection procedures for that engine. As a minimum, you must make a thorough external inspection of the engine mounts, crankcase, and, if
applicable, the nose section. In addition, you should
remove the engine oil screens or filters and inspect
them for the presence of metal particles. Once this is
done, drain the oil, straining it through a clean
cloth, and check both the cloth and strained oil for
metal particles. Presence of heavy metal particles
indicates a definite engine failure requiring engine
removal. However, if the metal particles have the
appearance of fine filings, continue the inspection
to determine serviceability.
Remove the propeller and check for misalignment
of the crankshaft, or propeller drive shaft on engines
using a propeller gear reduction. This task is performed by attaching a dial indicator to the front of
the engine case and letting the indicator arm ride on
the crankshaft as it is turned. Engines with
flange-type propeller shafts must be checked at the
outside edge of the flange while spline-type
propeller shafts

should be checked at both the front and rear cone

seats. The amount a shaft is misaligned is referred to
as its runout. The runout tolerance must fall within
the limits specified in the manufacturer's maintenance manual. If the runout is excessive, the crankshaft must be removed and replaced. However, if the
crankshaft runout does not exceed the manufacturer's established limits, you should install a serviceable propeller and check the propeller tracking.
If propeller tracking measurements are good, start
the engine to see if it operates smoothly with normal
power output. If operation is normal during the
ground check, shut the engine down and repeat the
inspection for metal particles in the oil system. The
presence of metal indicates internal engine damage
requiring further inspection. However, if there are
no heavy metal particles in the engine oil, the
engine should be scheduled for a flight test. If
engine operation is within normal parameters during the flight test, look again for metal in the oil system. If no metal is found, continue the engine in
service, but recheck the oil screens for the presence
of metal after 10 hours of operation, and again after
20 hours. If no indication of internal failure is found
after 20 hours of operation, the engine probably
requires no further special inspections.
METAL PARTICLES IN OIL

The presence of an excessive number of metal particles in an engine oil filter or screen or in the oil itself
generally indicates an internal failure. However, due
to the construction of aircraft oil systems, it is possible for metal particles to collect in the oil system
sludge at the time of a previous engine failure.
Furthermore, carbon buildup can break loose from
an engine's interior and may be mistaken for metal
particles. In any case, the source of any foreign particles in an engine's oil must be identified and corrected before the aircraft is released for flight.
One way to determine if a particle is metal or carbon
is to place the material on a flat metal object and
strike it with a hammer. If the particle is carbon, it
will disintegrate, however, if it is metal, it will
remain intact or change shape, depending upon its
malleability. If you find some particles that are
metal, use a magnet to determine whether the particles are ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous particles are
typically produced by wearing piston rings, whereas
nonferrous particles are typically produced by main
bearings.
Another way to correctly identify the type and quantity of foreign particles in an engine's oil is through
regular participation in a spectrometric oil analysis

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

program or S.O.A.P., which requires an oil sample

to be sent to a laboratory for analysis. When this is
done, you are provided with a list of the type of
particles found along with possible sources of the
particles. In addition, if a laboratory observes a
sudden increase in the amounts of metal that the
test is designed to detect, they immediately contact
the operator by telephone. When using
spectromet-ric oil analysis, testing must occur on a
regular basis to provide a baseline for comparison
so accurate information can be obtained. A closely
followed oil analysis program can detect problems
before they become serious and prevent
catastrophic engine failure. [Figure 2-29]
UNSTABLE ENGINE OPERATION

Engines must be removed for closer examination

when unstable engine operation persists for a period
of time. Excessive engine vibration, back firing,
afterfiring, cutting out while in flight, and low
power output are all symptoms of one or more problems that require removal of an engine. This is especially true with intermittent malfunctions if
previous troubleshooting attempts have not been
successful. Duplication of an intermittent malfunction is sometimes easier if the engine is mounted on
a test stand with specialized test equipment.
Many operators now utilize manual or computerized engine condition monitoring that provides a
base line to which unstable engine operations can

2-33

be compared. The baseline information, coupled

with trend analysis techniques, can help predict an
engine failure before it occurs or pinpoint a problem
requiring maintenance.
PREPARATION FOR REMOVAL
When an engine is removed from an aircraft, flammable fluids often leak from the engine and create a
fire hazard. Therefore, an engine removal should be
done in a well ventilated area with a least one fire
extinguisher nearby. Once the aircraft is parked,
chock the main gear wheels to keep the aircraft from
rolling during the removal operation. If the aircraft
has tricycle-type landing gear, the tail must be supported to prevent the aircraft from tipping back
when the engine is removed. In addition, the landing gear shock struts may need to be deflated to prevent damage from over-extension once the engine
weight is removed from the aircraft.
MAGNETO, FUEL, AND BATTERY DISARMING

Before starting the engine removal process, make

sure that the magneto switch isin the OFF position.
In addition, once the engine c^W is removed, it is a
good idea to remove at least one spark plug from
each cylinder. When these steps are taken, you eliminate the chance of the engine suddenly kicking
back or starting when the propeller is turned. To
help prevent fuel from spilling, make sure that all
fuel shutoff valves are closed. Fuel selector valves
are either manually or electrically operated. If an
electric solenoid-operated shutoff valve is installed,
it may be necessary to apply battery power to close
the valve. After ensuring that all fuel is shut off, disconnect the battery to reduce the possibility of electrical sparks. If the aircraft will be out of service for
more than a few days, the battery is normally
removed and taken to a battery shop where it can be
cleaned, serviced, and charged.
Once the cowling is removed, clean and check the
cowling for cracks and elongated fastener holes so
repairs can be made while the engine is removed. If
the cowling is not in need of repair, move it to a safe
place where it will not be damaged.
DRAINING ENGINE OIL

Figure 2-29. (A) ( Over time, a normal engine experiences a

gradual increase in the amount of metal suspended in its
oil. (B) ( Once a baseline is established, a sudden increase in
the amount of metal usually indicates an internal engine
problem.

You should begin draining the oil once the magnetos and battery are disarmed. When doing this, drain
the oil into a clean container and place a large metal
drip pan under the engine to catch any spills. Begin
by removing the drain plug or opening the drain

2-34

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

the remaining fuel and hydraulic lines. These fluid

lines typically include flexible rubber hoses, aluminum-alloy tubing, and stainless steel tubing. For
example, most fuel lines are constructed of flexible
rubber hose that must be drained once removed. In
addition, on carbureted engines, once the fuel line
is removed, the carburetor must also be drained.
Most rigid tubing is secured to a threaded fitting at
the firewall by a standard B-nut. Hoses may also be
secured in this manner or they may be threaded into
a receptacle, or secured by hose clamps. Some firewall attach points have a quick-disconnect fitting
containing a check valve that prevents fluid loss
when the line is disconnected. [Figure 2-31]

Figure 2-30. Most of the engine oil in a typical horizontally

opposed engine is drained by removing one or more oil
drain plugs or opening a drain valve.

valve. Additional points that should be drained of

oil include the oil cooler, oil return line, and oil filter. Leave all valves and drains open until the oil
system is completely drained. After draining the oil,
reinstall the drain plugs, close all drain valves, and
wipe any excess oil from around the drain points.
[Figure 2-30]

SLEEVE AND NUT FITTING

THREADED FITTING AND RECEPTACLE

PROPELLER REMOVAL

With the spark plugs removed, the propeller can be

easily turned and removed for inspection and necessary repairs. When removing a fixed pitch propeller from a light aircraft, one person can typically
conduct the operation safely with no additional
equipment. However, when removing a large constant speed propeller, the use of a propeller sling
with a frame and hoist is imperative. In addition, it
is best to have one or two additional people assist
you to prevent damaging the propeller or surrounding equipment. In either case, you should follow the
manufacturer's instructions for propeller removal.

HOSE CLAMP AND FITTING

INTERCONNECTING HOSE

J
FLUID LINE DISCONNECTION

Once the oil is drained and the

propeller is removed, you can begin
disconnecting and draining

Figure 2-31. Fluid lines are typically connected to the firewall or accessory by either a B-nut, a threaded fitting that
threads into a receptacle, or by hose clamps.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

After a fuel line has drained, it should be plugged or

covered with moisture-proof tape. This helps prevent insects, dirt, or other foreign matter from entering the line and keeps any residual fluids from
dripping out. Once plugged, all lines and fittings
should be labeled to help prevent possible confusion when reinstalling them on a new engine.

2-35

TERMINAL POST

ELECTRICAL DISCONNECTION

Depending on the type of engine and equipment

installed, electrical leads may be disconnected at
the accessory or at the engine firewall. When disconnected at the firewall, AN and MS connectors
are often used to simplify disconnections. A typical
AN or MS electrical connector consists of a plug and
receptacle assembly for one or more wires. To help
prevent accidental disconnection during aircraft
operation, the plug assembly screws to the receptacle assembly and is secured with safety wire.
Another type of wiring connection you may see consists of a junction box that serves as a disconnect
point. With this type of setup, a single lead or group
of individual leads run from terminal strip screw
posts in a junction box to the engine or accessory.
The wire leads used with this type of system are typically terminated with a ring connector that fits on a
screw post and is secured with a nut and washer.
Disconnection is accomplished by removal of the
nut, allowing the ring terminal to be lifted off the
terminal post. [Figure 2-32]
Small aircraft with simple electrical systems often
utilize knife-type or wrist-lock connectors that are
sealed in some type of protective sheathing. To disconnect this type of connector, remove the sheathing and separate the connector.
To protect the exposed ends of connectors from dirt
and moisture you should wrap them with
moisture-proof tape whenever they are
disconnected. Also, coil loose cables and secure
conduits out of the way to prevent entanglement
and damage when the engine is removed. If the
wires lack legible identification, label them to
eliminate confusion when reinstalling the engine.

Figure 2-32. On aircraft that utilize firewall electrical disconnect points, there are generally two kinds of electrical disconnects used. One type consists of a junction box
containing terminal strips with terminal posts while a second type consists of a plug-type connector such as a
Cannon plug or Amphenol connector.

attached to the other end. On most aircraft, the rod

end bearing is connected to the carburetor or fuel
control by a bolt secured with a castle nut and cotter
pin. To remove a control rod, begin by removing the
cotter pin and castle nut. Once this is done, remove
the bolt passing through the control assembly.

ENGINE CONTROL DISCONNECTION

The engine control rods and cables allow operation

of the throttle and mixture from within the cockpit.
A typical control rod is threaded at both ends with a
clevis attached at one end and a rod end bearing

After the engine control linkages have been disconnected, the nuts and bolts should be inspected for
wear. Cotter pins get replaced, but if the nuts and bolts
do not need replacement, place them back in the control rod ends so they do not get lost. All control rods

2-36

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Figure 2-33. A typical control rod has a clevis attached to one end and a rod end bearing attached to the other end. To prevent damaging a control rod, it is best to remove them completely from the aircraft before the engine is removed.

should either be removed completely or tied back to

prevent them from being bent or broken when the
engine is removed. [Figure 2-33]
On engine installations that utilize a bellcrank to
actuate a control rod, the bellcrank may have to be
removed to allow removal of a control rod. If this is

the case, a turnbuckle which joins the bellcrank

actuating cable must be removed. However, before
you remove the turnbuckle, it is a good idea to mark
the position of the control cable end threads at the
turnbuckle. The marks will assist you during
rein-stallation to roughly obtain the original
position before trimming the controls. [Figure 2-34]

Figure 2-34. Some control systems in use today consist of a cable and pulley arrangement to actuate engine controls. If this is the
case, the cable assembly may have to be separated at a turnbuckle in order to remove the control rod.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-37

OTHER DISCONNECTIONS

Air intake and exhaust system components must

also be disconnected to facilitate engine removal.
However, because the installation of these components vary among different engines and aircraft, it is
best to refer to the manufacturer's instructions for
specific removal instructions.
ENGINE HOISTING
After all engine connections are free and clear, the
engine is ready for hoisting. If an engine has been
thoroughly prepared for removal, the actual removal
process is typically a simple task. One decision that
must be made is whether to remove only the engine,
or both the engine and engine mount. With a typical
overhaul the engine is removed without the engine
mount. However, if the engine is being replaced
with a quick engine change assembly (QECA), the
separation point is usually the firewall; therefore,
the mount must be removed with the engine. A
QECA is essentially a powerplant with the necessary accessories already installed on the engine
mounting assembly. In addition, some radial engine
QECA's are supplied with nacelles, so removal in
this case would include the engine nacelle.
Before the engine can be freed from its attach points,
a sling must be installed so the engine's weight can
be supported with a hoist. Aircraft engines have
selected points for attaching a hoisting sling. The
location of these points and the type of sling
arrangement used vary according to the engine's size
and weight. Therefore, engine manufacturers typically provide information on where to support an
engine as well as the type of hoist apparatus to use.
As a matter of safety, the sling and hoist should be
carefully inspected and deemed safe for use before
installing it on an engine. In addition, make sure
that the hoist has sufficient capacity to lift the
engine safely, observing the change in capacity as
the hoist arm is extended. In most cases, when the
hoist arm is fully extended, lifting capacity is greatly
reduced. [Figure 2-35]
Some engine hoisting frames are fitted with power
operated hoists. Power hoists should be used with
caution, since considerable damage can be done by
an inexperienced operator.
Before you actually begin lifting an engine, recheck
the aircraft tail supports and wheel chocks. If everything is set, raise the engine enough to remove the
engine weight from the engine mount. Next, remove
the nuts from the engine mount attachments in the

Figure 2-35. When choosing a hoist and frame assembly,

make sure the hoist can reach the engine with adequate
clearance and is rated for the weight of the engine being
lifted.

order specified in the manufacturer's instructions.

Before the last nuts are removed, be sure that the
engine is steadied and secure with no lateral loading. If everything is secure, remove the remaining
engine mount hardware and gently move the engine
free of the mount attachments. If the engine binds at
any point, investigate the reason and maneuver the
engine as necessary until it slips free. Once the
engine is moved clear of the airframe, carefully
lower the engine onto an engine stand and secure it
with the appropriate hardware.

ENGINE COMPARTMENT
Anytime an engine is removed from an aircraft the
opportunity exists to thoroughly inspect the engine
compartment and make repairs as necessary. To
begin, you should inspect the entire engine nacelle
for corrosion, cracks, missing rivets, or any other
visible defects. Cracks in the cowling or ducts can
be stop-drilled or patched if they do not exceed limits specified in the manufacturer's structural repair
manual.
Engine controls should be checked for integrity and
freedom of movement. In addition, cables should be
inspected for broken wire strands while cable pulleys are checked for binding, flat spots, and chipped
edges. Furthermore, pulley bearings can be checked
for excessive play. The anti-friction bearings in the

2-38

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

control rods should move freely and the rods should

be free of deformities. Inspect areas where cables
and rods pass through bulkheads or panels for evidence of chafing and misalignment.
Check the outer surface of all exposed electrical
wiring for breaks, chafing, deteriorated insulation,
or other damage. In addition, inspect crimped and
soldered terminals for security and cleanliness.
Connector plugs must also be checked for damage,
corrosion, and overall condition. Check bonding
straps for fraying, loose attachments, and corrosion
at terminal ends. The electrical resistance of the
complete bond must not exceed the resistance values specified in the applicable manufacturer's
instructions. Any damage found must be repaired
and defective parts should be replaced as specified
in the manufacturer's specifications and Federal
Aviation Regulations.
Hydraulic and pneumatic tubing should be free
from dents, nicks, and kinks, and all connectors
should be checked for the correct tightness. Check
all air ducts for dents and the condition of the fabric
or rubber anti-chafing strips at their joints. Dents
should be worked out, and anti-chafing strips
should be replaced if they have pulled loose or no
longer form a tight seal.
Thoroughly inspect all hoses and replace those
hoses that have been damaged by weather checking
or cold flow. Weather checking is a cracking of the
outside covering of hoses that sometimes penetrates
to the reinforcement webbing. Cold flow, on the
other hand, refers to deep and permanent impressions or cracks caused by hose clamps. Both types of
damage weaken hoses and could eventually cause
leaks to develop. In addition to the hoses, you
should inspect the exhaust assembly for security,
cracks, and excessive corrosion.

elongated bolt holes. Typically, dye penetrants are

used to help reveal cracks, porous areas, or other
defects. Ferrous parts, such as the engine mounting
bolts, are usually checked by magnetic particle
inspection.
Many types of engine mount structures are in use,
however, most are typically constructed from
formed and riveted sheet metal rails, forged alloy fittings, welded alloy steel tubing, or a combination of
all three. Engine mount structures consisting of riveted aluminum usually provide two mounting rails
to which the engine is mounted. These aluminum
mount structures are typically used for mounting
large horizontally opposed engines, especially on
multi-engine aircraft. Steel tube mount structures,
on the other hand, are used on both large and small,
horizontally opposed, and radial engines. Steel tube
engine mounting structures bolt to the engine firewall and their shape provides some separation
between an engine and firewall.
Most modern reciprocating engine aircraft utilize
dynafocal engine mounts. With a dynafocal engine
mount, the engine mounting points are turned
inward so they point toward the engine's center of
gravity. This design helps prevent the transmission
of engine vibration to the airframe. [Figure 2-36]
A typical engine mounting structure incorporates
vibration isolating shock mounts that help dampen
engine
vibrations
and
permit restricted

If the engine installation employs a dry sump oil

system, the oil tank is generally removed to permit
thorough cleaning. Furthermore, the oil cooler and
temperature regulator are usually removed and sent
to a repair facility for overhaul, or are included as
an exchange unit and returned with the run-out
engine.

ENGINE MOUNTS
Before a new or overhauled engine can be installed
on an aircraft, an inspection of the engine mount
structure must be accomplished. The engine mount
should be checked for bends, dents, flat spots, or

Figure 2-36. With a dynafocal engine mount, the mounting

points are turned inward so they point toward the engine's
center of gravity.

engine

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

movement. Shock mounts contain rubber components that are arranged so the engine weight rests on
the rubber. The rubber absorbs much of the engine
vibration thereby reducing the amount of vibration
that is transmitted to the airframe.

OVERHAUL
Aircraft operators run the risk of premature engine
or component failure if scheduled maintenance is
delayed or neglected. On the other hand, a
well-maintained engine can provide many hours of
reliable operation without failure up to the
recommended TBO. After reaching TBO, however,
the engine should be overhauled for continued airworthiness so that worn or damaged parts can be
detected and replaced. The best way to identify
parts that are defective or worn beyond airworthy
limits is to disassemble the engine and perform a
complete and thorough inspection.
Engine manufacturers provide overhaul instructions
that contain specific tolerances and general instructions to aid in determining the airworthiness of each
part. Parts that do not meet the manufacturer's specifications must be replaced, while parts that do meet
tolerances are reinstalled in the engine. However, if
a part is near its airworthiness limits, you may want
to replace it since that part could eventually fail or
exceed the acceptable limits before the next scheduled overhaul.
TOP OVERHAUL
A top overhaul is defined as an overhaul of those
parts associated with the engine cylinders. During
a typical top overhaul, the cylinders, pistons, and
valve operating mechanisms are reconditioned
while the piston rings are replaced. In addition, the
valve guides and seats are inspected and replaced
if necessary. When performing a top overhaul, you
should remove as few parts as necessary to gain
access to the cylinders. However, in most cases,
you must remove the intake manifold, ignition harness, and exhaust collectors. Engine accessories
such as magnetos, starters, and alternators typically receive normally scheduled maintenance
during a top overhaul.
Top overhauls are not performed as frequently in
modern aircraft engines as in earlier models because
more durable materials are now available.
Furthermore, a top overhaul is not universally recommended because some engine manufacturers
believe that if you are going to remove all of an

2-39

engine's cylinders, it is relatively inexpensive to

overhaul the rest of the engine. An alternative view,
however, is that since most crankcase assemblies are
relatively more durable than cylinders and valve
trains, a top overhaul is often the most economical
way to bring an engine back to original performance
levels in the short term. In many cases, the final
decision on whether to perform a top overhaul or
major overhaul is up to the owner or operator.
MAJOR OVERHAUL
A major overhaul entails a complete engine reconditioning at periodic intervals. The exact interval is
based on manufacturer recommendations or an FAA
approved number of accumulated hours since new
or last major overhaul.
During a major overhaul, an engine is completely
dismantled, cleaned, inspected, repaired as needed,
reassembled, and tested. Any engine part failing to
meet specified tolerances is rejected and either
scrapped or repaired. Parts such as gaskets, seals,
and some hardware are used only once, and, therefore, are normally replaced regardless of their condition. Instructions provided by the manufacturer
specify the parts that must be replaced.
Furthermore, all accessories are removed for overhaul or replacement.
Engine manufacturers establish types of fits, tolerances, and limits on production drawings when
designing and building their engines. This set of
measurements is the authoritative source of allowable tolerances for new engine parts. Additionally,
the manufacturer establishes serviceable limits
which show the maximum amount of wear a part
can have and still be considered serviceable. When
performing an overhaul, the serviceable part tolerance limits are typically used for parts diat are being
reinstalled while the new part tolerances are used
on any new parts being installed.
It is important to note that the total time on an
engine must be continued when it is overhauled. In
addition, the amount of hours indicating the time
since major overhaul should be added to the engine
log. Only new engines and rebuilt engines are
granted a zero time status. FAR Part 43 describes a
rebuilt engine as an engine that has been disassembled, cleaned, inspected, repaired as necessary,
reassembled, and tested to the same tolerances and
limits as a new engine. A rebuilt engine can contain
either new or used parts that conform to new part
tolerances and limits or to approved oversized or
undersized dimensions. In other words, the term

2-40

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

rebuilt means that the repaired engine conforms to

new parts specifications, which is a higher level of
quality than that provided by the serviceable limits
in an overhauled engine. An engine can only be
rebuilt and carry a zero time status if the engine
manufacturer or an agency approved by the manufacturer performs the work. Zero time status allows
the owner or operator to start a new maintenance
record with no reference to previous operating history. Each manufacturer or agency that rebuilds an
engine must make several entries in the new engine
log. Among those entries are the date the engine was
rebuilt, each change made as required by airworthiness directives, and each change made in compliance with manufacturer's service bulletins, if that
bulletin requires an entry.
Advertisements for engine overhauls or exchange
programs sometimes use the term remanufactured
engine. It is important to note that this term is not
defined by the FAR's and, therefore, the vendor
should be questioned about what is meant by
"remanufactured."

OVERHAUL PROCEDURES
Specific overhaul procedures for any given engine
are listed in the maintenance and overhaul manuals
written for that engine; therefore, the overhaul practices and procedures discussed here are general in
nature. This discussion takes you through all the
steps in a major overhaul on a typical horizontally
opposed engine.

DISASSEMBLY
Before beginning engine disassembly, you should
mount the engine on a stand and inspect its general
condition. Any signs of oil leakage, overheating, or
impact damage should be noted for further inspection during the disassembly. Next, spray wash the
engine exterior. To remove some of the more stubborn, baked on dirt and oil, use a petroleum solvent
or degreaser. However, be sure you thoroughly rinse
any residual solvent from the engine.
Once the engine is clean, remove the fuel metering
system, magnetos, pumps, and other accessories,
and send them to the various specialty shops for
overhaul. The remaining parts, such as the exhaust
system, intercylinder baffles, ignition leads, spark
plugs, and induction system components should
also be removed and set aside. Whenever you are
disassembling an engine or any of its components,
you should mark all parts. This is usually done by
attaching a tag to each part as it is removed.
Remember to place nuts, bolts, and other small parts
in suitable containers during disassembly to prevent
loss and damage. Safety wire, cotter pins, and some
other safety devices are not used more than once, so
they should be discarded and replaced with new
safety devices. As with any other work you do, you
should always use the proper tools for the job to
avoid damaging engine parts or hardware. If special
tools are required, you should obtain and use them
rather than improvising. [Figure 2-37]

Throughout the overhaul process, the engine manufacturer's manuals, service bulletins, and other service information must be available. Therefore, the
first task you must complete in the overhaul process
is to research the airworthiness directives and manufacturer's service bulletins that apply. In addition,
you should gather all the necessary inspection forms
and tooling needed to complete the overhaul.
When an engine is brought to you for an overhaul,
you should do an inventory of all accessories sent
with the engine. If the engine is still installed on the
aircraft, all of the engine accessories such as the
alternator, vacuum pump, hydraulic pump, propeller and its governor are usually still on the
engine. If this is the case, these accessories will have
to be removed and sent to specialty shops or an
appropriate repair station for overhaul. Additional
items such as intercylinder baffles, carburetor or
fuel injection systems, magnetos, ignition leads, and
the induction system components are considered to
be engine parts and are kept with the engine.

Figure 2-37. After being mounted on an engine stand, an

engine is disassembled for a thorough visual inspection and
cleaning.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Crankshaft bearings, oil seals, gaskets, and stressed

bolts and nuts are normally replaced during an overhaul and should be discarded unless directed otherwise by manufacturer instructions. In all cases, consult
the applicable manufacturer's maintenance and overhaul manuals or service bulletins for a complete listing of replacement items. Loose or damaged studs and
other fittings should be tagged or marked for a closer
examination during inspection because they could be
evidence of more serious wear and damage.
At this point, the engine can be completely disassembled and laid out on a clean workbench for a preliminary inspection. A preliminary visual inspection
must be done before cleaning the internal engine
parts because indications of an impending failure are
often detected from residual deposits of metallic particles in oil residue and sludge. Cleaning before
inspection could flush the particles from parts and
recesses in the engine, possibly preventing the detection of an engine problem. [Figure 2-38]
CLEANING
After an engine is torn down and a preliminary
visual inspection has been done, the disassembled
parts must be cleaned by soaking or spraying each
component with a degreaser or cleaning solvent.
Use a commercial safety solvent approved by the
engine manufacturer rather than water-soluble
degreasing solutions that contain soap or caustic
compounds. The reason for this is that water-soluble solutions could be corrosive to aluminum or
magnesium. In addition, soap residues can become
trapped in relatively porous engine components
such as case halves, causing oil contamination and

Figure 2-38. Engine parts are laid out in an orderly fashion

on a clean workbench after the cleaning process to facilitate inspection procedures. Keeping parts arranged in an
orderly manner minimizes loss and accidental damage.

2-41

oil foaming when the engine is returned to service.

[Figure 2-39]
While degreasing removes dirt, grease, and soft carbon, it is often inadequate for removing hard carbon
deposits that sometimes build up on interior engine
surfaces. To remove hard carbon deposits, you can
use an approved decarbonizing solution; however,
you must exercise caution and follow the manufacturer's recommendations. Decarbonizing solutions
are available in a water-soluble base or hydrocarbon
base. Of the two, the hydrocarbon base is preferable
because water-soluble decarbonizing solutions carry
the same corrosion dangers as water-soluble
degreasers. Decarbonizer solution is usually quite
active, so you must adhere to several precautions. For
example, you should always wear protective clothing
and eye protection when using a decarbonizer. In
addition, take care to avoid leaving engine parts in a
decarbonizing solution longer than the prescribed
time periods. Furthermore, be sure the solution is
safe for magnesium parts before immersing them, and
avoid placing steel parts and magnesium parts in the
same container. The reason for this is the cleaning
solution could cause a chemical reaction between the
dissimilar metals that could corrode the magnesium.
Be especially careful with accessory housings that
often have a high magnesium content.

Figure 2-39. Several manufacturers produce cleaning fixtures

that circulate an approved safety solvent for cleaning engine
parts. These fixtures make cleaning much easier by containing solvent splashes and by providing a contained area for
small parts that could otherwise be misplaced or lost.

2-42

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

After the parts have soaked in a decarbonizing solution for the appropriate time, they must be removed
and thoroughly cleaned to remove any traces of the
decarbonizing solution. Any one of several cleaning
methods may be used, such as blasting a part with
steam, or brushing the part with mineral spirits.
With the exception of bearings or polished surfaces,
any remaining carbon deposits are usually removed
by scraping, wire brushing, or grit-blasting with
plastic pellets or organic materials such as rice,
baked wheat, or crushed walnut shells. However,
before beginning any grit-blasting process, you must
insert rubber plugs in all drilled oil passages and be
sure that all machined surfaces are masked with a
recommended material. Furthermore, old hardware
can be screwed into threaded holes to prevent grit
from getting into the screw threads. Since valve
seats are typically hardened, they can usually be left
unprotected during grit-blasting. In fact, grit blasting can often be used to remove the glaze that forms
on valve seats, as well as the enamel from cylinder
cooling fins that does not come off in a decarbonizing solution. The key to avoiding damage when
using a grit blast is to use the lowest air pressure that
is practical and only blast the part long enough to
remove the carbon.
It is important to note that any mechanical means of
cleaning hard carbon deposits can cause unintentional damage if applied too vigorously. Therefore,
you should pay extra attention when cleaning any
part with abrasive tools.
To clean machined and polished bearing surfaces
such as journals and crankpins, use crocus cloth
moistened with mineral spirits. Once all the carbon
is removed, polish the surfaces with a piece of dry
crocus cloth.
When cleaning a crankshaft with hollow crankpins
that serve as sludge chambers, you must remove the
plugs from the crankpin ends to facilitate a cleaning
and visual inspection. If the sludge chamber is not
thoroughly cleaned, accumulated sludge loosened
during cleaning may clog the crankshaft oil passages
and cause subsequent bearing failures.
After all of the parts have been thoroughly cleaned,
steel parts must be coated with a film of protective
oil. Applying the protective oil coating is important
because if steel parts are left exposed to the air, they
will quickly rust. If the oil coating must be removed
to perform additional inspections later on, it is
imperative that you reapply an oil coating to prevent corrosion.

VISUAL I NSPECTION
Once an engine part is clean, it must be inspected
closely for damage. The first type of inspection that
is usually done is a thorough visual inspection
aided by a magnifying glass, flashlight, and, if necessary, a borescope. Visual inspections are done to
detect many different visible surface defects in
parts. As a maintenance technician, you must have
an understanding of the terms used to describe the
nature of a particular defect. Some of the more common types of damage you will look for include:
Abrasion An area of roughened scratches or
marks usually caused by foreign matter between
moving parts.
Brinelling One or more indentations on bearing
races usually caused by high static loads or application of force during installation or
removal. Indentations are rounded or spherical
due to the impression left by the bearing's balls or
rollers. Burning Surface damage caused by
excessive heat as a result of improper fit,
insufficient lubrication, or over-temperature
operation. Burnishing Polishing of one surface
by sliding contact with a smooth, harder surface.
Usually no displacement or removal of metal
occurs. Burr A sharp or roughened projection
of metal usually resulting from machine processing,
drilling, or cutting.
Chafing Describes the wear caused by a
rubbing action between two parts under light
pressure. Chipping The breaking away of pieces
of material, caused by excessive stress
concentrations or careless handling.
Corrosion Loss of metal by a chemical or
electrochemical action. The corrosion products are
generally removed by mechanical means. Crack
A partial separation of material usually caused
by vibration, overloading, internal stresses,
defective assembly, or fatigue.
Cut Loss of metal, usually to an appreciable
depth caused by a sharp object, such as a saw blade,
chisel, or screwdriver.
Dent A small, rounded surface depression
usually found in sheet metal. Most dents are the
result of impact with another object.
Erosion Loss of surface metal caused by the
mechanical action of foreign objects, such as grit or
fine sand. The eroded area will be rough and may be
lined in the direction the foreign material moved
relative to the surface.
Flaking The breaking loose of small pieces of
metal or coated surfaces caused by defective plating
or excessive loading.
Fretting A form of surface corrosion caused
by minute movement between two parts
clamped

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

together under considerable pressure. Found sometimes between crankcase halves. Galling A
severe condition of chafing or fretting in which a
transfer of metal from one part to another occurs.
Galling is usually caused by slight movement
between mated parts under high loads. Gouging
A furrowing condition in which a displacement
of metal occurrs. Gouging is usually caused by
a piece of metal or foreign material becoming
trapped between moving parts. Grooving A
recess or channel with rounded and smooth edges
that usually results from improperly aligned parts.
Inclusion Presence of foreign or extraneous
material that is wholly confined within a portion
of metal. The included material is often
introduced during the manufacture of rod, bar, or
tubing by rolling or forging.
Nick A sharp sided gouge or depression with a
"V" shaped bottom. Nicks are generally the result of
careless handling of tools and parts. Peening A
series of blunt surface depressions. Scuffing or
Pick Up A buildup or rolling of metal from one
area to another which is usually caused by
insufficient lubrication, clearance, or foreign matter.
Pitting Small hollows of irregular shape in the
surface, usually caused by corrosion or minute
mechanical chipping of surfaces. Scoring A
series of deep scratches caused by foreign particles
between moving parts, or careless assembly or
disassembly techniques. Scratches Shallow,
thin lines or marks, varying in degree of depth and
width, caused by improper handling or the
presence of fine foreign particles during
operation.
Spailing A bearing defect in which chips of the
hardened bearing surface are broken out. Stain A
localized change in color that is noticeably
different in appearance from the surrounding area.
Upsetting A displacement of material beyond
the normal surface contour commonly referred to
as a bulge or bump. When a part is upset, there is
usually no metal loss.
CRANKCASE

Forces working in a crankcase produce highly

stressed areas which can eventually develop cracks,
especially around mating and bearing surfaces,
mounting bosses, threaded holes and studs, openings, and structural fillet areas. Although more elaborate methods for crack detection are available, a
thorough visual inspection can save wasted time
and effort by quickly detecting serious damage
requiring replacement.

2-43

In addition to checking for cracks, it is important to

closely inspect all lubrication channels and oil
ports. Furthermore, you must check for loose or bent
studs and examine hole threads with a flashlight. If
stripped threads are encountered, mark the hole for
repairs later after completing the visual inspection.
GEARS

The primary purpose of a gear is the transmission

of force through motion; therefore, stress and wear
occur continually. For that reason, it is important
to visually examine all gears for cracked or
chipped teeth and the presence of pitting or excessive wear. Deep pit marks or excessive wear on
gear teeth are reasons for rejecting and replacing a
gear. Minor scratches and abrasions on a gear's
bearing surfaces can normally be dressed out with
a fine abrasive cloth, however, deep scratches or
scoring is unacceptable.
BEARINGS

Ball bearings and roller bearings should be closely

examined for smoothness and freedom of movement. As you visually inspect a bearing, feel the
bearing parts carefully to detect any roughness, flat
spots on balls or rollers, and dents or corrosion on
the races. In addition, check for pitting, scoring, and
galling on the outside surfaces of races. Pitting on a
thrust bearing race that cannot be removed by polishing with crocus cloth or other mild abrasive usually requires part replacement. You must also check
journal bearings for damage such as galling, burning, scoring, spalling, misalignment, or an
out-of-round condition.
Bearing inserts such as bushings and plain bearings
are usually replaced, however, looking at them
could help you detect wear on their mating surfaces
or mounting bosses. Scratching and light scoring of
aluminum bearing surfaces in the engine is usually
acceptable if the damage is within the limits stated
in the engine manufacturer's overhaul manual.
However, the presence of other defects could require
rejection of the part even if it falls within specific
tolerance limits.
CRANKSHAFT

A crankshaft is usually the heaviest and most highly

stressed part of an aircraft engine. Since very few
repairs are approved for a crankshaft, a visual
inspection is done mainly to determine if the crankshaft falls within wear tolerance limits. Inspect the

2-44

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

main and crankpin journal bearing surfaces for

burning, pitting, scoring, or spalling, giving extra
attention to the fillets at the edges of journal surfaces. If pitting exists in an amount that cannot be
removed by polishing with crocus cloth or other
mild abrasives, the crankshaft may have to be
replaced. When a crankshaft is equipped with oil
transfer tubes, check them for tightness.
CONNECTING RODS

Connecting rods must be checked for small cracks,

corrosion, pitting, nicks, or other damage. In addition, if an engine has been subjected to an overspeed
or excessively high manifold pressure, slight
amounts of movement between the bearing insert
and the rod can cause galling. If galling does exist or
if a connecting rod is twisted or bent, the rod must
be replaced.
PISTONS AND PISTON PINS

Check pistons carefully after cleaning to be sure all

carbon is removed from the ring grooves and oil
relief holes. Once this is done, use a magnifying
glass to inspect for cracks, scores, and scratches on
the outside and inside of all pistons. Another
method of visually detecting cracks is to carefully
heat the piston, which expands any existing cracks
and forces out residual oil. Pistons with deep scoring, cracked or broken ring lands, cracked skirts,
and badly scored piston pin holes should be
rejected. [Figure 2-40]
Examine piston pins for scoring, cracks, and pitting.
In addition, you must remove all piston pin plugs
and check the interior surfaces of piston pins for pitting and corrosion. Since pins are often case hardened, cracks will show up inside the pin more often
than on the outside. If pitting is found and cannot
be removed by polishing with crocus cloth or other
mild abrasives, reject the pin and replace it.

CYLINDERS

In order to perform an effective visual inspection of

a cylinder for external and internal cracks, the cylinder must be free of carbon deposits and paint.
Cracks near the edge of fins are repairable, however,
cracks at the base of a fin are reasons for rejection
and replacement. The amount of fin damage permitted on a given cylinder is based on a percentage of
the total fin area and is established by the manufacturer. If dented or bent fins are found, it is best to
leave them as they are because straightening a fin
typically results in the fin breaking.
When inspecting a cylinder's interior, light amounts
of pitting, rust, and scoring are typically not a cause
for concern. The reason for this is because the damage is usually removed when lapping in a new set of
rings. If large amounts of pitting, rust, and scoring
exist, it must be removed by regrinding or honing.
Inspect valve seat inserts for pitting, burning, scoring, and assymetry. If any of these exist, the valve
seat must be refaced. In addition to inspecting the
valve seats, the spark plug thread inserts should be
checked for condition of the threads and looseness
by running a tap of the proper size through the
insert. Any missing or damaged threads requires
replacement of the insert.
Look closely at valve guides to be certain that all
carbon was removed during the cleaning process.
This is important because carbon deposits tend to
cover or fill pitting damage inside the guide, making
detection difficult. If a guide with pitting is left in
the engine, carbon deposits may again collect in the
pits and cause valve sticking when the engine is
returned to service.
Rocker shaft bosses need to be checked for scoring,
cracks, rocker shaft to shaft boss clearance and
out-of-round conditions. Scoring is usually caused
by the rocker shaft turning in the bosses because
either the shaft is too loose in the bosses or the
rocker arm is too tight on the shaft. Sticking valves,
on the other hand, cause the rocker shaft to work up
and down, causing uneven wear on the rocker shaft
bosses.
CAMSHAFT

Figure 2-40. When visually inspecting a piston, be alert for

cracks that form at the base of ring lands and at the junction of the piston head and wall.

The condition of the lobes on a camshaft directly

influence an engine's performance; therefore, you
must examine the surfaces of all camshaft lobes for
irregularities such as feathered edges, abrasions,
nicks, or upsets. Lobe surface damage that, in turn,
damages a lifter, is a reason to reject and replace the

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

camshaft. Additional defects that are cause for rejection include spalling, pitting, and surface cracks.
VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISMS

Most horizontally opposed engines operate with

hydraulic valve lifters that must be disassembled,
cleaned, and visually inspected during an overhaul.
The plunger and cylinder in a hydraulic lifter are
matched units, therefore, take care to avoid interchanging parts of one lifter with parts from another
lifter. Lifter parts should be free from nicks,
scratches, and chipped shoulders. To verify that a
check valve is seating properly, quickly press the
plunger into the cylinder. The plunger should
bounce back, indicating satisfactory operation. If the
plunger does not bounce back satisfactorily, a leakage test can be done using specially designed test
equipment before discarding the lifter as defective.
In addition to inspecting hydraulic lifters, you must
also verify that all push rods are clean, especially
the oil passage through each rod. Ball ends should
be smooth and free from nicks and scratches, and
must fit tightly in the rod ends. To check for
straightness, push rods are rolled across a flat, clean
surface.
Inspect valve rockers for cracks and worn, pitted, or
scored tips. In addition, visually verify that all oil
passages are free from obstructions. If a rocker shaft
turns excessively in a cylinder head, scoring typically results. Another problem often seen is burnishing and galling on a rocker shaft caused by the
bronze rocker bushing and the heat of friction.
Some engine overhaul manuals require valve
replacement, however, in cases where valves can be
reused, a detailed inspection is required.
Overheating, as well as nicks and scratches in the
valve stem near the spring retainer groove renders a
valve unserviceable.
Valve springs are also subjected to a great deal of
wear and tear, and, therefore, must be checked visually for cracks, rust, and broken ends. If any corrosion exists or if a valve spring shows signs of wear,
it must be discarded and replaced.
THREADED FASTENERS

Depending on the particular component, replacement of threaded fasteners such as bolts, nuts, studs,
and screws may be required by the overhaul manual. However, in cases where it is allowable to reuse

2-45

threaded fasteners, the parts should be carefully

examined for evidence of cracks or mutilated
threads. Cross-threading caused by improper installation, torn threads caused by trapped foreign matter, and flattened threads caused by improper fit are
all typical examples of thread damage. Small defects
such as slight nicks or burrs can be dressed out with
a small file, fine abrasive cloth, or stone. However, if
the fastener shows damage caused by
overtighten-ing or the use of improper tools,
replace it with a new one.
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION
Once all engine parts have been visually inspected,
key components must be structurally inspected to
verify their integrity. If a structural inspection
reveals a faulty part, the part is immediately
removed from the overhaul process and replaced
with a new part. Some of the more common structural inspections that are used include magnetic
particle, liquid penetrant, eddy current, ultrasonic,
and radiography inspection.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

The nondestructive inspection method most often

used for parts made of iron or iron alloys is magnetic
particle inspection. Magnetic particle inspection is
useful for detecting cracks, splits, seams, and voids
that form when a metal ruptures. It is also useful for
detecting cold shuts and inclusions of foreign matter that occured when the metal was cast or rolled.
With magnetic particle inspection, a part is magnetized and an oxide containing magnetic particles is
poured or sprayed over the part's surface. If you
recall from your general studies, when a material
containing large amounts of iron is subjected to a
strong magnetic field, the magnetic domains within
the material align themselves and the part becomes
magnetized. When this happens, the part develops a
north and south pole and lines of flux flow in a continuous stream from the north pole to the south
pole. If a break occurs within the part, another set of
magnetic poles appears, one on either side of the
break. Therefore, when conducting magnetic particle inspection, the poles produced by a fault attract
the magnetic particles in the oxide, thereby giving
you an indication of the break.
In order to detect a crack with magnetic particle
inspection, the part must be magnetized so the lines
of flux are perpendicular to the fault. This is because
a flaw that is parallel to the lines of flux causes a

2-46

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Figure 2-41. When a part is magnetized in a coil, or solenoid,

the lines of flux pass through the material longitudinally. As
the flux lines pass through the part, faults that run across
the part or at an angle are detected.

Figure 2-42. When current passes through a part, lines of

flux encircle the part, making it circularly magnetized. This
circular magnetization allows for the detection of faults
extending lengthwise and at an angle along the part.

minimal disruption in the magnetic field. On the

other hand, a defect that is perpendicular to the field
creates a large disruption and is relatively easy to
detect. To ensure that the flux lines are nearly perpendicular to a flaw, a part should be magnetized
both longitudinally and circularly.

with current passed through them. The magnetic

field is oriented perpendicular to current that flows
between the probes. [Figure 2-43]

In longitudinal magnetization, the magnetizing current flows either through a coil that encircles the
part being tested, or through a coil around a soft iron
yoke. In either method, the magnetic field is oriented along the material so that magnetic fields form
on either side of faults located across a material.
[Figure 2-41]
With circular magnetization, current flows through
the part being inspected, creating lines of magnetic
flux that encircle the part. When this occurs, flaws
or faults located along the material are magnetized
and, therefore, attract magnetic particles. Current is
sent through the part by placing it between the
heads of the magnetizing equipment. However, if
the part is tubular, it is slipped over a conductive
rod that is then placed between the heads of a magnetizing machine. [Figure 2-42]
Large flat objects are circularly magnetized by using
test probes that are held firmly against the surface

The medium used to indicate the presence of a fault

by magnetic particle inspection is ferromagnetic. In
other words, the material is finely divided, has a
high permeability, and a low retentivity.
Furthermore, for operator safety it is nontoxic.
There is no one medium that is best for all applications. However, in general, a testing medium consists of extremely fine iron oxides that are dyed
gray, black, red, or treated with a dye that causes
them to fluoresce when illuminated with an ultraviolet lamp.
The iron oxides may be used dry, or they can be
mixed with kerosene or some other light oil and
sprayed over a surface. Dry particles require no special preparation, making them well suited for field
applications where portable equipment is used. Dry
particles are typically applied with hand shakers,
spray bulbs, or powder guns.
Wet particles are flowed over a part as a bath. The
wet method is typically used with stationary equipment that continuously agitates the bath to keep the
particles in suspension. Particles are either mixed

2-47

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

cles settles to the bottom of the tube allowing measurement and comparison to be made against the
manufacturer's standardization guide.
Since the bath is continuously recycled, it often
becomes contaminated and discolored. When this
happens, you must drain and clean the equipment,
then refill with a fresh bath.
Different types of magnetizing procedures must be
used for different applications. The two methods
you must be familiar with are the residual magnetism method and the continuous magnetism method.
When a part is magnetized and the magnetizing
force is removed before the testing medium is
applied, the part is tested by the residual method.
This procedure relies on a part's residual or permanent magnetism. The residual procedure is only
used with steels that have been heat-treated for
stressed applications. Continuous magnetization
requires a part to be subjected to a magnetizing force
when the testing medium is applied. The continuous process of magnetization is most often used to
locate invisible defects since it provides a greater
sensitivity in locating subsurface discontinuities
than does residual magnetism. When performing an
engine overhaul, most overhaul manuals specify the
type of magnetization to be used on various parts.
[Figure 2-44]

Figure 2-43. Current flowing through a flat object from

high-current probes magnetizes the part circularly and
detects cracks or faults that are in line with the probes.

in the vehicle with proportions recommended by

the manufacturer or they come pre-mixed. The particle concentration of the bath requires close monitoring with adjustments made as necessary each
time the system is used. Measuring particle concentration is accomplished by collecting a sample of the
agitated bath in a centrifuge tube. A volume of partiPART

CRITICAL AREAS

METHOD OF
MAGNETIZATION

D.C.
AMPERES

CRANKSHAFT

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

2500

JOURNALS, FILLETS, OIL

HOLES,THRUST FLANGES,
PROP FLANGE

FATIGUE CRACKS,
HEAT CRACKS

CONNECTING ROD

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

1800

ALL AREAS

FATIGUE CRACKS

CAMSHAFT

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

1500

LOBES, JOURNALS

HEAT CRACKS

PISTON PIN

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

1000

SHEAR PLANES, ENDS,

CENTER

FATIGUE CRACKS

ROCKER ARMS

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

800

PAD, SOCKET UNDER

SIDE ARMS AND BOSS

FATIGUE CRACKS

GEARSTO6INCH
DIAMETER

CIRCULAR OR
ON CENTER
CONDUCTOR

1000 TO
1500

TEETH, SPLINES,
KEYWAYS

FATIGUE CRACKS

GEARS OVER 6 INCH

DIAMETER

SHAFT CIRCULAR
TEETH BETWEEN
HEADS TWO TIMES 90

1000 TO
1500

TEETH, SPLINES

FATIGUE CRACKS

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

1000 TO
1500

SPLINES, KEYWAYS,
CHANGE OF SECTION

FATIGUE CRACKS,
HEAT CRACKS

CIRCULAR AND
LONGITUDINAL

500

THREADS UNDER HEAD

FATIGUE CRACKS

SHAFTS
THRU BOLTS
ROD BOLTS

POSSIBLE
DEFECTS

Figure 2-44. A typical magnetic particle inspection schedule for aircraft engine parts provides details on method of magnetization,
current required, critical areas, and a list of possible defects. In this case, the fluorescent method is preferred and a wet continuous
procedure is required.

2-48

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Magnetization of a part after it is inspected is often

detrimental to its operation in an aircraft. Therefore,
before a part is returned to service, it must be thoroughly demagnetized. In order to demagnetize a
part, the magnetic domains must be disorganized.
To accomplish this, the part is subjected to a magnetizing force opposite that of the force used to magnetize it. For example, if the magnetizing force was
AC, the domains alternate in polarity, and if the part
is slowly removed from the field while current is
still flowing, the reversing action progressively
becomes weaker. Thus, the domains are left with
random orientation and the part is demagnetized.
AC current does not penetrate a surface very deeply.
For this reason, complete demagnetization of some
parts require DC demagnetization. To accomplish
this, a part is placed in a coil and subjected to more
current than initially used to magnetize the part.
Current is flowed through the coil and then the
direction of current flow is reversed while decreasing the amount. The direction of current flow continues to be reversed in direction and decreased
until the lowest value of current is reached.
The presence of any residual magnetism is checked
with a magnet strength indicator. Parts must be
demagnetized to within the limits specified in the
appropriate overhaul manual before they are
returned to service. Although in many cases overhaul manual instructions specify the magnetic particle method of inspection for a certain component,
the best advice is to consult the overhaul manual for
warnings or restrictions before proceeding. For
example, magnetizing the plunger assembly of a
hydraulic valve lifter interferes with the steel check
valve's ability to seat properly and it is difficult to
demagnetize the assembly sufficiently to prevent
further problems.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

Liquid penetrant inspection is a method of nondestructive inspection suitable for locating cracks,
porosity, or other types of faults open to the surface.
Penetrant inspection is usable on ferrous and
nonfer-rous metals, as well as nonporous plastic
material. The primary limitation of dye penetrant
inspection is that a defect must be open to the
surface.
Dye penetrant inspection is based on the principle
of capillary attraction. The area being inspected is
covered with a penetrating liquid that has a very low
viscosity and low surface tension. This penetrant is
allowed to remain on the surface long enough to
allow the capillary action to draw the penetrant into
any fault that extends to the surface. After sufficient

Figure 2-45. (A) When performing a liquid penetrant

inspection, the penetrant is spread over the surface of the
material being examined, and allowed sufficient time for
capillary action to take place. (B) The excess penetrant
is then washed from the surface, leaving any cracks and
surface flaws filled. (C) An absorbent developer is
sprayed over the surface where it blots out any penetrant.
The crack then shows up as a bright line against the white
developer.

time, the excess penetrant is washed off and the surface is covered with a developer. The developer, by
the process of reverse capillary action, blots the penetrant out of cracks or other faults, forming a visible
line in the developer. If an indication is fuzzy
instead of sharp and clear, the probable cause is that
the part was not thoroughly washed before the
developer was applied. [Figure 2-45]
There are two types of dyes used in liquid penetrant
inspection: fluorescent and colored. An ultraviolet
light is used with a fluorescent penetrant and any
flaw shows up as a green line. With the colored dye
method, faults show up as red lines against the
white developer.
When using liquid penetrant it is important that the
surface be free of grease, dirt, and oil. Only when
the surface is perfectly clean can the penetrant be
ensured of getting into cracks or faults. The best
method of cleaning a surface is with a volatile petroleum-based solvent, which effectively removes all
traces of oil and grease. However, some materials are
damaged by these solvents, so care must be taken to
ensure the proper cleaner is used. If vapor
degreas-ing is not practical, the part is cleaned by
scrubbing with a solvent or a strong detergent
solution. Parts to be inspected with liquid penetrant
should not be cleaned by abrasive blasting,
scraping, or heavy brushing. These methods tend to
close any discontinuities on the surface and hide
defects that could

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

otherwise be detected. After the part is clean, rinse

and dry it thoroughly.
Once clean, penetrant is typically applied to a surface by immersing the part in the liquid or by swabbing or brushing a penetrant solution onto a part's
surface. However, some manufacturer's do offer dye
penetrant in spray cans to allow application in small
areas for localized inspection. Whichever system is
used, the area inspected is completely covered with
the penetrating liquid which is then allowed to
remain on the surface for the manufacturer's recommended length of time.
The amount of time required for a penetrant to
cure is called its dwell time and is determined by
the size and shape of the discontinuities for which
you are looking. For example, small, thin cracks
require a longer dwell time than large and more
open cracks. Dwell time is decreased if a part is
heated; however, if the part gets too hot the penetrant evaporates.
Once the appropriate dwell time passes, liquid
pen-etrants are removed using either water, an
emulsifying agent, or a solvent. Water-soluble
penetrants are the easiest to remove. Typically, this
type of penetrant is flushed away with water that is
sprayed at a pressure of 30 to 40 psi. The spray
nozzle is held at a 45 degree angle to the surface to
avoid washing the penetrant out of cracks or faults.
Post-emulsifying penetrants are not water soluble.
They must be treated with an emulsifying agent
before they can be washed from a part's surface. This
allows you to control the amount of penetrant that is
removed prior to cleaning. By varying the emulsifier
dwell time, surface penetrant can be emulsified
while the penetrant absorbed into cracks or other
defects is left untouched. As a result, the surface
penetrant is rinsed off but the absorbed penetrant
remains to expose the defect.
Some penetrants are neither water soluble nor
emul-sifiable, but instead are solvent-removeable.
When using this type of penetrant, excess
penetrant is removed with an absorbent towel, and
the part's surface is then wiped with clean towels
dampened with solvent. The solvent should not
be sprayed onto the surface nor should the part be
immersed in solvent, since this will wash the
penetrant out of faults or dilute it enough to
prevent proper indication in the developer.
Once the excess penetrant is removed, a developer
is applied. There are three kinds of developers
used to draw penetrants from faults. While all three

2-49

types do the same job, the method of application

differs. One thing to keep in mind is that penetrant
begins to bleed out of any fault as soon as the surface penetrant is removed. Because of this, covering the surface to be inspected with developer as
soon as possible helps to pinpoint the location of
any fault.
A dry developer consists of a loose powder material
such as talcum that adheres to the part and acts as a
blotter to draw the penetrant out of any surface
faults. When using a dry developer, the part is typically placed in a bin of loose developer. For larger
components, dry powder is applied with a soft
brush, or blown over the surface with a powder gun.
After the powder remains on the surface for the recommended time, the excess is removed with
low-pressure air flow.
The penetrant used with a dry developer is often
treated with a fluorescent or colored dye. These
parts are typically examined under black light so
faults appear as a green indication as the light
causes the dye to fluoresce, or glow. Colored dye
penetrants are usually red and any faults appear as
red marks, clearly visible on the surface.
A wet developer is similar to a dry developer in that
it is applied as soon as the surface penetrant is
rinsed off the part. However, a wet developer typically consists of a white powder mixed with water
that is either flowed over the surface or a part is
immersed in it. The part is then air-dried and
inspected in the same way as a part on which dry
developer was used. Wet developers are typically
used with penetrants that are treated with either fluorescent or colored dyes.
The most commonly used developer for field maintenance is the nonaqueous type. Nonaqueous developer consists of a white, chalk-like powder
suspended in a solvent that is normally applied
from a pressure spray can, or sprayed onto a surface
with a paint gun. The part being inspected must be
thoroughly dry before a thin, moist coat of developer is applied. The developer dries rapidly and
pulls out any penetrant that exists within a fault.
The penetrant stains the developer and is easily
seen with a black light when a fluorescent penetrant is used. If a white light is desired, use a colored dye.
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

Eddy current inspection is a testing method that

requires little or no part preparation and can detect
surface and subsurface flaws in most
metals.

2-50

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Furthermore, it can differentiate among metals and

alloys, as well as a metal's heat treat condition. Eddy
current inspection is based on the principle of current
acceptance. In other words, it determines the ease
with which a material accepts induced current. As AC
is induced into a material being tested, the AC is measured to determine the material's characteristics.
Eddy currents are electrical currents that flow
through electrically conductive material under the
influence of an induced electromagnetic field. The
ease with which a material accepts the induced
eddy currents is determined by four properties: its
conductivity, permeability, mass, and by the presence of any voids or faults.
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

Ultrasonic testing equipment is based on an electronic oscillator that produces AC of the proper frequency, which is amplified to the proper strength
and sent to a transducer that is touching the material being tested. The transducer causes the test material to vibrate at the oscillator's frequency. When the
vibrations reach the other side of the material and
bounce back, they create an electrical impulse at the
transducer that is seen on the CRT display.

DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION
Once an engine part is found to be structurally sound,
it must be measured to verify that it is within the
manufacturer's tolerances. This check is referred to
as a dimensional inspection and requires the use of
several precision measuring instruments such as
micrometer calipers, telescoping gauges, and dial
indicators. Once a part has been measured, its dimensions must be compared to the serviceable dimension
limits required by the manufacturer. A list of both
new parts limits and serviceable limits are provided
in a typical overhaul manual. [Figure 2-46]
In most cases, the values given in a manufacturer's
table of limits are clearance dimensions, not actual
part sizes. The limits are specified as the fit of one
part in another. For example, the tolerances given
for "piston pin in piston" represent the clearance
between the piston pin boss and the piston pin. To
determine this clearance, you must measure the piston pin's outside diameter and then measure the
inside diameter of the piston pin boss in the piston.
The difference between these two values represents
the "piston pin in piston" clearance. The capital "L"
in the 0.013L "piston pin in piston" serviceable
limit denotes a loose fit, meaning that the inside
diameter of the piston pin boss is greater than the
outside diameter of the piston pin.

RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION

One of the most important methods of nondestructive inspection available is radiographic inspection.
Radiographic inspection allows a photographic
view inside a structure. In other words, this method
uses certain sections of the electromagnetic spectrum to photograph an object's interior.
X-ray and gamma ray radiation are forms of high
energy, short wavelength electromagnetic waves.
The amount of energy these rays contain is related
inversely to their wavelength. In other words, the
shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy. They
have no electrical charge or mass, travel in straight
lines at the speed of light, and are able to penetrate
matter. The depth of penetration is dependent upon
the ray's energy.
There are certain characteristics that make x-rays
and gamma rays especially useful in nondestructive
inspection. For example, both types of rays are
absorbed by the matter through which they pass.
The amount of absorption is proportional to the density of the material. Furthermore, x-rays and gamma
rays ionize certain materials, making it possible for
them to expose photographic film and cause certain
materials to fluoresce, or glow.

Some fits, such as a bushing in the small end of a

connecting rod, call for an interference, or tight fit
and are indicated by a capital "T" following the
dimension numerals. All interference fits require
special procedures or equipment to assemble the
parts because there is no clearance between the two
dimensions. For example, dimension 0.0025T to
0.0050T means that the bushing must be from two
and a half to five thousandths of an inch larger than
the hole into which it fits.
All the parts listed in the table of limits must be
inspected to ascertain if their dimensions comply
with the part specifications listed. If a part does not
fall within the tolerances listed, it must be replaced
or repaired. The exception to this requirement are
dimensions given for interference fits, such as the
bushing in connecting rod example just mentioned.
If the bushings do not have damage requiring
replacement, you would not remove them simply to
measure their fit.
CRANKCASE

In order to perform a dimensional inspection on a

crankcase you must temporarily assemble the case

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-51

Figure 2-46. When doing a dimensional inspection on engine components, you must measure each component and compare the
dimensions to the limits in the overhaul manual.

2-52

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

halves. For example, to check main bearing clearances, the main bearing inserts must be installed in
the crankcase halves and the case halves must be
reassembled and torqued. A telescoping gauge is
then adjusted to the inside diameter of each bearing
and measured with a micrometer caliper. The crankshaft journals are then carefully measured with the
same micrometer. Once both dimensions are known,
the journal dimensions are subtracted from the main
bearing insert dimensions to obtain the clearance
between the inserts and the crankshaft journal.
With the crankcase halves assembled, the camshaft
bearing clearances must also be checked. Since the
camshaft bearings on many engines are machined
into the crankcase there is no need for camshaft bearing inserts. To check the camshaft bearing clearances,
use the same procedures discussed earlier for checking crankshaft bearing clearances. [Figure 2-47]

is the sum of the over and under indications on the

dial indicator. If the total indicator reading exceeds
the dimensions given in the manufacturer's table of
limits, the crankshaft must be replaced. No attempt
should be made to straighten a bent crankshaft
because this will probably rupture the nitrated surface of the bearing journals, leading to eventual
crankshaft failure.
CONNECTING RODS

Connecting rods must be checked for twist and convergence. To check for twist, arbors are inserted into
each end of a connecting rod. The arbors are then
laid across parallel blocks. Using a set of thickness
gauges, measure to see if there is any space between
the arbors and the parallel blocks. The amount of
twist is determined by the thickness of the gauge
that can be inserted. [Figure 2-48]

A crankshaft has a number of critical bearing surfaces that require dimensional inspection. For
example, the dimensions of main bearing journals
are normally measured with a micrometer caliper to
determine crankshaft journal to main bearing clearances in the crankcase. In addition, rod bearing journals are checked with a micrometer caliper to
determine rod bearing to rod bearing journal clearances.

To check a connecting rod for convergence, you

must check the distance between the large and small
arbors on both sides of the connecting rod. To do
this, attach a parallelism gauge to one end of the
large arbor. Adjust the gauge until it just touches the
small arbor. Next, move the parallelism gauge to the
other end of the large arbor. If the gauge does not
touch the small arbor, determine the clearance
between the gauge and arbor with a thickness gauge.
The difference in distance between the two arbors is
the amount of convergence, or bend present in the
rod. [Figure 2-49]

Another crankshaft dimensional inspection requires

you to check a crankshaft's runout. To check for
runout, a crankshaft is supported on vee-blocks at
locations specified in the overhaul manual. A dial
indicator is then placed at points along the crankshaft and the crankshaft is rotated. The total runout

Any rods that are twisted or bent beyond serviceable

limits must be replaced. When replacement is necessary, the weight of the new rod should be matched

CRANKSHAFT

Figure 2-47. A dimensional inspection of the main journal

bearing inserts and camshaft bearings requires assembly of

the crankcase halves. Once assembled, a telescoping gauge
and micrometer are used to determine the appropriate
clearances.

Figure 2-48. To check a connecting rod for twist, place parallel blocks under the ends of the arbors and attempt to
pass a thickness gauge between each arbor end and the
block. If a gap is present, the connecting rod is twisted. The
amount of twist permitted is specified in the engine overhaul manual.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-53

Figure 2-50. A straightedge and thickness gauge are used to

check the flatness of a piston head. The presence of a
depression in the top of a piston head may indicate damage
from detonation and is often cause for rejection.

Figure 2-49. To check a connecting rod for convergence,

mount a parallelism gauge to one end of the large arbor and
measure the distance between the arbors on both sides. The
difference in the measurements is the amount of bend in the
rod.

within one-half ounce to the opposite rod to minimize vibrations.

PISTONS, RINGS, AND PISTON PINS

Piston heads should be dimensionally checked for

flatness using a straightedge and a thickness gauge.
If you detect the presence of a depression in the top
of a piston, the piston was most likely subjected to
detonation. In such cases, the piston must be discarded due to an increased possibility of stress
cracking around the pin bosses and at the junction
of the piston head and walls. If the piston head is
flat, measure the outside diameter of a piston with a
micrometer at the piston skirt and each ring land.
The measurements are used later after checking
cylinder bore dimensions to determine acceptable
piston to cylinder clearances. [Figure 2-50]

gauge is used to measure the gap between the ends

of the ring. If the gap is correct, the ring is suitable
for use in that cylinder. However, if the end gap is
too small the ring could bind once it reaches its
operating temperature and expands. On the other
hand, if the gap is excessive, the ring will allow
excessive blow-by.
To check a piston ring's side clearance, install the
ring in its proper ring groove and measure the clearance between each ring and ring land with a thickness gauge. To obtain an accurate measurement, the
ring being measured must be held into the ring
groove. If tapered rings are installed, hold a straightedge against the side of the piston. [Figure 2-51]
Piston pins are checked dimensionally in several
ways. First, the clearance between a piston pin and

In addition to the pistons, the piston rings must be

dimensionally checked. The two things you must
measure on each piston ring are end gap clearance
and side clearance. End gap is the space between the
two ends of a piston ring once it is installed in a
cylinder. Side clearance, on the other hand, is the
space between a piston ring and ring land.
The end gap of piston rings is measured by placing a
ring into a cylinder barrel and squaring the ring with
a piston. Once the ring is positioned, a thickness

Figure 2-51. To check side clearance, use a straightedge to

hold the piston rings squarely in their grooves and insert a
thickness gauge between each ring and ring land.

2-54

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

bore of the piston pin boss must be measured. This

is done by obtaining both the piston pin bore dimension and piston pin outside diameter. The bore
dimension is taken with a telescoping gauge and
micrometer while the piston pin outside diameter is
measured with a micrometer. By subtracting the piston pin diameter from the bore dimension, a piston
pin to piston pin bore clearance is obtained.
Some overhaul manuals require you to check the
end clearance between the piston pin and cylinder
wall. To do this, a piston pin's length must be
checked with a micrometer caliper or vernier caliper
and compared with the cylinder bore dimensions.
Finally, you must check a piston pin for
straight-ness. To do this, place a piston pin on
vee-blocks and measure the runout with a dial
indicator. [Figure 2-52]
CYLINDERS

Cylinder barrels are checked for wear using a cylinder bore gauge, a telescoping gauge and a micrometer, or an inside micrometer. Dimensional
inspection of a cylinder barrel is done to obtain
cylinder taper, out-of-roundness, bore diameter
wear, and fit between piston skirt and cylinder. All
cylinder barrel measurements must be taken at a
minimum of two positions 90 degrees apart.
Cylinder taper is the difference between the diameter of the cylinder at the bottom and the diameter at
the top. The natural wear pattern of a cylinder usually results in a larger diameter at the top of a cylin-

Figure 2-52. Piston pins are dimensionally inspected for

straightness with vee-blocks and a dial indicator. As a pin is
rotated on the vee-blocks, runout is recorded on the dial
indicator.

Figure 2-53. A cylinder bore gauge can be used to provide

accurate measurements of cylinder bore, taper, and an
out-of-round condition.

der because the heat, pressure, and erosive conditions are more intense. On the other hand, some
cylinders are designed with an intentional taper, or
choke. In such a case, you must be able to distinguish wear from intentional taper. When a step is
present in the taper, you must exercise care while
making measurements to avoid inaccurate readings.
[Figure 2-53]
When inspecting for an out-of-round condition,
measurements are usually taken at the top of the
cylinder. However, a measurement should also be
taken at the cylinder skirt to detect dents and bends
caused by careless handling. In addition, a cylinder's flange should be checked for warpage. To do
this, place the cylinder on a suitable jig and check
for any gaps between the flange and jig with a thickness gauge. [Figure 2-54]
Another dimensional inspection that should be
made on a cylinder is to check the valve guides for
wear and excessive clearance. This inspection is
sometimes accomplished with a maximum wear
gauge provided by the engine manufacturer. When
using a wear gauge, a valve guide is worn beyond
serviceable limits if you are able to insert the gauge
into either end of the valve guide. If a wear gauge is
not provided, the inside diameter of a valve guide is
checked with a small hole gauge and micrometer. To
do this, a small hole gauge is placed inside the valve
guide and expanded until it fits snugly. The hole
gauge is then removed and measured with a
micrometer.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-55

Figure 2-55. One method for detecting stretched valves is to

hold a contour gauge along the underside of each valve
head.

valve for stretch, a contour gauge or radius gauge

can be placed along the underside of the valve head.
[Figure 2-55]

Figure 2-54. To inspect a cylinder flange for warpage, place

the cylinder on a jig and attempt to pass a thickness gauge
between the flange and jig at several points around the
flange.
CAMSHAFT

The dimensions of camshaft bearing journals are

measured with a micrometer caliper. This is usually
done when checking clearances between the
camshaft and camshaft bearings in the crankcase. In
addition, if the overhaul manual specifies the taper
on the lobes, a dimensional check must be made to
determine if taper is within limits.

Another method of checking for stretch is to measure the valve stem diameter at several places using
a micrometer caliper. The three most common
places to measure are at the end of the stem near the
spring retainer groove, at the middle of the stem,
and at the stem neck. If the stem's diameter is
smaller at the center or neck than at the end, the
valve is stretched.
In addition to inspecting valves for stretch, you
must also check the runout of the valve face. To
accomplish this, chuck each valve in a valve grinder
and measure the runout with a dial indicator. If the
runout is within limits, measure the valve head
thickness, or valve margin. [Figure 2-56]

Like a crankshaft, a camshaft should be checked for

straightness by placing it on vee-blocks and measuring the runout with a dial indicator. If the readings
exceed serviceable limits, the camshaft is rejected
and replaced.
VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISMS

Valves, valve springs, rocker arms, and rocker shafts

must be dimensionally inspected to detect parts that
are worn beyond serviceable limits. Since valves are
subjected to a great deal of heat and, tension, a thorough dimensional inspection of each valve is essential. One item you must check for is valve stretch,
which is a lengthening of the valve stem. To check a

Figure 2-56. In order to reuse a valve, the valve stem must

run true with the valve face and the valve margin must be
within the manufacturer's specifications.

2-56

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Valve springs are checked for compression and wire

diameter. To check for compression, a valve spring
tester is used to compress each spring to a height
specified in the overhaul manual. The number of
pounds required to compress the spring is then read
from a dial on the tester. To measure a spring's wire
diameter use a small caliper or micrometer.

the engine manufacturer or a certified repair sta

tion. To repair a crack, a form of inert gas welding is
used. Once a crack is welded, the bead is peened to
relieve stress and then machined to match the rest
of the surface. Bearing cavity damage may also be
repaired by welding, then machining to the proper
dimension.
:,,.

Each rocker arm shaft bushing and rocker arm shaft

must be measured to determine the clearance
between the two. The inside diameter of each rocker
arm shaft bushing is measured with a small T-gauge
or hole gauge and micrometer. Next, the outside
diameter of the rocker arm shaft is measured with a
micrometer. The difference between the dimensions
represents the shaft-to-bushing clearance.

Camshafts normally rotate in bearings cut into a

crankcase with no bearing inserts. Therefore,
camshaft bearings with excessive clearances can
only be repaired by line-boring the bearings and
installing an oversized camshaft.

OIL PUMP HOUSING

To help ensure proper oil pump operation, the distance between an oil pump's mating surface and the
pump gears must fall within limits. To measure the
distance between the two, a depth gauge is used. To
use a depth gauge, retract the spindle until it is flush
with the gauge's fixed bar. Then, lay the bar across
the oil pump housing and extend the spindle until it
contacts the oil pump gear. Now, read the micrometer head to obtain the distance between the housing
and gear.
REPAIR

Once you have completed the visual, structural, and

dimensional inspections, you may begin making
repairs. Damage such as burrs, nicks, scratches,
scoring, or galling can be removed with a fine oil
stone, crocus cloth, or similar abrasive substance.
Swiss pattern files or small edged stones work well
for removing small nicks. Flanged surfaces that are
bent, warped, or nicked can be repaired by lapping
on a surface plate. Defective threads can sometimes
be repaired with a suitable die or tap; however,
avoid tapping a hole too deep and creating an oversized tapped hole. If galling or scratches are
removed from the bearing surface of a journal, the
surface should be buffed to a high finish with fine
crocus cloth. After completing repairs, parts should
be thoroughly cleaned to remove all abrasives, then
checked with mating parts for proper clearances.
CRANKCASE

Cracks, damaged studs or threads, and excessive

bearing clearances are examples of repairable
crankcase defects. Cracks can only be repaired by

If bent or loose studs were identified during inspection, they must be removed and replaced. If standard size studs will no longer work, oversize studs
may be used. Oversize studs are identified by color
coding and stamped identification marks to indicate
the amount of oversizing. [Figure 2-57]
If internal case threads cannot be repaired using a
tap, Heli-Coil inserts may be used. Heli-Coils provide new threads that allow standard studs to be
installed. There is no decrease in strength when this
type of repair is made.
CRANKSHAFT

If slight roughness exists on any of a crankshaft's

main journals or crankpins, polish the surfaces
with fine crocus cloth. To do this, place the crankshaft in a lathe and hold the crocus cloth against the
surface to be polished while it rotates. If sludge
chambers were removed for cleaning, reinstall them
at this time.
All major repairs made on a crankshaft must be done
by the manufacturer or certified repair station. For
example, crankshaft main journals or crankpins that
are out-of-round may be ground to an acceptable
undersize. However, once a crankshaft is ground, it
must be re-nitrided and undersized bearing inserts
must be installed in the crankcase.
CONNECTING RODS

The only repairs you may do on connecting rods is

to replace the bushings and bearing inserts.
However, because of the interference fit between the
rod and bushing, rebushing a connecting rod
requires an arbor press and a special bushing installation drift. After pressing the new bushing into
place it must be reamed to the dimensions specified
in the overhaul manual. Because of the extremely

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-57

Figure 2-57. Oversize studs have color codes and stamped identification marks to show the degree of oversize.

close tolerances required, special equipment is generally required to ream connecting rod bushings.
PISTONS

Most pistons are replaced during an overhaul; however, if a piston was installed shortly before an overhaul and it is within limits, it may be reused.
Repairs to pistons are limited to the removal of light
scoring. For example, scoring on a piston skirt is
repairable only if very light because removal of deep
scores could inadvertently alter the piston's contour
and exceed clearance limits. When removing scoring on a piston skirt, use nothing more abrasive than
crocus cloth. Scoring above a piston's top ring
groove may be machined or sanded out as long as
the piston diameter is not reduced below its specified minimum.
Whether reusing pistons or installing a new set, piston weights should be as close as possible to one
another. The maximum allowable weight difference
is listed in the manufacturer's table of limits. New
pistons can often be purchased in matched sets
whose weight differences are considerably below
the manufacturer's maximum.
VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISMS

If there is sufficient valve margin, a valve can be

refaced by grinding to the proper angle. Various

types of valve grinding machines are used for

refac-ing valves. However, a wet valve grinder is
preferred because a mixture of soluble oil and water
is used to keep the valve cool and carry away the
grinding chips.
Like many machining tasks, it is important that you
be familiar with the machine you are operating.
Valve grinding machines do vary depending on the
manufacturer. Therefore, you should take time to
familiarize yourself with the grinding machine you
intend to use before you grind a valve. The following discussion will look at some of the steps that are
common to most grinding machines.
Before you grind a valve, the stone must be trued.
This is usually done by drawing a diamond dresser
across the stone, cutting just deep enough to true
and clean the stone. Using the overhaul manual
specifications, set the machine's movable head to
the correct valve face angle. Valves are usually
ground to a standard angle of 30 or 45 .
However, in some instances an interference fit
from 0.5 to 1.5 less than the standard angle
may be required. An interference fit is used to
obtain a more positive seal by producing an
extremely narrow contact surface. Theoretically,
an interference fit provides a fine line contact
between the valve and seat. With this line contact,
all the load that the valve exerts

2-58

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Figure 2-58. An interference fit provides a positive seal

along a fine contact area.

against the seat is concentrated in a very small area.

[Figure 2-58]
To prepare a valve for grinding, insert the valve into
the chuck, leaving approximately two inches distance between the valve face and the chuck. If the
valve is chucked any further out, excessive wobbling may occur. Prior to grinding, check the travel
of the valve face across the stone. Adjust both the
"in" and "out" travel stops so that the valve completely passes the stone on both sides but does not
travel so far that the stem is accidentally ground.
[Figure 2-59]
With the valvFe set correctly in place, switch on the
grinder and direct the flow of the grinding fluid onto
the valve face. Next, back the valve fixture, or
work-head table, all the way out and adjust the
workhead

table laterally to place the valve directly in front of

the stone. Advance the valve inward and bring the
valve up to the stone slowly until you begin to hear
a light grinding sound. The intensity of the grinding
sound provides an indication of the amount of cut
being made by the stone as it grinds the valve.
Slowly draw the valve back and forth across the full
width of the stone without increasing the cut. When
the grinding sound diminishes or ceases, the cut is
complete. Next, move the workhead table to the
outer travel stop, stopping rotation of the valve, and
inspect the valve to determine if further grinding is
necessary. If another cut is needed, slowly bring the
valve inward to contact the stone before increasing
the cut. Listening for the intensity of the grinding
sound, slowly increase the cut. When grinding
valves, make light cuts and avoid trying to hurry the
process by making heavy cuts. Heavy cuts cause
chattering which produces a rough valve surface.
Remove only enough material to clean up any wear
marks or pits on the valve face.
After grinding, check the valve margin to be sure
that the valve edge has not been ground too thin. A
thin edge is called a feather edge and can overheat,
causing preignition. Furthermore, a feather edge has
a tendency to burn away in a short period of time,
requiring another overhaul much earlier than
planned. [Figure 2-60]
Valve tips can also be resurfaced on a valve grinder
to remove cupping or wear. To resurface a valve tip,
position the valve in a clamp to allow grinding of

Figure 2-59. Once a valve is locked into a chuck correctly, adjust the linf and iouti stops so the valve passes the stone completely
on both sides.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-59

include removing fin damage, welding cracks, and

replacing rocker shaft bushings, valve guides, spark
plug thread inserts, and studs. Other approved
repairs include honing or grinding cylinder barrels,
and replacing or refacing valve seats.
Exterior cracks and other damage on the edges of
cylinder fins can be repaired by removing the damaged portion of the fin with a die grinder and rotary
file. After removing the damage, finish file the sharp
edges to a smooth contour. The percentage of total
fin area that is removed must not exceed the limits
established by the manufacturer. If too much material or too many fins are removed, localized hot spots
can develop within the cylinder. [Figure 2-62]
Figure 2-60. After grinding, a valve should still have an
acceptable margin. A feather edge is caused by grinding a
valve too much.

the valve tip on the side of the stone. Switch on the

grinder and press the valve lightly against the stone,
moving the tip across the side of the stone without
going off the stone's edge. Take care to keep the
valve tip cool by covering it with plenty of grinding
fluid. [Figure 2-61]
The bevel on the edge of the valve tip will he partially removed when the valve tip is ground. To
restore this bevel, mount a vee-way positioned at a
45 angle to the stone. Place the valve in the
vee-way and hold the valve in the vee-way with
one hand while grasping the valve head with the
other hand. Twist the valve tip edge onto the stone
and, with a light touch, grind all the way around
the tip. This bevel prevents scratching of the valve
guide when the valve is installed.
CYLINDERS

Many different types of repairs are approved for

cylinders. Some of the more common
repairs

Figure 2-61. To accurately grind a valve tip, the valve must

be held securely in place and be aligned perpendicular to
the side of the grinding stone.

Another method of repairing cracks on the edges of

cylinder fins involves grinding out the crack and
filling the cracked area by welding. The weld material is then ground or machined to the original contour. Repairs to cylinders that require welding can
only be done by the manufacturer or a certified
repair station.
Some cylinders have rocker shaft bosses equipped
with bushings which may be replaced when worn
beyond serviceable limits. However, it is advisable
to use special rebushing tools for removing and
inserting a bushing. If the proper tools are not used,
the rocker shaft bosses could be broken off.
Replacement of valve guides also requires special
tooling and must be done in accordance with an
engine manufacturer's instructions. Extracting worn
valve guides usually requires you to drive the guide
out with a special piloted drift or pull the guide out
with a valve guide puller. Most valve guides are
flared on their outside end, and, therefore, must be
driven or pulled toward the outside of the cylinder.
Because of the interference fit between the guides
and cylinder, you must heat the cylinder and chill
the extraction tool to allow removal and installation
of valve guides. Heating the cylinder expands the

Figure 2-62. When repairing a damaged fin on a cylinder,

you must not remove any of the primary cylinder casting.
In addition, fin loss near spark plug openings or exhaust
ports can cause dangerous local hot spots.

2-60

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

valve guide hole and the chilled extraction tool

causes the guide to contract. The combination of
these two factors typically reduces the interference
fit enough to allow removal.
Similar to valve guide replacement procedures,
valve seat inserts are removed and replaced by heating a cylinder and chilling the valve seat inserts.
Some engine manufacturers supply special tools
that simplify valve seat extraction and installation.
Spark plug thread inserts having missing or damaged threads are usually replaced with Heli-Coil
inserts as specified by an engine manufacturer. You
should use special Heli-Coil tools and follow the
overhaul manual instructions carefully to prevent
damaging the cylinder beyond repair.
The studs which secure the exhaust pipe to a cylinder are subjected to extreme heat and highly corrosive exhaust gases and, therefore, must be replaced
occasionally. If a stud is still intact, a special stud
removing tool is used to remove the stud. However,
if a stud is broken, it must be drilled and removed
with a screw extractor. Once an old stud is
removed, install a new stud as per the manufacturer's instructions.
Typical repairs to a cylinder barrel include honing,
grinding, oversizing, and chroming. A cylinder barrel that is structurally sound and within serviceable
limits may only need to be deglazed. Cylinder walls
become glazed, or very smooth after several hours of
operation. The smooth walls prevent new rings from
wearing or seating against the cylinder. Therefore,
in order to allow the rings to seat, you must remove
the glaze from a cylinder wall with a deglazing
hone. Most deglazing hones mount in a drill and are
turned at a relatively slow speed as they are moved
in and out of the cylinder. The combination of a circular and reciprocating motion produces a
cross-hatched pattern that promotes ring seating.
If a cylinder barrel is scored, scratched, or pitted to
an extent that deglazing is not enough to remove the
damage, the cylinder will probably have to be
ground. However, you should compare the barrel
dimensions to the manufacturer's table of limits to
verify that there is enough material to permit grinding. In some cases, an engine manufacturer permits
a cylinder to be ground to a standard oversize. Since
aircraft cylinders are relatively thin, standard
over-sizes are typically 0.010, 0.015, or 0.020 inch.
Furthermore, cylinders often have nitrided surfaces
which must not be ground away. Another option is

to grind a cylinder and then apply chrome plating to

build up the cylinder to its original diameter.
Because the process of grinding and chrome plating
requires specialized equipment, these repairs are
usually performed by certified repair stations.
REFACING VALVE SEATS

Modern reciprocating engines are equipped with

either bronze or steel valve seats. Steel seats are
made of hard, heat resistant steel alloy and are commonly used as exhaust seats. Bronze seats, on the
other hand, are made of aluminum bronze or phosphor bronze alloys and are used for both intake and
exhaust seats.
Valve seat inserts normally need to be refaced during each overhaul. In addition, valve seats must be
ground anytime a corresponding valve or valve
guide is replaced. Grinding equipment is used for
refacing steel valve seats while cutters or reamers
are preferred for refacing bronze seats. However,
bronze seats may be ground if cutters or reamers are
not available. The disadvantage of using a stone on
bronze is that bronze, a fairly soft metal, loads the
grinding stone quickly. Therefore, much time is consumed in redressing the stone to keep it clean.
Steel valve seats can be ground with either wet or
dry valve seat grinding equipment. However, a wet
grinder is preferred because the continuous flow of
oil and water washes away the chips and keeps the
stone and seat cool. This produces a smoother, more
accurate surface than a dry grinder. The stones used
to grind a steel seat may be either silicon carbide or
aluminum oxide.
The three grades of stones used to resurface valve
seats are rough, finishing, and polishing stones. A
rough stone is used to make an initial rough cut and
to remove all pits, scores, and burn marks as well as
align the valve seat with the valve guide. Once cut, a
finishing stone is used to remove any grinding
marks and produce a smooth finish. If the manufacturer requires a highly polished valve seat, a polishing stone will produce the desired finish.
Anytime a stone becomes grooved or loaded with
metal, it must be cleaned. To clean and dress a stone
prior to grinding operations, install the stone on a
special stone holder and use a diamond dresser. A
diamond dresser is also useful in cutting down a
stone's diameter, when necessary. However, dressing of a stone should be kept to a minimum when
possible.

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-61

To begin the valve seat refacing process, mount the

cylinder firmly in a hold down fixture. Next, insert
an expanding pilot in the valve guide from the inside
of the cylinder and place an expander screw in the
pilot from the top of the guide. The pilot must be
tight in the guide since any movement decreases the
quality of the completed grind. Once the pilot and
expander screw are in place, insert the fluid hose
through one of the spark plug holes. [Figure 2-63]
While grinding, a steady hand and considerable
skill is required. Center the gun accurately on the
stone holder. If the gun is tilted off center during the
grinding process, chattering and a rough grind will
result. The stone should be rotated at a speed of
8,000 to 10,000 rpm to grind properly. The maximum pressure used on the stone at any time should
be no more than that exerted by the weight of the
gun. In addition, you should ease pressure off the
stone every second or so to allow the coolant to
wash away any chips and allow the stone to maintain its correct rotational speed. Grind off only the
material necessary to achieve the desired finish by
inspecting the valve seat frequently during the
grinding procedure.
Once a valve seat is ground, you must verify that the
seat is even and true. To do this, a special dial indicator is used to measure the seat's runout. An
acceptable runout is normally between 0 and 2 thousandths of an inch. If the seat is even and true, the
amount of contact area between the valve face and
seat must be checked. To do this, a blue dye known
as Prussian blue is spread evenly on the valve seat
and the valve is pressed against the seat. To determine the contact area, remove the valve and observe
the amount of Prussian blue that transfers to the
valve. The contact surface area should be one-third

Figure 2-63. This illustration shows a typical setup for grinding valve seats in an aircraft engine cylinder.

to two-thirds the width of the valve face unless the

valves were ground with an interference fit. In addition, the contact area should occur as close to the
center of the valve face as possible.
If the valve seat contacts the upper third of the valve
face, the top corner of the valve seat is reground to a
lesser angle. This is known as "narrowing the seat."
On the other hand, indications that the seat is contacting the bottom third of the valve face requires
grinding the inner corner of the valve seat to a
greater angle. [Figure 2-64]
The angle of a valve seat determines which stones
should be used when narrowing a valve seat. For
example, with a 30 seat, it is common practice to
use a 15 cutting stone on the seat's upper
corner and a 45 stone on the inner corner. On
the other

Figure 2-64. If a valve seat contacts the upper third of the valve face, the seat can be regrouped to a lesser angle. (B) Contact
with the bottom third of the valve face requires regrinding a valve seat's inner corner to a greater angle.

2-62

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

hand, to narrow the seat of a 45 valve seat, the

upper corner is reground to a 30 angle while
the inner corner is reground to a 75 angle. [Figure
2-65]
If a valve seat is ground too much, the valve face will
contact the seat too far up into the cylinder head.
This adversely affects the valve clearance, spring
tension, and valve to valve seat fit. To check if a
valve seats too far into a valve seat, insert the valve
into the guide and check the height of the valve stem
above the rocker box or other location specified by
the overhaul manual.
After a valve or valve seat has been ground, some
manufacturers require you to lap a valve to its valve
seat. Lapping is accomplished by applying a small
amount of lapping compound to the valve face and
then rotating the valve in the valve seat with a lapping tool. Once a smooth, gray finish appears at the
contact area, remove all lapping compound from the
valve face, seat, and adjacent areas. [Figure 2-66]
Once a valve and valve seat combination have been
lapped, you must check the mating surfaces for
leaks. This is done by installing the valve in the
cylinder, and pouring kerosene or solvent into the
valve port. While holding finger pressure on the

Figure 2-66. Proper valve lapping produces an extremely

smooth surface and a sell defined contact area.

valve stem, check to see if the kerosene leaks past

the valve into the combustion chamber. If no leaking
occurs, the valve reseating operation is finished.
However, if kerosene leaks past the valve, continue
lapping until the leakage stops.
REASSEMBLY
After all of the parts have been inspected and
repaired as necessary, the engine is ready to be
reassembled. Whenever you are assembling an aircraft component, it is vital that you follow the manufacturer's instructions. However, there are some
general assembly procedures that pertain to most
reciprocating engines. The following discussion
looks at some of these general procedures as well as
how they are completed in a typical reassembly
process.
CRANKSHAFT

Generally, a reconditioned crankshaft is supplied

fully assembled, however, if that is not the case,
reinstall all sludge chamber components and coun
terweights. If the crankshaft has hollow crankpins,
reinstall the sludge chamber tubes carefully, making
certain they are positioned correctly in the crank
shaft to avoid covering the ends of oil passages. In
addition, install all expansion plugs and secure any
gears that attach to the crankshaft as necessary. The
crankshaft is typically mounted vertically in a
buildup fixture while the connecting rods are lubri
cated and attached to the shaft. When attaching the
connecting rods to the crankshaft, make sure that
the numbers stamped on the rods are pointed in the
direction specified in the overhaul manual. Once
assembled, torque and safety the connecting rod
hardware in accordance with overhaul manual spec
ifications.
. .
CRAIMKCASE
Figure 2-65. (A) To narrow the seat of a 30 valve seat, the

upper corner is reground with a 15 stone and the bottom

corner with a 45 stone. (B) For a 45 valve seat, use
a 30tone to grind the top corner and a 75 stone to
grind the bottom corner.

Place the crankcase halves on a clean, flat work surface and install the main bearing inserts, ensuring
that the tangs or dowels are properly placed. Next,

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

lubricate and install the hydraulic lifter bodies in

one of the crankcase halves and lay the camshaft in
place after lubricating its bearing journal surfaces.
Once this is done, lubricate the main bearings and
install the crankshaft. Install the front oil seal
around the propeller shaft and apply a thin layer of
non-hardening gasket compound to the outside mating surface of each half of the crankcase. If the manufacturer recommends, a length of fine silk thread is
embedded in the gasket compound on one of the
crankcase halves.
Install the remaining hydraulic lifter bodies in the
other crankcase half, then while holding them in
place with rubber bands or other suitable devices,
carefully lower the crankcase half onto the second
half. Be very careful to properly seat the front oil
seal and observe any special instructions regarding
the seating of the main bearings. Install new nuts
on all of the studs and through bolts and, using
hold-down plates over the cylinder pads, torque all
of the fasteners in the sequence recommended by
the manufacturer.
The crankcase may now be mounted in a vertical
position and the gears and accessory case installed.
When installing the camshaft drive gear, it is vital
that you align the timing marks properly. If this is
not done, the valves will not open at the correct time
in the combustion cycle and the engine will not run.
CYLINDERS

When installing a set of valves in a cylinder, lubricate the valve stems with a lubricant specified by
the manufacturer and insert the valves in the valve
guides. Place the cylinder over a post-type fixture to
hold the valves in place while you slip the valve
springs and retainers over each valve stem. Using a
spring compressor, compress the valve springs and
install the valve keeper keys. Once both valves are
installed, slip a cylinder base seal around each
cylinder skirt and install any intercylinder baffles or
fin stabilizers that can be attached without getting
in the way of further assembly.
PISTONS AND RINGS

When installing a new set of rings on a piston, it is

important to observe several precautions. For example, chrome-plated rings may be used in plain steel
or nitrided cylinders only. On the other hand, if a
cylinder has been chrome-plated, cast iron rings
must be used. In each case, you must use a ring

2-63

expander to install rings on a piston. Use of a ring

expander will help you avoid accidentally scratching a piston or breaking a piston ring. In addition,
always install new rings with the part number on
the ring toward the top of the piston.
Once the rings are installed, lubricate the pistons,
rings, and piston pins with a manufacturer
approved lubricant. Stagger the ring gaps as specified in the overhaul manual and attach the pistons
to their corresponding connecting rods with a piston pin. Compress the piston rings with an appropriate ring compressor tool, then slip the piston into
the cylinder up to the piston pin. Now, reposition
the ring compressor on the lowest oil ring and slide
the piston completely into the cylinder. At this
point, verify that all push rods, push rod housings,
and oil seals are in place and then ease each cylinder onto its cylinder pad. With each cylinder
attached to the crankcase, lubricate and install the
rocker arm assemblies.
FINAL ASSEMBLY

Install the oil sump on the crankcase with a new gasket and tighten the attaching hardware. Next, follow
the overhaul manual instructions carefully to properly time and install the magnetos on their mount
pads. Using new seals and gaskets, install the carburetor or fuel injection system components and the
induction system. Other accessories such as the
engine-driven pumps, the alternator, and baffling
are now installed and safetied.
BLOCK TESTING
The final step in the overhaul process is to test the
engine. A block test accomplishes piston ring seating, bearing burnishing, and provides valuable
information that is used to evaluate engine performance. Piston ring seating is accomplished chiefly
by controlled engine operation in the high speed
range. On the other hand, bearing burnishing creates a highly polished surface on new bearings and
bushings and is completed at low engine speeds.
Engine performance is evaluated in a test cell during block testing by specialized test equipment and
standard engine instruments. Operational test procedures vary with individual engines, however, the
failure of any internal part during an engine run-in
requires return of the engine for teardown and
repair. If failure of an engine accessory occurs, a new
accessory is installed and the block test continues.
Following
successful
completion
of
block test

2-64

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Type Certificate, or STC is required for the change.

Without an STC, engine replacement is limited to a
new or overhauled engine of the original model with
which the aircraft was certificated.
HOISTING FOR INSTALLATION

Figure 2-67. Block testing of an overhauled engine is conducted in a test cell with specialized test equipment and
standard engine instruments.

requirements, engines not slated for immediate

installation and operation on an aircraft should
receive a corrosion prevention treatment and be
placed in storage. [Figure 2-67]
LOG ENTRIES

Once an overhaul is complete, you must make the

appropriate log entries. In addition to the information required by the Federal Aviation Regulations,
you should include a list of the items you replaced.
Furthermore, the details of all dimensional and
structural inspections as well as service bulletins
and airworthiness directives complied with should
be listed. If any major repairs were done, a 337 form
must be completed and kept in the engine logbook.

ENGINE INSTALLATION
After an engine has been repaired, overhauled, or
replaced, it must be prepared for installation. With a
repaired or overhauled engine, preparation typically
entails returning the engine to the configuration it
was in immediately after it was removed. However,
if the engine being installed is shipped new from the
factory, additional assembly is typically required.
For example, most engines used on light aircraft
include only ignition and carburetor components
when shipped from the factory. Therefore, all of the
accessories such as the alternator, starter, vacuum
pump, and baffling must be installed. In addition, if
an engine was preserved in storage, de-preservation
procedures are usually outlined in the overhaul
manual provided by the engine manufacturer.
If an aircraft owner wishes to substitute a different
model engine for the original model, a Supplemental

When a new or overhauled engine is ready to be

hoisted for installation, move the engine stand as
close as possible to the aircraft. Attach the sling to
the engine, hook the hoist to the sling, and raise the
hoist until it is supporting most of the engine
weight. Next, remove the bolts attaching the engine
to the stand and hoist the engine to the desired
height.
MOUNTING THE ENGINE
Before you mount an engine on an aircraft, make
sure you have the appropriate hardware nearby and
inspect the engine mount structure and shock
mounts for integrity. With the engine suspended
from the hoist, utilize as many people as necessary
to safely maneuver the engine into position on the
aircraft. To help prevent injuring personnel or damaging the aircraft or engine, ease the engine into
position slowly, checking to be certain the engine
clears all obstacles. Position the engine so that the
engine mounting lugs line up with the mounting
points on the engine mount and exhaust tailpipe.
Because engines are so heavy, they possess a great
deal of inertia when swinging from the hoist.
Therefore, exercise caution to avoid damaging the
nacelle framework, ducts, or firewall connections.
Once the engine is correctly aligned, insert the
mounting bolts and secure them with the appropriate nuts. Once secure, torque the engine mounting
nuts to the manufacturer's recommended value. The
applicable manufacturer's instructions outline the
sequence for tightening the mounting bolts to ensure
security. While the nuts are being tightened, the
hoist should support the engine weight sufficiently
to allow proper mounting bolt alignment. If this is
not done, the weight of the engine on the mounting
bolts could make it impossible to tighten the nuts to
the proper torque. In other words, improper alignment could result in false torque readings as the
nuts pull the engine into the proper position.
Once the nuts are properly torqued, they can be
safetied and the engine hoist can be removed. Next,
connect bonding straps across each engine mount to
provide an electrical path from the mount to the
air-frame. Failure to provide adequate bonding
could

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

result in the starter electrical current seeking a

return path through engine controls or metal fuel
lines. If this should happen, resulting sparks or heat
could start a fire or cause extensive damage to
engine connections.
CONNECTIONS AND ADJUSTMENTS
After an engine is mounted, the electrical leads and
fluid lines necessary for operation should be connected to the engine and accessories. Typically,
there are no rules that govern the order in which the
accessories should be connected. However, you
should always follow the manufacturer's instructions to ensure an efficient installation.
As you know, engine induction systems vary with
aircraft/engine combinations. However, all induction systems must be leak-free. You must install the
induction system components carefully using the
proper clamps and hardware and, in some cases, the
induction system must be pressure checked for
leaks. Pressure checks usually require blocking the
system at one end, and supplying compressed air at
a specified pressure at the other end. The leakage
rate is then measured to verify that it falls within
acceptable limits.
In addition to ensuring a leak-free system, air induction filters must be cleaned to ensure an unrestricted
flow of clean air. Since the materials used in air filters varies, you must follow the manufacturer's
cleaning and replacement instructions.
The exhaust system must also be carefully connected to prevent exhaust gas leakage. When assembling the exhaust system, carefully examine the
entire system and repair or replace any damaged
components as necessary. During assembly, all
clamps and nuts should be gradually and progressively tightened to the correct torque. In addition,
all clamps should be tapped with a rawhide mallet
as they are tightened to reduce the chance of binding. On some systems, a ball joint connects a stationary portion of the exhaust system to another
portion that is attached to the engine. This ball joint
compensates for slight misalignments, normal
engine movement, and vibration caused by engine
operation. Ball joints must be installed with the
specified clearance to prevent binding when the hot
exhaust gases cause the system to expand.
Hoses used with low pressure systems, such as vacuum and instrument air, are generally attached and
held in place
with clamps.
However,
before

2-65

installing these clamps, examine them carefully and

replace any that are badly distorted or defective.
After a hose is installed, it must be adequately supported and routed away from engine or airframe
parts that could cause damage. Usually, rubber lined
supporting clamps called Adel clamps are installed
at specified intervals to provide the protection and
support needed.
Before installing metal tubing with threaded fittings,
make sure that the threads are clean and in good
condition. If specified in the instructions, apply a
thread sealing compound to the fitting before installation. Exercise care to prevent cross-threading any
fittings and to ensure correct torque. Remember,
over torquing a fitting increases the likelihood of
leaks and failures.
When connecting electrical leads to the starter, generator, or other electrical units, make sure that all
connections are clean and secure. When leads are
secured on a threaded terminal post with a nut, a
lock washer is usually inserted under the nut to prevent the nut from backing off. When required,
knurled connector plugs are secured with steel
safety wire to prevent accidental disconnection. To
help prevent electrical leads within the engine
nacelle from chafing, all wiring must be anchored as
necessary to provide a secure installation.
Each aircraft model has an engine control system
specifically designed for a particular
airframe/engine combination. Typical engine controls consist of rigid push-pull rods, flexible
push-pull wire encased in a coiled wire sheath,
cables and pulleys, or any combination of the three.
Regardless of type, all engine controls must be
accurately adjusted to ensure instantaneous
response to a control input. Therefore, all
adjustments must be made in accordance with the
procedures outlined in the manufacturer's
instructions.
Most light aircraft utilize flexible push-pull controls
for the engine throttle, mixture, and carburetor heat
or alternate air. When installing flexible controls,
there are a few general rules that should be followed. For example, in order for a flexible control
line to operate properly, it must be adequately supported. Support is typically provided by a terminal
mounting clamp at the cockpit end and another terminal mounting clamp at the engine end. Sections
of the control line between the cockpit and engine
are supported by intermediate clamps spaced every
three to four feet along straight sections and on both
sides of bends. All bends should have a minimum

2-66

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

the correct cable tension is achieved, safety the turnbuckles and remove the lockpins from the drum and
quadrant. [Figure 2-69]
A properly adjusted engine control must have a
degree of cushion, or springback, at its fully open
and fully closed positions. In other words, the stops
for the throttle and mixture on a carburetor or fuel
control must be reached before the throttle or mixture controls reach their stop in the cockpit. The
presence of a cushion ensures that the throttle and
mixture valves are opening and closing fully.
Without the cushion, it would be difficult to determine whether a throttle or mixture valve is fully
opened or closed from inside the cockpit. On
multi-engine aircraft, throttle and mixture controls
must have equal amounts of cushion so the control
levers align in any selected power setting. This
reduces the likelihood of having to set each control
individually to synchronize engine operations.
Figure 2-68. Many small single-engine airplanes utilize a
push-pull wire type throttle control which is encased in a
protective sheath.

six inch radius and large bends should be supported

with clamps along their length as necessary. The
control line must be positioned with the flex casing
extending a minimum of one inch past the terminal
mounting clamp at the engine. This extension of flex
casing allows angular movement and smooth
motion of the control line as the engine control is
positioned. The engine component being controlled
by a flexible control is generally limited to 45
degrees of angular motion to either side of center.
[Figure 2-68]
A typical throttle control system of cables, pulleys,
and a drum requires several adjustment steps. A
drum is basically a pulley with at least one complete
loop of cable around it to prevent slippage. To assist
the adjustment process and ensure a reliable reference point, the drum has an alignment hole for a
locking pin. To adjust a control system, begin by
loosening the serrated throttle control arm at the carburetor. Next, back off the throttle stop until the
throttle valve is in the fully closed position and
insert a locking pin in the drum. Adjust the control
rod to the length specified and re-tighten the serrated throttle control arm. Next, loosen the cable
turnbuckles enough to allow positioning of the
throttle control lever so the quadrant locking pin
can be inserted. Once this is done, re-tighten the
turnbuckles and adjust the cable tension to the manufacturer's specifications using a tensiometer. When

After completing the engine installation and adjustments, the propeller can be installed. If the propeller
being installed is a fixed pitch propeller, it can typically be lifted into position and attached to the propeller shaft. However, if a constant-speed propeller
is being installed, you must obtain the proper gaskets or O-rings prior to installation. Large propellers
require the use of an appropriate sling and hoist
arrangement due to their size and weight. Never
attempt to lift a propeller into place with inadequate
personnel or equipment. In addition, you should
always follow the manufacturer's recommended
installation procedure.

GROUND TEST PREPARATION

Once an engine is completely installed on an aircraft
or test stand, you can prepare the engine for a test
run. Install properly gapped spark plugs and torque
to manufacturer specifications, then attach ignition
wiring, being careful to connect the wiring properly.
Fill the engine with an oil approved by the manufacturer and check all oil and fuel line connections
for security.
PRE-OILING
To prevent engine bearing failure during the initial
start, you should pre-oil the engine. When an engine
sits idle for an extended period of time, engine oil
drains away from the internal bearing surfaces. If the
engine is started and there is little or no oil on the
bearings, the friction created during engine start can
destroy the bearings before lubricating oil can reach

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

2-67

Figure 2-69. When adjusting a throttle control system that utilizes cables, pulleys, and a drum, it is important that you follow the
manufacturer's instructions.

them. Pre-oiling is the process of forcing oil

throughout the engine prior to starting.
One method of pre-oiling requires one spark plug to
be removed from each cylinder. This allows the
engine to be easily turned over with the starter. Once
this is done, a pressure oiler is attached to the
engine. On a typical dry-sump engine, the oil line
on the inlet side of the engine-driven oil pump is
disconnected to allow connection of the pre-oiler
tank. In addition, the oil return line is disconnected,
or an opening is made in the oil system at the nose
of the engine to allow oil to flow out of the engine.
[Figure 2-70]
To force oil from the pre-oiler tank through the
engine, the tank is pressurized while the engine is
turned over with the starter. Generally, shop air is
used to pressurize the pre-oiler, however, it is best
to consult manufacturer's instructions for the correct pressure limits. Once all the oil galleries are
full, oil will flow out the oil return line. When this
happens, stop cranking the engine and disconnect
the pre-oiler tank.

Figure 2-70. Pre-oiling an engine with a special tank such as this

helps prevent bearing failure when an engine is first started
after an overhaul or after being idle for long periods of time.

2-68

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Pre-oiling engines equipped with a wet sump is similar except the pre-oiler is connected at the oil temperature fitting. With the pre-oiler connected and
pumping oil, the engine is turned over with the
starter until an indication of oil pressure appears on
the oil pressure gauge. Once this occurs, discontinue cranking the engine, disconnect the pre-oiler
tank, and check the oil level to make sure the engine
was not inadvertently overfilled.
Another way you can pre-oil an engine is with the
engine driven oil pump. To do this, remove one
spark plug from each cylinder and fill the engine oil
sump to the proper level. Once this is done, place
the mixture in the idle-cutoff position, the fuel
shut-off valve and ignition switch in the off position,
and the throttle in the idle position. Now, crank
the engine with the starter until the oil pressure
gauge indicates oil pressure.
After the engine has been pre-oiled, replace the
spark plugs and reconnect the oil system lines.
Generally, the engine should be operated within
four hours after it has been pre-oiled. If this is not
possible, it may be necessary to repeat the pre-oiling
procedure.
FUEL SYSTEM BLEEDING
Before you attempt to start a newly installed engine,
the fuel system should be bled to purge any air bubbles from the fuel lines and pumps and to help flush
any preservative oil from the fuel system. The procedure used to bleed a fuel system varies with the
type of carburetor or fuel injection unit installed, so
you must consult the manufacturer's maintenance
instructions for specific directions.

POST-RUN CHECKS AND ADJUSTMENTS

After the initial ground run and flight test, an engine
must receive final adjustments and a thorough
visual inspection. Exercise caution to avoid burns
from the hot engine as you examine various items.
Fuel pressure and oil pressure adjustments could be
needed, as well as rechecks of ignition timing, valve
clearances, and idle speed and mixture. Remove the
oil sump plugs and screens so they can be examined
for the presence of any metal particles, then clean
and reinstall them.
Visually inspect all lines for leakage and tight connections, correcting any discrepancies found. Check
hose clamps to see if any of them need to be re-tightened, especially if the hoses are new. Scrutinize oil
system connections for oil leakage and inspect
cylinder hold down nuts or cap screws for security.
Press gently on safety-wired items checking for
looseness and broken safety wire.

ENGINE PRESERVATION
Engines that are going to be put in storage or transported to an overhaul facility must be preserved and
protected to prevent corrosion and other forms of
damage. Regardless of whether an engine is waiting
to be overhauled or is newly overhauled, damaging
rust and other forms of corrosion will occur unless
the engine is protected. Preservation is also recommended when an engine remains on the aircraft if
engine operation is limited or suspended for an
extended period of time. The following discussion
centers on engines that have been removed from an
aircraft, however, the preservation materials and
methods discussed are used for all types of engine
storage.

COWL FLAP RIGGING

If an aircraft has cowl flaps, they must be rigged to
accurately regulate the passage of cooling air
through the engine compartment. When cowl flap
adjustments have been completed, operate the system and recheck the adjustments to be sure the cowl
flaps open and close to the specified limits. Also
verify that the cowl flap position indicators, if
installed, indicate the true position of the flaps.
Once all ground test preparations are complete and
you are satisfied that the engine can be safely run,
verify that the aircraft battery is reinstalled and, if
necessary, have a ground power cart plugged into
the aircraft. Consult the aircraft checklist to start and
runup the engine as necessary.

CORROSION PREVENTATIVE COMPOUNDS

The primary purpose of engine and engine accessory preservation procedures is to prevent corrosion. If you recall from your earlier studies,
corrosion occurs whenever a base metal such as
steel, iron, or aluminum combines with oxygen to
form an oxide. Therefore, if a base metal is properly
sealed, corrosion will not occur. Most corrosion preventive compounds are petroleum based products
that form a wax-like film over the metal surfaces to
prevent air from reaching the metal's surface.
Several of these corrosion preventive compounds
are manufactured to different specifications to meet
specific aviation needs. For example, light corrosion

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

preventive compounds are typically mixed with

engine oil to form a protective barrier for short term
preservation. Light compounds can also be sprayed
into a cylinder or other components. Short term corrosion preventive compounds are intended for use
in engines that remain inactive for less than 30 days.
Light compounds typically meet MIL-C-6529 Type I,
Type II, or Type III specifications. A Type I compound is a concentrate that must be blended with
three parts of MIL-L-22851 or MIL-L-6082 grade
1100 oil to one part concentrate. On the other hand,
a Type II compound is ready-mixed with
MIL-L-22851 oil and needs no dilution. A Type
III compound is used only in turbine engines and
consists of a preservative material ready-mixed
with 1010 grade oil. An important point to bear in
mind is that the correct proportions of lubricating
oil and corrosion preventive compounds must be
mixed externally, then added to the engine.
Adding the preservative mixture to the oil already
in the engine is not good maintenance practice
and must be avoided.
A heavy corrosion preventive compound is used for
long term preservation and forms a heavy wax-like
barrier over a metal surface. Before you can apply a
heavy compound, it must be heated to a liquid state
for application. Once the compound cools, the only
way to remove it is with a commercial solvent or
kerosene spray.
Although corrosion preventive compounds act as
moisture barriers, they eventually break down over
a period of time in the presence of excessive moisture. Furthermore, the compounds can eventually
dry out as their oil base gradually evaporates. If this
should happen, moisture can come in contact with
the metal allowing corrosion to begin.
DEHYDRATING AGENTS
Dehydrating agents, often referred to as desiccants,
are often used during engine preservation because
they absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Silica
gel is a common desiccant and is an ideal dehydrating agent since it does not dissolve when saturated.
As a corrosion preventive measure, bags of silica gel
are placed around and inside the accessible parts of
a stored engine. Silica gel is also used in clear plastic plugs called dehydrator plugs which are screwed
into an engine's spark plug holes. The silica gel in
the dehydrator plugs is typically treated with Cobalt
chloride to provide a visual indication of the moisture content in the air inside an engine. For example, cobalt chloride treated silica gel remains a

2-69

bright blue color with a low relative humidity.

However, as humidity increases, the shade of blue
grows progressively lighter, becoming lavender at
30 percent relative humidity. If the relative humidity exceeds 30 percent, the color changes from
lavender to various shades of pink, becoming completely white at 60 percent relative humidity. When
the relative humidity is less than 30 percent, corrosion does not normally take place. Therefore, if the
dehydrator plugs are bright blue, the air in the
engine has a relatively low moisture content and
internal corrosion is kept to a minimum.
Cobalt chloride-treated silica gel is also used in
humidity indicator envelopes. These envelopes can
be fastened to a stored engine in a manner that
allows inspection through a small window in the
sealed engine container. Desiccants in storage
should be sealed in containers to keep them from
becoming saturated with moisture before they are
used. Avoid leaving the container open or inadequately sealed.
ENGINE PRESERVATION PROCESS
Before an engine is removed from an aircraft for
preservation, a corrosion preventive compound
should be added to the oil. Once this is done, the
engine must be run for 15 minutes to coat the
engine's internal parts.
Any engine taken out of service and prepared for
storage must receive a thorough corrosion preventive treatment around the exhaust ports. This is necessary because exhaust gas residue is potentially
corrosive. A corrosion preventive compound should
be sprayed into each exhaust port to coat the
exhaust port interior and exhaust valve. Next, a
moisture-proof and oil-proof gasket should be
placed over each exhaust port, held in place by a
metal or wooden plate. These covers form a seal that
helps keep moisture from entering the engine
through the exhaust ports.
Once the engine is removed, each cylinder interior
should be sprayed with a corrosion preventive compound. This is done to prevent moisture and oxygen
from reacting with the deposits left by combustion.
To do this, each cylinder should be sprayed with the
piston at bottom dead center, allowing the entire
cylinder interior to be coated. Rotate the engine
until one piston is at bottom dead center and then
apply the compound by inserting a spray nozzle into
the spark plug opening. Once that cylinder is
sprayed, rotate the engine again until the next pis-

2-70

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

ton is at bottom dead center and spray the cylinder.

After spraying each cylinder with its piston at bottom dead center, respray each cylinder without
rotating the crankshaft. Once this is done, the crankshaft must not be moved, or the corrosion preventive seal will be broken. Immediately after the
corrosion preventive compound dries, a dehydrator
plug should be inserted in each spark plug opening.
In addition, each ignition harness lead should be
attached to a dehydrator plug with lead supports.
[Figure 2-71]
The intake manifold must also be sealed when placing an engine in storage. If the carburetor is going to
remain on the engine during storage, the throttle
valve should be wired open and a seal installed over
the air inlet. On the other hand, if the carburetor is
removed, install the seal at the carburetor mounting
pad. In either case, the seal should be an oil-proof
and moisture-proof gasket backed by a wooden or
metal plate securely bolted into place. To help
remove excess moisture, silica gel should be placed
in the intake manifold. Normally, the silica gel bags
are suspended from the cover plate to reduce the
possibility of overlooking their removal when the
engine is removed from storage.
Just before an engine is boxed up, the engine exterior should be sprayed with a heavy corrosion preventive coating. If this cannot be done, you should
at least apply a corrosion preventive compound to
the propeller shaft. Follow up by securing a plastic
sleeve, or moisture-proof paper around the shaft. A
final inspection should be performed to be certain

that all openings are sealed, and that only the

proper accessories have been included for storage
or shipping.

STORAGE
Once preserved, engines sent out for overhaul or
newly overhauled engines put into storage should
be protected by a shipping container. Metal or
wooden containers are constructed with mounts for
holding and protecting an engine.
When storing an engine horizontally in a metal
shipping container, special ventilatory plugs are
normally installed. If stored vertically, only the
upper spark plug holes in each cylinder receive a
ventilatory plug while the lower spark plug holes
are fitted with non-ventilatory plugs. Dehydrator
plugs with the dessicant removed work well as
non-ventilatory plugs.
ENGINE SHIPPING CONTAINERS
Engines that are being shipped out for maintenance
or overhaul must be protected from damage.
Therefore, most engines are packed in wooden
crates or metal shipping containers. Some overhauled engines are sealed in pressurized containers
with an inert gas such as nitrogen.
After an engine is carefully lowered into a shipping
container, it is secured with the same type of hardware and mounting fixtures used to mount the
engine to the aircraft. Some containers provide a
special mounting area for accessories that have been
detached from the engine but are also being sent
back for overhaul. Wooden crates and metal containers are available for horizontal mounting or vertical mounting of the engine.
In addition to the shipping container, most engines
are wrapped in plastic or foil envelopes. However,
before the protective envelope is sealed, silica gel
packets should be placed around the engine to dehydrate the air sealed into the envelope. The amount
of silica gel used is determined by the size of the
engine. The protective envelope is then gathered
around the engine and partially sealed, leaving an
opening from which as much air as possible is
exhausted. The envelope is then completely sealed.

Figure 2-71. Securing the ignition harness leads to the dehydrator plugs protects them from being damaged as the
engine is moved.

While lowering the shipping container cover into

position, be careful that it does not twist and tear
the protective envelope. Secure the cover, then mark
the case with the appropriate removal or preserva-

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

tion dates and indicate whether the engine is

repairable or serviceable. [Figure 2-72]
INSPECTION OF STORED ENGINES
Most maintenance shops provide a scheduled
inspection system for engines in storage. The
humidity indicators on engines stored in shipping
cases are normally inspected every 30 days. When
the protective envelope must be opened to inspect
the humidity indicator, the inspection period may
be extended to once every 90 days, if local conditions permit. The humidity indicator of a metal container is inspected every 180 days under normal
conditions.
Humidity indicator colors in wooden shipping crates
showing the presence of more than 30 percent relative
humidity require the replacement of all dessicants.
When more than half the dehydrator plugs in spark

2-71

plug openings indicate the presence of excessive

moisture, the cylinder interiors should be re-sprayed
with corrosion preventive compound. A metal container with a humidity indicator showing a safe blue
color and air pressure below 1 p.s.i. needs only to be
repressurized. An indicator with a pink condition, on
the other hand, indicates that the engine should be
re-preserved if it is to remain in storage.

ENGINE DEPRESERVATION
Engines that have been preserved for storage must
undergo depreservation before they are put into service. Depreservation procedures are typically
included in the engine manufacturer's overhaul
manual or provided by the overhauler who preserved the engine. The information presented here
provides a general overview of these procedures
since they vary with the type of engine and the
degree of preservation.
When engines are supplied in pressurized containers, the first task is to bleed off the gas pressure
through the container's pressure valve. The container cover can then be lifted off and placed aside.
After hoisting the engine and removing any separate
accessories, secure the engine to a stand or mount it
on the aircraft. Next, remove all covers and
dessi-cantbags from the engine. Typical locations of
cover plates include engine breather tubes,
intake and exhaust outlets, and accessory
mounting pads. As each cover is removed, inspect
the uncovered area for corrosion and foreign objects.
Furthermore, if the dehydrator plugs indicate
water contamination when they are removed,
thoroughly inspect the cylinder walls for corrosion.
Any cylinder showing signs of corrosion or other
damage should be removed and inspected further.
Remove the oil screens from the engine and thoroughly wash them in kerosene or an approved solvent to remove preservative accumulations that
could restrict oil circulation and cause engine failure. After cleaning, immerse the screens in clean oil,
then reinstall them in the engine.

Figure 2-72. Engines needing repairs or overhaul are nevertheless costly, and must be protected during storage and
shipment. For this reason, shipping crates or containers tailored to a specific engine model must always be used when
the engine is being transported.

On radial engines, carefully check the interior of the

lower cylinders and intake pipes for the presence of
excessive corrosion preventive compound. Excess
compound can drain through the engine interior
and settle at low points, creating a liquid, or
hydraulic lock. Any liquid preservative compounds
remaining in a cylinder, intake, or exhaust port that
cannot be drained should be removed with a hand
pump.

2-72

Reciprocating Engine Operation, Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul

Once you are done with the engine interior, remove

the protective covering from the propeller shaft.
Lightly coat the propeller shaft with engine oil or
whatever lubricant the engine manufacturer recommends. To complete the de-preservation procedure
verify that the engine exterior is clean. Often a
quantity of compound runs out of the engine when
the dehydrator plugs and oil screens are removed.
Spray engine areas in need of cleaning with a recommended solvent that does not leave any residue
or interfere with the proper functioning of the accessories.
ACCESSORY DEPRESERVATION
Good engine performance depends, in part, on the
condition of the engine accessories. Although an
engine is in a condition to give top performance
after being completely overhauled, any oversight or
error in reinstalling the accessories can result in an

engine malfunction or possibly irreparable damage.

Therefore, follow recommended procedures in the
overhaul manual or the instructions that come with
overhauled or new accessories regarding
depreser-vation and preparation for operation.
Before depreserving any of the accessories enclosed
with the engine, refer to the accessory records to
determine how long the engine and accessories have
been in storage. Some accessories are life-limited and
are considered unsafe for use if their storage time
exceeds the manufacturer's time limits. Before
installing any replacement accessory, check it visually for signs of corrosion and for freedom of operation. Remove any plastic plugs and movement
restraints placed on the accessory for shipment. In
addition, lubricate the accessory drive shaft and
clean the mounting pad and flange prior to installation. Always install an accessory with new O-rings or
gaskets between the mounting pad and the accessory.

TURBINE ENGINES

INTRODUCTION
Efforts to design a working gas turbine engine had been under way for years prior to World War II. Engineers eventually succeeded in placing a few engines in combat aircraft briefly during the closing stages of the war. The war
effort had brought about many advances in gas turbine technology which could now be used for commercial aircraft design. Turbine engines offered many advantages over reciprocating engines and airlines were interested.
Increased reliability, longer mean times between overhaul, higher airspeeds, ease of operation at high altitudes,
and a high power to engine weight ratio made turbine power very desirable. Aircraft such as Lockheed's Super
Constellation represented the practical limits of piston power technology and required frequent engine maintenance; therefore, air carriers turned to gas turbine engines for solutions. During the decade of the 50's, a gradual
transfer from piston power to gas turbine jets and turboprops started taking place. Old workhorses such as the
Douglas DC-3 and DC-7 gave way to the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8.

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Newton's third law of motion states that for every

action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Jet
propulsion applies this law by taking in a quantity
of air and accelerating it through an orifice or nozzle. The acceleration of the air is the action and forward movement is the reaction. In nature, a squid
propels itself through the water using a form of jet
propulsion. A squid takes sea water into its body
and uses its muscles to add energy to the water, then
expels the water in the form of a jet. This action produces a reaction that propels the squid forward.
[Figure 3-1]

Figure 3-2. Hero's aeolipile, conceived long before the

acceptance of Newton's Laws of Motion, proved that power
by reaction was possible.
Figure 3-1. Many technological developments were made
by observing nature in action. A squid propels itself
through the water by jet reaction in much the same way a
turbojet engine propels an aircraft.

As early as 250 B.C., a writer and mathematician

named Hero devised a toy that used the reaction
principle. The toy, called the aeolipile, consisted of
a covered kettle of water that was heated to produce
steam. The steam was then routed through two vertical tubes and into a spherical container. Attached
to the spherical container were several discharge
tubes arranged radially around the container. As
steam filled the container, it would escape through
the discharge tubes and cause the sphere to rotate.
[Figure 3-2]
A more modern example of Newton's reaction principle is observed when the end of an inflated balloon is released. As the air in the balloon rushes out
the opening, the balloon flies wildly around a room.
In spite of the everyday examples, scientists' efforts
to apply Newton's reaction principle to mechanical
designs met with little success until this century.

HISTORY OF JET PROPULSION

The history of mechanical jet propulsion began in
1900, when Dr. Sanford Moss submitted his masters
thesis on gas turbines. Later, Dr. Moss became an
engineer for the General Electric Company in
England. While there, Dr. Moss had the opportunity
to apply some of his concepts in the development of
the turbo-supercharger. This unique supercharger
consisted of a small turbine wheel that was driven
by exhaust gases. The turbine was then used to
drive a supercharger.
Research done by Dr. Moss influenced Frank
Whittle of England in the development of what
became the first successful turbojet engine. Dr.
Whittle was granted his first patent for the jet engine

Turbine Engines

3-3

Figure 3-5. First flown in 1942, the Bell XP-59 was the first
American jet-powered aircraft.

Figure 3-3. Dr. Frank Whittle of England patented the first

turbojet engine, the Whittle W1, in 1930. Its first flight
occurred in a Gloster E28/39 aircraft in 1941.

in 1930 and eleven years later, his engine completed

its first flight in a Gloster model E28/39 aircraft. The
engine produced about one thousand pounds of
thrust and propelled the aircraft at speeds over 400
miles per hour. [Figure 3-3]
While Whittle was developing the gas turbine
engine in England, Hans Von Ohain, a German engineer, designed and built a jet engine that produced
1,100 pounds of thrust. This engine was installed in
the Heinkel He-178 aircraft and made a successful
flight on August 27, 1939. As a result, it became
recognized as the first practical flight by a jet propelled aircraft. [Figure 3-4]
In the United States, research in the field of jet
propulsion was
lagging.
Most
of the
country's

Figure 3-4. German engineer Hans Von Ohain designed and

built the turbojet engine that powered the Heinkel He-178
to the world's first jet-powered flight in 1939.

efforts were being directed toward the development

and production of high powered reciprocating
engines. However, in 1941 the General Electric
Company received a contract to research and
develop a gas turbine engine. General Electric was
chosen for this important project because of its
extensive experience in building electrical generating turbines and turbo-superchargers. The result
was the GE-lA engine, a centrifugal-compressor
type engine that produced approximately 1,650
pounds of thrust. Two of these engines were used to
power the Bell XP-59 "Airacomet" which flew for
the first time in October 1942. The Airacomet
proved the concept of jet powered flight, but was
never used in combat due to its limited flight time
of 30 minutes. [Figure 3-5]

JET PROPULSION TODAY

Today, the majority of commercial aircraft utilize
some form of jet propulsion. In addition, there are
currently several manufacturers that produce entire
lines of jet powered aircraft that cruise in excess of
600 miles per hour and carry more than four hundred passengers or several tons of cargo.
Another step in the progression of commercial and
military aviation was the ability to produce an
engine that would propel an aircraft faster than the
speed of sound. Today, there are several military aircraft that travel at speeds in excess of Mach one.
One such aircraft is the SR-71 Blackbird which flys
in excess of Mach five. In commercial aviation however, there is currently only one aircraft that flies
faster than Mach one. This aircraft, the Concorde,
was built by the British and French and placed into
service in the mid seventies. Currently, there are
more than ten Concordes in service that are capable
of flying at 2.2 times the speed of sound.
In addition to military and commercial aviation, jet
propulsion has become extremely popular for use
on business jets. These two and three engine aircraft
have become extremely popular in recent years due
in part to the efficiency and reliability of jet engines.

Turbine Engines

3-4

TYPES OF JET PROPULSION

Newton's reaction principle has been applied to
several propulsive devices used in aviation. All
produce thrust in the same manner, they accelerate
a mass of gases within the engine. The most common types of propulsive engines are the rocket, the
ramjet, the pulsejet, and the gas turbine.
ROCKET

A rocket is a nonairbreathing engine that carries its

own fuel as well as the oxygen needed for the fuel
to burn. There are two types of rockets in use:
solid-propellant rockets and liquid-propellant
rockets. Solid-propellant rockets use a solid fuel
that is mixed with an oxidizer and formed into a
specific shape that promotes an optimum burning
rate. Once ignited, the fuel produces an extremely
high velocity discharge of gas through a nozzle at
the rear of the rocket body. The reaction to the
rapid discharge is forward motion of the rocket
body. Solid fuel rockets are used primarily to
propel some military weapons and, at times,
provide additional thrust for takeoff of heavily
loaded aircraft. These booster rockets attach to an
aircraft structure and provide the additional thrust
needed for special-condition takeoffs. [Figure 3-6]
The second type of rocket is the liquid-fuel rocket,
which uses fuel and an oxidizing agent such as liquid oxygen. The two liquids are carried in tanks
aboard the rocket. When the liquids are mixed, the
reaction is so violent that a tremendous amount of
heat is generated. The resulting high velocity gas jet
behind the rocket provides enough thrust to propel
an object.
RAMJET
A ramjet engine is an athodyd, or aero-thermodynamic-duct. Ramjets are air-breathing engines with

Figure 3-7. As a ramjet moves forward, air enters the intake

and proceeds to a combustion chamber where fuel is
added. Once ignited, the heat from the burning fuel accelerates the flow of air through a venturi to produce thrust.

no moving parts. However, since a ramjet has no rotating compressor to draw air into the engine, a ramjet
must be moving forward at a high velocity before it
can produce thrust. Once air enters the engine, fuel is
injected and ignited to provide the heat needed to
accelerate the air and produce thrust. Because ramjets
must be moving forward to produce thrust, they are
limited in their use. At present, ramjets are used in
some military weapons delivery systems where the
vehicle is accelerated to a high initial velocity so the
ramjet can take over for sustained flight. [Figure 3-7]
PULSEJET
Pulsejet engines are similar to ramjets except that
the air intake duct is equipped with a series of shutter valves that are spring loaded to the open
posti-tion. Air drawn through the open valves
enters a combustion chamber where it is heated by
burning fuel. As the air within the combustion
chamber expands, the air pressure increases to the
point that the shutter valves are forced closed.
Once closed, the expanding air within the chamber
is forced rearward to produce thrust. A pulsejet is
typically considered more useful than a ramjet
because pulsejets will produce thrust prior to being
accelerated to a high forward speed. [Figure 3-8]
GAS TURBINE ENGINE

Figure 3-6. RATO, or rocket assisted takeoff devices are

small, solid propellant rocket motors that are attached to
an airplane to provide additional thrust for high altitude or
overweight takeoff conditions.

The gas turbine engine is by far the most practical

form of jet engine in use today. In fact, the turbine
engine has become the standard on nearly all transport category, business, and military aircraft.
Because of this, the discussion presented in this section will focus on the gas turbine engine. The four
most common types of gas turbine engines are the
turbojet, turbo-propeller, turboshaft, and turbofan.

Turbine Engines

3-5

off, climb, and cruise. EPR readings are affected by

and are dependent on pressure altitude and outside
air temperature (OAT).
TURBOPROP ENGINES

Figure 3-8. (A) In the pulsejet engine, air is drawn into the
combustion chamber and mixed with fuel when the shutter
valves open. (B) As the fuel burns, the air pressure within
the chamber increases and forces the shutter valves to
close. Once closed, the expanding air within the engine
accelerates rearward through the exhaust nozzle to produce thrust.

TURBOJET ENGINES

The basic operating principles of a turbojet engine

are relatively straight forward; air enters through an
inlet duct and proceeds to the compressor where it
is compressed. Once compressed, the air flows to
the combuster section where fuel is added and
ignited. The heat generated by the burning fuel
causes the compressed air to expand and flow
toward the rear of the engine. As the air moves rearward, it passes through a set of turbine wheels that
are attached to the same shaft as the compressor
blades. The expanding air spins the turbines which,
in turn, drives the compressor. Once past the turbines, the air proceeds to exit the engine at a much
higher velocity than the incoming air. It is this difference in velocity between the entering and exiting
air that produces thrust.
When discussing a turbojet engine you must be
familiar with the term engine pressure ratio, or
EPR. An engine's EPR is the ratio of the turbine discharge pressure to the engine inlet air pressure. EPR
gauge readings are an indication of the amount of
thrust being produced for a given power lever setting. Total pressure pickups, or EPR probes, measure the air pressure at two points in the engine; one
EPR probe is located at the compressor inlet and a
second EPR probe is located just aft of the last stage
turbine in the exhaust section. EPR readings are
often used as verification of power settings for take-

A gas turbine engine that delivers power to a propeller is referred to as a turboprop engine.
Turboprop engines are similar in design to turbojet
engines except that the power produced by a turboprop engine is delivered to a reduction gear system
that spins a propeller. Reduction gearing is necessary in turboprop engines because optimum propeller performance is achieved at much slower
speeds than the engine's operating rpm. Turboprop
engines are used extensively in business and commuter type aircraft because the combination of jet
power and propeller efficiency provides good performance characteristics at speeds between 300 and
400 miles per hour. In addition, most turboprop
engines provide the best specific fuel consumption
of any gas turbine engine. [Figure 3-9]
TURBOSHAFT ENGINES

A gas turbine engine that delivers power to a shaft

that can drive something else is referred to as a turboshaft engine. The biggest difference between a
turbojet and turboshaft engine is that on a turboshaft
engine, most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is used to drive a turbine rather than produce thrust. Many helicopters use a turboshaft type
of gas turbine engine. In addition, turboshaft
engines are widely used as auxiliary power units
and in industrial applications to drive electrical
generators and surface transportation systems.
Output of a turboprop or turboshaft engine is measured by shaft horsepower rather than thrust.
TURBOFAN ENGINES

A turbofan engine consists of a multi-bladed ducted

propeller driven by a gas turbine engine. Turbofans
were developed to provide a compromise between

Figure 3-9. Turboprop powerplants have become a popular

choice on corporate twin-engine aircraft.

Turbine Engines

3-6

Figure 3-10. (A) A forward-fan turbofan engine uses a relatively large diameter ducted fan that produces thrust and provides
intake air to the compressor. (B) An aft-fan turbofan engine has a fan mounted on the aft turbine. This arrangement is rarely
used, since an aft fan cannot contribute to air compression at the inlet.

A turbofan engine may have the fan mounted to

either the front or back of the engine. Engines that
have the fan mounted in front of the compressor are
called forward-fan engines, while turbofan engines
that have the fan mounted to the turbine section are
called aft-fan engines. [Figure 3-10]

One stream passes through the engine core while a

second stream coaxially bypasses the engine core. It
is this bypass stream of air that is responsible for the
term bypass engine. When discussing bypass
engines there are three terms you must be familiar
with; they are thrust ratio, bypass ratio, and fan
pressure ratio. A turbofan engine's thrust ratio is a
comparison of the thrust produced by the fan to the
thrust produced by the engine core exhaust. On the
other hand, a turbofan's bypass ratio refers to the
ratio of incoming air that bypasses the core to the
amount of air that passes through the engine core.
Turbofans in civil aircraft are generally divided into
three classifications based on bypass ratio:

The inlet air that passes through a turbofan engine

is usually divided into two separate streams of air.

1. Low bypass (1:1)

2. Medium bypass (2:1 or 3:1)
3. High bypass (4:1 or greater)

the best features of the turbojet and the turboprop.

Turbofan engines have turbojet-type cruise speed
capability, yet retain some of the short-field takeoff
capability of a turboprop. Nearly all present day airliners are powered by turbofan engines for the reasons just mentioned as well as the fact that
turbo-fans are very fuel efficient.

Turbine Engines

3-7

Figure 3-12. All high bypass turbofan engines use large

diameter fans that produce bypass ratios of 4:1 or greater.

Figure 3-11. (A) Bypass air is ejected directly overboard

in forward-fan engines with a short fan duct. (B)
However, in a ducted fan, bypass air is ducted along the
engine's entire length.

Generally, airflow mass in the fan section of a low

bypass engine is the same as airflow mass in the
compressor. The fan discharge could be slightly
higher or lower depending on the engine model, but
bypass ratios are approximately 1:1. In some
engines the bypass air is ducted directly overboard
through a short fan duct. However, in a ducted fan
engine, the bypass air is ducted along the entire
length of the engine. Full fan ducts reduce aerodynamic drag and noise emissions. In either case, the
end of the duct usually has a converging discharge
nozzle that increases velocity and produces reactive
thrust. [Figure 3-11]
Medium or intermediate bypass engines have airflow bypass ratios ranging from 2:1 to 3:1. These
engines have thrust ratios similar to their bypass
ratios. The fans used on these engines have a larger
diameter than the fans used on low bypass engines
of comparable power. Fan diameter determines a
fan's bypass ratio and thrust ratio.
High bypass turbofan engines have bypass ratios of
4:1 or greater and use the largest diameter fan of any
of the bypass engines. High bypass turbines offer
higher propulsive efficiencies and better fuel economy than low or medium bypass turbines.
Consequently, they are the engines of choice on
large airliners used for long flights. Some common
high bypass turbofan engines include Pratt and
Whitney's JT9D and PW4000, the Rolls-Royce
RB-211, and the General Electric CF6. One
version of

the JT9D has a bypass ratio of 5:1 with 80 percent of

the thrust provided by the fan, and only 20 percent
by the core engine. [Figure 3-12]
Another term you must be familiar with is fan pressure ratio which is the ratio of air pressure leaving
the fan to the air pressure entering the fan. The fan
pressure ratio on a typical low bypass fan is approximately 1.5:1, whereas for some high bypass fans the
fan pressure ratio may be as high as 7:1. To obtain
high fan pressure ratios, most high bypass engines
are designed with high aspect ratio blades. Aspect
ratio is the ratio of a blade's length to its width, or
chord. Therefore, a long blade with a narrow chord
has a higher aspect ratio than a short blade with a
wide chord. Although high aspect ratio fan blades
are used most often, low aspect ratio blades are
coming into wider use today. Technological
advances in blade construction have overcome the
weight problems associated with low aspect ratio
blades in the past. Weight savings in low aspect
ratio blades have been achieved with hollow titanium blades having composite inner reinforcement
materials. Additionally, low aspect ratio blades are
desirable because of their resistance to foreign
object damage, especially bird strikes.
UNDUCTED FAN ENGINES

Recent developments have produced new engine

designs with higher efficiencies than anything currently in use. The new engines are designated ultra
high bypass (UHB) propfan and unducted fan
engine (UDF). These new designs utilize titanium,
lightweight stainless steel, and composite materials
to surpass the fuel economy of several high bypass
turbofan engines by more than 15 percent. Engine
designers have achieved 30:1 bypass ratios by incorporating single or dual propellers with composite

Turbine Engines

3-8

There are seven basic sections within every gas turbine engine. They are the

Figure 3-13. Unducted fan engines may eventually

power transport aircraft at high speeds with substantial
fuel savings.

blades that are 12 to 15 feet in diameter. The use of

composite blades reduces weight and allows safe
operation at tip speeds higher than conventional
blades. [Figure 3-13]
Current research and development could produce
10,000 to 15,000 horsepower engines for an aircraft
that carries 150 to 200 passengers at speeds near 0.8
Mach. Another design encases the propfan in a conventional cowl-type inlet which can achieve Mach
0.9. These engines are known as ducted ultra high
bypass engines.

ENGINE COMPONENTS
All gas turbine engines consist of the same basic components. However, the nomenclature used to describe each
component does vary among manufacturers.
Nomenclature differences are reflected in applicable
maintenance manuals. The following discussion uses
the terminology that is most commonly used in industry.

1. air inlet.
2. compressor section.
3. combustion section.
4. turbine section.
5. exhaust section.
6. accessory section.
7. systems necessary for starting, lubrication, fuel
supply, and auxiliary purposes, such as antiicing, cooling, and pressurization.
Additional terms you often hear include hot section
and cold section. A turbine engine's hot section
includes the combustion, turbine, and exhaust sections. The cold section, on the other hand, includes
the air inlet duct and the compressor section.
[Figure 3-14]
AIR INLET DUCTS
The air inlet duct on a turbojet engine is normally
considered to be a part of the airframe rather than
the engine. However, understanding the function of
an air inlet duct and its importance to engine performance make it a necessary part of any discussion
on gas turbine engine design and construction.
The air inlet to a turbine engine has several functions, one of which is to recover as much of the total
pressure of the free airstream as possible and deliver
this pressure to the compressor. This is known as
ram recovery or pressure recovery. In addition to
recovering and maintaining the pressure of the free
airstream, many inlets are shaped to raise the air

Figure 3-14. The basic components of a gas turbine engine include the air inlet, compressor, combustors, turbines, and exhaust.
The air inlet and compressor section is sometimes referred to as an engine's cold section, while the combustors, turbines, and
exhaust are sometimes referred to as an engine's hot section.

Turbine Engines

3-9

Figure 3-16. A McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 is designed with

wing mounted engines and an engine in the vertical stabilizer. The air inlet ducts on all of these engines are
mounted to the engine and positioned directly in front of
the compressor.

mon locations where engine inlets are mounted are

on the engine, in the wing, and on the fuselage.
ENGINE-MOUNTED INLETS

Figure 3-15. To ensure the operating efficiency of an inlet

duct, periodic inspection for foreign object damage and corrosion is required.

pressure above atmospheric pressure. This ram

effect results from forward movement which causes
air to "pile up" in the inlet. The faster the aircraft
flys, the more air piles up, and the higher the inlet
air pressure rises above ambient.
Another function of the air inlet is to provide a uniform supply of air to the compressor so the compressor can operate efficiently. Furthermore, the
inlet duct must cause as little drag as possible. It
takes only a small obstruction to the airflow inside
a duct to cause a severe loss of efficiency. If an inlet
duct is to deliver its full volume of air with a minimum of turbulence, it must be maintained as close
to its original condition as possible. Therefore, any
repairs to an inlet duct must retain the duct's
smooth aerodynamic shape. To help prevent damage or corrosion to an inlet duct, an inlet cover
should be installed any time the engine is not operating. [Figure 3-15]
Many air inlet ducts have been designed to
accommodation new airframe-engine combinations
and variations in engine mounting locations. In
addition, air inlets are designed to meet certain
criteria for operation at different airspeeds. Some of
the most corn-

Several large commercial aircraft and large military

aircraft use wing mounted engines. In a few cases,
such as the DC-10 and L-1011, a combination of
wing mounted and vertical stabilizer mounted
engines are used. In both cases, the air inlet duct is
located directly in front of the compressor and is
mounted to the engine. Integral mounting of the
inlet with an engine reduces air inlet length which
helps to increase inlet efficiency. [Figure 3-16]
In addition to the wing and vertical stabilizer
mounted engines, some commercial aircraft and the
majority of small business jets are fitted with aft
fuselage mounted engines. The air inlet ducts on
engines mounted in this fashion are identical to air
inlet ducts on wing mounted engines in that the
duct is relatively short and is mounted directly to
the engine. [Figure 3-17]

Figure 3-17. Engines mounted on the aft fuselage allow for

short air inlet ducts that attach to the front of each engine.
In this configuration, inlet efficiency is maintained.

3-70

Figure 3-18. The Hawker-Siddeley ou i "Nimrod" was developed from the de Havilland Comet airframe and utilizes
wing mounted air inlets that are aerodynamicaliy shaped to
reduce drag.

WING-MOUNTED INLETS

Some aircraft with engines mounted inside the wings

feature air inlet ducts in the wing's leading edge.
Aircraft such as the Aerospatiale Caravelle, de
Havilland Comet, and de Havilland Vampire all utilize
wing-mounted inlets. Typically, wing-mounted inlets
are positioned near the wing root area. [Figure 3-18]
FUSELAGE-MOUNTED INLETS

Engines mounted inside a fuselage typically use air

inlet ducts located near the front of the fuselage. For
example, many early military aircraft were designed
with an air inlet duct in the nose of the fuselage. In
addition, some modern supersonic military aircraft
have inlet ducts located just under the aircraft nose.
Although using an air inlet of this type allows the
aircraft manufacturer to build a more aerodynamic
aircraft, the increased length of the inlet does introduce some inefficiencies. [Figure 3-19]
Some military aircraft use air inlet ducts mounted
on the sides of the fuselage. This arrangement works
well for both single and twin engine aircraft. By
mounting an intake on each side of an aircraft, the
duct length can be shortened without adding a
significant amount of drag to the aircraft. However,
a

Figure 3-19. The single-enframe miei: uuu takes full advantage of ram effect much like engine-mounted air inlets.
Although the aircraft is aerodynamicaliy clean, the length of
the duct makes it slightly less efficient than
engine-mounted types.

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-20. The divided-entrance duct with side-mounted

intakes has a shorter length, providing improved inlet
efficiency.

disadvantage to this arrangement is that some

sudden flight maneuvers can cause an imbalance in
ram air pressure between the two intakes. The air
pressure imbalance felt on the compressor face
results in a slight loss of power. [Figure 3-20]
SUBSONIC INLETS

A typical subsonic air inlet consists of a fixed geometry duct whose diameter progressively increases
from front to back. This divergent shape works like
a venturi in that as the intake air spreads out, the
velocity of the air decreases and the pressure
increases. This added pressure contributes significantly to engine efficiency once the aircraft reaches
its design cruising speed. At this speed, the compressor reaches its optimum aerodynamic efficiency
and produces the most compression for the best fuel
economy. It is at this design cruise speed that the
inlet, compressor, combustor, turbine, and exhaust
duct are designed to match each other as a unit. If
any section mismatches any other because of damage, contamination, or ambient conditions, engine
performance suffers. For additional information on
subsonic air inlets, refer to the discussion on turbine
engine induction systems in Section B of Chapter 5.
SUPERSONIC INLETS

On supersonic aircraft a typical air inlet duct has

either a fixed or variable geometry whose diameter
progressively decreases, then increases from front to
back. This convergent-divergent shape is used to
slow the incoming airflow to subsonic speed before
it reaches the compressor.
In addition to the convergent-divergent shape,
many supersonic inlets employ a movable plug or
throat that changes the duct's geometry. The variable geometry is necessary so the duct can be
adjusted as needed to accomodate a wide range of
flight speeds. For additional information on super-

Turbine Engines

3-11

sonic air inlets, refer to the discussion on turbine engine

induction systems in Section B of Chapter 5.
BELLMOUTH INLETS

Bellmouth inlets have a convergent profile that is designed

specifically for obtaining very high aerodynamic efficiency
when stationary or in slow flight. Therefore, bellmouth
inlets are typically used on helicopters, some slow moving
aircraft, and on engines being run in ground test stands. A
typical bellmouth inlet is short in length and has rounded
shoulders offering very little air resistance. However,
because their shape produces a great deal of drag in forward
flight, bellmouth inlets are typically not used on high speed
aircraft. Since a bellmouth duct is so efficient when
stationary, engine manufacturers typically collect engine
performance data from engines fitted with a bellmouth inlet.
FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE

Prevention of foreign object damage (FOD) is a top priority

among turbine engine operators and manufacturers. One of
the easiest ways to help prevent foreign object damage is to Figure 3-21. Several helicopters and turboprop aircraft utiinstall an inlet screen over an engine's inlet duct. The use of lize inlet screens to help prevent foreign object damage.
inlet screens is common on many rotorcraft and design of a sand or ice separator consists of an air
with at least one venturi and a series of sharp
turboprop engines as well as on engines installed in test intake
bends. The venturi is used to accelerate the flow of
stands. However, inlet screens are seldom used on high incoming air and debris so the debris has enough
mass airflow engines because icing and screen failures can inertia that it cannot follow the bends in the intake.
cause serious engine damage. [Figure 3-21]
This allows sand particles and other small debris to
be channeled away from the compressor and into a
Additional devices that help prevent foreign object damage sediment trap. [Figure 3-22]
include sand or ice separators. The basic

Figure 3-22. The sand and dust separator pictured is typical for the turbine powered helicopter. The venturi in the air inlet accelerates the air and sand so the sand has too much inertia to make the turn leading to the engine

Turbine Engines

3-72

Figure 3-23. When a pilot actuates this type of sand separator, a small vane extends into the airstream. The inertia of the sand and
ice particles after they pass through the venturi carries them past the air intake and discharges them overboard.

Another type of separator used on some turboprop

aircraft incorporates a movable vane which extends
into the inlet airstream. Once extended, the vane
creates a more prominent venturi and a sudden turn
in the engine inlet. Combustion air can follow the
sharp curve but sand or ice particles cannot because
of their inertia. The movable vane is operated by a
pilot through a control handle in the cockpit.
[Figure 3-23]
Some gas turbine engine inlets have a tendency to
form a vortex between the ground and the inlet during ground operations. This vortex can become
strong enough to lift water and debris such as sand,
small stones, or small hardware from the ground
and direct it into the engine. To help alleviate this
problem, a vortex dissipater, sometimes called a
vortex destroyer or blow-away jet is installed on
some gas turbine engines. A typical vortex dissipater routes high pressure bleed air to a discharge nozzle located in the lower part of the engine cowl.
This discharge nozzle directs a continuous blast of
bleed air between the ground and air inlet to prevent a vortex from developing. Most aircraft
equipped with a vortex dissipater also have a landing gear switch that arms the dissipater whenever
the engine is operating and weight is on the main
gear. [Figure 3-24]

COMPRESSOR SECTION
As discussed earlier, a gas turbine engine takes in a
quantity of air, adds energy to it, then discharges the
air to produce thrust. Based on this, the more air
that is forced into an engine, the more thrust the
engine can produce. The component that forces air
into the engine is the compressor. To be effective, a
modern compressor must increase the intake air
pressure 20 to 30 times above the ambient air pressure and move the air at a velocity of 400 to 500 feet

Figure 3-24. Engines that utilize a vortex dissipater use high

pressure bleed air from the compressor to prevent the formation of a low pressure vortex that can suck debris into
the engine.

Turbine Engines

3-13

per second. One way of measuring a compressor's

effectiveness is to compare the static pressure of the
compressor discharge with the static air pressure at
the inlet. If the discharge air pressure is 30 times
greater than the inlet air pressure, that compressor
has a compressor pressure ratio of 30:1.
In addition to supporting combustion and providing
the air necessary to produce thrust, the compressor
section has several secondary functions. For example, a compressor supplies bleed air to cool the hot
section and heated air for anti-icing. In addition,
compressor bleed air is used for cabin
pressurization, air conditioning, fuel system
deicing, and pneumatic engine starting. There are
two basic types of compressors used today; the
centrifugal flow compressor and the axial flow
compressor. Each is named according to the
direction the air flows through the compressor, and
one or both may be used in the same engine.
CENTRIFUGAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

The centrifugal compressor, sometimes called a

radial outflow compressor, is one of the earliest
compressor designs and is still used today in some
smaller engines and auxiliary power units (APU's).
Centrifugal compressors consist of an impeller, a
diffuser, and a manifold. [Figure 3-25]

Figure 3-26. A two-stage impeller is sometimes used to

obtain higher compressor pressure ratios. However, due to
efficiency losses, centrifugal compressors typically do not
exceed two stages.

impeller compresses the air more than a single-stage

impeller, the use of more than two stages in a compressor is typically considered impractical. The
benefits of additional stages are negated by the
energy lost when the airflow slows down as it
passes from one impeller to the next. In addition,
the added weight from each additional impeller
requires more energy from the engine to drive the
compressor. [Figure 3-26]

The impeller, or rotor, consists of a forged disk with

integral blades, fastened by a splined coupling to a
common power shaft. The impeller's function is to
take air in and accelerate it outward by centrifugal
force. Centrifugal compressors can have one or two
impellers. Compressors having only one impeller
are referred to as single-stage compressors while
compressors having two impellers are referred to as
double-stage compressors. Although a two-stage

When two impellers are mounted back-to-back a

double-sided or double-entry impeller is created. A
single-stage, double-sided impeller allows a higher
mass airflow than that of a similar sized
single-stage, single-sided impeller. Therefore,
engines "with double-sided impellers typically
have a smaller overall diameter. [Figure 3-27]

Figure 3-25. A single-stage centrifugal compressor consists

of an impeller, a diffuser, and a compressor manifold.

Figure 3-27. A single-stage, dual-sided impeller enables a

small diameter engine to produce a high mass airflow.

Turbine Engines

3-74

One drawback of the double-sided impeller is that

the ducting required to get the intake air from one
side of the impeller to the other is complicated. For
example, included in the ducting for double-entry
compressor engines is a plenum chamber. This
chamber is necessary because the air must enter the
engine at almost right angles to the engine axis.
Therefore, in order to give a positive flow, the air
must surround the engine compressor at a positive
pressure before entering the compressor. In addition
to the plenum chamber, some double-entry compressors utilize auxiliary air-intake doors (blow-in
doors). These blow-in doors admit air into the
engine compartment during ground operation when
air requirements for the engine exceed that of the
incoming airflow. The doors are held closed by
spring action when the engine is not operating.
During operation, however, the doors open whenever engine compartment pressure drops below
atmospheric pressure. During takeoff and flight, ram
air pressure in the engine compartment aids the
springs in holding the doors closed.
Once through the impeller, the air is expelled into a
divergent duct called a diffuser, where it loses
velocity and increases in pressure. The diffuser acts
as a divergent duct where the air spreads out, slows
down, and increases in static pressure.
The compressor manifold distributes the air in a
smooth flow to the combustion section. The manifold has one outlet port for each combustion chamber so that the air is evenly divided. A compressor
outlet elbow is bolted to each of the outlet ports.
The elbows act as air ducts and are often referred to
as outlet ducts, outlet elbows, or combustion chamber inlet ducts. These outlet ducts change the radial
direction of the airflow to an axial direction. To help
the elbows perform this function in an efficient
manner, turning vanes or cascade vanes are sometimes fitted inside the elbows. These vanes reduce
air pressure losses by presenting a smooth, turning
surface. [Figure 3-28]
Centrifugal flow compressors offer several advantages including simplicity of manufacture, relatively low cost, low weight, low starting power
requirements, and operating efficiency over a wide
range of rotational speeds. In addition, a centrifugal
flow compressor's short length and spoke-like
design allow it to accelerate air rapidly and immediately deliver it to the diffuser in a short distance.
Tip speeds of centrifugal compressors may reach
Mach 1.3, but the pressure within the compressor

Figure 3-28. The turning vanes in a compressor manifold help direct the compressor outlet air to the combustion section.(90)

casing prevents airflow separation and provides a

high transfer of energy into the airflow. Although
most centrifugal compressors are limited to two
stages, the high pressure rise per stage allows modern centrifugal compressors to obtain compressor
pressure ratios of 15:1.
A typical centrifugal compressor has a few disadvantages that make it unsuitable for use in some
engines. For example, the large frontal area required
for a given airflow increases aerodynamic drag.
Also, practical limits on the number of stages
restrict its usefulness when designing larger and
more powerful engines.
AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

An axial flow compressor has two main elements, a

rotor and a stator. The rotor consists of rows of
blades fixed on a rotating spindle. The angle and
airfoil contour of the blades forces air rearward in
the same manner as a propeller. The stator vanes, on
the other hand, are arranged in fixed rows between
the rows of rotor blades and act as diffusers at each
stage, decreasing air velocity and raising pressure.
Each consecutive row of rotor blades and stator
vanes constitutes a pressure stage. The number of
stages is determined by the amount of air and total
pressure rise required.(
)
Unlike a centrifugal compressor, which is capable of
compressor pressure ratios of 15:1, a single stage in
an axial flow compressor is capable of producing a
compressor pressure ratio of only 1.25:1. Therefore,
high compressor pressure ratios are obtained by
adding more compressor stages.

3-15

Turbine Engines

removal of one of the halves for inspection or maintenance of both rotor blades and stator vanes. The
compressor case also provides a means of extracting
bleed air for ancillary functions.
Some disadvantages of axial flow compressors are
relatively high weight and high starting power
requirements. Also, the low pressure rise per stage of
1.25:1 requires many stages to achieve high compressor pressure ratios. Furthermore, axial flow compressors are expensive and difficult to manufacture.(
)
Figure 3-29. In an axial compressor, airflow velocity is maintained nearly constant while air pressure increases as the
airflow proceeds through each stage of compression.

The task of an axial compressor is to raise air pressure rather than air velocity. Therefore, each compressor stage raises the pressure of the incoming air
while the air's velocity is alternately increased then
decreased as airflow proceeds through the compressor. The rotor blades slightly accelerate the airflow,
then the stator vanes diffuse the air, slowing it and
increasing the pressure. The overall result is
increased air pressure and relatively constant air
velocity from compressor inlet to outlet. [Figure 3-29]
As air passes from the front of an axial flow com
pressor to the rear, the space between the rotor shaft
and the stator casing gradually decreases. This
shape is necessary to maintain a constant air veloc
ity as air density increases with each stage of com
pression. To accomplish the convergent shape, each
stage of blades and vanes is smaller than the one
preceding it.[Figure3-30]

In spite of the disadvantages just mentioned, axial

flow compressors outperform centrifugal flow compressors in several areas. High ram efficiency is
obtained because of their straight-through design,
which takes full advantage of any ram effect.
Another advantage of axial flow compressors is
their ability to obtain higher compressor pressure
ratios by adding additional stages. In addition, the
small frontal area of an axial flow compressor helps
to reduce aerodynamic drag.
Compressor Rotor Blades

The rotor blades used in an axial flow compressor

have an airfoil cross-section with a varying angle of
incidence, or twist. This twist compensates for the
blade velocity variation caused by its radius. In
other words, the further from the axis of rotation a
blade section is, the faster it travels. [Figure 3-31]

The case on most axial flow compressors is horizontally divided into two halves, allowing the

Figure 3-30. In an axial flow compressor, the divergent

shape allows the air velocity to remain nearly constant,
while pressure gradually increases.

Figure 3-31. Compressor rotor blades are twisted to compensate for blade velocity variations along the length of the blade.

3-76

Turbine Engines

addition, the thin trailing edge of profile tipped

blades causes a vortex which increases air velocity
and helps prevent air from spilling back over the
blade tips.
On some newer engines the profile tipped blades
are designed with tight running clearances and
rotate within a shroud strip of abradable material.
Since rotor blades are usually made of a stainless
steel alloy, the shroud strip wears away with no loss
of blade length if contact loading takes place.
Sometimes after engine shutdown, a high pitched
noise can be heard as the rotor coasts to a stop. The
noise is caused by contact between the blade tip and
shroud strip and is the reason why profile tip blades
are sometimes referred to as squealer tips.
Figure 3-32. A dovetail on the base of this compressor blade
fits loosely into a dovetail slot in the compressor wheel. A
small locking device such as a pin, key, or plate prevents
the blade from backing out.

Axial flow compressors typically have 10 to 18 compression stages, and in the turbofan engine, the fan
is considered to be the first stage rotor. The base, or
root of a rotor blade often fits loosely into the rotor
disk. This loose fit allows for easy assembly and
vibration damping. As the compressor rotor rotates,
centrifugal force keeps the blades in their correct
position, and the airstream over each blade provides
a shock absorbing or cushioning effect. Rotor blade
roots are designed with a number of different shapes
such as a bulb, fir tree, or dovetail. To prevent a
blade from backing out of its slot, most methods of
blade attachment use a pin and a lock tab or locker
to secure the coupling. [Figure 3-32]

Another blade design that increases compressor

efficiency utilizes a localized increase in blade camber, both at the blade tip and blade root. The purpose of this design is to compensate for the friction
caused by the boundary layer of air near the compressor case. The increased blade camber helps
overcome the friction and makes the blade extremities appear as if they were bent over at each corner,
hence the term end bend. [Figure 3-33]

Some long fan blades have a mid-span shroud that

helps support the blades, making them more resistant to the bending forces created by the airstream.
The shrouds, however, do block some of the airflow
and create additional aerodynamic drag that
reduces fan efficiency. In addition, when the mating surfaces on a mid-span shroud become excessively worn, the shrouds can overlap. This is
known as shingling and can cause fan vibration and
engine damage.
Some blades are cut off square at the tip and are
referred to as flat machine tips. Other blades have a
reduced thickness at the tips and are called profile
tips. All rotating machinery has a tendency to
vibrate, and profiling a compressor blade increases
its natural vibration frequency. By increasing the
blade's natural frequency above the frequency of
rotation, a blades's vibration tendency is reduced. In

Figure 3-33. End bend refers to the increased blade camber

on some compressor blades. The increased camber helps
prevent airflow stagnation near the blade tips.

3-17

Turbine Engines

Compressor Stator Vanes

Stator vanes are the stationary blades located

between each row of rotating blades in an axial flow
compressor. As discussed earlier, the stator vanes
act as diffusers for the air coming off the rotor,
decreasing its velocity and raising its pressure. In
addition, the stators help prevent swirling and
direct the flow of air coming off each stage to the
next stage at the appropriate angle. Like rotor
blades, stator vanes have an airfoil shape. In addition, the angle of attack of stator vanes can be fixed
or variable. Stator vanes are normally constructed
out of steel or nickel because those metals have high
fatigue strength. However, titanium may also be
used for stator vanes in the low pressure and temperature stages.
Stator vanes may be secured directly to the compressor casing or to a stator vane retaining ring,
which is secured to the compressor case. Most stator vanes are attached in rows with a dovetail
arrangement and project radially toward the rotor
axis. Stator vanes are often shrouded at their tips to
minimize vibration tendencies. [Figure 3-34]
The set of stator vanes immediately in front of the first
stage rotor blades are called inlet guide vanes. These
vanes direct the airflow into the first stage rotor
blades at the best angle while imparting a swirling
motion in the direction of engine rotation. This action
improves the aerodynamics of the compressor by
reducing the drag on the first stage rotor blades. Some
axial compressors with high compressor pressure
ratios utilize variable inlet guide vanes plus several
stages of variable stator vanes. These variable inlet
guide vanes and stators automatically reposition
themselves to maintain proper airflow through the
engine under varying operating conditions.
The last set of vanes the compressor air passes through
is the outlet vane assembly. These vanes straighten

Figure 3-34. Compressor stator vanes may be attached

directly to the compressor case (A) or to a retaining ring
that is attached to the case by a retaining screw (B). In
addition, stator vanes are sometimes equipped with
shrouds to minimize the effects of vibration.IGVdirect
st
flow to the 1 stage rotor at best angle

the airflow and eliminate any swirling motion or turbulence. The straightened airflow then proceeds to the
diffuser to prepare the air mass for combustion.
MULTIPLE-SPOOL COMPRESSORS

In a basic axial flow compressor, the compressor and

turbine are connected by a single shaft and rotate as a
single unit. Since there is only one compressor unit,
the compressor is commonly referred to as a
single-spool compressor. While single-spool
compressors are relatively simple and inexpensive to
manufacture, they do have a few drawbacks. For
example, in a long axial compressor the rear stages
operate at a fraction of their capacity, while the
forward stages are typically overloaded. Furthermore,
the large mass of a single-spool compressor does not
respond quickly to abrupt control input changes.
[Figure 3-35]

Figure 3-35. In a single-spool compressor, there is only one compressor unit that is connected by a shaft to the turbine section.
Rear stages operate at a fraction of capacity while FWD stage overload..Not respond quickly to abrupt control input change

3-18

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-36. In a dual-spool axial flow engine, the low pressure compressor is driven by the low pressure turbine while the high
pressure turbine drives the high pressure compressor. Splitting the compressor creates two rotating groups, each with considerably less mass than a single-spool compressor. The smaller mass allows the compressors to respond more quickly to power lever
inputs and perform better at high altitudes. In addition, a smaller starter can be used since it turns less mass.(small mass allow
compressor to respond quickly and easy to turn for starting)N2 speed is held relatively constant by FCU Governor
N2 speed up or slow down by ALT and FLT maneuvering

Engine designers devised a way to overcome the

limitations of single-spool compressors by splitting
the compressor into two or three sections. Each sec
tion is connected to a portion of the turbine section
by shafts that run coaxially, one within the other.
For example, split-compressor engines with two
compressor sections are identified as dual-spool or
twin-spool compressors. The front section of a dualspool compressor is called the low pressure, low
speed, or N1 compressor. This low pressure com
pressor is typically driven by a two-stage turbine at
the rear of the turbine section. The second compres
sor section of a twin-spool compressor is called the
high pressure, high speed, or N2 compressor and is
typically driven by a single stage high-pressure tur
bine at the front of the turbine section. The shaft
connecting the low pressure compressor and tur
bine typically rotates inside the shaft connecting the
high pressure compressor and turbine. On some turbofan engines, the forward fan is attached to the low
pressure compressor, and they both turn at the same
speed. [Figure 3-36]
Since the spools are not physically connected to one
another, each is free to seek its own best operating
speed. However, for any given power lever setting,
the high pressure compressor speed is held relatively constant by the fuel control governor. With a
constant energy level at the turbine, the low pressure compressor speeds up or slows down with
changes in the inlet air flow caused by atmospheric

pressure fluctuations or flight maneuvering. For

example, low pressure compressors speed up as the
aircraft gains altitude, since the atmosphere is less
dense and more rotational speed is needed to force
the required amount of air through the engine.
Conversely, as the aircraft descends, the air becomes
more dense and easier to compress so the low pressure compressor slows down. This way, the low
pressure compressor supplies the high pressure
compressor with a fairly constant air pressure and
mass airflow for each power setting.
On many turbofan engines, the compressor section
is divided into three sections and is referred to as a
triple-spool compressor. In this arrangement the fan
is referred to as the low speed, or N 1 compressor.
The compressor next in line is called the intermediate, or N 2 compressor, and the innermost compressor is the high pressure, or N 3 compressor. The low
speed compressor is typically driven by a multiple
stage low pressure turbine, while the intermediate
and high pressure compressors are driven by single
stage turbines. [Figure 3-37]
COMPRESSOR STALL

As discussed earlier, compressor blades are actually

small airfoils and therefore, are subject to the same
aerodynamic principles that apply to aircraft wings.
Like a wing, a compressor blade has an angle of
attack, which is the acute angle between the chord

3-19

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-37. The triple-spool compressors used on many turbofan engines allow each compressor section to reach its optimum
speed for varying power requirements and flight conditions.(compressor stall turbulence air in inlet abrupt FLT
maneuver abnormal acceltin or decell
direction or damage on comp .turbine blade or vane)
pulsating or fluttering sound
Fluction RPM EGT raise

Air velocity and compressor rotational velocity combine vector which define the AOA(angel of attack)

of the blade and the relative wind. The angle of

attack of a compressor blade is the result of inlet air
velocity and the compressor's rotational velocity.
These two forces combine to form a vector, which
defines the airfoil's actual angle of attack to the
approaching inlet air. As with an aircraft wing, a
compressor blade's angle of attack can be changed.
A compressor stall can be described as an imbalance between the two vector quantities, inlet velocity, and compressor rotational speed. Compressor
stalls occur when the compressor blades' angle of
attack exceeds the critical angle of attack. At this
point, smooth airflow is interrupted and turbulence
is created with pressure fluctuations. Compressor
stalls cause air flowing in the compressor to slow
down and stagnate, sometimes reversing direction.
A compressor stall can usually be heard as a pulsating or fluttering sound in its mildest form to a loud
explosion in its most developed state. Quite often
the cockpit gauges will not show a mild or transient
stall but will indicate a developed stall. Typical
instrument indications include fluctuations in rpm
and an increase in exhaust gas temperature. Most
transient stalls are not harmful to the engine and
often correct themselves after one or two pulsations.
However, severe stalls, or hung stalls, can significantly impair engine performance, cause loss of
power, and can damage the engine.
The only way to overcome a stalled condition is to
reduce the angle of attack on the rotor blades. One

way this can be done is through the use of variable

inlet guide vanes() and variable
stator vanes which direct the incoming air into the
rotor blades at an appropriate angle. For example,
as a compressor's rotational speed decreases, the
stator vanes are progressively closed to maintain
the appropriate airflow angle to the proceeding
rotor blades. The position of the stator vanes is
controlled automatically by the fuel control unit.
To do this, the fuel control unit monitors
compressor inlet temperature and engine speed.
Another way the angle of attack can be changed is
by bleeding off some of the air pressure within the
compressor. To do this, some engines incorporate
automatic air-bleed valves which operate during
low rpm conditions or during engine startup. The
automatic valves open to relieve pressure caused by
air piling up at the compressor's high pressure end.
This regulation of air pressure helps prevent the
compressor from stalling and allows for easier
engine starting.
Compressor stalls typically occur when the engine
inlet air becomes turbulent or disrupted when an
aircraft flys in severe turbulence or performs abrupt
flight maneuvers. Another cause is excessive fuel
flow produced by a sudden engine acceleration,
accompanied by incompatible engine rpm and airflow combinations. In addition, contamination or
damage to compressor blades, stator vanes, or turbine components can also cause a compressor stall.

Turbine Engines

3-20

COMBINATION COMPRESSORS

Hybrid axial flow-centrifugal flow compressors

were developed to combine the best features of centrifugal and axial compressors and eliminate some
of their disadvantages. This design is currently
being used in some smaller engines installed on
business jets and helicopters. [Figure 3-38]
COMPRESSOR AIR BLEEDS

In addition to supplying air for combustion, the

compressor supplies high pressure, high temperature air for various secondary functions such as
cabin pressurization, heating, and cooling. Also,
compressor air is used for deicing, anti-icing, and
for pneumatic engine starting. This air is referred to
as bleed air, or customer bleed air and is tapped
from the compressor through bleed ports at various
stages. A bleed port is a small opening adjacent to
the compressor stage selected for bleed air supply.
The choice of which compressor stage to bleed air
from depends on the air pressure or temperature
required for a particular function. Air bled from the

final or highest pressure stage often requires cooling, since compression can heat the air to temperatures in excess of 650 degrees Fahrenheit.
Bleeding air from the compressor does cause a small
but noticeable drop in engine power. Sometimes
power loss can be detected by observing the engine
pressure ratio (EPR) indicator. For example, selecting the engine inlet anti-ice function causes a drop
in EPR and engine rpm if the engine power lever is
left in a fixed position. Exhaust gas temperature
(EGT) readings may shift noticeably as well.
DIFFUSER

As air leaves an axial flow compressor and moves

toward the combustion section, it is traveling at
speeds up to 500 feet per second. This is far too fast
to support combustion, therefore the air velocity
must be slowed significantly before it enters the
combustion section. The divergent shape of a
dif-fuser slows compressor discharge while, at the
same time, increasing air pressure to its highest
value in the engine. The diffuser is usually a
separate section

Figure 3-38. The Garrett TFE731 engine has a two-stage compressor that uses an axial flow compressor for the low pressure stage
and a single stage centrifugal compressor for the high pressure stage.

Turbine Engines

3-21
A typical ignition source for gas turbine engines is
the high-energy capacitor discharge system, consisting of an exciter unit, two high-tension cables,
and two spark igniters. This ignition system produces 60 to 100 sparks per minute, resulting in a
ball of fire at the igniter electrodes. Some of these
systems produce enough energy to shoot sparks several inches, so care must be taken to avoid a lethal
shock during maintenance tests.
A fuel drainage system accomplishes the important
task of draining the unburned fuel after engine
shutdown. Draining accumulated fuel reduces the
possibility of exceeding tailpipe or turbine inlet
temperature limits due to an engine fire after shutdown. In addition, draining the unburned fuel
helps to prevent gum deposits in the fuel manifold,
nozzles, and combustion chambers which are
caused by fuel residue.
To accomplish the task of efficiently burning the
fuel/air mixture a combustion chamber must

Figure 3-39. High-velocity air from the compressor section

enters the diffuser where air velocity decreases and air
pressure increases to a maximum.

bolted to the rear of the compressor case and ahead

of the combustion section. [Figure 3-39]
COMBUSTION SECTION
A combustion section is typically located directly
between the compressor diffuser and turbine section. All combustion sections contain the same
basic elements: one or more combustion chambers
(combustors), a fuel injection system, an ignition
source, and a fuel drainage system.
The combustion chamber or combustor in a turbine
engine is where the fuel and air are mixed and
burned. A typical combustor consists of an outer casing with a perforated inner liner. The perforations
are various sizes and shapes, all having a specific
effect on the flame propagation within the liner.
The fuel injection system meters the appropriate
amount of fuel through the fuel nozzles into the combustors. Fuel nozzles are located in the combustion
chamber case or in the compressor outlet elbows.
Fuel is delivered through the nozzles into the liners in
a finely atomized spray to ensure thorough mixing
with the incoming air. The finer the spray, the more
rapid and efficient the combustion process.

1. mix fuel and air effectively in the best ratio for

good combustion.
2. burn the mixture as efficiently as possible.
3. cool the hot combustion gases to a temperature
the turbine blades can tolerate.
4. distribute hot gases evenly to the turbine
section.
In order to allow the combustion section to mix the
incoming fuel and air, ignite the mixture, and cool
the combustion gases, airflow through a combustor
is divided into primary and secondary paths.
Approximately 25 to 35 percent of the incoming air
is designated as primary while 65 to 75 percent
becomes secondary. Primary, or combustion air, is
directed inside the liner in the front end of a combustor. As this air enters the combustor, it passes
through a set of swirl vanes, which gives the air a
radial motion and slows down its axial velocity to
about five or six feet per second. The reduction in
airflow velocity is very important because
kerosene-type fuels have a slow flame propagation
rate. Therefore, an excessively high velocity
airflow could literally blow the flame out of the
engine. This malfunction is known as a flameout. A
vortex created in the flame area provides the
turbulence required to properly mix the fuel and
air. Once mixed, the combustion process is
complete in the first third of a combustor.
The secondary airflow in the combustion section
flows at a velocity of several hundred feet per second around the combustor's periphery. This flow of

3-22

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-40. As air flows into the combustion section it separates into primary and secondary flows. The primary flow is used to
support combustion while the secondary flow cools the hot gases before they enter the turbine section.

air forms a cooling air blanket on both sides of the

liner and centers the combustion flames so they do
not contact the liner. Some secondary air is slowed
and metered into the combustor through the
perforations in the liner where it ensures
combustion of any remaining unburned fuel. Finally,
secondary air mixes with the burned gases and cool
air to provide an even distribution of energy to the
turbine nozzle at a temperature that the turbine
section can withstand. [Figure 3-40]
There are currently three basic types of combustion
chambers, the multiple-can type, the annular or basket type, and the can-annular type. Functionally,
they are the same but their design and construction
is different.
MULTIPLE-CAN TYPE

The multiple-can type combustion chamber consists of a series of individual combustor cans
which act as individual burner units. This type of
combustion chamber is well suited to centrifugal
compressor engines because of the way compressor
discharge air is equally divided at the diffuser.
Each can is constructed with a perforated stainless

steel liner inside the outer case. The inner liner is

highly heat resistant and is easily removed for
inspection once the combustion can is removed
from the engine. Each combustion can has a large
degree of curvature which provides a high resistance to warpage. However, the shape is inefficient
in terms of the amount of space required and the
added weight.
The individual combustors in a typical
multiple-can
combustion
chamber
are
interconnected with small flame propagation tubes.
The combustion starts in the two cans equipped
with igniter plugs, then the flame travels through
the tubes and ignites the fuel/air mixture in the
other cans. Each flame propagation tube is
actually a small tube surrounded by a larger tube
or jacket. The small inner tube carrys the flame
between the cans and the outer tube carries airflow
between the cans that cools and insulates. There are
8 or 10 cans in a typical multiple-can combustion
section. The cans are numbered clockwise when
facing the rear of the engine on most
American-built engines, with the number one can
being on the top. All the combustor cans discharge
exhaust gases into an open area at the turbine nozzle
inlet. [Figure 3-41]

Turbine Engines

3-23
igniters similar to the type found in multiple-can
combustors.
In a conventional annular combustor, airflow enters
at the front and is discharged at the rear with primary and secondary airflow much the same as in
the multiple-can design. However, unlike the can
type combustors, an annular combuster must be
removed as a single unit for repair or replacement.
This usually involves complete separation of the
engine at a major flange. [Figure 3-42]
Some annular combustors are designed so the airflow can reverse direction. These reverse-flow combustors serve the same function as the conventional
flow type, except the air flows around the chamber
and enters from the rear. This results in the combustion gases flowing in the opposite direction of
the normal airflow through the engine. This idea
was first employed by Whittle in his early designs.

Figure 3-41. Used primarily in early turbine engine designs,

multiple-can combustors consisted of a series of individual
burner cans arranged radially around an engine. The multiple-can design has the advantage of easy removal of any
combustor for maintenance or replacement.

ANNULAR TYPE

Today, annular combustors are commonly used in

both small and large engines. The reason for this is
that, from a standpoint of thermal efficiency,
weight, and physical size, the annular combustor is
the most efficient. An annular combustion chamber
consists of a housing and perforated inner liner, or
basket. The liner is a single unit that encircles the
outside of the turbine shaft housing. The shroud can
be shaped to contain one or more concentric baskets. An annular combustor with two baskets is
known as a double-annular combustion chamber.
Normally, the ignition source consists of two spark

Figure 3-42. An annular combustor has the highest efficiency for its weight of any combustor design. However,
the engine must be disassembled to repair or replace an
annular combustor. Also, the shallow curvature makes this
combustor more susceptible to warping.

Turbine Engines

3-24

Figure 3-43. A reverse-flow combustor is light and compact.

The turbine wheels actually lie within the combustor, rather
than behind it.

In a typical reverse-flow annular combustor, the turbine wheels are inside the combustor area rather
than downstream, as with the conventional flow
designs. This allows for a shorter and lighter engine
that uses the hot gases to preheat the compressor
discharge air. These factors help make up for the
loss of efficiency caused by the gases having to
reverse their direction as they pass through the combustor. [Figure 3-43]
CAN-ANNULAR TYPE

Can-annular combustion sections represent a combination of the multiple-can combustor and the
annular type combustor. The can-annular combustor was invented by Pratt & Whitney and consists of
a removable steel shroud that encircles the entire
combustion section. Inside the shroud, or casing,
are multiple burner cans assembled radially around
the engine axis with bullet-shaped perforated liners.
A fuel nozzle cluster is attached to the forward end
of each burner can and pre-swirl vanes are placed
around each fuel nozzle. The pre-swirl vanes
enhance the combustion process by promoting a
thorough mixing of fuel and air and slowing the
axial air velocity in the burner can. Flame propagation tubes connect the individual liners and two
igniter plugs are used for initiating combustion. An
individual can and liner is removed and installed as
one unit for maintenance. This design combines the

Figure 3-44. A can-annular combustor contains individual

burner cans in an annular liner. The short burner cans combine the compact efficiency of the annular type combustor
with the ease of the multiple-can combustor maintenance.

ease of overhaul and testing of the multiple-can

arrangement with the compactness of the annular
combustor. [Figure 3-44]
FLAMEOUT

As mentioned earlier, a combustion flame can be

extinguished by high airflow rates. However, excessively slow airflow rates can also contribute to this
problem. Although flameout is uncommon in modern engines, combustion instability can still occur

3-25

Turbine Engines

and occasionally causes a complete flameout. Given

the correct set of circumstances, turbulent weather,
high altitude, slow acceleration, and high-speed
maneuvers can induce combustion instability and
cause a flameout. There are two types of flameouts,
a lean die-out and a rich blow-out. A lean die-out
usually occurs at high altitude where low engine
speeds and low fuel pressure form a weak flame that
can die out in a normal airflow. On the other hand,
a rich blow-out typically occurs during rapid engine
acceleration when an overly-rich mixture causes the
fuel temperature to drop below the combustion temperature or when there is insufficient airflow to support combustion.
TURBINE SECTION
After the fuel/air mixture is burned in the
combus-tor, its energy must be extracted. A
turbine transforms a portion of the kinetic energy
in the hot exhaust gases into mechanical energy to
drive the compressor and accessories. In a turbojet
engine, the turbine absorbs approximately 60 to
80% of the total pressure energy from the exhaust
gases. The turbine section of a turbojet engine is
located downstream of the combustion section and
consists of four basic elements; a case, a stator, a
shroud, and a rotor. [Figure 3-45]

TURBINE STATOR

A stator element is most commonly referred to as

the turbine nozzle; however, you may also hear the
stator elements referred to as the turbine guide
vanes, or the nozzle diaphragm. The turbine nozzle
is located directly aft of the combustion section and
immediately forward of the turbine wheel. Because
of its location, the turbine nozzle is typically
exposed to the highest temperatures in a gas turbine engine.
The purpose of the turbine nozzle is to collect the
high energy airflow from the combustors and direct
the flow to strike the turbine rotor at the appropriate angle. The vanes of a turbine nozzle are contoured and set at such an angle that they form a
number of converging nozzles that convert some of
the exhaust gases' pressure energy to velocity
energy. In addition, the angle of the stator vanes is
set in the direction of turbine wheel rotation. Since
the gas flow from the nozzle must enter the turbine
blade passageway while it is still rotating, it is
essential to aim the gas in the general direction of
turbine rotation. As a result, the velocity energy of
the exhaust gases is more efficiently converted to
mechanical energy by the rotor blades.
SHROUD

CASE

The turbine casing encloses the turbine rotor and

stator assembly, giving either direct or indirect support to the stator elements. A typical case has
flanges on both ends that provide a means of attaching the turbine section to the combustion section
and the exhaust assembly.

Figure 3-45. The four basic elements of a turbine assembly in a

gas turbine engine are the case, stator, shroud, and rotor.

The turbine nozzle assembly consists of an inner

and outer shroud that retains and surrounds the
nozzle vanes. The number of vanes employed
varies with different types and sizes of engines.
The vanes of a turbine nozzle are assembled
between the outer and inner shrouds, or rings, in a
variety of ways. Although the actual elements may
vary slightly in their configuration and construction, there is one similarity among all turbine nozzles: the nozzle vanes must be constructed to
allow for thermal expansion. If this is not done,
the rapid temperature changes imposed by the
engine would cause severe distortion or warping
of the nozzle assembly.
The thermal expansion of turbine nozzles is dealt
with in several ways. One way requires the vanes
to be assembled loosely in the inner and outer
shrouds. With this method, the shrouds are built
with a series of contoured slots conforming to the
shape of an individual vane. The slots are slightly
larger than the vanes, and therefore, provide a
loose fit. In order to provide the strength and
rigidity required, the inner and outer shrouds are
encased in an inner and outer support ring. These

Turbine Engines

3-26

As the high velocity gases pass through the turbine

nozzle and impact the turbine blades, the turbine
wheel rotates. In some engines, a single turbine
wheel cannot absorb sufficient energy from the
exhaust gas to drive the compressor and accessories. Therefore, many engines use multiple turbine stages, each stage consisting of a turbine nozzle and wheel.

Figure 3-46. A loose fit between the vanes and shrouds

allows thermal expansion to occur without warping the turbine nozzle assembly.

support rings also facilitate removal of the nozzle

vanes as a unit. Without the support rings, the
vanes could fall out as the shrouds were removed.
[Figure 3-46]
A second method of attaching the nozzle vanes is to
rigidly weld or rivet the vanes into the inner and
outer shrouds. To allow for expansion, the inner or
outer shroud ring is cut into segments. As thermal
expansion takes place, the shrouds expand and
close the gaps between the shroud segments, allowing sufficient expansion to prevent stress and warping. [Figure 3-47]
TURBINE ROTOR

The rotating elements of a turbine section consist of

a shaft and a turbine rotor, or wheel. The turbine
wheel is a dynamically balanced unit consisting of
blades attached to a rotating disk. The turbine disk
is the anchoring component for the turbine blades
and is bolted or welded to the main shaft. The shaft
rotates in bearings that are lubricated by oil
between the outer race and the bearing housing.
This reduces vibration and allows for a slight misalignment in the shaft.

Figure 3-47. When vanes are riveted or welded into segmented shrouds, the gaps between shroud segments
allow for thermal expansion.

The severe centrifugal loads imposed by the high

rotational speeds, as well as the elevated operating
temperatures exert extreme stress on the turbine
blades. At times, these stresses can cause turbine
blades to grow in length. If left unchecked, this
growth or creep can result in the turbine blades rubbing against the engine's outer casing.
TURBINE BLADES

Turbine blades are airfoil shaped components

designed to extract the maximum amount of energy
from the flow of hot gases. Blades are either forged
or cast, depending on their alloy composition.
Early blades were manufactured from steel
forg-ings; however, today most turbine blades
consist of cast nickel-based alloys. In either case,
once a blade is forged or cast, it must be
finish-ground to the desired shape. As an
alternative to metal turbine blades, the
development of a blade manufactured from
reinforced ceramic material holds promise.
Because of ceramic's ability to withstand high
temperatures, greater engine efficiencies may be
possible. Their initial application is likely to be in
small, high speed turbines that operate at very
high temperatures.
Turbine blades fit loosely into a turbine disk when
an engine is cold, but expand to fit tightly at normal
operating temperatures. The most commonly used
method for attaching turbine blades is by fir tree
slots cut into the turbine disk rim and matching
bases cast or machined into the turbine blade base.
[Figure 3-48]
Once installed, a turbine blade may be retained in
its groove by peening, welding, rivets, or locktabs.
The peening method is used frequently in various
ways. A common application of peening requires a
small notch to be ground in the edge of the blade's
fir tree root prior to the blade being installed. After
the blade is inserted into the disk, the notch is
filled by the disk metal, which is "flowed" into it
by a small punch mark made in the disk adjacent to
the notch. The tool used for this job is similar to a
center punch.
-'
-;

Turbine Engines

3-27

Figure 3-50. The nozzle guide vanes in a reaction turbine direct

the exhaust gas flow to strike the turbine blades at a positive
angle of attack. The convergent shape between the turbine
blades then increases gas velocity and decreases its pressure
to create a component of lift that rotates the turbine wheel.

However, in a turbine, the force is exerted in the

direction of rotation. [Figure 3-50]

Figure 3-48. The loose fit of a fir tree base allows the
base of a turbine blade to expand as it heats to operating temperature.

To more evenly distribute the workload along the

length of the blade, most modern turbine engines
incorporate impulse-reaction turbine blades. With
this type of blade, the blade base is impulse shaped
while the blade tip is reaction shaped. This design
creates a uniform velocity and pressure drop across
the entire blade length. [Figure 3-51]

Turbine blades are generally classified as impulse,

reaction, or a combination impulse-reaction type. In
a turbine that uses impulse blades, the blades merely
change the direction of airflow coming from the turbine nozzle and cause relatively no change in gas
pressure or velocity. The turbine wheel simply
absorbs the force required to change the direction of
airflow and converts it to rotary motion. [Figure 3-49]
Reaction turbine blades, on the other hand, produce
a turning force based on an aerodynamic action. To
do this, the turbine blades form a series of converging
ducts that increase gas velocity and reduce pressure.
The result is similar to what happens to an airfoil in
that the reduced pressure produces a lifting force.

Figure 3-49. In an impulse turbine system, the turbine nozzle vanes form a series of converging ducts that increase
the velocity of the exhaust gases. The impulse turbine
blades then extract energy from the gases as the blades
redirect the flow of high velocity gases.

Figure 3-51. To help account for the different rotational

speeds along the length of a turbine blade, most turbine
engines use impulse-reaction type turbine blades. This type
of blade is constructed with an impulse section at its base
and a reaction section at its tip.

3-28

Turbine Engines

One of the most common ways of cooling the components in the turbine section is to use engine bleed
air. For example, turbine disks absorb heat from hot
gases passing near their rim and from the blades
through conduction. Because of this, disk rim temperatures are normally well above the temperature
of the disk portion nearest the shaft. To limit the
effect of these temperature variations, cooling air is
directed over each side of the disk.
To sufficiently cool turbine nozzle vanes and turbine blades, compressor bleed air is typically
directed in through the hollow blades and out
through holes in the tip, leading edge, and trailing
edge. This type of cooling is known as convection
cooling or film cooling. [Figure 3-53]
Figure 3-52. Shrouded blades form a band around the turbine wheel perimeter which helps reduce blade vibration
and increase efficiency.

Turbine blades can be open or shrouded at their

ends. Open ended blades are used on high speed
turbines, while shrouded blades are commonly
used on turbines having slower rotational speeds.
With shrouded blades, a shroud is attached to the
tip of each blade. Once installed, the shrouds of the
blades contact each other, thereby providing support. This added support reduces vibration substantially. The shrouds also prevent air from escaping
over the blade tips, making the turbine more efficient. However, because of the added weight,
shrouded turbine blades are more susceptible to
blade growth. [Figure 3-52]

In addition to drilling holes in a turbine vane or

blade, some nozzle vanes are constructed of a
porous, high-temperature material. In this case,
bleed air is ducted into the vanes and exits through
the porous material. This type of cooling is known
as transpiration cooling and is only used on stationary nozzle vanes.
Modern engine designs incorporate many combinations of air cooling methods that use low and high
pressure air for both internal and surface cooling of
turbine vanes and blades. However, to provide additional cooling, the turbine vane shrouds may also be
perforated with cooling holes.
COUNTER-ROTATING TURBINES

To further improve the airflow characteristics

around shrouded turbine blades, a knife-edge seal is
machined around the outside of the shroud that
reduces air losses at the blade tip. The knife-edge
seal fits with a close tolerance into a shrouded ring
mounted in the outer turbine case.

While not common in large engines, some small

tur-boshaft engines feature counter-rotating turbine
wheels. Counter-rotating turbines are chosen by
engine designers for their effectiveness in dampening gyroscopic effects and reducing engine vibration, not for aerodynamic reasons.

COOLING

EXHAUST SECTION

When a turbine section is designed, temperature is

an important consideration. In fact, the most limiting factor in running a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. However, the higher
an engine raises the temperature of the incoming air,
the more power, or thrust an engine can produce.
Therefore, the effectiveness of a turbine engine's
cooling system plays a big role in engine performance. In fact, many cooling systems allow the turbine vane and blade components to operate in a
thermal environment 600 to 800 degrees Fahrenheit
above the temperature limits of their metal alloys.

The design of a turbojet engine exhaust section

exerts tremendous influence on the performance of
an engine. For example, the shape and size of an
exhaust section and its components affect the temperature of the air entering the turbine, or turbine
inlet temperature, the mass airflow through the
engine, and the velocity and pressure of the exhaust
jet. Therefore, an exhaust section determines to
some extent the amount of thrust developed.
A typical exhaust section extends from the rear of
the turbine section to the point where the exhaust

3-29

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-53. An internally cooled blade receives cooling air at the root and expels the air at the tip or through holes in the leading
and trailing edges.

gases leave the engine. An exhaust section is comprised of several components including the exhaust
cone, exhaust duct or tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle.
[Figure 3-54]

EXHAUST CONE

A typical exhaust cone assembly consists of an

outer duct, or shell, an inner cone, or tail cone,
three or more radial hollow struts, and a group of tie

Figure 3-54. A typical exhaust section has an exhaust cone, tailpipe, and exhaust nozzle. The exhaust cone is considered the rearmost component of a typical gas turbine engine. The tailpipe and exhaust nozzle are usually classified as airframe components.

3-30

Turbine Engines

require no tailpipe, in which case the exhaust nozzle

is mounted directly to the exhaust cone assembly.
EXHAUST NOZZLE

An exhaust, or jet nozzle, provides the exhaust

gases with a final boost in velocity. An exhaust nozzle mounts to the rear of a tailpipe, if a tailpipe is
required, or to the rear flange of the exhaust duct if
no tailpipe is necessary.
Two types of exhaust nozzle designs used on aircraft
are
the
converging
design,
and
the
converging-diverging design. On a converging
exhaust nozzle, the nozzle diameter decreases from
front to back. This convergent shape produces a
venturi that accelerates the exhaust gases and
increases engine thrust.

Figure 3-55. The exhaust cone is the rearmost engine component. It straightens and smooths the exhaust gas to
extract the greatest possible thrust.

rods that assist the struts in centering the inner cone

within the outer duct. The outer duct is usually
made of stainless steel and attaches to the rear
flange of the turbine case. [Figure 3-55]
The purpose of an exhaust cone assembly is to
channel and collect turbine discharge gases into a
single jet. Due to the diverging passage between the
outer duct and inner cone, gas velocity within the
exhaust cone decreases slightly while gas pressure
rises. Radial struts between the outer shell and
inner cone support the inner cone, and help
straighten the swirling exhaust gases that would
otherwise exit the turbine at an approximate angle
of 45 degrees.
TAILPIPE

A tailpipe is an extension of the exhaust section that

directs exhaust gases safely from the exhaust cone to
the exhaust, or jet nozzle. The use of a tailpipe
imposes a penalty on an engine's operating efficiency due to heat and duct friction losses. These
losses cause a drop in the exhaust gas velocity and,
hence, the thrust. Tailpipes are used almost exclusively with engines that are installed within an aircraft's fuselage to protect the surrounding airframe.
Engines installed in a nacelle or pod, however, often

The diameter of a converging-diverging duct

decreases, then increases from front to back. The
converging portion of the exhaust nozzle accelerates
the turbine exhaust gases to supersonic speed at the
narrowest part of the duct. Once the gases are moving at the speed of sound they are accelerated further in the nozzle's divergent portion, so the exhaust
gases exit the nozzle well above the speed of sound.
For additional information on both convergent and
convergent-divergent exhaust nozzles, refer to
Chapter 6, Section B.
On fan or bypass type engines, there are two gas
streams venting to the atmosphere. High temperature gases are discharged by the turbine, while a
cool airmass is moved rearward by the fan section.
In a low by-pass engine, the flow of cool and hot air
are combined in a mixer unit that ensures mixing of
the two streams prior to exiting the engine. High
bypass engines, on the other hand, usually exhaust
the two streams separately through two sets of nozzles arranged coaxially around the exhaust nozzle.
However, on some high bypass engines, a common
or integrated nozzle is sometimes used to partially
mix the hot and cold gases prior to their ejection.
[Figure 3-56]
An exhaust nozzle opening can have either a fixed
or variable area. A variable geometry nozzle is
sometimes necessary on engines that utilize an
afterburner. Variable nozzles are typically operated
with pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric controls.
AFTERBURNERS

Afterburners are used to accelerate the exhaust gases,

which in turn, increases thrust. An afterburner is

Turbine Engines

3-31

Figure 3-56. On some high bypass engines, cold bypass air mixes with hot exhaust gases after the gases exit the engine. Other
high bypass engines use a common or integrated exhaust nozzle that partially mixes the gas streams internally.

typically installed immediately aft of the last stage

turbine and forward of the exhaust nozzle. The components that make up an afterburner include the fuel
manifold, an ignition source, and a flame holder.
[Figure 3-57]
The addition of an afterburner to a gas turbine
engine is made possible by the fact that the gases in
the tailpipe still contain a large quantity of oxygen.
If you recall, approximately 25 percent of a compressor's discharge air is used to support combustion, while the remaining 75 percent is used for
cooling. Once the cooling air passes through an
engine, a portion of it is mixed with the exhaust
gases at the rear of the turbine section. The tailpipe
entrance is fitted with a fuel manifold, consisting of
a set of afterburner fuel nozzles, or spray-bars, that
inject fuel into the tailpipe. The fuel and air mix,
then ignite and burn in the afterburner. The additional heat generated by combustion accelerates the
exhaust gases and creates additional thrust.

Figure 3-57. An afterburner is used to increase thrust and

consists of a fuel manifold, an ignition source, and a flame
holder.

3-32

Turbine Engines

To ensure thorough fuel-air mixing, a tubular grid or

spoke-shaped obstruction, called a flame holder, is
placed downstream of the fuel nozzles. The presence of the flame holder creates turbulence, causing
the approaching gases to swirl and thoroughly mix.
The use of an afterburner dramatically increases
the temperature and thrust produced by an engine.
Therefore, when an afterburner is being used, the
area of the exhaust nozzle must be increased. If
this is not done, an area of back pressure at the rear
of the turbine would be created which could
increase the turbine temperature beyond its safe
level. By increasing the size of the exhaust nozzle,
the exhaust gas temperature can be reduced to tolerable limits.
Afterburning is used primarily on military aircraft
to assist in takeoff or produce rapid climb-out
speeds. Afterburners can provide as much as a 100
percent increase in thrust at the expense of fuel
flows three to five times higher than normal.
THRUST REVERSERS

On most turbine engine aircraft, the brakes are

unable to slow the aircraft adequately during landing rollout. The amount of kinetic energy that must
be dissipated is so great that, if only brakes were
used, brake wear would be prohibitive. In addition,
the heat buildup in the wheel area generated by
braking could lead to a brake fire. Therefore, most
turbojet and turbofan powered aircraft are fitted
with thrust reversers to assist in braking. Thrust
reversers redirect the flow of exhaust gases to provide thrust in the opposite direction. In other
words, thrust reversers provide a force in the opposite direction of travel that slows forward motion.
For further information on the various types of
thrust reverser systems that are used, refer to
Chapter 5, Section B.
ACCESSORY SECTION
The accessory section, or accessory drive, of a gas
turbine engine is used to power both engine and aircraft accessories such as electric generators,
hydraulic pumps, fuel pumps, and oil pumps.
Secondary functions include acting as an oil
reservoir, or sump, and housing the accessory drive
gears and reduction gears.
The accessory drive location is selected to keep the
engine profile to a minimum for streamlining.
Typical places where an accessory drive is located

Figure 3-58. Accessory drives are typically designed to

blend with the engine profile to minimize drag.

include the engine's midsection, or the front or rear

of the engine. However, inlet and exhaust locations
usually determine if front or rear-mounted gearboxes are a design option. Rear-mounted gearboxes
typically allow the narrowest engine diameter and
lowest drag configuration. In a few rare instances,
the engine design dictates that the accessory drive
be located at the top of the engine near the compressor. [Figure 3-58]
The power needed to drive the accessories is typically taken from the engine's main power shaft. A
set of beveled gears is used to drive an accessory
shaft which, in turn, drives an accessory gearbox.
The accessory gearbox then distributes power to
each accessory drive pad. Since turbine engines
operate at a relatively high rpm, reduction gearing is
necessary in the accessory drive system to provide
appropriate drive speeds for the accessories. In
some installations, an intermediate or transfer gearbox is necessary to obtain the appropriate reduction
gearing necessary for the accessories. [Figure 3-59]
The more accessories an engine has, the greater the
power needed to drive the accessory gearbox. In
fact, the accessory drive system on a large high bypass engine can require as much as 500 horsepower
from the engine.

3-33

Turbine Engines

pressure at the exhaust to determine engine thrust.

Standard labels are used to identify the locations
EPR readings are taken because different engines
have different types of inlet and exhaust ducts. The
engine inlet is station P t2 , which means pressure
total at station 2. By the same token, turbine discharge pressure is taken at station P t7 . Engine pressure ratio is therefore expressed by the ratio P t7 : P t2 .
Engine stations are also designated by the label T t ,
meaning temperature total for engine instruments
that require temperature information. For example,
engine inlet temperature is taken at station T t2 .
[Figure 3-60]
NOISE SUPPRESSION

Figure 3-59. With a typical waist mounted accessory section, a radial shaft geared to the main engine shaft transfers
power to the drive pads through an intermediate gearbox.
ENGINE STATION NUMBERING

Engine manufacturers usually assign station numbers to several points along a turbine engine's gas
path. These numbered locations are similar to fuselage stations, and provide a technician with a
means of rapidly locating certain engine areas during maintenance. Station numbers also establish
locations for taking pressure and temperature readings. For example, engine pressure ratio, or EPR,
compares air pressure at the engine inlet with air

Some of the energy released from the burning fuel in

a jet engine is unintentionally converted to noise.
With increasing air traffic around densely populated
areas, noise control has become a big issue that
impacts both engine designers and operators. Much
of the noise produced by a turbine engine results
when hot, high-velocity gases mix with cold,
low-velocity air surrounding the engine. This
high-intensity noise includes both low- and
high-frequency vibrations, with low frequencies
being predominant.
Increasing use of turbofan engines has probably
done more to reduce noise levels both inside the
aircraft cabiri and on the ground than any other factor. Turbofan engines seldom require noise suppressors because their exhaust sections are
designed to mix the hot and cold gas streams prior
to their release into the atmosphere, which greatly
reduces exhaust noise.

Figure 3-60. Engine station numbers provide a standard means of identifying points along an engine's gas path.

3-34

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-61. By referring to the graph above, you can see

that the decibel level of early turbojet aircraft without noise
suppression equipment typically exceeded 110 decibels. In
comparison, modern high bypass turbofan engines produce
less than 100 decibels of sound.

Turbojet engines, especially older designs,

frequently require additional noise suppression
equipment. The additional equipment typically
includes a device that breaks up airflow behind the
tail cone, and some new forms of sound insulating
material. In addition, some airframe components
are being redesigned and installed as noise
reduction kits to meet new Federal standards.
The sound intensity of engine noise levels is
measured in decibels (db). A decibel is the ratio of
one sound to another. One db is the smallest
change in sound intensity that the human ear can
detect. Approximately 60 db is a comfortable level
for conversation and background music. On the
other hand, loud music peaks at more than 100 db.
Sound that reaches approximately 130 db can cause
physical pain. [Figure 3-61]
To help answer the concerns over noise around
airports, the Federal Aviation Administration has
established guidelines for aircraft operators that
specify maximum noise limits based on aircraft
weight. All older aircraft that utilize louder turbojet
engines were given a grace period to modify the
engines to meet the maximum noise levels. [Figure
3-62]
ENGINE MOUNTS
Engine mount design and construction for gas
turbine engines is relatively simple. Since gas
turbine engines produce little torque, they do not
need heav-

Figure 3-62. The curves on the two graphs shown here represent the maximum decibel levels aircraft are allowed to
produce during the takeoff and approach phases of flight.
Below each curve are the decibel levels produced by different aircraft.

ily constructed mounts. The mounts do, however,

support the engine weight and allow for transfer of
stresses created by the engine to the aircraft
structure. On a typical wing mounted turbofan
engine, the engine is attached to the aircraft by two
to four mounting brackets. However, because of
induced propeller loads, a turboprop develops
higher torque loads, so engine mounts are
proportionally heavier. By the same token,
turboshaft engines used in helicopters are equipped
with stronger and more numerous mount locations.
[Figure 3-63]
BEARINGS
The combination of compressor and turbine rotors
on a common shaft make up the main engine power,
or rotor shaft, which must be adequately supported.
Engine main bearings are assigned that critical
function of support and are located along the
length of the rotor shaft. The number of bearings
necessary is determined, in part, by the length and
weight of the rotor shaft. For example, since a
split-spool axial compressor typically has a greater
number of rotating components it requires more
main bearings than a centrifugal compressor.

3-35

Turbine Engines

Figure 3-64. The rotating fins of a labyrinth seal do not

touch their outer fixed race to create a seal. Instead, air
pressure is used to prevent oil from leaking past the seal.

Figure 3-63. Turboshaft engines experience higher torque

loads and thus require stronger engine mounts.

Generally, ball and roller bearings are used to support an engine's main rotor shaft. Both ball and
roller bearing assemblies are encased in strong
housings with inner and outer races that provide
support, and hold lubricating oil. These type bearings are preferable because they
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

offer little rotational resistance.

enable precision alignment of rotating elements.
tolerate high momentary overloads.
are easily replaced.
are relatively inexpensive.
are simple to cool, lubricate, and maintain.
accommodate both radial and axial loads.
are relatively resistant to elevated temperatures.

A special type of roller bearing that is sometimes

used in turbine engines is the oil-dampened bearing. With this type of bearing, oil is routed into a
cavity formed by the bearing housing and bearing
race. Once the oil within this cavity is pressurized
by the engine's lubrication system, an oil film is produced. The oil film effectively dampens rotor vibrations and compensates for slight misalignments in
rotor segments.
Disadvantages of both ball and roller bearings
include their vulnerability to damage caused by foreign matter and tendency to fail without appreciable warning. Therefore, proper lubrication and sealing against entry of foreign matter is essential.
Commonly used types of oil seals are labyrinth,
helical thread, and carbon.
A labyrinth seal differs from most seals in that the
seal does not press or rub against an outer surface to

create a seal. Instead, each seal consists of a series of

rotating fins that come very close, but do not touch
a fixed abradable race. With this type of seal, air
pressure on one side of the seal leaks past each fin,
decreasing the air pressure at each fin. By the time
the air reaches the opposite side of the seal, its pressure is near zero. Therefore, the positive pressure
prevents oil from leaking past the seal. [Figure 3-64]
Helical seals are similar to labyrinth seals except
the helical seals depend on reverse threading to stop
oil leakage. Carbon seals are completely different in
that they are spring-loaded to hold the carbon ring
against the rotating shaft, much like carbon brushes
in an electric motor.

TURBOPROP ENGINES
A turboprop engine is a gas turbine engine that
drives a propeller to produce thrust. Turboprops,
like all gas turbine engines, have a compressor
section, combustion section, turbine section, and
exhaust section. These sections carry out the same
functions as if they were installed in a turbojet
engine. However, a turboprop engine is designed
with a few differences. For example, the turbine of
a turboprop engine extracts up to 85 percent of
the engine's total power output to drive the
propeller. To do this, most turboprop engines
utilize multiple stage turbines. In addition, the
turbine blades in a turboprop engine are designed
to extract more energy from the exhaust gases
than the blades found in a turbojet engine.
In addition to the turbine used to drive the compressor and accessories, most turboprop engines use
a free turbine to drive a propeller. The free turbine
is an independent turbine that is not mechanically
connected to the main turbine. This free turbine, or
power turbine, is placed in the exhaust stream

Turbine Engines

3-36

Figure 3-65. Propellers driven by a free turbine rotate independently of the compressor turbine.

downstream from the main turbine and is dedicated

to driving only the propeller. [Figure 3-65]
A second method of transferring the exhaust gas
energy to the propeller is through a fixed shaft. In
this case, the main turbine typically has an
additional turbine wheel that extracts the energy
needed to drive a propeller. With these fixed shaft
engines, the main power shaft goes directly into a
reduction gearbox to convert the high-speed low
torque turbine output into low-speed high torque
energy to drive a propeller.

exhaust gases to drive an output shaft. The power

may be taken directly from the engine turbine, or
the shaft may be driven by its own free turbine. Like
free turbines in turboprop engines, a free turbine in
a turboshaft engine is not mechanically coupled to
the engine's main rotor shaft, so it may operate at its
own speed. Free turbine designs are used
extensively in current production model engines.
Turboshaft engines are frequently used to power
helicopters and auxiliary power units aboard large
commercial aircraft.

AUXILIARY POWER UNITS

To prevent the propeller on a turboprop engine from
driving the turbine, a sophisticated propeller
control system must be used to adjust propeller
pitch as necessary to match the engine's output. For
example, in normal cruise flight, both the propeller
and engine rpm remain constant. Therefore, in
order to maintain a constant-speed condition, the
propeller's blade angle and fuel flow must be
adjusted simultaneously. In other words, when
fuel flow is increased, the propeller's pitch must
also increase.

TURBOSHAFT ENGINES
Turboshaft engines are gas turbine engines that
operate something other than a propeller by delivering power to a shaft. Turboshaft engines are
similar to turboprop engines, and in some
instances, both use the same design. Like
turboprops, turboshaft engines use almost all the
energy in the

Turbine powered transport aircraft require large

amounts of power for starting and operation. For
example, large amounts of electrical power are
sometimes needed for passenger amenities such as
lighting, entertainment, and food preparation. In
addition, engine starting and ground air
conditioning require a high-pressure, high-volume
pneumatic air source that frequently is not available
at remote airports. To meet these demands for
ground power when the aircraft engines are not
running, most large turbine aircraft are equipped
with auxiliary power units, or APUs.
A typical APU consists of a small turbine
power-plant driving an electric generator
identical to those mounted on the aircraft's
engines. In addition, an APU's compressor
supplies bleed air to a load compressor for heating,
cooling, anti-ice, and engine
starting.
As
with any other gas turbine

Turbine Engines

3-37

engine, bleed air loads generally place the greatest

demand on an APU.
An APU is typically started using its own electric
starter motor and aircraft battery power. With fuel
supplied from one of the aircraft's main fuel tanks,
an APU can start, provide electric power, heat or
cool the cabin, and start the main engines without
the aid of any ground or portable power source.
After an APU is started, it runs at its rated speed
regardless of the electrical and pneumatic loads
imposed. To do this, however, an APU's fuel control
unit must automatically adjust the fuel flow. For
example, if APU bleed air is used to start one of the
aircraft's engines, the APU's fuel control unit automatically meters enough extra fuel to satisfy the load
increase, keeping the APU on-speed. A heavily
loaded APU running near its maximum exhaust gas
temperature is protected by a load control valve that
modulates the pneumatic load to maintain a safe
operating temperature. Therefore, if the APU temperature approaches a critical level, the pneumatic load
is automatically reduced to prevent overheating.
To keep from damaging an APU, most
manufacturers specify a cool-down period before the
APU may be shutdown. This cool-down period
typically

Figure 3-66. The Garrett GTCP-85-98D APU assembly provides on-board aircraft electrical and pneumatic power for
ground operations.

requires that the bleed valve be closed and the

exhaust gas temperature (EGT) stabilized. A typical
cool-down period is three minutes. This minimizes
the possibility of thermal shock that can occur when
a heavily loaded, hot APU engine is abruptly shut
down. [Figure 3-66]

OPERATING PRINCIPLES
ENERGY TRANSFORMATION CYCLE

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
Like the piston engine, a gas turbine engine is a
form of heat engine that converts the chemical
energy of fuel into heat energy. Once converted, the
heat energy causes an increase in gas pressure that
is converted into kinetic energy in the form of a high
velocity stream of air. The kinetic energy is then
converted into mechanical energy when the
expanding gases rotate a series of turbine wheels
that drive a compressor and accessories. In the case
of turboprop or turboshaft engines, the expanding
gases may also drive a second power turbine which
drives a propeller or gearbox.

The energy transformation cycle in a gas turbine

engine is known as txhe Brayton cycle or constant
pressure cycle. The Brayton cycle is similar to the
four-stroke cycle in that an intake, compression,
combustion, and exhaust event occur in both cycles.
However, unlike a piston engine, all four events
happen simultaneously and continuously in a gas
turbine engine. This gives the gas turbine engine the
unique ability to produce power continuously.
There is a downside, however, in that a gas turbine
engine must burn a great deal of fuel to support the
continuous production of power. [Figure 3-67]

Figure 3-67. In a gas turbine engine, air is taken in through an air inlet, compressed in the compressor, mixed with fuel and ignited in
the combustors, then exhausted through the turbines and exhaust nozzle. This allows a gas turbine engine to perform the same
functions as a cylinder and piston in a reciprocating engine except that, in a turbine engine, the events happen continuously.

Turbine Engines

3-39

inducing a velocity or pressure change is through

the application of Bernoulli's principle. If you recall
from your earlier studies, Bernoulli's principle
states that when a fluid or gas is supplied at a
constant flow rate through a duct, the sum of the
potential, or pressure energy, and kinetic, or
velocity energy, is constant. In other words, as air
velocity increases, air pressure decreases and as air
velocity decreases, air pressure increases.

Figure 3-68. This chart illustrates the changes in pressure

and volume during turbine engine operation. Point (A) represents the condition of the air just before it enters the
compressor. Once in the compressor, air pressure increases
and volume decreases. Point (B) represents the pressure
and volume of the air as it leaves the compressor. In the
combustion section (point C) heat energy is added to the air
mass causing the air to expand in volume with little or no
change in pressure. Once heated, the air expands and loses
pressure as it flows through the turbine section (point D).

The continuous intake event in a gas turbine engine

draws ambient air into the engine through an inlet
duct to the first compressor stage. Each compressor
stage then compresses the air to increase static air
pressure. In the combustor, fuel is sprayed into the
incoming airflow and ignited, resulting in continuous combustion. The resulting release of heat
energy increases the air's volume while maintaining a relatively constant pressure. When the
exhaust air leaves the combustion chamber, it
passes through the turbine where static air pressure
drops and air volume continues to increase. In
addition, since there is little resistance to the flow
of expanding gases, gas velocity increases dramatically. [Figure 3-68]

To clarify Bernoulli's principle, consider a quantity

of air flowing through a converging duct. As the
duct decreases in diameter, the air must accelerate
to allow the same quantity of air to flow through the
smaller opening. This increases the air's kinetic
energy. Since energy cannot be created or destroyed,
the air's potential, or pressure energy must decrease.
By the same token, if a quantity of air passes
through a divergent duct, the air's potential, or pressure energy must increase because its kinetic, or
velocity energy decreases.
Another thing to keep in mind is that, whenever one
form of energy in an air mass is converted to another,
the temperature of the airmass changes. If you recall
from your study of the gas laws, whenever air
pressure decreases, air temperature also decreases.
[Figure 3-69]

PRODUCING THRUST
If you recall from Section A, a gas turbine engine
produces thrust based on Newton's third law of
motion which states that for every action, there is an
equal and opposite reaction. In a turbojet engine,
the acceleration of a mass of air by the engine is the
action while forward movement is the reaction.
VELOCITY AND PRESSURE

As air passes through a gas turbine engine its velocity and pressure must change in order to produce
thrust. For example, in the compressor section, static air pressure must be increased while velocity
remains relatively constant. In addition, after combustion, gas velocity must be increased dramatically
to rotate the turbine. The most common way of

Figure 3-69. When air passes through a diverging duct, air

velocity decreases while air pressure and temperature
increase. By the same token, when a quantity of air passes
through a converging duct, air velocity increases while air
pressure and temperature decrease.

Turbine Engines

3-40

THRUST CALCULATIONS

Given:

As stated earlier, a jet engine produces thrust by

accelerating an airmass to a velocity higher than
that of the incoming air. The thrust, in turn,
becomes the propelling force which moves an aircraft. Newton's second law of motion states that
force is proportional to the product of mass and
acceleration. Furthermore, the acceleration produced when a given force acts on a mass is directly
proportional to the force and is inversely proportional to the mass. This relationship is expressed by
the formula:

M s = 50 pounds per second

V a = 0 feet per second
V 2 = 1,300 feet per second
g
= 32.2 feet per second, per second32.2

F=MxA
Where:
F = force
M = mass
A = acceleration
To calculate the acceleration of a given air mass
through a gas turbine engine, you must know the
difference between the speed of the exiting jet
exhaust and the intake air. In addition, once the
acceleration is known, it must be compared to a
constant. The most widely used constant when discussing acceleration is the gravitational constant. If
you recall from your study of physics, the acceleration of gravity is 32.2 feet per second per second, or
32.2 feet per second2. Once you apply this to the
previous formula, the formula for calculating the
amount of force required to accelerate a given mass
of air looks like this:

ft./sec.2 = 2,018.6 pounds

In this example, one engine produces
2,018.6 pounds of gross thrust. However,
during flight, the engine will be moving
forward, greatly reducing the velocity
change across the engine. Consider the
same aircraft in the previous example flying at 500
miles per hour (734 feet per second). Its net thrust
can be calculated using the basic formula, as
follows:
M s = 50 pounds per second
V a = 734 feet per second
V 2 = 1,300 feet per second
Given:
F=Mx(V2-V1)/g=50x(1300-734)/32.2

Where:

= 878.9 pounds net thrust

F
= engine thrust in pounds
M s = mass airflow through the engine
V 2 = air velocity at the exhaust
V a = forward velocity of the engine
g = acceleration of gravity which is 32.2 feet per
second2

It should be easy to see from this formula that the

net thrust produced by a gas turbine engine can be
increased by two methods: first, by increasing the
mass flow of air through the engine, and second, by
increasing the exhaust velocity.

As an example, determine the amount of gross

thrust produced by a turbojet powered aircraft at
rest on the end of a runway with the engines producing takeoff thrust. The takeoff power setting
moves 50 pounds of air through one of the engines
every second and produces an exhaust velocity, V 2 ,
of 1,300 feet per second.

If the velocity of a turbojet engine remains constant

with respect to the aircraft, exhaust thrust decreases
if the speed of the aircraft is increased. This is
because V a increases in value as the speed of the aircraft increases. This does not present a serious prob-

3-47

Turbine Engines

lem, however, because as aircraft speed increases,

more air enters the engine resulting in an increase in
exhaust velocity. The resultant net thrust is almost
constant with increases in airspeed.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
A turbine engine's thermal efficiency is the ratio of
the actual power an engine produces divided by the
thermal energy in the fuel consumed. At cruise, a
large gas turbine engine with a 30:1 compression
ratio can operate with a thermal efficiency as high
as 50 percent. In comparison, if you recall from
Chapter 1, the thermal efficiency of a typical reciprocating engine is between 30 and 40 percent.
There are three primary factors which determine the
thermal efficiency of a gas turbine engine. They are
the turbine inlet temperature, the compression
ratio, and the component efficiencies of the compressor and turbine.
As discussed earlier, the higher a gas turbine engine
raises the temperature of the incoming air, the more
thrust the engine can produce. The primary limiting
factor to increasing the temperature of the air is the
amount of heat the turbine section can withstand.
Therefore, if the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) limits on a given engine can be increased, higher thermal efficiencies will result. [Figure 3-70]

Figure 3-70. Turbine inlet temperature (TIT) readings

between 2,500 and 3,000 degrees Fahrenheit with compression ratios near 32:1 give 50 percent or better thermal
efficiencies.

You should also recall that the more a gas turbine

engine compresses the incoming air, the more thrust
the engine can produce. The reason for this is that
engines with high compression ratios force more air
into the engine, allowing more heat energy from the
burning fuel to be transferred to the internal airflow.
Anytime there is an increase in the amount of heat
energy transferred from the fuel to the air, an
engine's thermal efficiency also increases.
;
As you would expect, high compressor and turbine
efficiencies in a gas turbine engine promote a
higher thermal efficiency. The reason for this is that
compressor and turbine efficiency directly impact
the compression ratio of a given engine, which, in
turn, has a direct impact on thermal efficiency.
[Figure 3-71]
FACTORS AFFECTING THRUST
The amount of thrust a given engine is capable of
producing is affected by a number of
environmental, design, and operational factors. For
example, temperature, altitude, and airspeed
directly affect inlet air density and consequently,
thrust. The combination of these three variables is
sometimes represented by a single variable, called
stagnation density. Operating rpm and the
efficiency of a given fan design are additional
parameters that directly determine the amount of
thrust an engine produces.

Figure 3-71. Compressor and turbine efficiency near 90 percent is necessary to reach thermal efficiencies above 20 percent.

3-42

Turbine Engines

ALTITUDE

As altitude increases, air pressure drops. Air at standard temperature at sea level exerts a pressure of
14.69 pounds per square inch. However, this pressure decreases as the altitude increases.
Approximately one-half of the air in the atmosphere
is below 18,000 feet. Therefore, the pressure at
18,000 feet is about 7.34 psi, or half that at sea level.
Above 18,000 feet, air pressure continues to drop,
but at a higher rate. At 20,000 feet, standard air pressure drops to 6.75 pounds per square inch, and at
30,000 feet it is only 4.36 pounds per square inch.

Figure 3-72. Air density decreases as temperature rises, and

the lower the density of the air, the less thrust an engine
can produce.

TEMPERATURE

As previously discussed, the air mass flowing

through a turbine engine is the working fluid that the
engine uses to produce thrust. Furthermore, the more
dense the air passing through an engine is, the more
thrust the engine can produce. If you recall from your
study of aerodynamics, air density is inversely
related to temperature. In other words, as outside air
temperature (OAT) increases, air density decreases.
Anytime the density of the air entering a gas turbine
engine decreases, engine thrust also decreases.
Conversely, thrust output improves with a reduction
in outside air temperature. Engine manufacturers
base their thrust calculations for any given engine on
a standard temperature of 59 degrees Fahrenheit or
15 degrees Celsius. This provides a reference point to
use when calculating thrust and compensating for
temperature variations. In the field, all performance
calculations must be adjusted for non-standard temperatures. [Figure 3-72]
To counteract the detrimental effects of hot
weather on the amount of thrust an engine can produce, some engines are fitted with a thrust
augmentation system. In a water injection thrust
augmentation system, water, or a mixture of water
and alcohol is injected directly into the
compressor inlet or into the combustion chamber.
Water injection accomplishes several things; it
cools the air-mass and allows more fuel to be
burned without exceeding turbine inlet
temperature limits, and it maintains the same air
pressure in the engine because water molecules
are added to the airmass. More information is
given on water injection systems in Chapter 6.

Temperature, like ambient air pressure, also

decreases as altitude increases. Normally, decreasing temperatures result in an increase in air density,
leading some to think that increases in altitude
result in higher air density. The opposite, however,
is true because the pressure losses experienced
when climbing has a greater effect on air density
than decreasing temperatures. In other words, the
temperature lapse rate is less than the pressure
lapse rate. Therefore, as an aircraft climbs, engine
performance is impacted by decreasing air density.
At approximately 36,000 feet, the air temperature
stabilizes at 69.7 degrees Fahrenheit and remains
at that temperature up to approximately 80,000 feet.
This layer in the atmosphere divides the troposphere from the stratosphere and is called the
tropopause. Between these altitudes, the air density
no longer increases due to the effects produced by
decreasing temperatures. As a result, the rate of
decrease in air density with increasing altitude
becomes more rapid above 36,000 feet. Because of
this, long-range jet aircraft find 36,000 feet an optimum altitude to fly. Below this altitude, the dense
air creates more aerodynamic drag, and above this
altitude the rapidly dropping density decreases
engine thrust output. [Figure 3-73]

Figure 3-73. Air density decreases with altitude, and, therefore, as an aircraft climbs, engine thrust decreases.

3-43

Turbine Engines

AIRSPEED

If you recall from the earlier discussion on thrust,

as forward airspeed increases, the airmass acceleration in the engine decreases, so less thrust is
produced. However, as the aircraft speeds up,
more air is forced into the engine. This is known
as ram effect and results in an increase in air pressure within an engine which, in turn, produces
more thrust. Therefore, increasing aircraft speed
causes two opposing trends to occur; a decrease
in thrust due to the reduction in airmass
acceleration and an increase in thrust due to ram
effect. The net effect on thrust is found by
subtracting the lost thrust due to the reduction in
airmass acceleration from the increase in thrust
realized from ram effect. The result is referred to
as ram recovery. [Figure 3-74]
ENGINE RPM

Early turbojet engines had somewhat of a linear

relationship between compressor rpm and engine

thrust. In other words, the faster the compressor

rpm, the more thrust produced. Because of this,
engine power output on these engines could be
set using an rpm gauge. However, modern
turbo-fan engines with dual spool compressors
have a non-linear relationship between
compressor rpm and thrust produced. In fact,
at low engine speeds, large increases in rpm
produce relatively small increases in thrust and
at high engine speeds, a small increase in rpm
produces a large increase in thrust. Therefore,
power in most modern gas turbine engines is set
using an engine pressure ratio (EPR) indicating
system since thrust and EPR have a more
proportional relationship than thrust and rpm.
Compressor aerodynamics limit engine rpm because
compressor efficiency begins to drop when the
blade tips reach the speed of sound. Therefore, efficient compressor design requires engine operation
at a speed that does not subject the compressor
blades to the severe shock waves produced by
supersonic blade speeds. As you know, the longer a
compressor blade is, the higher the tip rotational
speed for a given rpm. This explains why most large
diameter compressors turn at a relatively slow rotational speed. In contrast, small diameter turbine
engines may be capable of compressor speeds in
excess of 50,000 rpm.

FAN EFFICIENCY

Figure 3-74. As airspeed increases, the amount an engine

can accelerate a given airmass decreases. However, ram
effect becomes more pronounced with increases in airspeed. The resultant effect, or ram recovery, produces a
slight increase in engine thrust.

Turbofan engines have replaced turbojet engines on

most transport and business jet aircraft. The turbofan engine design is quieter and much more fuel
efficient. As an example, if a turbojet and a turbofan
engine have the same rated thrust, the turbofan
engine will burn less fuel because of the greater
propulsive efficiency of the fan. Therefore, the more
efficient the fan is, the more thrust the engine can
produce.

TURBINE ENGINE OPERATION,

INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE,
AND OVERHAUL

INTRODUCTION
As a powerplant technician, you are expected to have the knowledge and skill to operate, maintain, and overhaul
turbine engines. In order to perform those tasks adequately, you must develop the ability to distinguish normal
engine performance from deteriorating engine performance. In addition, you must accumulate the working knowledge and experience necessary to effectively troubleshoot and repair a turbine engine. In other words, you are
expected to be proficient in special skills and processes that are commonly used to accomplish turbine engine
repairs and overhauls. Therefore, the following discussion provides information to help you achieve a basic
understanding of turbine engine operation, maintenance, and overhaul procedures.

OPERATION, INSPECTION,
AND MAINTENANCE

OPERATION
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must
be thoroughly familiar with the procedures for
operating a gas turbine engine from the cockpit.
This includes understanding the engine instrumentation, ground run procedures, and safety items
associated with starting and running an aircraft
engine. A good place to begin in obtaining an
understanding of these items is to familiarize yourself with the location and movement of the engine
controls. [Figure 4-1]

Once you are familiar with the engine controls, you

should locate each of the engine instruments. In
addition, you should locate and read all placards
and other markings on or near the instruments.
Important engine operating information is
displayed by the engine instruments and must be
monitored continuously during an engine run.
Therefore, you, as an engine operator, must be
skilled in the interpretation of instrument readings
to prevent engine damage.
ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION
Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil
temperature, engine speed, exhaust gas temperature, and fuel flow are common to both turbine and
reciprocating engines. However, there are some
instruments that are unique to gas turbine engines.
These instruments provide indications of engine
pressure ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and
torque. In addition, most gas turbine engines have
multiple temperature sensing instruments that provide pilots with temperature readings in and around
the turbine section. Some of the common temperature indications that may be provided include turbine inlet temperature (TIT), turbine gas temperature (TGT), interstage turbine temperature (ITT),
and turbine outlet temperature (TOT). As a turbine
engine operator and troubleshooter, you must
understand how all of a turbine engine's instruments operate in order to determine an engine's
level of performance.
COMPRESSOR SPEED

Turbine engine fan and compressor speed is

displayed on a tachometer that is calibrated in
percent rpm. In addition, a separate tachometer is
used for each compressor section in an engine. For
example, an engine with a twin-spool compressor
will have an N a tachometer for the low-pressure
compressor and an N 2 tachometer for the
high-pressure compressor. [Figure 4-2]
Compressor rpm is a direct indication of the thrust
being produced by engines using a centrifugal type
Figure 4-1. Most turbojet and turbofan engines have a single power lever that provides fuel control as well as engine
speed control. On the other hand, most turboprop engines
employ a power lever for engine speed control, a condition
lever for fuel cutoff, and a propeller control to change propeller blade pitch.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-3

On the other hand, propeller, or free-turbine rpm is

indicated on an N p tachometer.
Two slightly different kinds of electronic
tachometers are found on turbine engines. The first
type is often used as a fan speed sensor to measure
the rpm of the fan and low-pressure compressor. It
uses a sensor which contains a coil of wire that
generates a magnetic field. The sensor is mounted
in the shroud around the fan so, when each fan
blade passes the sensor, the magnetic field is
interrupted. The frequency at which the fan blades
cut across the field is measured by an electronic
circuit and then transmitted to an rpm gauge in the
cockpit.
Another type of electronic tachometer used on
turbine engines consists of a gear driven shaft
which turns a rotor with a permanent magnet and a
stationary pickup coil. Each time the field of the
rotating permanent magnet cuts across the coil,
voltage is induced. The frequency of the induced
voltage is measured by an electronic circuit and
used to position a pointer to indicate correct rpm.
Figure 4-2. (A) An N, tachometer indicates fan or
low-pressure compressor rpm. (B) An N 2 tachometer
indicates high-pressure compressor rpm.

compressor. However, for engines that utilize an

axial-flow compressor, compressor rpm is used
primarily to monitor engine speed during engine
start and help the pilot identify an over-speed
condition.
With turboprop engines that incorporate a
free-turbine, engine rpm is indicated on an N g
tachometer.

ENGINE PRESSURE RATIO

An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to

indicate the amount of thrust produced in many
turbo-fan powered aircraft. An engine's EPR is the
ratio of turbine discharge pressure to compressor
inlet pressure. Pressure measurements are recorded
by total pressure pickups, or EPR probes, installed
in the engine inlet Pt 2 and at the exhaust Pt 7 . Once
collected, the data is sent to a differential pressure
transducer which drives a cockpit EPR gauge.
[Figure 4-3]

Figure 4-3. An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge provides a reliable indication of the thrust being produced by calculating the ratio of
turbine discharge pressure Pt 2 to compressor inlet pressure Pt 7 .

4-4

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Figure 4-4. Thrust indications in some aircraft may be

provided by a Pt 7 turbine discharge pressure gauge.

EPR system design automatically compensates for

the effects of airspeed and altitude. However,
changes in ambient temperature do require a
correction to be applied to EPR indications to
provide accurate engine power settings.
TURBINE DISCHARGE PRESSURE

In some aircraft, turbine discharge pressure is

indicated on an individual Pt 7 gauge. This
instrument displays the total engine internal
pressure immediately aft of the last turbine stage.
When corrected for variations in inlet pressure
caused by airspeed, altitude, and ambient air
temperature, turbine discharge pressure provides
an indication of thrust. [Figure 4-4]
TORQUEMETER

Turboprop and turboshaft engines are designed to

produce torque for driving a propeller or rotor.
Therefore, turboprop or turboshaft engines often
utilize a torquemeter to provide a pilot with engine
power output information. Torquemeters are most
often calibrated in percentage units or foot-pounds;
however, other torquemeters may be calibrated in
shaft horsepower and psi. [Figure 4-5]
There are several techniques used to measure the
torque produced by an engine. One technique is to
put sensors on a driveshaft that measure the amount
of twist in the shaft that is caused by torque. The
electrical signals from the sensors are processed and
used to position the cockpit indicator.

Figure 4-5. A torquemeter indicates the amount of torque

being produced to drive a propeller on turboprop engines
or a rotor on turboshaft engines.

Another technique used to measure torque relies on

a measurement of torque pressure. The sensor for
this type of system consists of a small oil filled
cylinder and piston. The sensor is installed in the
reduction gearbox in a manner that allows the
torque reaction force to be applied to the piston.
Pressure on the piston increases in proportion to the
applied torque reaction force. The pressure is measured, causing the instrument pointer to indicate
the torque produced.
FUEL FLOW INDICATOR

Fuel flow for gas turbine engines is indicated in

pounds of fuel burned per hour. You may recall that
the volume of jet fuel changes with temperature,
therefore, the fuel flow on several turbine engines is
measured in terms of mass rather than volume. A
typical mass flow system consists of two cylinders,
an impeller, and a turbine which are mounted in the
main fuel line leading to the engine. The impeller is
driven at a constant speed by a three-phase motor
that is powered by the aircraft electrical system. The
impeller imparts an angular swirling motion to the
fuel as it proceeds to the turbine. As the fuel
impacts the turbine, the turbine rotates until a
calibrated restraining spring force balances the
rotational force. The deflection of the turbine
positions a permanent magnet in a transmitter to a
position corresponding to the fuel flow in the line.
The position of the permanent magnet is then
transmitted electrically to a permanent magnet in a
receiver which positions the indicator needle in the
cockpit.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-5

This system is by far the most accurate means of

monitoring fuel flow because it accounts for changes
in fuel viscosity and volume caused by changes in
temperature. For example, as fuel density increases,
more spin energy is imparted to the turbine. The
degree of turbine rotation increases correspondingly
to accurately measure mass fuel flow.
In addition to fuel flow indications, some turbine
aircraft are equipped with fuel totalizers. A
computerized fuel system (CFS) with a fuel
totalizer provides a pilot with a digital readout on
several fuel parameters. The parameters are: the
amount of fuel used, fuel remaining, current rate of
fuel consumption, and the time remaining for flight
at the current power setting. When linked to
distance measuring equipment, a totalizer can
show the range of an aircraft at the present power
setting. Often, a single instrument mounted in the
forward instrument panel indicates both fuel flow
and totalizer data. When an aircraft is serviced with
fuel, the counter is set to the total amount of fuel in
all tanks. As the fuel passes through the metering
element of the flowmeter, it sends a signal to the
microprocessor that automatically calculates the
amount of fuel remaining.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE

The most limiting factor in running a gas turbine

engine is the temperature of the turbine section. The
temperature of a turbine section must be monitored
closely to prevent overheating the turbine blades
and other exhaust section components. One
common way of monitoring the temperature of a
turbine section is with an exhaust gas temperature
(EGT) gauge. In other words, EGT is an engine
operating limit that is used to monitor the
mechanical integrity of a turbine and overall
engine operating conditions. [Figure 4-6]
Variations of EGT systems bear different names
based on the location of the temperature sensors.
Common turbine temperature sensing gauges
include the turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauge,
turbine outlet temperature (TOT) gauge, interstage
turbine temperature (ITT) gauge, and turbine gas
temperature (TGT) gauge.
The turbine inlet temperature (TIT) gauge senses
temperature at the inlet to the power turbine and is
the most critical of all the engine variables.
However, it is not always practical to measure
turbine inlet temperature in some large engines.
Therefore, in these engines, the temperature ther

Figure 4-6. An exhaust gas temperature gauge for a gas turbine engine is essential for monitoring the temperature of
the turbine section.

mocouples are generally inserted at the turbine

discharge. The result is a measurement of turbine
outlet temperature (TOT). For all practical
purposes, turbine outlet temperature is the same as a
turbine's exhaust gas temperature and both provide
a relative indication of turbine inlet temperature.
Even though the temperature of the gases exiting a
turbine is lower than at the inlet, it provides some
surveillance over the engine's internal operating
conditions. On other engines, the temperature
sensing probes are placed at some point within the
turbine section. For example, if the probes are
placed between two turbine stages, the indicator in
the cockpit will display the interstage turbine
temperature (ITT). In this type of system, the
interstage turbine temperature is directly
proportional to the turbine inlet temperature.
Each type of EGT system consists of several
thermocouples spaced at intervals around the
circumference of the engine exhaust section casing.
Due to the high pressures and temperatures involved,
chromel-alumel thermocouples typically are used.
An EGT indicator in the cockpit shows the average
temperature measured by the individual
thermocouples.
ENGINE INDICATING AND CREW
ALERTING SYSTEM

Engine parameters on most modern business jets

and transport aircraft are displayed electronically
on a cathode ray tube (CRT) or liquid crystal display
(LCD). The most common electronic system is the
engine indicating and crew alerting system,
or

4-6

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

EICAS. A typical EICAS utilizes two CRT or LCD

displays mounted in the middle of an instrument
panel. As the name implies, the engine indication
function displays all primary and secondary
power-plant instruments. The primary instrument
indications of EPR, N 1; and EGT are presented with
both digital and analog movements on the top
display. The secondary engine instrument
indications of N 2 , N3 , fuel flow, engine vibration and
oil pressure, temperature, and quantity are presented
on the lower display. In addition, a crew alerting
function monitors and displays system faults and
aircraft system warning messages to the crew.
Common systems that an EICAS computer
monitors include the aircraft's electrical, hydraulic,
bleed air, and pressurization systems. [Figure 4-7]
During routine cruise operations with no system
faults or abnormal readings, the lower screen is
often blank. However, if a fault is detected, the

upper screen displays a warning and the instrument representation for the faulty system moves to
the lower screen. On aircraft that have EICAS
installed, crew workload is reduced during normal
operations because secondary information is not
displayed. In the event that one CRT fails, all
needed information is displayed on the operable
CRT. In this case, information is displayed digitally
and the system is automatically converted to a
compact mode. In the event the second CRT fails,
the flight crew can still find critical engine
information on a backup display.
GROUND OPERATIONS
As a maintenance technician, there are many
instances where you may be required to operate a
gas turbine engine. For example, troubleshooting a
discrepancy reported by a flight crew often involves
engine operation to duplicate and analyze the
discrepancy. Additional reasons for conducting an
engine run is to check the performance of an engine
system following maintenance or to taxi an aircraft
from one maintenance area to another. Therefore,
you must be familiar with the procedures for starting and running a gas turbine engine.
The intent of the following discussion is to provide
you with a basic explanation of turbine engine
starting and runup operations. For specific
information regarding a particular engine, you must
consult the checklist and instructions provided by
the aircraft manufacturer.
Turbine engine operation must be conducted in an
area specifically designated for that purpose to
reduce hazards to personnel, hangars, and other
equipment. If possible, always run a gas turbine
engine in front of a blast shield so the jet blast is
deflected upward. In addition, if the aircraft does
not need to be moved during the ground run, chock
the wheels and set the brakes.

Figure 4-7. EICAS displays both engine monitoring instrumentation and alert messages in a dual CRT or LCD format.
The upper screen displays primary engine instrumentation
and alerting functions while the lower screen displays all
secondary engine instrumentation.

Prepare for an engine run by removing the engine

inlet and exhaust covers, then check for proper oil
levels, adequate fuel, and fluid leaks that could be a
fire hazard. To prevent foreign object damage,
remove loose objects from the ramp around the
engine and remove any tools or other loose objects
from the turbine inlet prior to start. In addition, all
ground support equipment such as auxiliary power
carts, hydraulic service units, and fire extinguishers
must be positioned a safe distance from the aircraft.
Always observe the warnings to remain safely
outside the turbine intake and exhaust danger
arcs when the engine is running. [Figure 4-8]

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-7

Operation of the starter, ignition, and fuel control is

usually based on N a or N2 indications and time.
Therefore, you must observe the engine instruments
and elapsed time during engine start. A typical start
sequence requires you to engage the starter and then
switch on the ignition. Once the engine accelerates
to the specified rpm, open the fuel valve.
Immediately check the fuel flow indicator to
confirm fuel flow, and then watch the EGT indicator
to confirm a light-off. A sharp rise in EGT indicates
a start has begun. Continue to observe the EGT
indicator to verify that temperature does not exceed
its limits and lead to a hot start.
A hot start is one in which ignition occurs when
there is an excessively rich fuel/air mixture. If a hot
start is allowed to proceed, the exhaust gas temperature will exceed the allowable limit and the engine
will be damaged. To minimize the possibility of a
hot start, the exhaust gas temperature, turbine inlet
temperature, or interstage turbine temperature
gauge must be monitored during a start. If any
temperature indication exceeds its allowable limit,
fuel to the engine should be shut off immediately.
Consult the engine manufacturer's maintenance
manual for inspection or overhaul requirements
following a hot start.
Figure 4-8. Ground personnel must be cautious when near
operating turbojet and turbofan engines. Intake safety arcs
are established to prevent injury to personnel and engine
damage due to ingestion. Likewise, exhaust safety arcs are
designed to prevent damage to surrounding equipment
and personnel from jet blast.

Check the condition of the compressor and turbine

visually, verifying freedom of motion. In addition,
check the communications equipment between the
cockpit and ground safety personnel for proper
operation.
ENGINE STARTING

Upon entering the cockpit, verify that the master

switch is "off," the landing gear handle is in the
"down" position, and the generator switches are
"off." In addition, check to make sure the power
levers are in the "cutoff" or "fuel shutoff" position,
and the starter and ignition switches are "off." If
using a ground power unit for starting, verify that
the voltage being supplied to the aircraft is correct.
When ground personnel indicate that conditions are
safe for engine start, flip the master switch and
battery or external power switches "on," and switch
on the fuel boost pumps.

If a hung start occurs, engine start is normal and

exhaust gas temperature is within limits, but the
engine fails to accelerate or reach idle rpm. Hung
starts occur when the starter cuts out too soon, or
when the starting power source fails to provide
enough energy to rotate the engine to a sufficient
speed. If a hung start occurs, the engine must be
shut down and the cause for insufficient starting
speed corrected before another attempt is made.
Once
an
engine
starts
and
becomes
self-accelerating, release the start switch and
monitor the engine instruments for proper
indications. Following a successful engine start, the
engine should idle between 40 and 70 percent,
depending on the engine model. In addition, the
EGT, fuel flow, oil and fuel temperatures, oil
pressure, and tachometer readings should be
compared to the allowable range for each. Be
aware, however, that fuel flow indications may be
unreliable at idling rpm because of the inaccuracies
that are frequently inherent in fuel flowmeters at
their lower ranges.
ENGINE FIRE

In the event that an engine fire starts or the fire

warning light illuminates during the start cycle, cut

4-8

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

off the fuel flow to the engine and continue

motoring the engine with the starter. If the fire
persists, small amounts of CO 2 can be discharged
into the inlet duct while the engine is being
motored. However, be careful to avoid discharging
excessive amounts of CO2 directly into a hot engine.
The cooling effect produced by large amounts of
CO 2 can shrink the turbine housing around the
turbine blades causing engine disintegration.
POWER CHECK

If an engine idles properly and engine parameters

appear to be normal, verify that the engine is
capable of producing takeoff thrust. However, before
you can do this, you must calculate an EPR or
discharge pressure value which represents takeoff
thrust for the prevailing atmospheric conditions.
In most cases, a takeoff thrust setting curve is
provided by the engine manufacturer to make these
calculations. [Figure 4-9]

Ambient conditions have a dramatic effect on

turbine performance; therefore, compressor inlet air
temperature and pressure measurements must be
accurate when computing takeoff thrust. Air
temperature measurements should be made a few
feet above the runway surface where air is drawn
into an engine's compressor inlet. The free air
temperature indicator in an aircraft may be used at
airports that do not provide runway temperature
measurements, however, accuracy depends on the
location of the sensing bulb. For an accurate thrust
computation, it is best to measure the actual
temperature with a handheld calibrated
thermometer in the shade of the airplane.
A turbine engine's performance is based, in part, on
the actual air pressure sensed at the compressor
inlet. Air pressure at the compressor inlet of a
stationary aircraft is referred to as the field
barometric pressure. Altimeter settings provided by
air traffic control provide field barometric pressure
corrected

Figure 4-9. Given an ambient temperature of -20 and a field barometric pressure of 30.50 in. Hg., you can determine the takeoff
EPR and turbine discharge pressure using the chart above. To determine the takeoff EPR, locate -20 on the ambient temperature line (item 1) and move downward to intercept the barometric pressure scale at 30.50 in. Hg. (item 2). From this point, project
a horizontal line to the right that intercepts the engine pressure ratio axis at 1.975 (item 3). To determine turbine discharge pressure, go back to the intersection of the ambient temperature and barometric pressure (item 2) and project a line left to the second barometric pressure scale (item 4). From here, drop straight down to the turbine discharge pressure line to arrive at a value
of approximately 25.75 in. Hg. (item 5).

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-9

to sea level and, therefore, are unusable for

computing engine performance. Field barometric
pressure is easily obtained by setting the aircraft
altimeter to zero and reading the altimeter setting on
the face of the instrument.

viscosity increases as temperature decreases, oil

pressure indications may run full scale until the oil
warms. It is also possible that the lubrication oil
system's "filter blocked" warning light could
illuminate until oil temperature rises.

Variations in relative humidity have a negligible

effect on turbojet engine thrust. Therefore, relative
humidity measurements are not a concern when
checking gas turbine engine performance.

ENGINE PERFORMANCE
Turbine engine performance is based on standards
established by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE). These standards are known as engine power
ratings and are listed on an engine's Type Certificate
Data Sheet. In most cases, engine power ratings are
expressed in values of EPR, percent N 1( or torque.
Since aircraft and engine maintenance manuals
often define engine performance using engine
power rating terminology, you must be familiar with
each of the ratings.

Once the takeoff EPR is known, adjust the throttle to

obtain takeoff power. While advancing the power
lever to the computed EPR, carefully observe the
EGT, tachometer, fuel flow, and oil pressure
readings to avoid exceeding maximum limits. To
make precise thrust measurements using a takeoff
thrust setting curve, an aircraft must be stationary
and engine operation must be stabilized. If the
predetermined EPR reading can be achieved and all
other engine instruments are reading within their
proper ranges, takeoff thrust is being produced.
ENGINE SHUTDOWN

Once an engine run is complete, you must follow the

appropriate shutdown procedures. Typically, before
a gas turbine engine is shut down, the engine is run
at idle for 30 seconds or more. This permits
component temperatures to stabilize and oil system
scavenging to occur. After the recommended time
period, move the power lever to the "cutoff" or
"fuel shut-off" position. Once the engine quits,
move the fuel boost, fuel valve, generator, battery,
external power, and master switches to their "off"
position. If the appropriate shutdown procedures are
not followed, uneven engine cooling could result.
In addition, a rapid shutdown can lead to incorrect
oil quantity indications that result from poor
scavenging.
COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS

Starting a gas turbine engine that is cold-soaked

from sitting idle in cold weather poses special
challenges and requires you to follow special
procedures. For example, when starting a
cold-soaked engine, it is best to use a ground power
supply so an adequate rotational speed can be
obtained. A typical turbojet requires an N 2 speed of
at least 10 percent for a successful light. In addition,
if there is no indication of fan rotation on the N1
tachometer, ice buildup could be interfering with
fan rotation.
When you do get a successful engine start in cold
weather, EGT indications may be much lower than
during warm weather starts. Furthermore, since oil

Power ratings common to most modern commercial

gas turbine engines include takeoff power,
maximum continuous power, maximum cruise
power, cruise power, maximum climb power,
ground idle, and flight idle. A takeoff power rating
represents the amount of power an aircraft engine is
allowed to produce for takeoff. In most cases, a
takeoff power setting is time-limited; therefore, you
must exercise caution during engine runs to make
sure you comply with ground operation time limits.
If takeoff power time limits are exceeded, the
turbine section could overheat.
Maximum continuous power is a power level used
at the discretion of the pilot for unusual or
emergency situations. Depending on the engine
model, maximum continuous power may be
synonymous with maximum cruise power. As the
name implies, a maximum continuous power
setting is not subject to any time limitations.
However, both max continuous and max cruise
power settings result in increased fuel burns
which shorten an aircraft's range capability.
A cruise power rating is used to extend an aircraft's
range by providing the best fuel economy during
flight. There is no time limit on this power setting.
An engine's maximum climb power rating is used
for normal climb to cruise altitude. This power
rating is higher than a cruise power rating and is
not subject to time limitations. As with any
maximum rating, when an engine is run at its
maximum climb rating, a great deal of fuel is
consumed.
Ground idle is the lowest allowable engine speed
for ground operation. A typical ground idle rating is

4-70

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

between 50 percent and 70 percent. The ground idle

speed on a single-spool engine is indicated on the
N a tachometer. However, if the engine has a dual or
triple-spool compressor, ground idle speed is indicated on the N 2 and N 3 tachometers respectively.
Flight idle is the lowest allowable engine speed in
flight and is used primarily for descent, approach,
and landing. On many engines, flight idle is
approximately 10 percent rpm higher than ground
idle speed. The reason for this is that the slightly
higher idle speed provides greater stall protection
and quicker response to power needs. Some aircraft
are equipped with power controls that
automatically reset flight idle speed for increased
idle rpm at higher altitudes.
DERATED ENGINE

When the power output of an engine is intentionally

limited to less than the maximum power the engine
can produce, the engine is said to be derated. An
engine may be derated if it is installed in an aircraft
that does not require the engine's maximum rated
power. Another reason for derating an engine is to
accommodate a component limitation such as a
rotorcraft transmission. Derating an engine also
provides a benefit of increased engine life.
PART-THROTTLE ENGINE

Part-throttle, or flat-rated engines are configured to

produce takeoff thrust under standard sea level
conditions before the power lever is advanced to the
full-throttle position. When a part-throttle engine is
operated in atmospheric conditions above standard,
takeoff thrust is obtained by advancing the power
lever further forward than when operating at sea level
conditions. However, you must be careful when
conducting a ground run on a part-throttle engine
to avoid advancing the throttle too far and
exceeding the takeoff thrust setting. This is
especially true on cold days when the amount of
thrust an engine can produce increases. Most
commercial turbine engines are configured as
part-throttle engines.
FULL-THROTTLE ENGINE

Most military aircraft use engines that are

configured as full-throttle engines. With a
full-throttle engine, takeoff power is obtained when
the power lever is advanced to the full throttle
position on a standard sea level day. However, with
this type of engine, total thrust output decreases as
temperatures increase and increases as
temperatures decrease. A typical full-throttle
engine is equipped with automatic limiting devices
in the fuel control system to prevent engine
damage caused by over-

speed or overtemperature conditions. Therefore,

when operating a full-throttle engine, the power
lever is advanced to the full forward stop for each
takeoff regardless of ambient conditions.

INSPECTIONS
As an aviation maintenance technician, you will
probably spend the majority of your time inspecting
various aircraft components. In fact, the Federal
Aviation Regulations require specific inspections at
set intervals in order for an aircraft to remain
airworthy. When these inspections are done,
impending problems are typically found before
they become major.
Inspection intervals and requirements vary among
aircraft depending on the specific operating
conditions, the FAR part the aircraft operates under,
and the components that are installed. On a typical
transport category aircraft, inspections are
scheduled in accordance with the number of flight
cycles an aircraft experiences as well as the
number of hours of operation. A flight cycle is
typically defined as one takeoff and subsequent
landing. The reason a flight cycle is used is because
a high number of flight cycles in a given number of
operational hours typically results in more wear and
tear. For example, the operating conditions of a
regional service airline or corporate flight
department typically involve short flights with
many takeoffs and landings. This type of operation
tends to produce more wear than if the same
aircraft were used on long-haul flights. Because of
these differences, inspection programs must be
tailored to the type of operation an aircraft
experiences.
The following discussion addresses the typical
inspection requirements associated with a transport
category or business type aircraft. As a general rule,
the two broad classifications of inspections conducted
on gas turbine engines include routine and
nonroutine inspections. The intent of the following
discussion is to provide you with some of the items
found on a typical inspection checklist. For a more
detailed breakout of the inspections required on a
particular aircraft, each aircraft operator has an FAA
approved inspection schedule. A typical inspection
schedule lists intervals, details, procedures, and
special equipment needed to accomplish each
inspection.
To aid the inspection process, many gas turbine
engines are equipped with openings, or ports, that
allow you to inspect the inside of the engine without disassembly. Some of the common tools used to
inspect the inside of a gas turbine engine are the
borescope, fiberscope, and electronic imaging.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

A borescope is an internal viewing device which

allows you to visually inspect areas inside a turbine
engine without disassembling the engine. A
borescope may be compared to a small periscope
with an eyepiece at one end and a strong light, mirror, and lens at the other end. A conducting cord
connects the probe to a control panel for adjusting
light intensity and magnification. [Figure 4-10]
A fiberoptic borescope, or fiberscope is similar to a
standard borescope, but has a flexible, articulated
probe that can bend around corners. This allows
you to view areas deep inside an assembly that previously required disassembly to inspect. In a typical
fiberscope, a bundle of optical glass fibers transmit
light from a light source to the scope's end, or probe.
The probe is then inserted into the structure being
inspected. The maximum length available for
fiberoptic borescopes is four feet.
Special attachments allow mounting of a camera to
the borescope to photographically record what is
seen through the scope. The pictures taken aid in
describing a situation to an inspector for
airworthiness determination.
Electronic imaging is a relatively new technique
which provides sharp, color images on a video
monitor. Since the image is in color and can be
magnified, it is much easier for inspectors to
differentiate between an actual defect and an

4-11

Fiber-optic technology and light emitting diodes

(LEDs) are utilized in many video imaging systems.
Computer enhancement provided by this type of
inspection equipment is particularly useful when
videotaped because it allows several inspectors in
different locations to consult on a given image.
ROUTINE INSPECTIONS
Routine inspections are those inspections that are
mandated by an approved inspection schedule or
Federal Aviation Regulations. All routine
inspections are performed periodically at intervals
specified by FAA approved company or airline
operations manuals. Examples of routine
inspections include the preflight inspection,
continuous or progressive inspection, cold section
inspection, and hot section inspection.
PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

A preflight inspection is a visual inspection of all

external parts that can be seen from the ground.
Most preflight inspections are accomplished by a
flight crew prior to each flight; however, there may
be occasions when you are asked to complete or
assist with a preflight inspection. Engine-related
items contained in a typical preflight inspection
include opening access panels to check for fluid
leaks, checking fluid levels, and visually examining
the engine inlet, fan, tailpipe, and turbine.
PROGRESSIVE/CONTINUOUS INSPECTION

As mentioned earlier, most transport category and

business type aircraft are on progressive or continuous inspection programs. The progressive inspection is designed for aircraft operators who do not
wish to have their aircraft grounded for several days
while an annual or 100 hour inspection is being
accomplished. Instead, the inspection may be performed in segments each 90 days, or at each 25 hour
interval. Like a continuous inspection program, a
progressive inspection program must be approved
by the FAA and an approved inspection procedures
manual must be used. According to FAR 91.409,
some of the items that must be included in an
inspection procedures manual include:

unclear image.
Figure 4-10. A typical borescope consists of a control panel,
conducting cable, and rigid probe. The tip of the probe contains a light and lens that allow you to examine internal
engine components.

1. An explanation of the progressive inspection,

including the continuity of inspection
responsibility, the making of reports, and the
keeping of records and technical reference
material.
2. An inspection schedule, specifying the intervals
in hours or days when routine and detailed
inspections will be performed and including
instructions for exceeding an inspection interval
by not more than 10 hours while en route and for

4-72

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

changing an inspection interval because of service experience.

3. Sample routine and detailed inspection forms
and instructions for their use.
4. Sample reports and records, as well as instruc
tions for their use.
The frequency and detail of the progressive inspection must provide a complete inspection of the aircraft within each 12 calendar months and be consistent with the manufacturer's recommendations,
field service experience, and the kind of operation
in which the aircraft is engaged. The progressive
inspection schedule must ensure that the aircraft, at
all times, will be airworthy and will conform to all
applicable FAA aircraft specifications, type certificate data sheets, airworthiness directives, and other
approved data.
A continuous airworthiness program also requires
special approval from the FAA as well as an
approved maintenance manual describing the procedures that must be followed to maintain the airworthiness of an aircraft. Additional information
that must be included in an approved maintenance
manual include:
1. The method of performing routine and nonroutine maintenance (other than required inspec
tions), preventive maintenance, and alterations.
2. A designation of the items of maintenance and
alteration
that
must be
inspected
(required
inspections), including at least those that could
result in a failure, malfunction, or defect if not
performed properly or if improper parts or mate
rials are used.
3. The method of performing required inspections
and a designation by occupational title of per
sonnel
authorized to perform each
required
inspection.
4. Procedures for the reinspection of work
per
formed pursuant to previous required inspection
findings.
5. Procedures, standards, and limits necessary for
required inspections and the acceptance or rejec
tion of the items required to be inspected and for
periodic inspection and calibration of precision
tools, measuring devices, and test equipment.
6. Procedures to ensure that all required inspections
are performed.
7. Instructions to prevent any person who performs
any item of work from performing any required
inspection of that work.
8. Instructions and procedures to prevent any deci
sion of an inspector, regarding any
required
inspection from being countermanded by persons
other than supervisory personnel of the inspec-

tion unit, or a person at that level of administrative

control that has overall responsibility for the
management of both the required inspection functions and the other maintenance, preventive
maintenance, and alterations functions. 9.
Procedures to ensure that required inspections,
other maintenance, preventive maintenance, and
alterations that are not completed as a result of
shift changes or similar work interruptions are
properly completed before the aircraft is released to
service.
The routine inspections that are a part of a continuous inspection program are often given a specific
name. Some examples of terms used by airlines to
define routine inspections include "number 1 service," "number 2 service," "A" check and "B"
check. The content and inspections required for
each of these checks is defined in the approved
maintenance manual.
COLD SECTION INSPECTION
Any routine or non-routine inspection performed
on components of a turbine engine's inlet, compressor, or diffuser is known as a cold section inspection. Compressor blades are vulnerable to damage
and erosion caused by ingestion of sand, ice, and
other foreign objects. In addition, the accumulations
of dirt and oxides which form on blades and vanes
deteriorate engine performance. Therefore, routine
periodic inspections to a turbine engine's cold section are needed to detect signs of change or wear.
Cold section inspections are typically conducted
using a borescope to visually verify the condition of
each stage of compressor blades and vanes. Fan
blades and the first few stages of compressor blades
can be inspected through the engine intake.
However, compressor stages further back must be
inspected through numbered access ports. For
example, a Pratt and Whitney PW2000 turbine's
16th and 17th stage compressor blades are checked
with a borescope at the AP8 borescope access port.
HOT SECTION INSPECTION
As you know, the hot section of a gas turbine engine
is subject to a great deal of heat and stress.
Therefore, periodic, routine inspections are
required on almost all gas turbine engines. As with
a cold section inspection, a borescope is used extensively to detect internal engine damage in an
engine's hot section.
If you recall from Chapter 3, combustion liners are
often constructed of thin stainless steel which
expands when heated to operational temperatures,

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-13

then shrinks as the engine cools after shutdown.

This frequent expansion and shrinkage can cause
stress cracks and warping. In addition, the corrosive
gases produced by combustion often causes combustion liners to slowly erode. The presence of
burned areas or hot spots in a combustion liner or
on an exhaust tail cone indicate a malfunctioning
fuel nozzle or other fuel system problem.
Another defect found during hot section inspections is misalignment of combustion liners known
as burner can shift. This defect seriously affects
combustor efficiency and engine performance.
A turbine section is subjected to a great deal of heat
and stress in a highly corrosive environment.
Therefore, an inspection of the turbine section is
vital to detecting defects before they become serious. Easily accessed areas are inspected with a
flashlight and magnifying glass or a dye penetrant.
However, internal turbine sections are inspected
with a borescope through access ports. In the example of a PW2000 engine, first stage turbine blades
are viewed through the AP10 borescope access port.
On the other hand, inspection of the high pressure
nozzle guide vanes is sometimes accomplished
using a borescope and looking out the end of the
combustors. [Figure 4-11]
One thing you must be alert for when inspecting turbine blades is the presence of stress rupture cracks.
Stress rupture cracks are hairline cracks that appear
on the leading and trailing edges of turbine blades at
a right angle to a blade's length. The presence of
stress rupture cracks or rippling on the trailing edges
of turbine blades typically indicates that an engine
encountered a serious overtemperature incident.
In addition to inspecting the turbine blades, the turbine disk must also be examined carefully. Since the
integrity of a turbine disk is critical to flight safety, any
cracking on a turbine disk requires disk replacement.
NON-ROUTINE INSPECTIONS
A non-routine inspection is any inspection that
must be done as a result of a component failure or
incident that could potentially damage an engine.
Some examples of incidents requiring a non-routine
inspection include ingestion of birds, ice, or other
foreign objects, and temperature or rpm over limit
incidents. Although damage to compressor or turbine blades may not be immediately noticed with
respect to engine performance after an incident, the
need for an inspection still exists. For example, if an
engine experiences an overtemperature incident,
the initial damage may not be noticed immediately.

Figure 4-11. On some engines, the high pressure nozzle

guide vanes are inspected with a borescope that is inserted
into one of the engine's combustors.

However, if gone unchecked, the damage could

result in blade disintegration later.
FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE

Foreign object damage (FOD) can occur anytime

something is drawn into a gas turbine engine. Typical
FOD consists of small nicks, dents, and scratches.
However, FOD damage caused by bird strikes or ice
can cause total destruction of an engine.
In addition to the physical damage caused by FOD,
engine performance can also be effected. For example, typical performance deterioration that can
result from FOD includes an increase in EGT readings with a corresponding decrease in EPR indications. Other possible indications would be a change
in the relationship between N a and N 2 rotational
speeds and excessive vibration.
Whenever a FOD incident occurs, the engine
involved must be inspected. The level of inspection
depends on the severity of the damage. For example,
if an external inspection reveals little damage, a
borescope inspection may be the only thing that has
to be completed. If no damage exists within an engine
and the damage on the fan blades, vanes, or compressor is minor, repairs can be made while the engine
remains on the aircraft and the aircraft returned to service. However, if substantial damage is clearly visible,
the engine will probably have to be removed and sent
to an overhaul facility to be repaired.
A specific type of damage that may be caused by
FOD is fan blade shingling. Shingling is the term
used to describe the overlapping of midspan shrouds
on fan blades. Anytime rotating fan blades enounter
a force that pushes a blade sideways, shingling can
occur. Common causes of shingling include FOD,
compressor overspeed, or a compressor stall.

4-74

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Whenever shingling occurs, you must inspect the

top and bottom surfaces of the shrouds involved for
scoring or galling. In addition, any blade that
encounters shingling typically must be removed and
inspected in accordance with the manufacturer's
maintenance manual. If any cracks are found during
the inspection, the fan blade must be replaced.
ENGINE OVERSPEED

If a gas turbine engine encounters an overspeed condition, most manufacturers require the engine to be
inspected. Since damage from an overspeed typically results from excessive centrifugal force, most
overspeed inspections are primarily concerned with
the engine's rotating elements. The extent of an
over-speed inspection varies depending on the
speed the engine was operated. For example, the
inspection required on some engines that
experience an over-speed between 101 and 105
percent can be done while the engine remains on the
aircraft. However, if the overspeed exceeds 105
percent, the inspection requires the engine to be
removed and disassembled.
ENGINE OVERTEMPERATURE

Although the electronic controls on modern gas turbine engines have greatly reduced the possibility of
experiencing an overtemperature condition, they do
still happen. Most overheat incidents occur during
an engine start; however, they can also occur in
flight. Many overtemperature inspections can be
accomplished with the engine installed on the aircraft. However, if significant damage is discovered
during the inspection, the engine typically has to be
removed to be repaired. Since the procedures
involved with performing an overtemperature
inspection vary from engine to engine, you must
refer to the manufacturer's maintenance manual for
specific inspection details.

MAINTENANCE
As you know, there are literally hundreds of different gas turbine engines used in aviation today.
Therefore, it would be impractical to list and
explain the various maintenance procedures for all
turbine engines. Instead, you must rely on the information provided in the appropriate maintenance
manuals for the specific engine requiring maintenance. For the purpose of this textbook, the material covered will look at some general maintenance
practices that are common to most turbine engines.
Engine manufacturers are responsible for providing
maintenance and overhaul information in the
Instructions for Continued Airworthiness section
in each set of maintenance manuals they produce.

In addition, Federal Aviation Regulations require

that each set of maintenance manuals provide
detailed servicing information, troubleshooting
guides, and schedules for cleaning, inspecting,
adjusting, testing, and lubricating engine parts.
Furthermore, an FAA approved set of maintenance
manuals must include a section entitled
Airworthiness Limitations which sets forth mandatory replacement times, inspection intervals, and
component cycle limits.
There are two general classifications of maintenance performed on gas turbine engines: line maintenance and shop maintenance. Line maintenance
is any type of maintenance that can be done while
the engine is installed on an aircraft. On the other
hand, shop maintenance refers to maintenance that
requires an engine to be taken off an airplane. Since
shop maintenance includes a great deal of the maintenance done during a overhaul, it will be covered
in detail in Section B of this chapter.
LINE MAINTENANCE
Tasks that fall under the classification of line maintenance include performing inspections, troubleshooting, cleaning, trimming, verifying instrumentation readings, checking fluid levels, and
replacing accessories. The following paragraphs
will look at some of these tasks and provide you
with procedures that are common to several turbine
engines.
TROUBLESHOOTING

A typical turbine engine maintenance manual provides one or more troubleshooting tables to aid in
pinpointing the cause of common malfunctions.
However, it is not possible for these tables to list all
malfunctions. Instead, troubleshooting tables provide you with a starting point in the troubleshooting
process. This, combined with a thorough knowledge of the engine systems, logical reasoning, and
experience will provide you with the information
necessary to diagnose and correct complicated or
intermittent malfunctions. [Figure 4-12]
Standard engine instrument readings are used with
troubleshooting guides to provide clues as to the
cause of a given engine malfunction. In addition,
some aircraft are equipped with built-in test equipment, or BITE test systems. BITE systems consist of
sensors, transducers, and computer monitoring
devices which detect and record engine data such as
vibration levels, temperatures, and pressures. A typical BITE test requires you to make entries on a keypad in the cockpit or at a remote terminal in order

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-15

Figure 4-12. Troubleshooting guides provide suggestions to assist you in determining the cause of a malfunction and possible
remedies.

4-76

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

to retrieve engine data. However, even this sophisticated equipment can only provide you with the
symptoms a problem, leaving you to determine the
actual problem.
FIELD CLEANING

Like any other aircraft component, the interior of a

gas turbine engine must be periodically cleaned. If
this is not done, the aerodynamic efficiency of the
compressor blades will decrease as dirt, oil, and
soot accumulate. The decrease in efficiency often
leads to poor acceleration, reduced EPR, and excessive exhaust gas temperatures. Aircraft operated
near salt water also require frequent cleaning to
help prevent corrosion caused by salt deposits.
The two most common methods of removing dirt
and salt deposits from inside a turbine engine are a
fluid wash and an abrasive grit blast. With a fluid
wash, either clean, demineralized water or an emulsion type cleaner are sprayed into an engine's
intake. The use of water alone is typically used to
remove salt deposits and, therefore, is often referred
to as a desalinization wash. On the other hand, a
fluid wash using an emulsion cleaner followed by a
water rinse is typically used to remove baked on dirt
and soot deposits. This type of wash is known as a
performance recovery wash. To help you determine
how often an engine must be cleaned, several manufacturers provide a recommended wash schedule.
[Figure 4-13]
When performing a fluid wash, it is imperative that
you follow the manufacturer's instructions. On turboprop engines, a fluid wash is usually accomplished by spraying, or pouring the washing liquid
into the
compressor inlet while
the
engine is

motored with the starter. This is know as a motoring

wash and is typically done at speeds that range from
10 to 25 percent. On the other hand, a fluid wash
conducted on a large turbojet or turbo fan aircraft is
accomplished by spraying the washing liquid into
the engine's inlet while the engine idles at approximately 60 percent. [Figure 4-14]
When compressor contamination is too heavy to be
effectively removed by an internal engine wash, a
more vigorous abrasive grit blast cleaning is available. This heavy cleaning procedure involves injecting an abrasive grit such as Carboblast into the
engine intake at selected power settings. Carboblast
typically contains ground walnut shells or apricot
pits. In all cases, follow the engine manufacturer's
recommended procedure, using only the type and
amount of material specified for a particular engine.
The greater cleaning capability of this procedure
provides a longer time interval between cleanings
when compared to the solvent and water methods.
However, an abrasive grit cleaning typically does
little to clean turbine blades and vanes because
most of the cleaning grit burns up before it reaches
the turbines. [Figure 4-15]
ENGINE TRIMMING

Engine trimming refers to a process whereby an

engine's fuel control unit is adjusted to allow an
engine to produce its maximum rated thrust.
Trimming is normally performed after an engine or
fuel control unit is changed or whenever an engine
does not produce its maximum thrust.
Manual trimming procedures vary widely between
engine models; therefore, before you attempt to trim
an engine, you should take time to review the spe-

Figure 4-13. As you can see in the wash schedule above, engines that are operated in a salt laden environment should be washed
frequently. On the other hand, the need for a performance recovery wash is much less frequent.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Figure 4-14. (A) A fluid wash conducted on a typical turboprop engine is accomplished by pouring or spraying a
cleaning fluid into the compressor inlet. (B) A fluid wash
done on a large turbojet or turbo fan engine is accomplished by spraying large quantities of wash fluid into an
engine as it idles.

cific procedures in the engine's maintenance manual. A typical trimming procedure requires you to
install calibrated instruments for reading turbine
discharge pressure or EPR. In addition, a calibrated
tachometer must be installed to read N 2 rpm. Once
the instrumentation is installed, the aircraft should
be pointed into the wind. However, if the velocity of
the wind blowing into the intake is too great, elevated compression and turbine discharge pressures
will result which, ultimately, will produce a low
trim setting. Another step in the trimming procedure is to measure the barometric pressure at the
engine inlet and the ambient temperature. This is
required to correct performance readings to standard sea-level conditions. To obtain a temperature
reading, it is common practice to hang a thermometer in the shade of the nose wheel well. The ideal
conditions for trimming a turbine engine are no
wind, low humidity, and standard temperature and
pressure.
Once you have calculated the maximum power output for the engine you are trimming, start the engine
and let it idle as specified in the maintenance manual. This is necessary so the engine has time to stabilize. To ensure an accurate trim setting, all engine
bleed air must be turned off. Bleeding air off the
compressor has the same effect as decreasing the

4-17

Figure 4-15. Abrasive grit blast cleaning is used to remove

heavy engine contamination. To perform an abrasive grit
blast, an engine is run while a specific quantity of abrasive
grit is fed into the engine.

compressor's efficiency. Therefore, if a trim adjustment is made with the bleeds on, an inaccurate, or
overtrimmed condition will result.
With the engine running at idle and maximum
power, observe the turbine discharge or EPR readings to determine how much trimming is necessary.
If trimming of either the idle or maximum settings
are necessary, it is typically accomplished by turning a screw type adjustment on the fuel control unit.
EGT AND TACHOMETER CHECKS

As you know, two of the most important factors

affecting turbine engine life are EGT and engine
rpm. If the cockpit indications of these two variables are incorrect, serious engine damage can
result. For example, excessively high exhaust gas
temperatures can reduce turbine blade life by as
much as 50 percent, while low exhaust gas temperatures significantly reduce turbine engine efficiency
and thrust. In addition, inaccurate rpm indications
can lead to unintentional overspeed conditions
resulting in premature engine failures. To help protect against EGT and rpm inaccuracies, these instrument systems are required to be periodically
checked.
One way to check the accuracy of an engine's EGT
and rpm indicating systems is with a jet calibration

4-18

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Figure 4-16. The instrument compartment on a Jetcal analyzer is conveniently marked off so you can easily identify the controls
used for checking rpm, EGT, wire resistance, and insulation breaks.

(Jetcal) test unit. Jetcal is the trade name for several

models of a widely used jet calibration test units
manufactured by Howell Instruments, Inc. One
model of Jetcal Analyzer consists of a portable EGT
and rpm test unit. [Figure 4-16]

Usually, operating procedures are listed on an

instruction plate attached to the Jetcal analyzer
instrument case. However, there are some safety
precautions you must be aware of before operating a
Jetcal unit.

Specifically, a portable Jetcal analyzer allows you to:

1. Do not use a standard volt-ohmmeter to check the

potentiometer for continuity or you may damage
the meter and battery cells.
2. Finish the thermocouple harness continuity and
accuracy checks before engine run-up to be cer
tain the EGT gauge is providing accurate readings.
3. Be sure the Jetcal is electrically grounded when
using an AC power supply.
4. Use the appropriate heater probes on the engine
thermocouples you intend to test. The tempera
ture gradients vary with the design of the heater
probes. Therefore, be certain you never attempt
to modify a heater probe for testing other types of
thermocouples.
5. Do not leave heater probe assemblies in
the
tailpipe during engine run-up.
6. To prevent damage to the Jetcal analyzer and
heater probe assemblies, do not allow the heater
probes to exceed 900.

1. Functionally check the aircraft EGT system for

error without running the engine or disconnect
ing the wiring.
2. Detect inoperative or inaccurate thermocouples
either in or out of the wiring harness.
3. Check the wiring harness for continuity, resis
tance, and accuracy, as well as identify breaks in
harness wiring and poor or dirty electrical con
nections.
4. Check the insulation on the circuit wiring for
short circuits to ground or short circuits between
1
leads.
5. Check EGT indicators either in the instrument
panel or disconnected from the aircraft EGT sys
tem for error.
6. Determine engine RPM with a accuracy of 0.1
percent during engine run-up as well as check
and troubleshoot the aircraft tachometer system.
7. Verify a proper relationship between the EGT and
engine RPM on engine run-up.
8. Check aircraft fire detector, overheat detector, and
wing anti-icing systems by using tempcal probes.

EGT Circuit Checks

Continuity checks of the EGT circuit are designed to

detect errors caused by one or more inoperative air-

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

craft thermocouples. A continuity check is made by

raising the temperature of a heater probe to between
500 and 700, and then placing the hot probe over
each of the aircraft thermocouples. As each thermocouple heats up, the EGT gauge for that engine registers a temperature rise for each functionally correct thermocouple. Detecting a rise on the aircraft
EGT gauge may be difficult with EGT systems having eight or more thermocouples in a single harness.
This is due to the electrical characteristics of the
parallel circuit in which the thermocouples operate.
In this case, the Jetcal provides instructions for
alternative testing of the aircraft thermocouples.
If the continuity of an EGT circuit checks out, the
next step is to do a functional check of the EGT circuit. The time required to test an EGT system
depends on several factors including: the number of
engines, the number of thermocouples in a harness,
the position of the harness in an engine, the number
of errors found, and the time required to correct any
errors. A normal functional test on a single engine
can typically be performed in 10 to 20 minutes.
During an EGT circuit functional check and a thermocouple harness check, the Jetcal analyzer is guaranteed to be accurate within 4. A functional
check is made by heating the engine thermocouples
in the tail pipe to the engine test temperature. The
heat is supplied by the heater probes through the
necessary cables. When the engine thermocouples
are hot, their temperatures will register on the air-

4-19

craft EGT indicator. At the same time, a set of thermocouples embedded in the heater probes are also
sensing and registering the temperature put out by
the probes. If the temperature indicated on the aircraft's EGT gauge is within the specified tolerance of
the temperature reading on the Jetcal unit, the EGT
circuit is operating properly. However, if the temperature difference exceeds the allowable tolerance,
you must troubleshoot the aircraft system to determine which parts are malfunctioning.
EGT thermocouple electrical resistance and insulation are also checked with a Jetcal during a functional test. The resistance and insulation check circuits make it possible to analyze and isolate any
error in the aircraft's EGT system. Since variations
in resistance effect the amount of current flow in a
thermocouple circuit, the resistance of a thermocouple harness must conform to a narrow tolerance.
Erroneous temperature readings caused by incorrect
harness resistance can result in overtemperature
damage to the turbine and tailpipe.
To check an EGT indicator, remove it from the
instrument panel and disconnect the thermocouple
circuit leads. Attach the instrument cable and EGT
indicator adapter leads to the indicator terminals
and place the indicator in its Normal operating position. Once the Jetcal analyzer switches are set to the
proper position, the indicator reading should correspond with the potentiometer readings on the Jetcal
panel. [Figure 4-17]

Figure 4-17. To test an EGT indicator, remove the indicator from the aircraft instrument panel and attach the Jetcal adapter cable.
Next, attach the aircraft thermocouple harness leads and Jetcal analyzer cable to the Jetcal switch box.

4-20

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Tachometer Check

Tachometer indications can be verified to within

0.1 percent during engine run by measuring the
frequency produced by the tachometer generator
with the rpm check, or takcal, circuit in a Jetcal
analyzer. To do this, the aircraft tachometer and the
rpm check circuit are connected in parallel so as to
provide simultaneous indications when the engine is
run. To simplify the comparison between the
aircraft's tachometer and the check circuit, the
scale of the rpm check circuit is also calibrated in
percent rpm.

SPECTROMETRIC OIL ANALYSIS PROGRAM(

)

A spectrometric oil analysis program, or SOAP, is

another tool available to aircraft operators to help
detect developing problems in an engine.
Spectrometric analysis for metal particles suspended
in oil is possible because metallic ions emit characteristic light spectra when vaporized by an electric
arc. Each metal produces a unique spectrum, allowing easy identification of the metals present in the oil
samples. The wavelength of spectral lines identifies
each metal and the intensity of a line is used to measure the quantity of that metal in a sample.

TREND ANALYSIS()

Performance monitoring of engines is a technique

used by aviation maintenance organizations and
engine manufacturers to improve engine service life
and reduce operating costs. The monitoring of an
engine's performance and condition over a period of
time provides a database for trend analysis. Trend
analysis alerts an operator to deteriorating performance, providing an opportunity to take corrective
action before an engine failure occurs. After establishing a normal relationship between performance
parameters during initial monitoring, recorded
engine operating data is reviewed at regular intervals. Significant changes in the relationships
between performance parameters may signal
impending failures.
Data collection methods range from onboard computers to manual entries on paper forms. Regardless
of the method used, conditions under which a certain parameter is measured should be consistent for
the measurement to be useful in trend analysis. For
example, EGT measurements and fuel flow indications should always be taken at the same power setting under the same ambient conditions. If this is not
done, it is possible to obtain data which skews trend
analysis and gives false indications of a problem.
Trend analysis information can be broken down into
two broad categories; performance and mechanical.
Typical performance parameters include information on EPR, Na speed, N2 speed, EGT, and fuel flow.
On the other hand, the mechanical parameters typically include instrument readings of oil pressure,
oil temperature, oil quantity, vibration, oil pressure
warning lights, and filter bypass lights. Accurately
interpreting a trend analysis requires the ability to
discern small shifts in operating parameters on one
or more gauges and to accurately compare the information to base line data.

When participating in a spectrometric oil analysis

program, periodic samples of used oil are taken
from an engine after shutdown or prior to servicing. Samples are taken from a sediment free location in the main oil tank and sent to an oil analysis
laboratory. In the lab, a film of the used oil sample
is picked up on the rim of a rotating, high purity,
graphite disc electrode. A precisely controlled,
high voltage, AC spark is discharged from a vertical electrode to the rotating disc. When this occurs,
the film of oil on the disc begins to burn. Light
emitted by the burning oil passes through a series
of slits, precisely positioned to detect the wave
lengths of various metals. As light passes through
the slit, photo multiplier tubes electronically convert the light waves into energy which automatically prints the analytical results on the laboratory
record sheets. The wear metals present are so small
that they flow freely through system filters. The
spectrometer therefore measures the particles that
move in suspension in the oil and are too small to
appear on either the oil screen or chip detector.
[Figure 4-18]
Alloyed metals in turbine engines may contain
amounts of aluminum, iron, chromium, silver, copper, tin, magnesium, lead, nickel, or titanium. Silver
is accurately measured in concentrations down to
one-half part silver in 1,000,000 parts of oil. Most
other metals are measured accurately in concentrations down to two or three parts per million. The
maximum amount of normal wear has been determined for each metal of the particular system in the
program. This amount is called its threshold limit of
contamination and is measured by weight in parts
per million (PPM). If, after interpreting the results,
the lab identifies a sharp increase or abnormal concentration of metal, they will notify you by telephone immediately.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-21

Figure 4-18. In spectrometric oil testing, a sample of used oil is sent to a lab where the oil is applied to a rotating, graphite disk
and ignited by a high voltage, AC spark. As the oil burns, it emits light that passes a series of slits that are positioned to detect
the wave lengths of different metals. The light energy passing through the slits is then converted into energy that is measured by
an electronic counter.

ENGINE REMOVAL AND OVERHAUL

ENGINE REMOVAL
When engine removal becomes necessary for heavy
maintenance or overhaul, many gas turbine
power-plants are removed as a quick engine change
assembly, or QECA. A QECA is essentially a
powerplant with the necessary accessories already
installed on the engine mounting assembly.
Although the exact steps involved in removing a
gas turbine engine vary from one make of aircraft
model to another, there are some general
guidelines you can use. However, these guidelines
are no substitute for the manufacturer's instructions.

REASONS FOR REMOVAL

There are several reasons why an engine may have
to be removed from an aircraft. For example, the
accumulation of the number of hours or cycles recommended between overhaul or degradation in performance are reasons for removal. Additional reasons include serious foreign object or hot start damage as well as excessive metal particles found in the
oil. Some routine maintenance and repairs may also
require an engine to be removed from an aircraft.
However, before you remove or replace an engine,
you should always consult the applicable manufacturer's instructions to determine if engine removal
is required.

limits. Obtaining permission to go beyond a manufacturer's limitations depends on the part of the
Federal Aviation Regulations an aircraft operates
under as well as the approved inspection program
requirements. In addition, the submission of trend
analysis data and engine manufacturer data is usually required.
FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE

As discussed earlier, foreign object damage (FOD) can

occur anytime something is drawn into a gas turbine
engine. Whenever a FOD incident occurs, the engine
involved must be inspected. The level of inspection
depends on the severity of the damage. For example, if an
external inspection reveals little damage, a borescope
inspection may be the only thing that has to be completed.
If no damage exists within an engine and the damage on
the fan blades, vanes, or compressor is minor, repairs can
be made while the engine remains on the aircraft.
However, if substantial damage is clearly visible, the
engine will probably have to be removed and sent to an
overhaul facility to be repaired.

HOT START

If you recall, a hot start is one in which ignition occurs

when there is an excessively rich fuel/air mixture. If a hot
start is allowed to proceed, the exhaust gas temperature
will exceed its allowable limit and the engine will be damaged. Whenever a hot start occurs, the affected engine
typically must be inspected. Many overtemperature
inspections can be accomplished with the engine installed
on the aircraft. However, if significant damage is discovered during the inspection, the engine typically has to be
removed to be repaired.

ENGINE LIFE SPAN

Turbine engines have evolved into highly reliable

powerplants with long service lives. Therefore, a
given model may or may not have a specified TBO
in the same way a reciprocating engine does. For
example, instead of establishing a TBO for the entire
engine, most manufacturers establish a recommended operating time between overhauls for each
component or section of a turbine engine. However,
some aircraft operators may obtain permission from
the FAA to operate a turbine engine beyond TBO

PREPARATION FOR REMOVAL

Turbine engine removal procedures have some similarities to reciprocating engine removal procedures.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-23

For example, when removing a turbine engine,

flammable fluids often leak from the engine and create a fire hazard. Therefore, an engine removal
should be done in a well ventilated area with at
least one fire extinguisher nearby. Once the aircraft
is parked, chock the main gear wheels to keep the
aircraft from rolling during the removal operation. If
the aircraft has tricycle-type landing gear, check the
maintenance manual to see if the tail must be supported to prevent the aircraft from tipping back
when the engine is removed. In addition, the landing gear shock struts may need to be deflated to prevent damage from over-extension once the engine
weight is removed from the aircraft.

IGNITION, FUEL, AND BATTERY DISARMING

Before starting the engine removal process, make

sure the ignition system has been disconnected. On
engines using high voltage ignition units, the voltage supply to the ignition unit must be disconnected and the unit allowed to sit for the time prescribed by the manufacturer. If this is not done, a
lethal shock could result.
To help prevent fuel from spilling, make sure that
all fuel shutoff valves are closed. Fuel selector
valves are either manually or electrically operated.
If an electric solenoid-operated shutoff valve is
installed, it may be necessary to apply battery
power to close the valve. After ensuring that all fuel
is shut off, disconnect the battery to reduce the possibility of electrical sparks.

PROPELLER REMOVAL

Before removing a turboprop engine, the propeller

must be taken off the engine. When removing a large
constant speed propeller, the use of a propeller sling
with a frame and hoist is imperative. In addition, it
is best to have one or two additional people assist
you to prevent damaging the propeller or surrounding equipment. In either case, you should follow the
manufacturer's instructions for propeller removal.

FLUID LINE DISCONNECTION

The fluid lines that are used with gas turbine

engines include flexible hoses, aluminum alloy tubing, and stainless steel tubing. Due to the tempera-

Figure 4-19. To disconnect the main fuel line on many turbine engines, remove the bolts from the hose flange. On
other aircraft, the fuel line may have a quick disconnect that
is connected at the firewall.

tures radiated by a turbine engine as well as the

fluid pressures required for operation, rigid tubing
is used more on turbine engines than flexible tubing. For example, most fuel lines are constructed of
rigid tubing that must be drained once it is removed.
To simplify the removal process, most main fuel
lines are readily accessible through an access panel.
[Figure 4-19]
After a fuel line has drained, it should be plugged or
covered with moisture-proof tape. This helps prevent insects, dirt, or other foreign matter from entering the line and keeps any residual fluids from dripping out. Once plugged, all lines and fittings should
be labeled to help prevent possible confusion when
reinstalling them on a new engine.

ELECTRICAL DISCONNECTION

Depending on the type of engine and equipment

installed, electrical leads may be disconnected at
the accessory or at the engine firewall. When disconnected at the firewall, AN and MS connectors
are often used to simplify disconnections. A typical AN or MS electrical connector consists of a
plug and receptacle assembly for multiple wires.
To help prevent accidental disconnection during
aircraft operation, the plug assembly screws to the

4-24

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Figure 4-20. Most electrical connections are grouped in bundles and are disconnected at the firewall or junction by separating an AN or MS electrical connector.

receptacle assembly and is secured with safety

wire. [Figure 4-20]
To protect the exposed ends of connectors from dirt
and moisture you should wrap them with
moisture-proof
tape
whenever
they
are
disconnected. Also, coil loose cables and secure
conduits out of the way to prevent entanglement
and damage when the engine is removed. If the
wires lack legible identification, label them to
eliminate confusion when reinstalling the engine.

Figure 4-21. On engines that are controlled by a single

power lever only one control rod and end must be removed
to remove the engine. However, when removing a turboprop engine, you will have to remove the connections for
the power lever, condition lever, and propeller control.

in the control rod ends so they do not get lost. All

control rods should either be removed completely
or tied back to prevent them from being bent or broken when the engine is removed.
OTHER DISCONNECTIONS

Air intake, exhaust system components, and bleed

air ducts must also be disconnected to facilitate
engine removal. However, because the installation
of these components varies among different engines
and aircraft, it is best to refer to the manufacturer's
instructions for specific removal procedures.

ENGINE CONTROL DISCONNECTION

The engine control rods and cables allow operation

of the throttle and mixture from within the cockpit.
On a typical control rod, one or both ends are
threaded with a clevis or rod end bearing attached.
On most aircraft, a rod end bearing is connected to
the fuel control unit by a bolt secured with a lock
nut. To remove a control rod, begin by removing the
lock nut. Once this is done, remove the bolt passing
through the control assembly. [Figure 4-21]

After all engine connections are free and clear, the

engine is ready for removal. If an engine has been
thoroughly prepared, the actual removal process is
typically a simple task. When removing an engine
that is part of a QECA, the separation point is usually the firewall and the mount is removed with the
engine.

After the engine control linkages have been disconnected, the nuts and bolts should be inspected for
wear. Cotter pins must be replaced, but if the nuts
and bolts do not need replacement, place them back

Turbofan and turbojet engines are usually removed

from an aircraft using one of several methods. One
method requires an engine dolly which consists of
an engine buildup stand mounted on a hydraulic

ENGINE HOISTING

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-25

Figure 4-22. On an Airbus A320, an engine dolly is positioned under the engine and raised with a hydraulic lift to
support the engine.

lift. The dolly is positioned under the engine while

the hydraulic lift is used to raise the dolly into position for attachment to the engine. Once the engine is
securely bolted onto the dolly, the dolly is slowly
raised until all the engine weight is supported by
the dolly. At this point, the nuts are removed from
the engine mount attachments in the order specified
in the manufacturer's instructions. Before the last
nuts are removed, be sure that the engine is steadied
and secure with no lateral loading. If everything is
secure, remove the remaining engine mount hardware and gently move the engine free of the mount
attachments. If the engine binds at any point, investigate the reason and maneuver the engine as necessary until it slips free. Once the engine is moved
clear of the airframe, carefully lower the engine onto
an engine stand and secure it with the appropriate
hardware. [Figure 4-22]
Another method used to remove an engine requires
mounting a hoist and a special sling on the top of
the engine nacelle or pylon. Once mounted, the
hoist is connected to the designated points on the
engine mounts through the access ports in the
pylon. When the engine is secured to the hoist,
slowly remove all slack in the cables until all the
engine weight is supported by the cables. With the
engine weight supported, remove the fastening
hardware, verify that all engine disconnections
have been made, and lower the engine onto an
engine buildup stand and transport truck. Operate
the hoist in a manner that keeps the cables properly
tensioned. [Figure 4-23]

Figure 4-23. Pod-mounted engines such as those on a

Lockheed Jetstar may be removed and lowered onto a
transport truck by a two-cable hoist. The hoist attaches to
the engine mount structure.

When removing a turboprop engine, a conventional

hoist that lifts the engine from the aircraft is typically used. When using this type of hoist, a sling is
usually attached to the engine at prescribed points
and the hoist is then attached to the sling. As a matter of safety, the sling and hoist should be carefully
inspected and deemed safe for use before installing
them on an engine. In addition, make sure that the
hoist has sufficient capacity to lift the engine safely.
Some engine hoisting frames are fitted with power
operated hoists. Power hoists should be used with
caution, since considerable damage can be done by
an inexperienced operator.

ENGINE COMPARTMENT
Anytime an engine is removed from an aircraft the
opportunity exists to thoroughly inspect the engine
compartment and make repairs as necessary. To
begin, you should inspect the engine nacelle for corrosion, cracks, missing rivets, or any other visible
defects. Cracks in the cowling or ducts can be
stop-drilled or patched if they do not exceed limits
specified in the manufacturer's structural repair
manual.
Engine controls should be checked for integrity and
freedom of movement. In addition, cables should be

4-26

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

inspected for broken wire strands while cable pulleys are checked for binding, flat spots, and chipped
edges. Furthermore, pulley bearings can be checked
for excessive play. The anti-friction bearings in the
control rods should move freely and the rods should
be free of deformities. Inspect areas where cables
and rods pass through bulkheads or panels for evidence of chafing and misalignment.
Check the outer surface of all exposed electrical
wiring for breaks, chafing, deteriorated insulation,
or other damage. In addition, inspect crimped and
soldered terminals for security and cleanliness.
Connector plugs must also be checked for damage,
corrosion, and overall condition. Check bonding
straps for fraying, loose attachments, and corrosion
at terminal ends.
Hydraulic and pneumatic tubing should be free
from dents, nicks, and kinks, and all connectors
should be checked for the correct tightness. Check
all air ducts for dents and the condition of the fabric or rubber anti-chafing strips at their joints. Dents
should be worked out, and anti-chafing strips
should be replaced if they have pulled loose or no
longer form a tight seal.
Thoroughly inspect all hoses and replace those
hoses that have been damaged by weather checking
or cold flow. Weather checking is a cracking of the
outside covering of hoses that sometimes penetrates
to the reinforcement webbing. Cold flow, on the
other hand, refers to deep and permanent impressions or cracks caused by hose clamps. Both types of
damage weaken hoses and could eventually cause
leaks to develop.

ENGINE MOUNTS
Before a new or overhauled engine can be
installed on an aircraft, an inspection of the
engine mount structure must be accomplished.
The engine mounts used for turboprop engines
should be checked for bends, dents, flat spots, or
elongated bolt holes. Typically, dye penetrants are
used to help reveal cracks, porous areas, or other
defects. Ferrous parts, such as the engine mount
ing bolts, are usually checked by magnetic particle
inspection.
.. .. : .
The strength and integrity of a turbine engine mount
is as vitally important as a reciprocating engine
mount. The construction of a typical turbofan or turbojet engine mount is much different from those
used with turboprop engines. For example, most

Figure 4-24. (A) Many business jet aircraft have engines

mounted on short thrust struts extending from the sides of
the aft fuselage. The thrust struts support mounting brackets and beams with attachment points for an engine. (B)
Large transport category aircraft with engines mounted on
wing pylons are typically equipped with mounting fixtures
that support the engine at the front and rear.

turbine engine mounts are made of stainless steel

and support the engine from the front and back.
However, because there are several different
engine-airframe combinations and engine mounting
locations, the type and location of engine mount
fixtures varies significantly.
For example, wing mounted engines are typically
suspended on pylons whereas aft-fuselage mounted
engines are attached to the aircraft on thrust struts.
On aircraft such as the Boeing 727, Lockheed L1011,
and the McDonnell-Douglas DC-10 or MD-11 that
have engines mounted in the vertical stabilizer, the
engine mounts are fastened directly to the internal
airframe structure. [Figure 4-24]

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-27

REMOVAL OF ACCESSORIES
In the event that you must remove a turbine engine
that is not part of a QECA, the engine's accessories
must be removed from the engine. Take care to note
the location and attachments of accessories before
removal to expedite buildup of the replacement
powerplant. Hold the accessories aside for re-installation on the replacement engine or for overhaul, as
required. If accessories are to be sent out to be overhauled or placed in storage, preserve them in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. In addition, attach all the required accessory identification
and record cards to each removed component.
After you have removed the accessories, all exposed
drives and ports should be covered. If this is not
done, dirt or other foreign objects could get into the
engine and cause serious damage.

ENGINE OVERHAUL
Most turbine engines are maintained and overhauled
on what is referred to as an on-condition basis. This
means that each part or assembly on the engine is
overhauled on the basis of its own life-limit. The life
limit of a hot section, for example, is different from
the life-limit of an accessory drive gearbox. In other
words, a single life-limit, or TBO, is seldom established for the engine. The on-condition method
replaces the TBO concept of overhauling an engine
after a specified number of operational hours. The
on-condition method of maintenance and overhaul
is made possible by the reliability and modular construction of turbine engines. Modular construction
is a concept that treats an engine as a set of separate
modules assembled together. The inspection, line
maintenance, and overhaul requirements of each
module can be addressed separately. The modular
concept reduces down time and expense for operators because maintenance and overhaul activities are
spread over a longer period of time. In most cases,
replacement of a module is considered to be a minor
repair, requiring no FAA Form 337. On the other
hand, a form 337 is required for the overhaul of an
engine module since it is considered a major repair.
[Figure 4-25]
OVERHAUL PROCEDURES
Turbine engines are overhauled by the manufacturer
or an approved overhaul facility. One reason for this
is that there are several specialized tools required
during the disassembly, inspection, and reassembly
of turbine engines. Since you, as an aircraft maintenance technician, are not permitted to perform an

Figure 4-25. The modular design of some turboprop engines

makes it possible to perform many maintenance tasks
while the engine remains on the aircraft.

overhaul on a turbine engine, the information presented here is provided to give you an overview of
the steps involved in overhauling a typical turbine
engine.
As with any engine overhaul, the specific overhaul
procedures for any given engine are listed in the
maintenance and overhaul manuals written for that
engine. Therefore, the overhaul practices and procedures discussed here are general in nature.
DISASSEMBLY
Turbine engines are disassembled either vertically
or horizontally. When the vertical method is used,
the forward part of the engine is usually mounted in
a fixture facing downward. A small engine may be
mounted on a fixture with castors so it can be rolled
from one work area to another. On the other hand,
large engines are often mounted vertically on a stationary fixture which is surrounded by scaffolding.
Another vertical mounting method for large engines
involves securing the engine to an elevator which
can be lowered into the shop floor. Scaffolds or elevators permit access to any point along the engine's
length. When disassembled horizontally, an engine
is typically mounted in a stand designed to allow
the engine to be turned over for access to all external engine areas.
Once mounted on a disassembly stand, the engine is
dismantled into modules, or main subassemblies.
Each module is then mounted on a separate stand
and moved to an area where it is further disassembled for cleaning, inspection, and overhaul. Large or
heavy modules such as the compressor section and
turbine section are lifted from the mounted engine
by cranes or hoists.

4-28

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

CLEANING

VISUAL INSPECTION

Once disassembled, each engine component is

cleaned so flaws and defects can be more easily
detected. In addition, cleaning is required so that
oxide deposits and dirt can be removed from a serviceable part to prepare it for special applications
such as plating, anodizing, or painting before it is
placed back in service.

Heavy maintenance inspections performed during

overhaul start with a thorough visual examination
after the engine parts have been cleaned. Typically,
an inspection light and magnifying glass are used
for close visual inspections.

All engine components are cleaned using approved

cleaning methods and agents to prevent unintentional damage. For example, some cleaning solutions may strip plating from a part or cause a reaction with a base metal. As another example, you
should refrain from cleaning titanium components
with trichlorethylene. The reason for this is that
entrapped traces of trichlorethylene can cause corrosion. Some commonly used cleaning methods
include washing with organic solvents, vapor
degreasing, steam cleaning, and tumbling in a grit
solution. An effective cleaning method for hot section components consists of a series of controlled
acid or alkali baths and water rinses. Grit blasting
may also be useful on either cold or hot section
components.
BEARINGS

Turbine engine bearings receive special handling

during the cleaning process. This is necessary to
prevent the onset of surface corrosion once a bearing has been removed from an engine. Most turbine
engine overhaul instructions specify that bearings
should be cleaned in an environmentally controlled
room. Because of the close tolerances, even the
slightest damage from corrosion and other sources
is critical. For this reason, turbine engine bearings
should never be left unprotected.
To properly handle bearings, lint-free cotton or
synthetic rubber gloves are used to keep the acids,
oils, and moisture on your hands from contaminating any bearing surface. In addition, each bearing
must be cleaned in a separate container filled with
fresh cleaning solvent. Shop cleaning vats and
vapor degreasing should not be used because of
possible contaminants left from cleaning other
parts.
Once clean, shop air should never be used to
blow a bearing dry since moisture in the air supply can corrode the bearing. It is better to use a
lint-free cloth or let the bearing air dry. Once dry,
immediately lubricate a bearing using the specified lubricant.

Before conducting an actual inspection, it is advisable to review an engine's operation logs for entries
made since the last inspection. Entries of hot starts,
hung starts, oil and fuel pressure fluctuations, and
overspeed or overtemperature incidents provide
clues to what type of defects may be found.
The terms used to describe the types of defects and
damage found in turbine engines are similar to the
terms used to describe damage found in reciprocating engines. However, additional terms are needed
to describe defects and repairs unique to turbine
engines. These additional terms include:
Blending A method of filing compressor or turbine blades and vanes to remove damage and
recon-tour them back to an aerodynamic shape.
Blistering Raised areas indicating a separation
of a surface layer from a base metal. Blistering is
often evident as peeling or flaking of a metal
plating.
Bow A stress-induced bend or curve in a
blade's contour.
Bulge An outward bending or swelling caused
by excessive pressure or weakening due to
excessive heat.
Compression A squeezing force which is produced by two opposing forces acting on a part.
Creep A condition of permanent elongation in
rotating airfoils caused by thermal stress and centrifugal loading.
Dynamic Balancing A procedure which
balances the main rotating assembly of a turbine
engine both in the rotational plane and along the
rotor axis.
Electrolytic Action Breakdown of surfaces
caused by electrical activity between dissimilar
metals. Electrolytic action is also known as galvanic
corrosion.
Flowing The spreading out of a plated or
painted surface caused by poor adhesion to the
base or excessive loading on the part's surface.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Glazing The development of a hard, glossy

surface on bearing surfaces in the presence of oil,
heat, and pressure.
Growth A term used interchangeably with creep
to indicate elongation of a compressor or turbine
blade.
Guttering Deep, concentrated erosion resulting
from enlargement of cracks or repeated exposure to
a concentrated flame.
Profile The contour or aerodynamic shape of a
blade or surface.
Shear A tearing force produced by two
opposing parallel forces acting on a part.
Static Balancing A procedure which balances
the main rotating assembly of a turbine engine to
help reduce vibration.
Tension A force which tends to pull an object
apart.
Untwist A straightening and loss of blade curvature resulting from gas loads, thermal stress, and
centrifugal loading.

4-29

COMPRESSOR SECTION

A turbine engine's fan blades or first stage compressor blades are vulnerable to damage caused by
ingestion of foreign objects and erosion. Therefore,
compressor blades and vanes must be visually
examined to detect cracks, dents, gouges, and other
defects caused by FOD. It is very important that you
be able to detect and correct critical blade defects
because a single blade failure can lead to total
engine failure. [Figure 4-26]
Light or minor foreign object damage can typically
be repaired by blending the affected area away and
then contouring to a final shape. On the other hand,
severe damage or any damage in a blade's root
requires blade replacement.
Blade and vane erosion results from ingestion of
sand, dirt, dust, and other fine airborne contaminants. The abrasive effect of repeated ingestion can
wear through a blade's surface coating and into the
base metal. Slipstreams around the engine core of
modern high bypass engines reduce blade erosion
by directing some of the contaminants around,
rather than through a compressor. However, wing
mounted turbofan engines often have little ground

Figure 4-26. Compressor blades are subject to stress, metal fatigue, and FOD related defects ranging from light scratches and small
dents to dangerous defects such as cracks and deep gouges.

4-30

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

having two or more converging cracks that are progressing from a free edge must be repaired or
replaced to prevent a piece of metal from breaking
free and causing damage elsewhere. Minor cracks in
the baffling around a fuel nozzle support seat
should be repaired if a single crack connects more
than two air holes. In addition, minor cracks in a
liner and around igniter boss pads should also be
repaired. However, cracks in a cone or swirl vane
are cause for rejection of the combustion liner.

Figure 4-27. Blade erosion is accumulative and occurs over

many hours of operation. Erosion shows up as a loss of
material on a blade's leading edge and near a blade's root.

clearance, making them vulnerable to blade erosion

during ground operations. [Figure 4-27]
For a compressor to perform efficiently, the clearance between a compressor blade and the compressor case liner must be as small as possible. However,
accumulative compressor blade creep, or growth
eventually causes the blade tips to rub on the lining.
Severe rubbing can cause galling on compressor
blade tips which reduces blade efficiency and
strength.
COMBUSTION SECTION

The types of defects that are acceptable for a given

combustion section vary among engine models.
Therefore, when inspecting a combustion chamber,
you must follow the manufacturer's instructions.
Typically, a combustion section is examined for the
same types of damage in both line maintenance and
heavy maintenance inspections. However, the
method of inspection often differs. For example,
when inspecting a combustion chamber during line
maintenance, a borescope is required. However,
during an overhaul, the entire combustion section is
disassembled allowing a detailed inspection without a borescope.
Some of the more common defects found during an
inspection include cracks, burner can shift, hot
spots or scorched areas, warpage, and erosion.
Combustion liners should also be checked for
excess weld material or slag around all welded
seams. If the welded material is not thoroughly
fused into the base metal, the weld should be
removed and reapplied. If this is not done, pieces of
excess weld could break loose and damage turbine
components downstream. By the same token, a liner

A malfunctioning fuel nozzle can seriously damage

a combustion liner. Typically, hot spots or scorched
areas on a combustion liner result from flame contact due to a malfunctioning or misaligned fuel nozzle. For example, a partially clogged fuel nozzle
often causes damage known as hot streaking in a
combustion section. Hot streaking typically consists
of burn marks along the length of a combustion section that result from unatomized fuel contacting the
combustion liner and then burning. Severe hot
streaking can result in a flame passing through the
entire turbine section to the tailpipe.
TURBINE SECTION

As you know, the turbine section of an engine is subjected to a great deal of heat and stress. Therefore, it
is common to find damage in the form of cracking,
warping, erosion, and burning. Cracking is probably
the most common type of damage found in a turbine
engine, followed by erosion which is caused by the
flow of gases and the impingement of impurities in
the gases on internal components. To aid in the
inspection of a complete turbine section, it is best to
inspect the turbine nozzle vanes, turbine disk, and
turbine blades separately.
Turbine Nozzle Vanes

If you recall from Chapter 2, the hottest gases in a

turbine engine pass through the first set of turbine
nozzle vanes. Because of this, small cracks are frequently found. Depending on the size and orientation of the cracks, a small amount of cracking may
be acceptable. Since stress is initially relieved by
the development of small cracks, the small amount
of crack progression in non-moving parts is usually
negligible. However, anytime a set of cracks appear
to be converging, the cracked component must be
replaced to prevent major engine damage from
occurring.
In addition to cracking, many operational hours of
intense thermal stress and high-speed gases impacting

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-31

centrifugal loads imposed during each engine cycle.

A turbine engine cycle consists of engine start, operation for a period of time, and shutdown. Each
engine cycle subjects turbine blades to high heat
and high rotational speeds. As a result, every turbine blade becomes slightly longer with each engine
cycle. Although the additional length may be only
millionths of an inch, the accumulative effect produced by numerous engine cycles can eventually
eliminate blade-to-case clearances.

Figure 4-28. Checking a vane for bowing is accomplished by

placing the vane on a flat plate fixture and inserting a thickness gauge under the leading and trailing edge.

a set of vanes can cause bowing and warping. The

amount a given vane is bowed is measured on the
trailing edge of each vane using a flat plate fixture and
thickness gauge. Vanes which are bowed more than
the allowable limits are either replaced or repaired in
accordance with overhaul instructions. Typically,
bowing is greater on the trailing edge than the leading
edge. Therefore, if the trailing edge is within serviceable limits, the leading edge will more than likely be
within limits as well. [Figure 4-28]
Turbine Disk

A turbine disk is typically inspected visually using

a strong inspection light and magnifying glass.
Because of the centrifugal forces a turbine wheel is
subjected to, any cracks found on a turbine disk are
cause for rejection and replacement. However, some
manufacturers do allow continued use of a turbine
disk if slight pitting exists as long as the pitting can
be blended by stoning and polishing.
Turbine Blades

Turbine blades routinely incur damage because of

the extreme environment in which they operate.
Because of the potential for catastrophic engine failure should a turbine blade fail, cracking is not permitted in a turbine blade. Of particular concern during visual inspections are stress rupture cracks on
turbine blade leading and trailing edges. Stress rupture cracks are perceptible as fine hairline cracks
that appear at right angles to the blade length.
Typical causes of stress rupture cracks include
excessive temperatures or centrifugal loading.
Turbine blades are more prone to blade creep than
compressor blades due to the high temperatures and

Blade creep is divided into three stages, or classifications primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary
creep occurs during an engine's first run when new
blades experience operational stresses for the first
time. Secondary creep occurs slowly during many
hours of operation. Engine manufacturers take secondary creep into consideration when establishing
a turbine's service life. Tertiary creep is a third stage
which occurs at an accelerated rate after a period of
secondary creep. The onset of tertiary creep is
attributed to hot starts, overtemperature events,
extended operation at high power settings, and
blade erosion.
Loads imposed by the flow of gases across turbine
blades and vanes can cause them to untwist. When
turbine blades and vanes begin untwisting, the efficiency of the turbine system decreases resulting in
the deterioration of total engine performance. In
order to check blades and vanes for untwist, they
must be removed during engine tear down. Once
removed, they can be measured in special shop fixtures. When a blade is removed for inspection, it
must be reinstalled in the exact slot from which it
came. This is necessary to maintain turbine wheel
balance.
Curling of blade tips is usually acceptable if no
sharp bends exist and the curling is within prescribed limits. Leading edge limits are typically a
one-half square inch area at the tip while trailing
edge limits are much less. Cracking or breaking of a
blade tip commonly results from sharp bends at the
tip and are cause for blade replacement.
EXHAUST SECTION

The exhaust section of a turbine engine is subjected

to the same high stresses and corrosive environment
as the turbine section. Therefore, warping, buckling,
and cracking are common defects found during
inspections. A malfunctioning fuel nozzle or combustion chamber can produce hot spots, or hot
streaking, on the exhaust cone and tailpipe. If you

4-32

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

recall, a fuel nozzle spraying a solid stream of fuel

can produce a flame long enough to burn the
exhaust cone. By the same token, if secondary airflow does not properly control the flame zone, the
combustion flame may be allowed to contact the
exhaust cone or tailpipe. Warping in an exhaust
duct liner generally indicates the occurrence of a
severe overtemperature event.
BEARINGS

Bearing inspections should be completed in the same

environmentally controlled room in which the bearings were cleaned. Handle bearings with lint-free cotton or synthetic rubber gloves during the inspection
process. To properly inspect a bearing, an inspection
must be conducted with the proper lighting and magnification to detect flaws. Bearings tend to become
work-hardened with many hours of operation and, as
a result, become brittle and susceptible to chipping.
In some cases, the only way a bearing may be reused
is if there are no detectable flaws on any part of the
bearing. In other cases, some very minor surface
defects may be accepted. To determine the exact type
and number of defects that are permissible, refer to
the manufacturers specifications.
Once an inspection is complete and a bearing is
deemed to be serviceable, a magnetism check must
be accomplished. Studies show that a bearing can
become magnetized from the effects of rotation at
high speeds, lightening strikes absorbed by an aircraft, and arc welding on the engine if the welding
equipment is improperly grounded. To determine if
a bearing has been magnetized, a magnetic field
detector apparatus is utilized. Any bearing that is
found to be magnetized must be degaussed, or demagnetized. Degaussing is a procedure which
destroys the magnetic field in a magnetized part. To
degauss a part, the part is placed near or passed
through an electromagnetic coil which uses alternating current to create an alternating magnetic
field. When a part is brought into close proximity to
a degausser, the magnetic domains in the part are
forced out of alignment so there is no longer a magnetic field in the part. Once a bearing has been
degaussed and passes the magnetism check, it
should be stored in vapor proof paper until it is
needed for engine reassembly.
MARKING PARTS

A method of identifying areas to be repaired on cold

and hot section components is needed during the
inspection process. This saves time during repair
procedures because a technician can clearly see the
area that needs repair. Approved marking materials

for both cold and hot sections include chalk, special layout dye, and some commercial felt-tip applicators and marking pencils. The use of either wax
or grease marking pencils is also acceptable for
marking parts that are not directly exposed to
extreme heat.
You must be very careful to use only approved
marking materials when marking parts that are
directly exposed to an engine's hot gas path. This
includes turbine blades and disks, turbine vanes,
and combustion chamber liners. Never use a common graphite-lead pencil or any marker which
leaves a carbon, copper, zinc, or lead deposit. These
deposits can be drawn into the metal when heated,
causing intergranular stress. In addition, layout dye,
or dychem, can be potentially dangerous to hot section components if not completely removed. For
these reasons, specific marking procedures and
materials specified by an engine manufacturer take
precedence over general marking practices.
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION
Structural inspections are conducted using nondestructive testing methods such as magnetic particle, fluorescent or dye penetrant, radiography, eddy
current, and ultrasonic. The purpose of a structural
inspection is to detect hidden flaws that are
unde-tectable through visual inspection. For
example, a hairline crack in a hot section
component may only be visible with a fluorescent
or dye penetrant. As another example any defects
that exist below the surface of a component are
detectable only through magnetic particle,
radiography, eddy current, or ultrasonic testing.
As you know, magnetic particle testing can only be
used on ferrous materials. The particles may be
applied in either a dry form or wet in a solvent solution. The dry form works best on cast or forged parts
with rough surfaces. A wet solution with fluorescent particles and an ultraviolet lamp best detects
fine cracks in smooth surfaces.
Dye penetrant test kits are available with red dye or
green dye. Red dye is convenient for daylight use
because the developer may be sprayed from a can
on the tested part. The developer causes penetrant
trapped in a surface defect to turn red. The red mark
or line on the part's surface is then clearly visible.
Green dye kits work best on parts which can be
removed and placed in a drip tray. After cleaning, a
green fluorescent penetrating fluid is sprayed on the
part and allowed to dry. An ultraviolet lamp is then
used in a darkened room to illuminate defects,
which show up as bright yellow-green lines.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-33

Radiography is a testing method which uses X-rays

or Gamma rays to penetrate a part and reveal hidden
flaws. This testing method requires special training
and licensing because it presents a hazard to personnel and requires certain safety precautions.
Defects missed by visual and dye-penetrant methods
are typically detected by radiography. This method
may occasionally be utilized to verify suspected
defects in an area which is not easily accessible.
However, several inherent limitations of this method
limit its usefulness in engine overhaul applications.
Eddy current inspection locates both surface and
subsurface discontinuities in metal parts. The specialized test equipment supplies alternating current
at a specified frequency to a test coil which is held
on the part to be tested. The magnetic field produced by the test coil induces a secondary magnetic
field in the part being tested. The secondary magnetic field causes eddy current flow in the part
which is measured and analyzed electronically.
Discontinuities in a component disrupt the induced
magnetic field and produce an anomaly which is
detected by the test equipment and analyzed.
Ultrasonic testing introduces high frequency sound
waves through a part to detect discontinuities.
There are two types of ultrasonic test equipment
available; the immersion type and the contact type.
Immersion equipment is heavy and stationary
while contact equipment is small and portable.
Both types beam sound waves through a part and
display the response on a CRT for analysis.
Examination of the variations found in a standard
response pattern provides indications of discontinuities and flaws in a part.
DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION
Close tolerances and fits make dimensional inspections of turbine engine parts very important in
determining their serviceability. For example, correct clearances between compressor and turbine
blades and the engine housing is crucial to engine
efficiency. Blade tip clearances are usually measured with a thickness gauge. Additional components that must be dimensionally checked during
an overhaul are listed by manufacturers for each
engine model in the overhaul manual. When specified, special tools provided by the engine manufacturer must be used to obtain accurate readings.
[Figure 4-29]

REPAIRS
The decision to repair or replace a turbine engine
component is based on many factors. For example,

Figure 4-29. A thickness gauge is typically used to check

clearances between turbine blades and the shroud unless a
special tool is required by the manufacturer.

mandatory replacement may be specified for certain

parts in the overhaul manual instructions. On the
other hand, some parts may be inspected for serviceability and repaired or replaced as necessary. If
repairs can restore serviceability to a defective part,
the remaining service life projections must be considered. Furthermore, repairs that must be built up
or welded to serviceable limits typically require
specialized equipment and facilities.
One popular technique used to build up a component and restore it to its original dimensions is
plasma coating. The plasma coating process has
proven to be a valuable means of extending the service life of blades and vanes and reducing overhaul
costs. Plasma coating involves spraying an atomized
metallic material onto the base metal of a part at a
high velocity and at a high heat. For example, to
build up a compressor blade, the blade is sprayed
with ionized argon gas heated to 50,000traveling
at speeds over 2,200 feet per second. Metallic powder is then introduced into the gas stream, causing a
coat of molten metallic particles to bond to the airfoil. The process is controlled to produce multiple
coatings as thin as 0.00025 inch each. Each coating
becomes thoroughly fused to the base metal to provide excellent adhesion characteristics. Once the
coating process is complete, the blade or vane airfoil
can be ground to new part dimensions.
Another application of this process is referred to as
ceramic coating and is used to coat compressor
parts for corrosion protection. In addition, the
ceramic coating produces a smooth surface that
reduces air friction and surface drag, improving a
compressor's
performance.
Some
experimental

4-34

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

processes are now used to apply ceramic materials

on many of an engine's hot section components
including combustors, turbine nozzle diaphragms,
turbine disks, turbine blades, and vanes.
In addition to the various types of coating processes
used to build up engine components to serviceable
limits, there are several welding methods that are
used to make engine repairs. One such type of welding is called electron beam welding. Electron beam
welding is a relatively new technique that is used to
make repairs to compressor airfoils constructed
from titanium alloys. When done properly, electron
beam welding is as strong or stronger than a new
blade or vane, making it possible to rework some
compressor airfoils that would otherwise be
rejected.
The primary difference between electron beam
welding and other conventional welding techniques
is that electron beam welding produces a narrower
bead. This is possible because the welding process
is done in a vacuum chamber which allows better
control over the oxygen level. Heat is concentrated
in a smaller area using this method, which subsequently reduces the stress on the base metal at the
weld. As a result, this method of repair can often be
used when damage to an airfoil exceeds blending or
contouring repair limits. An insert of new material
can be welded into place and then ground to the airfoil's original shape. As with most welding procedures, heat-treatment procedures are normally used
to relieve stress in the area of the weld.

COMPRESSOR SECTION

crocus cloth to restore the original finish. Usually,

repaired blades must be inspected by magnetic particle or dye penetrant methods to verify that all
damage has been removed. Repaired areas are often
marked with a felt tip dye marker to help maintenance personnel identify reworked areas during
future inspections.
The amount of damage that is permissible on engine
fan blades, inlet guide vanes, and compressor
blades typically varies from engine to engine.
Therefore, it is important that the manufacturer's
repair instructions be referred to before any repair is
made. As a general rule, nicks, dents, erosion, and
scoring on the face of a fan blade require no repair
as long as the damage does not exceed 0.030 inch.
The area where the deepest damage is permitted is
on a fan blade's leading edge above a mid-span
shroud. Damage in this area can typically extend
into a blade up to 0.060 inch. The areas where no
damage is permitted include the fillet areas at a
blade's base and where a shroud meets the blade
face. [Figure 4-30]
The amount of damage that is permissible on hollow inlet guide vanes is typically much less than the
damage allowed on compressor fan blades. The reason for this is that inlet guide vanes are typically
hollow and the vane walls are constructed of thin
material. Based on this, blending out damage may
result in inadvertently penetrating a vane wall if too
much material is removed. Furthermore, attempting
to repair an inlet guide vane by straightening, brazing, welding, or soldering is usually not permitted.

One of the most common repairs made to a compressor section is the removal of foreign object damage from blades and vanes by blending. Blending, as
you recall, is a method of repairing damaged blades
and vanes by removing metal with hand tools to
smooth out all rough edges and restore an aerodynamic shape. Blending should be performed parallel to the length of a blade using smooth contours to
minimize stress points. Common files, emery or crocus cloth, and Carborundum stones are commonly
used in blend repairs. Use of power tools is not permitted when blending because of the increased possibility of creating a heat stress buildup or inflicting
accidental damage to adjacent areas.

As a general rule, any sharp, V-shaped dent or any

cracking and tearing of a guide vane requires vane
replacement. However, small, shallow dents can typically be left unrepaired if they are rounded, have a
gradual contour, and fall within the manufacturer's
specifications. In addition, trailing edge damage of an
inlet guide vane may be blended if one-third of the
weld seam remains after a repair is made. Guide
vanes that are rubber filled can -usually be reused if
some cracking exists as long as the cracks extend
inward from the outer airfoil and do not appear to be
converging. In addition, there can be no indication of
pieces breaking away. [Figure 4-31]

A typical blend repair has a length to depth ratio of

approximately 4 to 1 and is completed in several
steps. First, the damaged area is scalloped by filing
enough material away to create a saddle or dished
out shape. Next, a stone or finish file is used to
smooth out score marks and radius the edges of the
repair. Last, the repair is polished with emery or

Typically, minor damage on the outer half of an

axial-flow compressor blade is repairable if the
repaired area can be kept within the manufacturer's
limits. However, some manufacturers may allow
damage to be left unrepaired if the damage meets
certain criteria. For example, if light damage to the

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-35

Figure 4-30. Light damage on a fan blade which falls within permissible damage limits can be left unrepaired. On the other hand,
no damage is permitted in fillet areas and cracks require replacement of a fan blade.

Figure 4-31. If an inlet guide vane becomes damaged and the damage does not penetrate the outer shell of the vane, the damage
can be blended and contoured.

4-36

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Figure 4-32. Compressor blade repairable limits and blended repairs are based on blade width, length, and chord dimensions.
Typically, most leading and trailing edge damage as well as tip damage may be repaired provided that , after the damage is
removed, the minimum chord and height are maintained.

leading or trailing edge of a compressor blade is visible from either side of a blade, confined to the outer
half of the blade, well-rounded, and within acceptable limits, the damage may be left unrepaired. On
the other hand, damage on the inner half of a blade
is critical. Minor damage must be repaired or the
blade must be replaced, depending on the severity
of the damage and the manufacturer's requirements.
Cracks of any size on compressor blades are unacceptable and require replacement of the blade.
[Figure 4-32]

Welding is the most widely used method for repairing cracks in combustion liners that are outside of
acceptable limits but within repairable limits. The
exact type of welding process used on a particular
liner depends on the material used to build the
liner. Typically, combustion liners are constructed
of stainless steel and can be repaired using either
inert gas or electron beam welding. However, once a
component has been welded, it must be heat-treated
to relieve any stress buildup caused by the welding
process.

COMBUSTION SECTION

TURBINE SECTION

Various methods are used to restore combustion

section components. For example, cracked components can typically be welded while some worn
components can be restored using a ceramic coating
process that builds up component thickness.
However, most of the repair processes used on combustion components require the use of specialized
equipment that is generally found only at certified
repair stations.

The amount of damage that is permitted in a turbine

section varies from one manufacturer to another.
Therefore, it is imperative that you refer to the manufacturer's instructions when tying to determine if a
specific type of damage is acceptable. As a general
guideline, a maximum of three nicks, dents, or pits
are permitted on the front and rear face of a turbine
blade. However, only one nick, dent, or pit is permitted within a quarter inch of a fillet. Other areas

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-37

Figure 4-33. A Both the chart and the first figure indicate the location and type of damage that is generally repairable on a turbine blade. However, if any crack or rippling on a trailing edge exists, blade replacement is required. B As a general rule, anytime you make a repair to a turbine blade, the width of the repair should be approximately eight times the depth.

where some minor damage may be permissible

include the leading and trailing edges. However, the
amount of damage that is serviceable is typically
limited. [Figure 4-33]
Another type of damage that is common to turbine
blades is erosion. One method used to repair erosion is to weld a new piece of blade into place
using electron beam welding techniques. Once a
new piece is welded, the blade is ground to the
appropriate shape and heat treated to relieve any
stress concentrations produced during the welding
process. Another technique used to repair erosion
is plasma coating. With this process, atomized
metallic material is sprayed onto the eroded section of a turbine blade in multiple coats. Once the

coating process is complete, a blade is ground to its

original shape.
Additional turbine components that often require
repair during an overhaul are the turbine nozzle
vanes. Typical damage that can be repaired on turbine nozzle vanes include nicks, dents, scratches,
bowing, and cracking. Most nicks, dents, and
scratches are repaired using simple blending and
contouring techniques that help relieve stress concentrations and maintain a smooth airflow. If a turbine nozzle vane is bowed, it can usually be
repaired by straightening. However, the material
used to build some nozzle vanes cannot withstand
the straightening process. In situations where
straightening is not a permissible repair, the bowed

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-38

Figure 4-34. To repair a badly damaged turbine nozzle vane,

the damaged area is removed and a new piece of material
is welded in its place.

area can be cut away and a new piece of blade material can be welded in place. Once welded in place,
the vane is ground to the proper shape and
heat-treated for stress relief. [Figure 4-34]
Since turbine nozzle vanes do not rotate, they are
not subject to the extreme stresses turbine blades
must withstand. Therefore, minor cracking is permissible in most nozzle vanes. However, there are
several factors that determine whether a crack or
multiple cracks are permissible. To determine the
exact criteria for permissible cracking, you must
refer to the specific manufacturers overhaul manual. [Figure 4-35]
EXHAUST SECTION

Damage in an exhaust section that can typically be

repaired includes minor warping, buckling, and
cracking. Warping and buckling are generally
repaired by straightening whereas cracks are typically welded. Additional repairs that can be accomplished by welding include filling small holes with
weld metal and replacing larger areas of damage by
welding a new piece of metal in position. Typically
gas or electron beam welding techniques are used to
repair engine exhaust sections constructed of stainless steel.
BALANCING
Approved repair procedures to a turbine engine are
designed to maintain the strength and balance with
which an engine was originally engineered. This is
crucial because of the high rotational speeds at
which turbine engines operate. If the main rotating
assembly of a turbine engine is not balanced, severe
vibration can occur. To help ensure that proper balance is maintained, both compressor and turbine

Figure 4-35. This figure illustrates some basic criteria for

determining whether a crack or multiple cracks are acceptable in a turbine nozzle vane. However, to determine the
exact criteria you must refer to the manufacturer's maintenance manuals.

blade replacement must be done in a specific way.

For example, typically an engine manufacturer
places restrictions on the number of blades that can
be replaced in a given stage and on a single rotor
before the rotor must be re-balanced.

4-40

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

time is needed to ensure proper fit and tightening of

hardware. In addition, it is absolutely crucial that
the specified hardware tightening sequences are
observed during reassembly to prevent incorrect
torque settings. A turbine engine has many circular
bolt-ring sets and special torquing procedures are
often stipulated by the engine manufacturer. In
addition, all modules, or sections, must be checked
for airworthiness certification and appropriate
paperwork prior to reassembly.
A typical overhaul manual specifies parts which
must be replaced regardless of condition when
reassembling an engine. Some examples of parts
which are ordinarily replaced during an overhaul
include all bearings, seals, gaskets, O-rings,
lock-wire, lockwashers, tablocks, and cotter pins.
ENGINE TESTING
The final step in the overhaul process is to test the
engine. Engine performance is evaluated in a test
cell during block testing by specialized test equipment and standard engine instruments. Operational
test procedures vary with individual engines, however, the failure of any internal part during an
engine run-in requires return of the engine for
tear-down and repair. If failure of an engine
accessory occurs, a new accessory is installed and
the block test continues. Following successful
completion of block test requirements, engines not
slated for immediate installation and operation on
an aircraft should receive a corrosion prevention
treatment and be placed in storage.

ENGINE INSTALLATION
After an engine has been repaired, overhauled, or
replaced, it must be prepared for installation. With
a repaired or overhauled engine, preparation typically entails returning the engine to the configuration it was in immediately after it was removed.
However, if the engine being installed is shipped
new from the factory, additional assembly is typically required. For example, if an engine was preserved in storage, de-preservation procedures are
usually outlined in the overhaul manual provided
by the engine manufacturer.
MOUNTING THE ENGINE
Before you mount an engine on an aircraft, make
sure you have the appropriate hardware nearby and
inspect the engine mount structure and shock
mounts for integrity. When using an engine dolly to
install an engine, observe the precautions and
instructions listed on the dolly's ground handling

instruction placards. With the dolly in position,

carefully raise the engine up to the engine mount
attach fittings. As the engine is raised, carefully
check all engine to nacelle clearances to avoid
pinching or kinking any hoses or lines. After aligning the rear engine mount with the mating mount
attachment fittings on the aircraft, install the engine
mount bolts and tighten to the specified torque.
When using a hoist and sling to install a turbine
engine, maneuver the replacement engine into position beneath the nacelle and attach the sling to the
engine. Then, carefully operate the hoist cables
simultaneously to raise the engine in a level position. With the engine suspended from the hoist, utilize as many people as necessary to safely maneuver
the engine into position on the aircraft. To help prevent injuring personnel or damaging the aircraft or
engine, ease the engine into position slowly, checking to be certain the engine clears all obstacles.
Position the engine so that the engine mounting lugs
line up with the mounting points on the engine
mount and exhaust tailpipe. Because engines are so
heavy, they possess a great deal of inertia when
swinging from the hoist. Therefore, exercise caution
to avoid damaging the nacelle framework, ducts, or
firewall connections.
Once the engine is correctly aligned, insert the
mounting bolts and secure them with the appropriate nuts. Once secure, torque the engine mounting
nuts to the manufacturer's recommended value. The
applicable manufacturer's instructions outline the
sequence for tightening the mounting bolts to
ensure security. While the nuts are being tightened,
the hoist should support the engine weight sufficiently to allow proper mounting bolt alignment. If
this is not done, the weight of the engine on the
mounting bolts could make it impossible to tighten
the nuts to the proper torque. In other words,
improper alignment could result in false torque
readings as the nuts pull the engine into the proper
position. Once the nuts are properly torqued, they
should be safetied according to the manufacturer's
specifications.
CONNECTIONS AND ADJUSTMENTS
After an engine is mounted, the air conditioning
duct can be connected between the pylon and
engine bleed air duct. Tighten the duct connections
to the proper torque and remove the dolly or hoist
and sling from the engine. With the engine hoist
removed, the electrical leads and fluid lines necessary for operation should be connected to the engine
and accessories. Typically, there are no rules that
govern the order in which the accessories should be

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-41

connected. However, you should always follow the

manufacturer's instructions to ensure an efficient
installation.

cal leads within the engine nacelle from chafing,

all wiring must be anchored as necessary to provide a secure installation

Hoses used with low pressure systems are generally

attached and held in place with clamps. However,
before installing these clamps, examine them carefully and replace any that are badly distorted or
defective. After a hose is installed, it must be adequately supported and routed away from engine or
airframe parts that could cause damage. Usually,
rubber lined supporting clamps called Adel clamps
are installed at specified intervals to provide the
protection and support needed.

Each aircraft model has an engine control system

specifically designed for a particular
airframe/engine combination. Typical engine controls consist of rigid push-pull rods, flexible
push-pull wire encased in a coiled wire sheath,
cables and pulleys, or any combination of the three. .
Regardless of type, all engine controls must be accurately adjusted to ensure instantaneous response to
a control input. Therefore, all adjustments must be
made in accordance with the procedures outlined in
the manufacturer's instructions.

Before installing metal tubing with threaded fittings, make sure that the threads are clean and in
good condition. If specified in the instructions,
apply a thread sealing compound to the fitting
before installation. Exercise care to prevent
crossthreading any fittings and to ensure correct
torque. Remember, over torquing a fitting increases
the likelihood of leaks and failures.
When connecting electrical leads to an accessory,
make sure that all connections are clean and
secure. When leads are secured on a threaded terminal post with a nut, a lock washer is usually
inserted under the nut to prevent the nut from
backing off. When required, knurled connector
plugs are secured with steel safety wire to prevent
accidental disconnection. To help prevent electri-

Before you actually rig an engine's fuel and power

controls, you should inspect all bellcranks for looseness, cracks, or corrosion and examine rod ends for
damaged threads. Once a control is rigged, check for
the correct number of visible threads after final
adjustment. In addition, examine cable drums for
wear and cable guards for proper position and tension.
The power lever control cables and push-pull rods
in the airframe between the cockpit and engine
pylon are not usually disturbed during an engine
change, so they sometimes require no rigging.
However, the portion of the engine control system
from the pylon to the engine must be re-rigged after
each engine or fuel control change. [Figure 4-37]

Figure 4-37. The control system components in the airframe generally remain undisturbed during an engine change. However, the
controls in the engine pylon must always be re-rigged.

4-42

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

Before adjusting the power controls at the engine, be

sure that the power lever is free from binding and
the controls have full-throw at the console. If they
do not have full-throw or are binding, their path
through the airframe should be checked and discrepancies repaired. A properly adjusted engine
control must have a degree of cushion, or
spring-back, at its fully open and fully closed
positions. In other words, the stops for the power
and condition levers on a fuel control must be
reached before the power or condition controls
reach their stop in the cockpit. The presence of a
cushion ensures that the power and fuel valves are
opening and closing fully. Without the cushion, it
would be difficult to determine whether a power or
condition valve is fully opened or closed from
inside the cockpit. On multi-engine aircraft, power
controls must have equal amounts of cushion so
the control levers align in any selected power
setting. This reduces the likelihood of having to set
each control individually to synchronize engine
operations.
After completing the engine installation and adjustments on a turboprop engine, the propeller can be
installed. When installing a constant-speed
pro-

peller, you must obtain the proper gaskets or O-rings

prior to installation. Large propellers require the use
of an appropriate sling and hoist arrangement due to
their size and weight. Never attempt to lift a propeller into place with inadequate personnel or
equipment. In addition, you should always follow
the manufacturer's recommended installation procedure.
ENGINE ALIGNMENT
After a new or replacement turbine engine is
installed in a helicopter, it is very important to check
the alignment of the engine to the transmission. This
must be done to avoid placing excessive stress on
the main input shaft couplings. Alignment is normally accomplished by shimming the mount legs
between the fuselage and the engine mount. This
procedure may not be required if the engine mounts
are not disturbed during an engine change. However,
if the engine mounts are changed, or the drive shaft
shows excessive wear, alignment checks should be
accomplished. Some maintenance shop operators
check the alignment at every engine installation for
an added margin of safety. [Figure 4-38]

Figure 4-38. To check engine-to-transmission alignment, a beam assembly is typically mounted to an engine drive pad. A piece of
safety wire is then strung from the beam assembly to a plate on the transmission. The wire passes through a target hole in a
bracket attached to the beam assembly. When the wire is taut, it should pass through the target hole without touching the side
of the hole. If it touches, the mounts should be shimmed until the correct alignment is obtained.

Turbine Engine Operation, Inspection, Maintenance, and Overhaul

4-43

ENGINE TRIMMING
Engine trimming refers to a process whereby an
engine's fuel control unit is adjusted to allow an
engine to produce its maximum rated thrust.
Trimming is normally performed after an engine or
fuel control unit is changed or whenever an engine
does not produce its maximum thrust.
Manual trimming procedures vary widely between
engine models; therefore, before you attempt to
trim an engine, you should take time to review the
specific procedures in the engine's maintenance
manual. A typical trimming procedure requires you
to install calibrated instruments for reading turbine
discharge pressure or EPR. In addition, a calibrated
tachometer must be installed to read N 2 rpm. Once
the instrumentation is installed, the aircraft should
be pointed into the wind. However, if the velocity
of the wind blowing into the intake is too great, elevated compression and turbine discharge pressures
will result which, ultimately, will produce a low
trim setting. Another step in the trimming procedure is to measure the barometric pressure at the
engine inlet and the ambient temperature. This is
required to correct performance readings to standard sea-level conditions. To obtain a temperature
reading, it is common practice to hang a thermometer in the shade of the nose wheel well. The
ideal conditions for trimming a turbine engine are
no wind, low humidity, and standard temperature
and pressure.
Once you have calculated the maximum power output for the engine you are trimming, start the engine
and let it idle as specified in the maintenance manual. This is necessary so the engine has time to stabilize. To ensure an accurate trim setting, all engine
bleed air must be turned off. Bleeding air off the
compressor has the same effect as decreasing the
compressor's efficiency. Therefore, if a trim adjustment is made with the bleeds on, an inaccurate, or
overtrimmed condition will result.
With the engine running at idle and maximum
power, observe the turbine discharge or EPR readings to determine how much trimming is necessary.
If trimming of either the idle or maximum settings
are necessary, it is typically accomplished by turn-

Figure 4-39. A typical turbine engine fuel control unit is

equipped with adjustment screws for trimming the engine.
Trimming procedures allow you to adjust both idle rpm and
maximum rated thrust.

ing a screw type adjustment on the fuel control unit.

[Figure 4-39]

ENGINE PRESERVATION
Engines that are going to be put in storage or transported to an overhaul facility must be preserved and
protected to prevent corrosion and other forms of
damage. Regardless of whether an engine is waiting
to be overhauled or is newly overhauled, damaging
rust and other forms of corrosion will occur unless
the engine is protected. Preservation is also recommended when an engine remains on the aircraft if
engine operation is limited or suspended for an
extended period of time. For example, to protect an
engine's fuel system, fuel lines are typically filled
with a corrosion preventative oil and all openings
are sealed. To protect an engine as a whole, most are
sealed in a bag or container with quantities of a
des-iccant. The desiccant absorbs the moisture
within the sealed enclosure thereby preventing the
onset of corrosion.

INDUCTION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
The induction system is designed to supply air to the engine so that, when fuel is added, combustion can take
place. On reciprocating engines, outside air passes through an air intake and is then routed to a carburetor or other
fuel metering device. Once fuel is added, the fuel/air mixture is delivered into an intake manifold where it is
ducted to the cylinders for combustion. In a turbine engine induction system, large quantities of air are ducted
through an inlet into a compressor. Once through the compressor, the resulting high pressure airmass is diffused,
mixed with fuel, and ignited in a combustion chamber to produce thrust. Due to the large quantities of air
consumed by a turbine engine, the induction system plays a very large role in the level of efficiency that the
engine is able to attain.

RECIPROCATING ENGINES

The primary purpose of an induction system in a

reciprocating engine is to provide air in sufficient
quantity to support normal combustion.
Reciprocating engine induction systems can be
broadly classified as normally aspirated, supercharged, and turbocharged.

aircraft engine. Dust consists of small particles of

hard, abrasive material that can be carried into the
engine cylinders by the induction air. Dust particles
can cause accelerated wear on cylinder walls and
piston rings, silicon fouling of spark plugs, and contaminate the oil. Once in the oil, the particles are
carried throughout the engine, causing further wear
on bearings and gears. In extreme cases, dust accumulation can clog an oil passage and cause oil starvation. Dust may also collect in a fuel metering
device and upset its ability to provide the proper
mixture ratio at all power settings.

NORMALLY ASPIRATED SYSTEMS

Filter Maintenance

A typical induction system on a normally aspirated

engine consists of four major components, or sections: an air intake, an induction air filter, a fuel
delivery system, and an induction manifold.
Additional subsystems such as an alternate air
source, an ice removal or prevention system, and a
temperature indicating system are typically
included to support the operation of the four primary components.

The efficiency of any filtration system depends

upon proper maintenance and service. Periodic
removal, cleaning, or replacement of filter elements
is essential to ensure proper engine performance.
Many early air filters were constructed from screen
wire that was filled with a reusable fiber material
known as flock. To maintain such a filter, clean and
service it by washing it in safety solvent. Once
clean, soak the filter element in a mixture of engine
oil and preservative oil. After all the fibers are thoroughly saturated, suspend the filter and allow to
excess oil to drain.

AIR INTAKES
An air intake, sometimes referred to as an air scoop,
is designed to direct outside air into a carburetor or
other fuel metering device. The intake is generally
located to take advantage of ram air pressure as
much as possible. Therefore, the intake opening is
usually found in the propeller slipstream because of
the extra velocity the propeller imparts to the
airstream. By taking advantage of ram air pressure,
the pressure within the intake is typically higher
than any other point in a normally aspirated induction system. Because of this pressure rise, a well
designed intake scoop can have a substantial effect
on an engine's power output.
AIR FILTERING

For an engine to provide reliable operation and a

long service life, the induction air must be free of
foreign material. To accomplish this, filters are typically installed in air intake ducts to prevent dust,
sand, abrasive materials, or other contaminants
from entering the engine.
While dust may only be a minor irritant to the
human body, it is a serious source of trouble for an

Newer types of air filters include paper filters similar to the ones used in automobiles. As air passes
through the porous paper filter element, dust and
sand particles become trapped on the filter surface.
Some manufacturers approve a method of cleaning
paper filters by blowing the dust out in the opposite
direction to the normal airflow. Some paper filters
may be washed in a mild soap and water solution
and allowed to dry. However, when servicing this
type of filter be sure to follow the manufacturer's
recommendations or restrictions.
The most effective filter available today is a
polyurethane foam filter impregnated with a glycol
solution. The glycol solution makes the filter sticky
so dust and dirt stick to the element. To service this
type of filter, the foam element is removed and dis-

Induction Systems

carded and a new one is installed. It is not recommended that these filters be cleaned.
FUEL DELIVERY SYSTEM
The fuel delivery system on a normally aspirated
engine can be either a carburetor or a fuel injection system. The purpose of a fuel delivery system is to meter
the amount of fuel and air that is delivered to the cylinders. A complete discussion as to how the fuel and air
are metered is covered in Section B of Chapter 7.

INTAKE MANIFOLD
An intake manifold typically consists of ducting that
goes from the fuel metering device to the individual
cylinders. On a typical horizontally opposed engine,
the intake manifold is the connecting point of all the
individual pipes which deliver air or fuel/air mixture to the cylinders. One end of each cylinder's
intake pipe is typically bolted to the cylinder intake
port on each cylinder while the other end is attached
to the manifold with a short section of synthetic rubber hose or rubber packing and packing nut. Both of
these methods permit some movement between the
intake pipes and manifold as the cylinders expand
and contract. In some installations, the intake manifold goes through the oil sump before it branches out
to go to each cylinder. This increases the temperature of the fuel/air mixture which, in turn, promotes
better fuel vaporization.
In large radial engines, even distribution of the
fuel/air mixture is difficult to achieve. Therefore, to
help ensure equal distribution, some radial engines
utilize a distribution impeller which is attached
directly to the rear of the crankshaft. As the fuel/air
mixture goes into the center of the distribution
impeller, centrifugal force distributes the mixture to
the cylinders. Since the impeller is attached directly
to the crankshaft, it operates at the same speed and
does not boost the pressure within the manifold.
One very important characteristic of an intake manifold is that it must maintain a gastight seal. If a seal
is not maintained, air will leak into the intake manifold and lean out the mixture. This, in turn, will
cause an engine to run rough. Small induction leaks
are most noticeable at idle because the pressure differential between the manifold and atmosphere is
greatest at low rpm.

INDUCTION SYSTEM ICING

Induction system icing occurs when water freezes
in an induction system and restricts airflow to the

5-3

engine. When this happens, an engine may run

rough, lose power, or even quit in flight. Complaints
of poor engine performance in flight that cannot be
verified on a post-flight ground check could indicate that induction system icing occurred while in
flight. When ice accumulation causes poor engine
performance, the problem and the cause disappear
once the ice melts. That is why it is very important
to understand how induction icing forms, what the
indications of it are, and the ways in which it can be
prevented or removed.
Induction ice can form when an aircraft is flying
through clouds, fog, rain, sleet, snow, or even in
clear air when the relative humidity is high.
Induction icing is generally classified as one of
three types: fuel evaporation, throttle, and impact.
FUEL EVAPORATION ICE
Fuel evaporation ice, sometimes referred to as carburetor ice, is a result of the temperature drop that
occurs when fuel is vaporized. In a carburetor, as
fuel is released into the airstream, it turns into a
vapor and absorbs heat from the surrounding air.
This can cause a drop in air temperature of 30or
more. In some cases, this loss of heat is enough to
cause the moisture in the air to condense and freeze.
Because of this phenomenon, a carburetor typically
accumulates ice before any other part of an aircraft
in flight. In fact, carburetor ice can occur at ambient
air temperatures up to 70 and when relative
humidity is as low as 50 percent. Optimum conditions for carburetor ice exist when the outside air
temperature is between 30 and 40 and the relative humidity is above 60 percent.
In a fuel injection system, fuel is injected and vaporized at or near the intake port of each cylinder. In
this case, the heat of combustion offsets the temperature drop caused by fuel vaporization. Therefore,
fuel evaporation icing is typically not a concern in
fuel injected engines.
THROTTLE ICE
Throttle ice is formed on the rear side of the throttle, or butterfly valve when it is in a partially closed
position. The reason for this is that, as air flows
across and around the throttle valve, a low pressure
area is created on the downstream side. This has a
cooling effect on the fuel/air mixture which can
cause moisture to accumulate and freeze on the
backside of the butterfly valve. Since throttle icing
typically occurs when the butterfly valve is partially

5-4

closed, a small amount of ice can cause a relatively

large reduction in airflow and a corresponding loss
of engine power. In severe cases, a large accumulation of ice can jam the throttle and render it immovable. Since the temperature drop created by the low
pressure area is not that great, throttle ice seldom
occurs at temperatures above 38.
IMPACT ICE
Impact ice is caused by visible moisture striking an
aircraft and then freezing. Therefore, the air intake
and air filter are the areas of an induction system
that are most susceptible to impact icing. However,
impact ice can also collect at points in an induction
system where the airflow changes direction, or
where dents and protrusions exist. Whenever an
induction system encounters impact icing, air flow
to the remaining system is restricted. Severe cases of
impact icing can cause a total blockage to airflow
and complete engine failure.
ICE DETECTION AND REMOVAL
Since the accumulation of ice in an induction system restricts the amount of air that can enter an
engine, the first indication of icing is a decrease in
engine power output. On an aircraft equipped with
a fixed-pitch propeller,
the
decrease
in
engine

Induction Systems

power is indicated by a drop in rpm followed by

engine roughness. However, if an aircraft has a constant-speed propeller, the first indication of induction ice is a decrease in manifold pressure with no
change in engine rpm.
To prevent degradation of engine performance or
engine failure brought about by induction icing, a
means of preventing or removing ice is necessary.
The most commonly used method of preventing and
eliminating carburetor ice is to duct warm air into
the carburetor. This type of ice removal system is
known as a carburetor heat system. With this type
of system, unfiltered air is drawn from within the
engine cowling through a sheet metal shroud that
surrounds an exhaust pipe. The shroud is commonly called a heater muff and functions as an
air-to-air heat exchanger that warms the intake air
and then directs it to a carburetor air box. [Figure
5-1]
With a carburetor heat system, carburetor heat is
applied at the first sign of carburetor icing. Once
applied, and if ice did exist, engine output will
increase. On engines with a fixed-pitch propeller,
an increase in power output is indicated by an
increase in rpm shortly after carburetor heat is
applied. However, engines equipped with a constant-speed propeller, increased power output is
indicated by an increase in manifold pressure.

Figure 5-1. (A) When the carburetor heat control is placed in the cold position, filtered ram air entering the main air scoop is
ducted to the carburetor while heated air is ducted overboard. (B) In the hot position, the air door is repositioned to route hot,
unfiltered air into the carburetor.

Induction Systems

Although carburetor heat is extremely effective at

eliminating carburetor ice, improper or careless use
can cause damage to an engine. For example, since
carburetor heat air is unfiltered, excessive use
increases the chance of dirt and foreign material entering the engine. Because of this, the carburetor heat
should always be in the "cold" position when the aircraft is on the ground. This is especially true when
operating in sandy or dusty locations. As another precaution, the carburetor heat control should be left in
the "cold" position when starting an engine. If placed
in the "hot" position, damage to the carburetor heat air
box could result if the engine backfires.

5-5

air door may be controlled automatically or manually

from the cockpit. [Figure 5-2]
TEMPERATURE INDICATING SYSTEM
To help inform a pilot when the temperature at the
carburetor can support the formation of ice, some
aircraft are fitted with a carburetor air temperature
gauge, or CAT gauge. With this type of system, carburetor air temperature is measured at the carburetor entrance by a temperature sensing bulb in the
ram air intake duct. The sensing bulb senses the air
temperature in the carburetor and then sends a sig-

Another thing you need to be aware of is that warm

air is less dense than cold air. Therefore, when carburetor heat is applied, the fuel/air mixture
becomes richer. In addition, the weight of the
fuel/air charge is reduced which, in turn, causes a
noticeable loss in power due to decreased volumetric efficiency. And finally, high intake air temperatures resulting from the use of carburetor heat can
lead to detonation, especially during takeoff and
high power operations.
Based on the information just presented, anytime an
engine fails to develop full power, a possible factor
is inadvertent application of carburetor heat or a
carburetor heat control that is misrigged. Therefore,
when troubleshooting an engine that is not developing full power, you should verify the position of
the carburetor heat control and rigging before you
assume some other component is at fault.
Another type of system that is used to eliminate
induction ice sprays a deicing fluid into the air
stream ahead of the carburetor. With this type of
system, alcohol is commonly used as a deicing
fluid. A typical system includes an alcohol reservoir, an electric pump, a spray nozzle, and cockpit
controls.
Although the use of heated air and deicing fluid is
effective at removing both carburetor and throttle ice,
there is little that can be done to remove impact ice
when it blocks an air intake. In this case, an alternate
air supply must be provided. On carbureted engines,
an alternate air supply is provided by a carburetor air
box which can draw air from the main intake or from
inside the cowling. However, since fuel injected
engines do not use a carburetor air box, an alternate
air door must be installed. When opened, an alternate air door allows warm, unfiltered air flow into
the induction system. The operation of an alternate

Figure 5-2. (A) Under normal conditions, the induction

system installed on a fuel injected engine ducts filtered air
into the fuel injection unit. (B) However, if the filter or
intake should become clogged with ice or other debris, a
spring-loaded alternate air door will open and allow unfiltered air from inside the cowling to enter the induction
system.

5-6

Induction Systems

tem with the addition of a supercharger between the

fuel metering device and intake manifold. A supercharger is typically driven by an engine's crankshaft
through a gear train at one speed, two speeds, or
variable speeds. In addition, superchargers can have
one or more stages. One stage represents an increase
in pressure. Superchargers are generally classified
as either single stage, two stage, and multi stage
depending on the number of times compression
occurs.
SINGLE STAGE, SINGLE SPEED
SUPERCHARGER

Figure 5-3. The carburetor air temperature gauge depicted

above indicates that the danger of induction system icing
exists when the temperature is between -15to + 5.

nal to a cockpit instrument that is calibrated in

degrees Centigrade. [Figure 5-3]
In addition to identifying the conditions necessary
for the formation of ice, excessively high carburetor
air temperatures can indicate the onset of detonation. For example, if a CAT gauge has a red line
identifying a maximum operating temperature,
engine operation above that temperature increases
the chance of detonation occurring.

An early version of a single stage, single speed

supercharger is known as a sea level supercharger,
or ground boost blower. With this type of supercharger, a single gear-driven impeller is used to
increase the power produced by an engine at all altitudes. The drawback, however, is that with this type
of supercharger, engine power output still decreases
with an increase in altitude in the same way that it
does with a normally aspirated engine. [Figure 5-4]
Single stage, single speed superchargers are found
on many radial engines and use an air intake that
faces forward so the induction system can take full
advantage of the ram air. Intake air passes through
ducts to a carburetor where fuel is metered in proportion to the airflow. The fuel/air charge is then

SUPERCHARGED INDUCTION
SYSTEMS
As you know, the higher an airplane climbs, the less
oxygen is available to the engine for combustion.
Therefore, as a reciprocating engine powered aircraft climbs, the power output of the engine
decreases. To help prevent this loss of engine
power, more oxygen must be forced into an engine.
One method of getting more air into an engine is
with a supercharger. A supercharger is basically an
engine driven air pump that increases manifold
pressure and forces the fuel/air mixture into the
cylinders. The higher the manifold pressure, the
more dense the fuel/air mixture and the more power
an engine can produce. A typical supercharger is
capable of boosting manifold pressure above 30
inches while producing a volumetric efficiency in
excess of 100 percent.
The components in a supercharged induction system are similar to those in a normally aspirated sys-

Figure 5-4. The lower curve illustrates how the power output of a normally aspirated engine declines as altitude
increases. The upper curve illustrates how a
ground-boosted engine has a higher power output at all
altitudes but still decreases as altitude increases.

Induction System

5-7

may be operated at two speeds. At the low speed,

the impeller gear ratio is approximately 8:1; however, at the high speed, the impeller gear ratio is
stepped up to 11:1. The low impeller speed is often
referred to as the low blower setting while the high
impeller speed is called the high blower setting. On
engines equipped with a low speed supercharger,
the activation of a lever or switch in the cockpit activates an oil operated clutch that switches from one
speed to the other.

Figure 5-5. This simplified figure traces the path of induction air from the intake to the cylinders in a single stage,
single speed supercharger induction system.

Under normal operations, takeoff is made with the

supercharger in the low blower position. In this
mode, the engine performs as a ground boosted
engine and the power output decreases as the aircraft gains altitude. However, once the aircraft
reaches a specified altitude, a power reduction is
made, and the supercharger control is switched to
the high blower position. The throttle is then reset
to the desired manifold pressure. An engine
equipped with this type of supercharger is called an
altitude engine. [Figure 5-6]

TURBOCHARGER SYSTEMS
ducted to the supercharger, or blower impeller
which accelerates the fuel/air mixture outward in
the same manner as a centrifugal compressor used
on a turbine engine. Once accelerated, the fuel/air
mixture passes through a diffuser, where air velocity is traded for pressure energy. Once compressed,
the resulting high pressure fuel/air charge is
directed to the cylinders. [Figure 5-5]

A drawback of gear driven superchargers is that they

use a large amount of the engine's power output for
the
amount
of power
increase
they

The gear ratio of a typical single stage impeller gear

train varies from approximately 6:1 to 12:1. Based
on this, the impeller speed on an engine equipped
with a 10:1 impeller gear ratio operating at 2,600
rpm would be 26,000 rpm. This high speed rotation
requires that an impeller be forged out of a high
grade aluminum alloy.
On all supercharged engines, the manifold pressure
gauge sense line is installed after the supercharger
so the pressure of the fuel/air mixture is known
before it enters the cylinders. By knowing the pressure of the mixture before it enters the cylinders, a
more accurate indication of engine performance is
provided.
SINGLE STAGE, TWO SPEED
SUPERCHARGER
Some of the large radial engines used through World
War II used a single stage, two speed supercharger.
With this type of supercharger, a single impeller

produce.
Figure 5-6. On engines equipped with a two speed supercharger, when the low blower speed is selected, the
engine's brake horsepower is boosted above that of a normally aspirated engine. However, power output still
decreases as the aircraft climbs. To help compensate for
this, the high blower setting can be selected once the aircraft reaches a higher altitude.

5-8

Induction Systems

bocharger recovers energy from hot exhaust gases

that would otherwise be lost.
Another advantage of turbochargers is that they can
be controlled to maintain an engine's rated sea-level
horsepower from sea-level up to the engine's critical
altitude. Critical altitude is defined as the maximum altitude under standard atmospheric conditions that a turbocharged engine can produce its
rated horsepower. In other words, when a turbocharged engine reaches it critical altitude, power
output begins to decrease like a normally aspirated
engine. [Figure 5-7]

Figure 5-7. With a turbocharged engine, the turbocharger

allows an engine to produce its rated sea-level horsepower
up to the engine's critical altitude. Once above the critical
altitude, the engine's power output decreases similar to
that of a normally aspirated engine.

This problem is avoided with a turbosupercharger,

or turbocharger, because turbochargers are powered
by an engine's exhaust gases. In other words, a tur-

The components in a turbocharged induction system are similar to those in a normally aspirated system with the addition of a turbocharger and its associated controls. The turbocharger itself is located
between the air intake and the fuel metering device.
As an example, on a popular single-engine aircraft,
air enters a filtered air intake located on the nose of
the aircraft, below the propeller. From here, the air
is ducted to the turbocharger at the rear of the
engine. The turbocharger compresses the intake air
and then sends the air to the air metering section of
the fuel metering device. Once metered, the air is
routed through the intake manifold to the cylinder
intake ports where it is mixed with a metered
amount of fuel. [Figure 5-8]

Figure 5-8. Pictured above is what a typical turbocharger induction system looks like installed in a light aircraft.

5-9

Induction Systems

A typical turbocharger consists of a single rotating

shaft with a centrifugal compressor impeller
mounted on one end and a small radial turbine
mounted on the other end. Both the impeller and
turbine are surrounded by individual housings that
are joined by a common bearing housing. The bearing housing contains two aluminum bearings that
support the center shaft. In this configuration, as
exhaust gases spin the turbine, the impeller draws
in air and compresses it. [Figure 5-9]
In addition to the friction caused by high rotation
speeds, turbochargers are heated by the exhaust
gases flowing through the turbine, and the compression of intake air. Therefore, a continuous flow of
engine oil must be pumped through the bearing
housing to cool and lubricate the bearings.
Approximately four to five gallons of oil per minute
are pumped through a typical turbocharger bearing
housing to lubricate the bearings and take away heat.
The turbine inlet temperature may get as high as
l,600, and the large flow of oil is needed to keep
the bearings within a safe operating temperature.
Once the engine oil passes through the bearings, it
flows out a large opening in the bottom of the bearing housing and back to the engine oil sump. Some
turbochargers may utilize an additional oil scavenge
pump to ensure reliable oil flow from the turbocharger back to the engine oil sump.

bocharged engines use an intercooler. An

inter-cooler is a small heat exchanger that uses
outside air to cool the hot compressed air before it
enters the fuel metering device.

TURBOCHARGER CONTROL
SYSTEMS
If all the exhaust gases were allowed to pass through
the turbine of a turbocharger, excessive manifold
pressures, or overboosting would result. On the
other hand, if the amount of exhaust gases allowed
to flow to a turbocharger were limited, the turbocharger would be excessively limited at higher
altitudes. Therefore, turbochargers are designed to
allow control over the amount of exhaust gases
which pass through the turbocharger's turbine.
To control the amount of exhaust gases that flow past
a turbocharger turbine, a valve known as a waste
gate is used. When a waste gate is fully open, all of
the exhaust gases bypass the turbocharger and pass
out the exhaust stack. However, when a waste gate is
fully closed, all of the exhaust gases are routed
through the turbine before they exit through the
exhaust. The position of a waste gate can be adjusted
either manually or automatically. [Figure 5-10]

Since the temperature of a gas rises when it is compressed, turbocharging causes the temperature of
the induction air to increase. To reduce this temperature and lower the risk of detonation, many tur-

Figure 5-9. A turbocharger consists of a compressor

impeller and turbine mounted on a single rotating shaft.
Both the impeller and turbine are surrounded by separate
housings that are joined by a common bearing housing.

Figure 5-10. A waste gate is used to direct the exhaust

gases to a turbocharger. When the waste gate is fully open,
all the exhaust gases bypass the turbocharger. However,
when the waste gate is fully closed, all the exhaust gases
are routed through the turbocharger.

5-70

Induction Systems

MANUAL CONTROL SYSTEMS

One of the simplest forms of turbocharger control
uses a manual linkage between the engine throttle
valve and the waste gate valve. For takeoff at low
density altitudes, the throttle is advanced until the
engine develops full takeoff power as indicated on
the manifold pressure gauge. At this point, the
waste gate will be fully or nearly fully open. As the
aircraft gains altitude, engine power decreases
requiring the pilot to advance the throttle forward a
little to partially close the waste gate. As the waste
gate is gradually closed, the manifold pressure
increases proportionally and the engine produces
its rated horsepower. This process is continued as
the aircraft climbs to its critical altitude. Once at its
critical altitude, the throttle will be advanced all the
way forward and the waste gate will be fully closed.
A second type of manual control system allows you
to set the position of the waste gate using a control
in the cockpit. With this type of system, the engine
is started with the waste gate in the fully open position. Then, just prior to takeoff, the throttle is
advanced full forward and the waste gate is slowly
closed using the cockpit control until full engine
power is developed. Once the aircraft takes off and
begins climbing, the pilot must monitor the engine
performance and close the waste gate as necessary
to maintain the desired power output.
The final type of manual waste gate controller utilizes an adjustable restrictor in the exhaust section
that bypasses the turbocharger. The amount the
restrictor is threaded in or out of the exhaust pipe
determines the amount of exhaust gas that is forced
to flow through the turbocharger. With this type of
system, no adjustments to the restrictor can be made
from the cabin. [Figure 5-11]
On aircraft equipped with this type of control system, the waste gate restrictor is adjusted so the
engine develops its rated horsepower under standard conditions with a wide open throttle. By doing
this, the maximum obtainable manifold pressure
decreases as the aircraft gains altitude and the
induction system is protected from being
over-boosted. To provide additional protection
against an overboost when temperatures and
pressures are below standard, a pressure relief
valve is typically installed in this type of system. In
this case, when manifold pressure rises to within
approximately one inch of its rated pressure, the
relief valve begins to off-seat. This way, by the time
maximum manifold pressure is reached, the
pressure relief valve is open enough to bleed off
excess pressure.

Figure 5-11. On turbocharging systems equipped with an

adjustable waste gate restrictor, the amount the restrictor
is threaded in or out determines how much of the exhaust
bypasses the turbocharger.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

As the name implies, an automatic turbocharger
control system automatically positions the waste
gate so the engine maintains the power output level
selected. To do this, these systems use a combination of several components including a waste gate
actuator, an absolute pressure controller, a
pressure-ratio controller, and a rate-of-change
controller.
WASTE GATE ACTUATOR

The waste gate in an automatic control system is

positioned by a waste gate actuator. With a waste
gate actuator, the waste gate is held open by spring
pressure and is closed by oil pressure acting on a
piston. Oil pressure is supplied to the actuator from
the engine's oil system.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE CONTROLLER

On Teledyne-Continental engines, the waste gate

actuator is controlled by an absolute pressure controller, or APC. An APC consists of a bellows and a
variable restrictor valve. The bellows senses the
absolute pressure of the air before it enters the fuel
metering device. This pressure is commonly
referred to as upper deck pressure. As the bellows

Induction Systems

5-11

flow back to the engine. Since oil is supplied to the

waste gate actuator through a restricted opening, oil
flows out of the actuator faster than it flows in. This
permits the oil pressure within the actuator to
decrease rapidly and allow spring force to open the
waste gate until the two forces balance.
In this type of system, when the throttle is advanced
to obtain takeoff power, the increased flow of exhaust
gases through the turbocharger causes an increase in
upper deck and manifold pressure. When the upper
deck pressure increases to approximately one inch
above the desired manifold pressure, the APC bellows contracts and causes the restrictor to open partially and drain oil back into the engine sump. The
reason the APC is set to open approximately one inch
above the maximum manifold pressure is to account
for the pressure drop across the throttle body. As
some of the exhaust gases bypass the turbocharger,
the turbine speed decreases enough to hold the
desired manifold pressure.
Figure 5-12. The automatic control system used with several turbocharged Teledyne-Continental engines uses a
waste gate actuator that is controlled by an absolute pressure controller.

expands and contracts, it moves the variable

restrictor valve to control the amount of oil that
flows out of the waste gate actuator. [Figure 5-12]
With this automatic control system, oil flows into
the waste gate actuator through a capillary tube
restrictor. Once the actuator chamber fills, the oil
flows out of the actuator to the absolute pressure
controller and then back to the engine. The rate at
which the oil flows through the APC and back to the
engine is determined by the position of the variable
restrictor valve.
When the engine is not running, no oil pressure
exists and the spring pressure inside the waste gate
actuator holds the waste gate in the fully open, or
bypass position. In addition, the upper deck pressure is low so the bellows holds the variable restrictor valve closed. Once the engine is started, engine
oil flows into the waste gate actuator cylinder and
the APC. Since the restrictor valve in the APC is
closed, oil pressure will build in the system until it
can partially overcome the spring pressure in the
waste gate actuator. As oil pressure builds, the
waste gate begins to close and direct some of the
exhaust to the turbocharger. This process continues
until the upper deck pressure builds enough to compress the APC bellows and open the restrictor valve.
Once the restrictor valve opens, oil is allowed to

As the aircraft climbs, the air becomes less dense

and the upper deck pressure starts to decrease. The
APC senses the decrease and closes the variable
restrictor valve enough to slow the oil flow from the
waste gate actuator. This increases the oil pressure
within the actuator which repositions the waste gate
to direct more exhaust gases through the turbocharger.
As the aircraft continues to ascend, the waste gate
valve continues to close in response to decreases in
upper deck pressure. Once the engine's critical altitude is reached, the waste gate will be fully closed
and all the exhaust gases will flow through the turbocharger. If the aircraft climbs above this altitude,
manifold pressure will decrease.
A variation of the absolute pressure controller is the
variable absolute pressure controller, or VAPC. A

VAPC functions similarly to an APC with a bellows

controlling the position of a restrictor valve.
However, with a VAPC, the position of the restrictor
valve seat is controlled by a cam that is actuated by
the throttle control.
PRESSURE-RATIO CONTROLLER

Some engines are restricted to a maximum altitude

at which they are allowed to maintain their maximum rated manifold pressure. On engines that are
limited in this way, a secondary control device
known as a pressure-ratio controller is installed in
parallel with the absolute pressure controller. The

Induction Systems

5-72

purpose of a pressure-ratio controller is to monitor

both the ambient and upper deck pressures and prevent the turbocharger from boosting the upper deck
pressure higher than 2.2 times the ambient pressure.
[Figure 5-13]
To explain how a pressure-ratio controller works,
assume an aircraft is equipped with a turbocharging
system that has a manifold pressure limit of 36
inches of mercury at 16,000 feet. As the airplane
takes off and begins climbing, the absolute pressure
controller slowly closes the waste gate so the manifold pressure remains at 36 inches. As the aircraft
approaches 16,000 feet, the waste gate will be fully
or nearly fully closed to maintain the 36 inches of
manifold pressure. The atmospheric pressure at
16,000 feet is approximately 16.22 inches of mercury; therefore, at 16,000 feet, the pressure-ratio
controller begins to unseat because the upper deck
pressure (37 inches) will exceed 2.2 times the ambient pressure (16.22 x 2.2 = 35.68 inches). If the aircraft continues to climb to 18,000 feet where the
ambient pressure is approximately 14.95 in. Hg., the
pressure-ratio controller will unseat as necessary to
maintain an upper deck pressure of 32.89 inches
(14.95 X 2.2 = 32.89).

A typical pressure-ratio controller consists of a bellows that positions a variable restrictor valve. One
side of the bellows senses upper deck pressure
while the opposite side is exposed to the ambient
pressure within the cowl. When the upper deck
pressure exceeds 2.2 times the ambient pressure,
the bellows expands enough to open the restrictor
valve and bleeds off some of the waste gate actuator oil.
As a backup to the pressure-ratio controller, most
turbocharger systems incorporate a pressure relief
valve. A typical pressure relief valve consists of a
spring loaded pop-up valve that is mounted to the
upper deck near the compressor output. In most
cases, the relief valve remains seated until the upper
deck pressure exceeds its maximum rated pressure
by 1 to 1.5 inches.
RATE-OF-CHANGE CONTROLLER

In addition to an absolute pressure controller, a

pressure ratio controller, and a pressure relief valve,
many automatic turbocharger control systems uti
lize a rate-of-change controller. A rate-of-change
controller is installed in parallel with the absolute
pressure controller and pressure-ratio controller,
and prevents the upper deck pressure from increas
ing too rapidly. Under normal conditions, the rateof-change controller remains seated; however, if the
throttle is advanced too abruptly and the upper
deck pressure rises too rapidly, the rate-of-change
controller unseats and allows waste gate actuator oil
to flow back to the engine. In most cases, a rate-ofchange controller is set between 2.0 and 6.5 inches
per second.
.
SEA LEVEL BOOSTED ENGINES

Some turbocharger systems are designed to maintain sea level engine performance from sea level up
to their critical altitude. In other words, the turbocharger maintains sea level manifold pressure
and does not boost manifold pressure above that
level. Engines that are equipped with this type of
turbocharger system are referred to as sea level
boosted engines.

Figure 5-13. On turbocharging systems that are restricted

to a maximum differential between manifold and ambient
pressures, a pressure ratio controller is installed in parallel
with the absolute pressure controller in the oil line between
the waste gate actuator and the engine sump.

The turbocharger system in all sea level boosted

engines is controlled automatically. However, the
components used in this type of system differ from
those used in other automatic control systems. The
three units that permit automatic control include an
exhaust bypass valve assembly, a density controller,
and a differential pressure controller.

Induction Systems

The exhaust bypass valve assembly functions in a

manner similar to the waste gate actuator previously
discussed. Engine oil pressure acts on a piston
which is connected to the waste gate valve through
a mechanical linkage. Increased oil pressure on the
piston moves the waste gate valve toward the closed
position to direct exhaust gases through the turbocharger. Conversely, when the oil pressure is
decreased, spring tension moves the waste gate
valve toward the open position to allow the exhaust
gases to bypass the turbocharger. The amount of oil
pressure acting on the exhaust bypass valve assembly is controlled by the density controller and differential pressure controller. [Figure 5-14]
The density controller regulates the bleed oil flow
from the exhaust bypass valve assembly only during
full throttle operation. To do this, a density controller utilizes a nitrogen filled bellows that senses
the density of the upper deck air. The bellows is
contained in a rigid housing that extends into the
upper deck airstream. This way, if the density of the
air is not equal to that needed to produce full engine
power, the density controller can adjust the oil pressure acting on the exhaust bypass valve assembly so
more exhaust is directed to the turbocharger.
To regulate the oil pressure within the exhaust
bypass valve assembly, the bellows in a density controller positions a metering valve to bleed off the
appropriate amount of oil. Therefore, if the density
of the upper deck air is too low to produce full

5-13

power, the bellows in the density controller will

expand and position the metering valve to stop the
flow of oil back to the engine. On the other hand, if
upper deck air density is too high, the bellows will
contract and position the metering valve to permit
oil flow back to the engine.
When a sea level boosted engine is operated at less
than full throttle, the differential pressure controller
regulates turbocharger output. A differential pressure controller consists of a diaphragm that controls
the position of an oil metering valve. One side of the
diaphragm is exposed to upper deck pressure while
the other side is exposed to manifold pressure. In
this configuration, the differential pressure controller monitors the pressure differential, or drop,
across the throttle body. A typical differential pressure controller is set to allow between a 2 to 4 inch
pressure drop across the throttle body. If this differential is exceeded, the diaphragm positions the
metering valve to allow oil to bleed from the exhaust
bypass valve assembly thereby reducing the degree
of turbocharging. On the other hand, if the pressure
differential decreases below the preset valve, the
diaphragm will position the metering valve to stop
the flow of oil out of the exhaust bypass valve assembly. This will force the waste gate closed and
increase the degree of turbocharging.
In addition to controlling the degree of turbocharging during part throttle operations, the differential
pressure controller reduces the duration of a condi-

Figure 5-14. A sea level boosted turbocharger system maintains an engine's sea level performance up to the engine's critical altitude. To do this, the turbocharging system utilizes an exhaust bypass valve assembly, a density controller, and a differential pressure controller.

5-74

tion known as bootstrapping. Bootstrapping

describes a condition that occurs when a
tur-bocharger system senses small changes in
temperature or rpm and continually changes the
tur-bocharger output in an attempt to establish
equilibrium. Bootstrapping typically occurs during
part-throttle operation and is characterized by a
continual drift or transient increase in manifold
pressure.
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
When operating a turbocharged engine, there are
some additional considerations you should be
aware of. For example, as a general rule, turbocharged engines are more sensitive to throttle
movements then normally aspirated engines, therefore, when operating a turbocharged engine, you
should avoid rapid throttle movements. If throttle
movements are not controlled, engine or
tur-bocharger damage could result. For example,
advancing the throttle too rapidly could cause the
turbocharger to overboost the induction system. If
severe enough, an overboost could damage the
intake manifold or even the pistons and cylinders.
Rapid throttle movements can also cause what is
know as an overshoot. In this case, the turbocharger
controllers can not keep up with the throttle movement and the manifold pressure overshoots the
desired value requiring the operator to retard the
throttle as appropriate. Although not as serious as
an overboost, an overshoot can increase the operator's workload. To avoid an overshoot, it is best to
make gradual throttle movements that allow the
tur-bocharging system to find a new equilibrium.

Induction Systems

bocharger air passes through a sonic venturi, it is

accelerated to transonic speed to produce a shock
wave. Once formed, the shock wave slows the
remaining airflow in the venturi thereby limiting
the amount of air entering the cabin. [Figure 5-15]

TURBOCOMPOUND SYSTEMS
A turbocompound engine is a reciprocating engine
in 'which exhaust driven turbines are coupled to the
engine crankshaft. This system of obtaining additional power is sometimes called a power recovery
turbine system, or PRT. It is not a supercharging
system, and it is not connected in any manner to the
air induction system of the aircraft. Instead, a PRT
system enables an engine to recover energy from the
velocity of the exhaust gases that would otherwise
be lost as the gases are ducted overboard.
Depending on the type of engine, the amount of
horsepower recovered varies with the amount of
input horsepower. A typical PRT in a large radial
engine has three turbines that can recover up to 390
horsepower from the exhaust gases.
On engines that have a power recovery turbine, an
exhaust collector nozzle directs the exhaust gases
onto a turbine wheel. As the turbine spins, a turbine
wheel shaft transmits the recovered power to the
engine crankshaft through gears and a fluid coupling. The fluid coupling is necessary to prevent
torsional vibration from being transmitted to the
crankshaft. [Figure 5-16]

ADDITIONAL TURBOCHARGER
USES
In addition to compressing intake air to improve
engine performance, turbocharger systems are also
used to perform several other tasks. For example,
upper deck pressure is used as a reference to regulate the operation of fuel discharge nozzles, fuel
pumps, and fuel flow gauges. Furthermore, turbocharger discharge air can be used for cabin
pres-surization. However, in this case, the amount
of air entering the cabin must be limited. To do this,
the turbocharger air that is going to be used for
pressur-ization must pass through a sonic venturi.
As tur-

Figure 5-16. On engines equipped with a power recovery

turbine, the engine's exhaust gases are directed by a series
of turbine wheels that transmit rotational energy back to
the crankshaft.

Induction Systems

5-15

Figure 5-15. The turbocharger system utilized in many general aviation aircraft supplies not only induction air, but also serves as a
reference pressure. The fuel discharge nozzles, fuel pump, and fuel flow gauge all use upper deck pressure as a reference pressure
to perform fuel metering functions properly. In addition, on many aircraft, the turbocharger provides air for cabin pressurization.

TURBINE ENGINES
flies, the more air piles up, and the higher the inlet
air pressure rises above ambient.

Beyond the basic function of supplying air for

combustion, turbine engine induction systems are
very different from the induction systems used on
reciprocating engines. One reason for this is that
turbine engines consume much more air than
reciprocating engines and generally operate at faster
airspeeds. In addition, intake air enters a turbine
engine much sooner than on a reciprocating engine
eliminating the need for intricate ducting.
Typically, the air inlet duct on a turbine engine is
considered to be an airframe component rather than
part of the engine. However, since the supply of air
is essential to the operation of a turbine engine, it is
important that you, as an aviation maintenance
technician, be familiar with some basic inlet duct
principles.

TURBOJET AND
TURBOFAN INLETS
A gas turbine engine consumes between six and ten
times as much air per hour as a reciprocating engine
of the equivalent size. Therefore, the air inlet of a
turbine engine must be correspondingly larger. In
addition, to help ensure optimum performance, the
air inlet duct on a turbojet or turbofan engine must
furnish a relatively distortion free, high energy supply of air to the compressor. If this is not done,
improper combustion, excessive turbine temperatures, or a compressor stall can occur. In fact, given
the speeds at which turbine aircraft travel, even a
small inefficiency in an air inlet duct will result in
a large decrease in engine performance.
The air inlet to a turbine engine has several functions, one of which is to recover as much of the total
pressure of the free airstream as possible and deliver
this pressure to the compressor. This is known as
ram recovery or pressure recovery. In addition to
recovering and maintaining the pressure of the free
airstream, many inlets are shaped to raise the air
pressure above atmospheric pressure. This ram
effect results from forward movement which causes
air to "pile up" in the inlet. The faster the aircraft

Another function of the air inlet is to provide a

uniform supply of air to the compressor so the
compressor can operate efficiently. To do this, the
inlet duct must cause as little drag as possible. It
takes only a small obstruction to the airflow inside
a duct to cause a severe loss of efficiency. If an inlet
duct is to deliver its full volume of air with a minimum of turbulence, it must be maintained as close
to its original condition as possible. Therefore, any
repairs to an inlet duct must retain the duct's
smooth aerodynamic shape. Poor workmanship
resulting in protruding rivet heads or inferior sheet
metal repairs can destroy the efficiency of an
otherwise acceptable duct installation. To help
prevent damage or corrosion to an inlet duct, an
inlet cover should be installed any time the
engine is not operating.
Many air inlet ducts have been designed to
accommodate new airframe/engine combinations
and variations in engine mounting locations. In
addition, air inlets are designed to meet certain
criteria for operation at different airspeeds.
However, in order to maintain an even airflow and
minimize pressure losses caused by friction, all
inlet ducts must be designed with a sufficiently
straight section. Some of the most common
locations where engine inlets are mounted are on
the engine, in the wing, and on the fuselage.
The inlet ducts used on modern turbojet and
turbo-fan aircraft are typically mounted in one of
several locations, depending on engine location. For
example, engines mounted on wing or fuselage
pylons utilize an air inlet duct that is directly in
front of the compressor and is mounted to the
engine. This allows for the shortest possible inlet
duct with a minimum of pressure loss. [Figure
5-17]
Some aircraft with engines mounted inside the
wings feature air inlet ducts in the wing's leading
edge. Aircraft such as the Aerospatiale Caravelle,

5-17

Induction Systems

Figure 5-17. A Boeing 757 is designed with wing mounted

engines that utilize engine mounted inlet ducts that are
directly in front of the compressor.

Figure 5-19. The single-entrance inlet duct takes full advantage of ram effect much like engine-mounted air inlets.
Although the aircraft is aerodynamically clean, the length of
the duct makes it slightly less efficient than
engine-mounted types.

de Havilland Comet, and de Havilland Vampire all

utilize
wing-mounted
inlets.
Typically,
wing-mounted inlets are positioned near the wing
root area. [Figure 5-18]

disadvantage to this arrangement is that some sudden flight maneuvers can cause an imbalance in ram
air pressure between the two intakes. The air pressure imbalance felt on the compressor face results in
a slight loss of power.

Engines mounted inside a fuselage typically use air

inlet ducts located near the front of the fuselage. For
example, many early military aircraft were designed
with an air inlet duct in the nose of the fuselage. In
addition, some modern supersonic military aircraft
have inlet ducts located just under the aircraft nose.
Although using an air inlet of this type allows the
aircraft manufacturer to build a more aerodynamic
aircraft, the increased length of the inlet does
introduce some inefficiencies. [Figure 5-19]
Some military aircraft use air inlet ducts mounted
on the sides of the fuselage. This arrangement works
well for both single and twin engine aircraft. By
mounting an intake on each side of an aircraft, the
duct length can be shortened without adding a
significant amount of drag to the aircraft. However,
a

Figure 5-18. The Hawker-Siddeley 801 "Nimrod" was developed from the de Havilland Comet airframe and utilizes
wing mounted air inlets that are aerodynamically shaped to
reduce drag.

SUBSONIC INLETS
A typical subsonic air inlet consists of a fixed
geometry duct whose diameter progressively
increases from front to back. This divergent shape
works like a diffuser in that as the intake air passes
through the duct it spreads out. As the air spreads
out, its velocity decreases and its pressure
increases. In most cases, subsonic inlets are
designed to diffuse the air in the front portion of
the duct. This allows the air to progress at a fairly
constant pressure before it enters the engine.
[Figure 5-20]

Figure ,5-20. Subsonic turbine engine inlets use a divergent

profile that diffuses incoming air. At cruise airspeeds, the
divergent shape causes air velocity to decrease and static
air pressure to increase.

Induction Systems

5-18

A turbofan inlet is similar in design to a turbojet

inlet except that the inlet discharges only a portion
of its air into the engine. The remainder of inlet air
passing through the fan flows around, or bypasses,
the engine core to create thrust much in the same
way a propeller does. In addition, the bypass air
helps cool the engine and reduce noise.
A turbofan engine utilizes one of two types of inlet
duct designs. One type is the short duct design that
allows a large percentage of fan air to bypass the
engine core and produce thrust. This type of duct is
typically used on high bypass engines. The other
duct design forms a shroud around the engine core
and is used on low and medium bypass engines.
Full fan ducts reduce aerodynamic drag and noise
emissions. In addition, a full duct generally has a
converging discharge nozzle that produces reactive
thrust. Full ducts are not used on high bypass
engines because the weight penalty caused by such
a large diameter duct would offset the benefits.
[Figure 5-21]
RAM EFFECT

In addition to the pressure rise created by the divergent shape of an inlet duct, turbine engines realize
an additional pressure rise from ram effect. Ram
effect results from forward movement which causes
air to "pile up," or compress in an inlet. The faster
an aircraft flies, the more the air compresses, and
the higher the inlet air pressure rises above ambient.
The resulting pressure rise causes an increase in
mass airflow and jet velocity which, in turn,
increase engine thrust.
Without ram effect, the compressor must pull air in
through the inlet. The more air that is drawn in, the
faster the air must flow through the inlet. If you
recall, anytime air is accelerated, its pressure
decreases. Therefore, an aircraft inlet, while
stationary, introduces air into the compressor below
ambient pressure.
Once an aircraft begins moving forward, ram effect
starts to increase the air pressure in the inlet. At airspeeds of Mach 0.1 to 0.2, the airmass piles up sufficiently for air pressure to recover from the venturi
effect and return to ambient pressure. As airspeed
increases, ram effect becomes more pronounced and
air pressure at the compressor inlet rises above
ambient.
The increase in air pressure produced by an inlet
duct and ram effect contributes significantly to
engine efficiency once the aircraft reaches its design

Figure 5-21. (A) A high-bypass turbofan engine uses a

short duct that allows a large portion of the incoming air to
bypass the engine. (B) On the other hand, some low and
medium bypass engines use long inlet ducts that reduce
surface drag of the fan discharge air and enhance thrust.

cruising speed. At this speed, the compressor

reaches its optimum aerodynamic efficiency and
produces the most compression for the best fuel
economy. It is at this design cruise speed that the
inlet, compressor, combustor, turbine, and exhaust
duct are designed to match each other as a unit. If
any section mismatches any other because of damage, contamination, or ambient conditions, engine
performance suffers.
SUPERSONIC INLETS
Air entering the compressor on a turbine engine
must flow slower than the speed of sound.
Therefore, the inlet duct on a supersonic aircraft
must decrease the speed of the inlet air before it
reaches the compressor. To understand how a supersonic inlet does this, you must first understand how
supersonic airflow reacts to converging and diverging openings.
AIRFLOW PRINCIPLES

Air flowing at subsonic speeds is considered to be

incompressible while air flowing at supersonic
speeds is compressible. Because of this, air flowing
at supersonic speeds reacts differently when forced
to flow through either a convergent or divergent

Induction Systems

5-19

Figure 5-22. When air traveling at supersonic speeds flows through a convergent duct, its velocity decreases while its pressure
increases. On the other hand, when air traveling at supersonic speeds flows through a divergent duct, its velocity increases and
its pressure decreases.

opening. For example, when supersonic airflow is

forced through a convergent duct, it compresses, or
piles up, and its density increases. This causes a
decrease in air velocity and a corresponding
increase in pressure. On the other hand, when
supersonic airflow passes through a divergent duct,
it expands and its density decreases. As it expands,
its velocity increases and its pressure decreases.
[Figure 5-22]
In addition to understanding the velocity and pressure changes that occur with supersonic airflow,
you should recall from your earlier studies that,
whenever something travels through the air at the
speed of sound, a shock wave forms. Once formed,
any air flowing through the shock wave slows to a
subsonic speed and increases in pressure.

its velocity is well below sonic speed and its pressure has increased. [Figure 5-23]
An engine inlet duct on a supersonic aircraft must
perform efficiently at subsonic, transonic, and
supersonic speeds. Since the optimum inlet shape
changes for each range of airspeeds, a typical supersonic aircraft utilizes an inlet duct with variable
geometric construction. Several methods are used to
vary the geometry, or shape of an inlet duct. One
method uses a movable wedge that is retracted during slow speed flight. However, as the aircraft accelerates to supersonic speeds, the wedge is extended

INLET DESIGN

To slow the inlet air to a subsonic velocity, all

supersonic aircraft utilize convergent-divergent, or
CD inlet ducts. With a CD duct, the diameter of the
duct progressively decreases, then increases from
front to back. When supersonic air enters the convergent portion of the duct, its velocity decreases
until the narrowest part of the inlet is reached. At
this point, the air has slowed to the speed of sound
and a shock wave forms. As the air passes through
the shock wave it enters the divergent portion of the
inlet where velocity continues to decrease and pressure increases. Once the air reaches the compressor,

Figure 5-23. With a convergent-divergent inlet duct, the

convergent section slows the incoming air velocity to Mach
1.0 at its narrowest point and forms a shock wave. The
divergent section then reduces the air velocity further while
increasing air pressure.

5-20

Induction Systems

Figure 5-24. Some supersonic aircraft utilize a variable

geometry inlet that maintains efficient airflow at subsonic,
transonic, and supersonic speeds. At subsonic speeds, the
wedge is retracted to take full advantage of ram effect.
Once the aircraft reaches supersonic speeds, the wedge is
extended to produce a convergent-divergent shape.

into the inlet airstream to produce

convergent-divergent shape. [Figure 5-24]

In addition to the movable wedge, this type of inlet

duct incorporates a dump valve and spill valve.
During subsonic flight, the dump valve is opened into
the airstream to allow more air into the diverging
portion of the inlet. At the same time, the spill valve
is open to help prevent turbulence. During
supersonic flight, both the dump and spill valve are
opened to allow excess airflow to vent to the
atmosphere.

Figure 5-25. One method of varying the geometry of an inlet

duct uses a movable spike. The spike can be repositioned in
flight to alter the inlet shape for maximum inlet efficiency.

dynamic efficiency when stationary or in slow

flight. Therefore, bellmouth inlets are typically used
on helicopters, some slow moving aircraft, and on
engines being run in ground test stands. A typical
bellmouth inlet is short in length and has rounded
shoulders offering very little air resistance.
However, because their shape produces a great deal
of drag in forward flight, bellmouth inlets are typically not used on high speed aircraft. Since a bellmouth duct is so efficient when stationary, engine
manufacturers typically collect engine performance
data from engines fitted with a bellmouth inlet.
[Figure 5-26]

TURBOPROP INLETS

Another method used to vary the geometry of an inlet

duct utilizes a movable spike, or plug, which is
positioned as necessary to alter the shape of the inlet
as aircraft speed changes. The shape of the spike and
surrounding inlet duct combine to form a movable CD
inlet. During transonic flight (Mach .75 to 1.2), the
movable spike is extended forward to produce a
normal shock wave, or bow wave, at the inlet. As
airspeed increases, the spike is repositioned to shift
the CD duct for optimum inlet shape at the new
airspeed. As airspeed increases to supersonic, the
bow wave changes to multiple oblique shock waves
extending from the tip of the spike and a normal
shock wave develops at the lip of the inlet. [Figure
5-25]

Turboprop engines develop the majority of their

thrust with propeller rather than jet propulsion.
Therefore, the air inlet duct on a turboprop engine
is typically smaller than those used on turbojet or
turbofan engines. For example, on a reverse-flow
turboprop engine, such as a PT-6, the air entrance to
the compressor is located toward the rear of the
engine. Depending on the aircraft installation, an air
scoop located at the front of the nacelle below the
propeller is generally used to duct air back to the
engine inlet. In such installations, ducting similar to
that used on reciprocating engines is utilized to
route intake air to the engine.

BELLMOUTH INLET DUCT

On turboprop engines that have an intake at the

front of the engine, a ducted spinner is generally
considered to be the best inlet
design
to use.

Bellmouth inlets have a convergent profile that is

designed specifically for obtaining very high aero-

Induction Systems

5-21

Figure 5-27. (A) A ducted spinner inlet is the most efficient design for turboprop engines. (B) Although less
efficient, conical spinner inlets present fewer design
problems than ducted spinners.

stands. However, inlet screens are seldom used on

high mass airflow engines because icing and screen
failures can cause serious engine damage.
Figure 5-26. Engine calibration on a test stand is usually
accomplished with a bellmouth inlet that is fitted with an
anti-ingestion screen. Duct losses are considered to be zero
because of the smooth rounded edges if this type inlet.

However, ducted spinners are heavier, more difficult to maintain, and harder to de-ice than a
conventional streamlined spinner. Another option
is to use a conical spinner which is a modified
version of the streamline spinner. [Figure 5-27]
TURBOPROP FILTER/SEPARATOR
Prevention of foreign object damage (FOD) is a top
priority among turbine engine operators and manufacturers. One of the easiest ways to help prevent
foreign object damage is to install an inlet screen
over an engine's inlet duct. The use of inlet screens
is common on many rotorcraft and turboprop
engines as well as on engines installed
in test

Additional devices that help prevent foreign object

damage include sand or ice separators. The basic
design of a sand or ice separator consists of an air
intake with at least one venturi and a series of sharp
bends. The venturi is used to accelerate the flow of
incoming air and debris so the debris has enough
inertia that it cannot follow the bends in the intake.
This allows sand particles and other small debris to
be channeled away from the compressor.
One type of separator used on some turboprop aircraft incorporates a movable vane which extends
into the inlet airstream. Once extended, the vane
creates a prominent venturi and a sudden turn in
the engine inlet. Combustion air can follow the
sharp curve but sand and ice particles cannot
because of their inertia. The movable vane is operated by the operator through a control handle in the
cockpit. [Figure 5-28]

Figure 5-28. A typical induction system filter/separator utilizes a deflector vane to produce a venturi. The venturi accelerates sand,
ice, and other debris and carries it overboard.

5-22

Induction Systems

One type of particle separator relies on a venturi

and sharp directional changes in airflow to filter
sand and ice particles out of the induction air. The
venturi accelerates the flow of incoming air and
debris so the debris has enough inertia that it cannot
follow the bends in the intake. This allows sand particles and other small debris to be channeled away
from the compressor and into a sediment trap.
[Figure 5-29]

Figure 5-29. This particle separator is typical of the type

found on turbine powered helicopters. The venturi in the air
inlet accelerates the air and sand so the sand has too much
inertia to make the turn leading to the engine.

TURBOSHAFT FILTER/SEPARATOR
One of the most critical aspects of air inlet system
design for a turboshaft engine is the prevention of
foreign object damage to the compressor. This is
especially difficult in helicopter operations where
landings are often conducted in unimproved areas.
Therefore, many helicopters are fitted with a
particle separator on the engine inlet.

Another type of particle separator uses several individual filter elements that act as a swirl chamber.
With this type of system, as incoming air passes
through each element, a swirling motion is
imparted by helical vanes. The swirling motion creates enough centrifugal force to throw the dirt particles to the outside of the chamber. The particles
then drop to the bottom of the separator where they
are blown overboard by compressor bleed air
through holes on each side of the filter unit. As the
foreign particles are swirled out of the intake air,
clean air then passes through the filter into the
engine inlet. [Figure 5-30]

INLET ANTI-ICE SYSTEMS

When a turbine powered aircraft flies through icing
conditions, ice can build up in the engine's inlet
duct and on its inlet guide vanes. This disrupts the
airflow into the compressor and reduces the
engine's efficiency. Furthermore, large pieces of ice
could break off and enter the engine causing serious

Figure 5-30. A swirl chamber particle separator is used on the Bell 206 helicopter. The swirling motion forces foreign particles to the
outside of each filter element and then deposits the particles at the bottom of the filter for removal.

Induction Systems

damage to compressor blades. To prevent ice formation and ingestion, turbine engine inlet ducts are
typically equipped with some form of anti-ice system to prevent ice formation.
A typical turbine engine inlet anti-ice system ducts
high temperature bleed air from the compressor to
the air inlet. When the anti-icing system is switched
on, a bleed valve directs hot air to the inlet duct
leading edge, nose dome, and inlet guide vanes to
prevent ice from building. In addition, an indicator
light illuminates in the cockpit to indicate that the

5-23

anti-icing system is on. A disadvantage of this type

of system is that, whenever bleed air is taken from a
turbine engine, engine power output decreases. The
power decrease is generally indicated by a slight
rise in EGT and a shift in both EPR and fuel flow.
One way manufacturers avoid the power loss
associated with a bleed air anti-ice system is to
install an electric system. With an electric anti-ice
system, electric heating elements are embedded in a
rubber boot or placed behind a metal leading edge
surrounding the intake.

EXHAUST SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
In both a reciprocating and turbine engine, the purpose of the exhaust system is to remove the spent gases of combustion and safely route them overboard. For an engine to operate at its maximum efficiency, these systems must
function properly. In addition, because a failure of this system could have disastrous results, such as fires or introducing toxic gases into the cabin, it is imperative that the system be inspected and maintained according to the
manufacturer's recommendations.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE

The short stack system is relatively simple, and its

removal and installation consists essentially of
removing and installing the hold-down nuts and
clamps.
A reciprocating engine produces high temperature
and noxious gases as combustion takes place within
the engine. Since these exhaust gases are corrosive
and the exhaust system is subjected to a wide range
of temperatures, many modern exhaust systems are
made up of components using nickel-chromium
steel or other corrosive and heat resistant alloys.
These metals not only resist corrosion and heat but
possess low expansion coefficients and low weight,
and provide long, trouble-free operation with a minimum of maintenance.

TYPES OF EXHAUST SYSTEMS

There are two general types of exhaust systems in
use on reciprocating aircraft engines: the short stack
or open system and the collector system. The short
stack system is generally used on nonsupercharged
engines and low powered engines where noise level
is not a factor. The collector system is used on most
large nonsupercharged engines and on installations
where it would improve nacelle streamlining or
provide easier maintenance in the nacelle area. It is
also found on all turbosupercharged engines where
the exhaust gases must be collected and routed to
the turbine. The disadvantage of the collector system is that it increases the back pressure of the
exhaust system, which in turn reduces horsepower.
However, the increased horsepower achieved by
turbosupercharging more than offsets the loss created by the back pressure.

COLLECTOR SYSTEMS
The collector systems you might encounter on an
airplane include the opposed type engine exhaust
manifold and the radial engine collector rings.

OPPOSED ENGINE EXHAUST MANIFOLD

There are many types of collector systems used on

horizontally opposed engines. A typical system
consists of risers from each cylinder and an exhaust
collector on each side of the engine. The risers are
attached to each cylinder with brass or special
lock-nuts which are heat resistant. [Figure 6-1]
On some systems, a crossover tube connects the
exhaust stacks on the left side of the engine with
the stacks on the right side. Sections of the
exhaust system are usually joined together with
spring-loaded ball joints. When properly installed,
the ball joints are loose enough to allow movement
but tight enough to prevent leakage. Ball joints
also compensate for slight misalignment of the
parts. The exhaust collector tube may be routed to
a turbocharger, a muffler, an exhaust augmentor,
or simply overboard, depending upon the installation. [Figure 6-2]

SHORT STACKS
Early in-line and V-engines often used straight
stacks which were simply short sections of steel
tubing welded to a flange and bolted to the cylinder
exhaust port. These short stacks were effective at
getting the exhaust out of the engine compartment,
but they had no silencing capability, and when the
aircraft was side-slipped, cold air could flow into
these stacks and warp the exhaust valves.

RADIAL ENGINE EXHAUST COLLECTOR RINGS

Radial engines use an exhaust manifold made up of

pieces of tubing that are fitted together with loose
slip joints. In addition to aiding in aligning exhaust
components, slip joints compensate for expansion
when an engine is running, expanding or contracting to fit together tightly and eliminate leakage.

Exhaust Systems

6-3

Figure 6-1. Risers and collectors can be constructed as one unit, or the risers can be connected to the collector with ring clamps, or
each riser can be a separate part of the collector system.

Each section of the collector is bolted to a bracket on

the blower section of the engine, and is partly supported by a sleeve connection between the collector

ring ports and the short stack on the engine exhaust

ports. The exhaust tailpipe is joined to the collector
ring by a telescoping expansion joint, which allows

BALL
JOINT

WASTE

BELLOWS

CROSSOVER
TUBE

TURBOCHARGER

BALL JOINT

Figure 6-2. Shown is an exhaust system of a turbocharged six-cylinder horizontally opposed engine. At each location where expansion and contraction occurs, bellows are installed to allow for the change in physical dimensions without any leakage. The waste
gate valve is hydraulically opened to allow exhaust gases to pass directly out the tail pipe, or closed to force these gases out
through the turbocharger turbine section. The turbocharger in this installation is wrapped in a heat blanket to improve efficiency
and decrease air temperatures inside the cowling.

6-4

Exhaust Systems

Figure 6-4. The discharged exhaust leaving the tapered

opening, called a bayonet, created a slightly low pressure.
This helped reduce exhaust back pressure and noise.

Figure 6-3. The collector ring is graduated in size. The small

section carries the exhaust from only two cylinders. The ring
increases in size as it nears the point where the tailpipe connects to the collector. This increase in size is necessary to
accommodate the additional gases from the other cylinders.

enough slack for the removal of segments of the collector ring without removing the tailpipe. [Figure 6-3]

MUFFLERS AND HEAT

EXCHANGERS
Noise is a problem in aviation engines, and studies
have been made to find practical ways of increasing
the frequency and reducing the intensity of the
noise. Propellers produce a large portion of the total
noise, but the energy in the exhaust also accounts
for an appreciable amount.
Exhaust collectors carried the gases safely away
from the engine, but did little to nothing about
reducing noise levels. It was discovered that if the
ends of the collectors were cut at a taper and the
exhaust discharged through a relatively narrow slot
rather than through the straight open pipe, the noise
was reduced. [Figure 6-4]
In the last forty years, mufflers similar to those used
on automobiles have been used to reduce engine
noise to a tolerable level. The muffler receives the
exhaust from the cylinders and passes it through a
series of baffles to break up the sound energy. The
exhaust is then passed out through a tailpipe.

In addition, a stainless steel shroud or shell can be

placed around the muffler. This type of setup is
referred to as a heat exchanger. This shroud brings
in unheated outside air into a space between the
muffler and the shroud. Since the muffler is being
heated by the exhaust gases, the air in this space is
heated. Then through heater hoses and ducting, the
heated air can be used as cabin heat, or for de-ice or
anti-ice purposes. This shroud is easily removed so
the muffler can be inspected. [Figure 6-5]

EXHAUST AUGMENTORS
On some engines, exhaust augmentors are installed
to aid in cooling. Exhaust augmentors use the
velocity of the exiting exhaust gases to produce a
venturi effect to draw more airflow over the engine.
[Figure 6-6]
Some exhaust augmentors are equipped with an
augmentor vane which is located in the exit end of
each augmentor. When the vane is fully closed, the
cross-sectional area of the augmentor tube is
reduced by approximately 45 percent. If the engine
is running too cool, the pilot can raise the engine
temperature, by moving the vanes toward the
"closed" position. This decreases the velocity of
flow through the augmentor.
Since the exhaust augmentor heats up similar to a
muffler, a heat exchanger could be placed around
the augmentor. This heated air could then be used
for cabin heat or for de-ice or anti-ice purposes.

EXHAUST SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

PRACTICES
The corrosion resistant steel of which exhaust systems are made is thin, and the systems operate at

Exhaust Systems

6-5

Figure 6-5. On the left is the muffler with the shroud in place. The shroud is typically held on the muffler with stainless steel
screws. On the right the shroud has been removed for clarity. The knobs on the muffler help transfer heat from the muffler to the
air space inside the shroud.

high temperatures. These difficult conditions, coupled with the fact that an exhaust system failure can
result in carbon monoxide poisoning of crew and
passengers, partial or complete loss of engine power,
and/or an aircraft fire, make inspection of the
exhaust system extremely important. Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas that is a by-product of
internal combustion processes. It displaces oxygen

in the human body, producing incapacitation and

death at higher levels of exposure.
Before discussing inspection and maintenance procedures for exhaust system components, a precaution to he observed must be mentioned. Galvanized
or zinc plated tools should never be used on the
exhaust system, and exhaust system parts should

Figure 6-6. The exhaust from the cylinders on each side flow through a collector and discharge into the inlet of a stainless steel
augmentor tube. This flow of high velocity gas creates a low pressure and draws air from above the engine through the cylinder
fins.

6-6

Exhaust Systems

never be marked with a lead pencil. The lead, zinc,

or galvanized mark is absorbed by the metal of the
exhaust system when heated, creating a distinct
change in its molecular structure. This change softens the metal in the area of the mark, causing cracks
and eventual failure. Use felt-tip markers, India ink,
or Prussian blue to mark exhaust components.
Some exhaust system components receive a corrosion-resistant coating of ceramic material. These
units should be cleaned using a degreasing solution.
Under no circumstances should sand blasting or
alkaline cleaners be used, since this removes the
ceramic coating. Materials such as corrosion-resistance steel can be blast cleaned using sand that has
not been previously used to clean iron or steel materials. Used sand contains metal particles that can
become embedded in the metal and allow corrosion
to form.
EXHAUST SYSTEM INSPECTION
During an inspection of the exhaust system, be especially alert for any cracks, dents, or missing parts.
An ice pick or similar pointed instrument is useful
in probing suspected areas. Cracks are probably the
most common problem with an exhaust system. A
crack usually allows exhaust gas to escape.
Escaping gas often shows up as a flat gray or a sooty
black streak on the outside of the stack or muffler.
[Figure 6-7]
If a component of the exhaust system is inaccessible
for a thorough visual inspection, such as internal
baffles or diffusers, or a part is hidden by nonremovable parts, you should disassemble it and check
for contamination and possible leaks. One way you
can check for leaks, is to close the openings of the
component, then pressurize the component using
compressed air (approximately 2 p.s.i). With the
component pressurized, apply a soap and water
solution over all of the joints and welds. If cracks
are present, the escaping air causes bubbles to form.
Weld areas are especially subject to cracks due to
the stress produced by the expansion and contraction of the thin material of which the system is
made. In addition, poor quality weld beads protrude
internally and concentrate heat, resulting in hot
spots. A good quality weld tapers smoothly into the
base metal and thus dissipates heat evenly.
When inspecting the exhaust system, it is very
important to carefully examine the areas used to
heat air for carburetor deicing and cabin heat. In

Figure 6-7. The arrows point out the primary inspection

points for various types of exhaust systems. The top diagram represents a separate system, the middle diagram is
a crossover-type system, and the bottom diagram shows
an exhaust/augmentor system.

addition, you should periodically check the cabin

for the presence of carbon monoxide while the
engine is operating.
MUFFLER AND HEAT EXCHANGER
FAILURES
Approximately half of all muffler and heat
exchanger failures can be traced to cracks or ruptures in the heat exchanger surfaces used for cabin
and carburetor heat sources. Failures in the heat
exchanger surface, usually in the outer wall, allow
exhaust gases to escape directly into the cabin heat
system. If exhausted gases are drawn into the engine
induction system, engine overheating and loss of
power can occur. Failures in the exhaust system, in

6-7

Exhaust Systems

most cases, are caused by the high temperatures at

which an exhaust system operates. This in turn
leads to thermal and vibration fatigue cracking in
areas of stress concentration. On aircraft using an
exhaust heat exchanger as a source of cabin heat, the
heater air shroud should be removed to facilitate
inspection of the system.
EXHAUST MANIFOLD AND STACK
FAILURES
Exhaust manifold and stack failures are usually
fatigue failures at clamped points or at welds.
Although these failures are primarily fire hazards,
they also present carbon monoxide problems.
Exhaust gases can enter the cabin via defective or
inadequate seals at firewall openings, wing strut fittings, doors, and wing root openings.

exhaust system pressure is maintained at or near sea

level values. Due to the pressure differential, any
leaks in the system will allow the exhaust gases to
escape with torch-like intensity that can severely
damage adjacent structures.
A common cause of malfunction is coke deposits, or
carbon buildup, in the waste gate unit causing
erratic system operation. Excessive deposit buildup
may cause the waste gate to stick in the "closed"
position, causing an over-boost condition. Coke
deposit buildup in the turbo itself will cause a gradual loss of power in flight and a low manifold pressure reading prior to takeoff. Clean, repair, overhaul,
and adjust the system components and controls in
accordance with the applicable manufacturer's
instructions.
AUGMENTOR EXHAUST SYSTEM

INTERNAL MUFFLER FAILURES

Internal failures, such as baffles and diffusers, can
cause partial or complete engine power loss by
restricting the flow of the exhaust gases and increasing the back pressure. As opposed to other failures,
erosion and carburization caused by extreme thermal conditions are the primary causes of internal
failures. Many systems employ exhaust outlet
guards to keep dislodged muffler baffles from
obstructing the muffler outlet.
Engine backfiring and combustion of unburned fuel
within the exhaust system are probable contributing
factors. In addition, local hot spot areas caused by
uneven exhaust gas flow can result in burning,
bulging, or rupture of the outer muffler wall.

TURBOCHARGER EXHAUST SYSTEMS

When a turbocharger is included, the engine
exhaust system operates under greatly increased
pressure and temperature conditions. Extra precautions should be taken in exhaust system care and
maintenance. During high altitude operation, the

On exhaust systems equipped with augmentor tubes,

the augmentor tubes should be inspected at regular
intervals for proper alignment, security of attachment, and general overall condition. Even when augmentor tubes do not contain heat exchanger surfaces, they should be inspected for cracks along with
the remainder of the exhaust system.

EXHAUST SYSTEM REPAIRS

It is generally recommended that exhaust stacks,
mufflers, tailpipes, etc. be replaced with new or
reconditioned components rather than repaired in
the field. Welded repairs to exhaust systems are
complicated by the difficulty of accurately identifying the base metal so that the proper repair materials can be selected.
Steel or low temperature, self-locking nuts should
not be substituted for brass or high temperature
locknuts used by the manufacturer. Old gaskets
should never be reused. When disassembly is necessary, gaskets should be replaced with new ones of
the same type provided by the manufacturer.

TURBINE ENGINE
TAILPIPE OR EXHAUST DUCT

The turbine engine exhaust system must be capable

of withstanding very high temperatures and is usually
manufactured from nickel or titanium. In addition,
the heat produced must not be allowed to transfer to
nearby airframe components or structures. This can
be accomplished by routing ventilating air around the
exhaust pipe, and by covering the exhaust pipe with
an insulating blanket. These insulating blankets use
an inner layer of insulating material and an outer skin
of stainless steel, which is dimpled to increase its
strength.

TURBOJET EXHAUST SYSTEM

The exhaust section of the turbojet engine is located
directly behind the turbine section. The exhaust
section is composed of several items, whose main
purpose is to direct the flow of gases rearward in
such a manner as to prevent turbulence and at the
same time impart a high final or exit velocity to the
gases. [Figure 6-8]
CONE ASSEMBLY
The exhaust cone collects the gases discharged from
the turbine and gradually converts them into a
single jet. The collected gases are delivered either
directly, or via the tailpipe, to the jet nozzle.

The term "exhaust duct" is applied to the engine

exhaust pipe, or tail pipe, which connects the turbine
outlet to the jet nozzle of a nonafterburning engine. If
the engine exhaust gases could be discharged directly
into the outside air in an exact axial direction at the
turbine exit, an exhaust duct might not be necessary.
However, this is not practical. A larger thrust can be
obtained from the engine if the gases are discharged
from the aircraft at a higher velocity than is
permissible at the turbine outlet. An exhaust duct is
therefore added, both to collect and straighten the gas
flow as it comes from the turbine, and to increase
the velocity of the gases before they are discharged
from the exhaust nozzle. Increasing the velocity of
the gases, increases their momentum and increases
the thrust produced.
The exhaust duct is essentially a simple, stainless
steel, conical or cylindrical pipe. The assembly also
includes an engine tailcone and the struts inside
the duct. The tailcone and the struts add strength to
the duct, impart an axial direction, and smooths the
gas flow.
Immediately aft of the turbine outlet, and usually
just forward of the flange to which the exhaust duct
is attached, one or more sensors are usually
attached to monitor the turbine discharge pressure.
In addition, since it may be impractical to measure
the inlet turbine temperature on large engines,
exhaust gas temperature thermocouple probes may
be attached at the turbine outlet.
EXHAUST NOZZLES
The rear opening of a turbine engine exhaust duct
is called the exhaust nozzle. The nozzle acts as an
orifice, the size of which determines the density and
velocity of the gases as they emerge from the engine.
Basically the nozzles come in two shapes, the convergent exhaust nozzle and the convergent-divergent exhaust nozzle

Figure 6-8. The components of the exhaust section include

the exhaust cone assembly, the exhaust duct or tailpipe, if
required, and the exhaust or jet nozzle.

6-9

Exhaust Systems

CONVERGENT EXHAUST NOZZLE

On most aircraft where the velocity of the exhaust

gas remains subsonic, a convergent exhaust nozzle
is used. A convergent type nozzle increases the
velocity and decreases the pressure of the gas.
Adjusting the area of the exhaust nozzle changes
both the engine performance and the exhaust gas
temperature. Some engines are "trimmed" to their
correct exhaust gas temperature by altering the
exhaust nozzle area. To do this, you can bend small
tabs to change the area, or you can fasten small
adjustable pieces, called "mice" around the
perimeter of the nozzle. This too changes the area.
CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT EXHAUST NOZZLE

Whenever the engine pressure ratio is high enough

to produce exhaust gas velocities which might
exceed Mach 1 at the engine exhaust nozzle, more
thrust can be gained by using a convergent-divergent type of nozzle. The advantage of a
convergent-divergent nozzle is greatest at high
Mach numbers because of the resulting higher
pressure ratio across the engine exhaust nozzle.
[Figure 6-9]
To ensure that a constant weight or volume of a
gas flows past any given point after sonic velocity
is reached, the rear part of a supersonic exhaust
duct is enlarged to accommodate the additional
weight or volume of a gas that flows at supersonic
rates. If this is not done, the nozzle does not
operate efficiently.

TURBOFAN EXHAUST
The bypass engine has two gas streams to eject to
the atmosphere, the cool fan air, and the hot gases
being discharged from the turbine. In a low bypass
engine these two flows may be combined in a mixer
unit, and discharged through the same nozzle. In a
high bypass engine the fan air is usually discharged
separately from the hot gases.

TURBOPROP EXHAUST
In a typical turboprop exhaust system, the exhaust
gases are directed through a tail pipe assembly from
the turbine section of the engine to the atmosphere.
The exhaust arrangement used depends on the type
of engine. Turboprop engines utilizing a
through-flow burner typically expel the gases
straight out the back of the engine and out the
nacelle. This extracts

Figure 6-9. In a convergent-divergent nozzle, the convergent section is designed to handle the gases while they
remain subsonic, and to deliver the gases to the throat of
the nozzle just as they attain sonic velocity. The divergent
section reduces the pressure of the Mach 1 gas and further
increases its velocity to supersonic.

the maximum amount of thrust from the velocity of

the hot gases. Engines using a reverse flow
combus-tor may exhaust the hot gases near the front
of the engine. This design collects the exhaust
gases and vents them overboard through exhaust
stacks. There is very little additional thrust
provided by this type of exhaust.

THRUST REVERSERS
Airliners powered by turbojets and turbofans, most
commuter aircraft, and an increasing number of
business jets are equipped with thrust reversers to:
1. aid in braking and directional control during
normal landing, and reduce brake maintenance.
2. provide braking and directional control during
emergency landings and balked takeoffs.
3. back an aircraft out of a parking spot in a "power
back" operation.
While some thrust reversers are electrically powered, most large transport-category aircraft use
hydraulically actuated reversers powered by main
system hydraulic power, or by pneumatic actuators
powered by engine bleed air. Thrust reversers are
controlled by a cockpit lever at the command of the
pilot. In a typical system, the power levers are
retarded to ground idle, then reverse thrust is
selected. The pilot then advances the power levers
to takeoff power as required to slow the aircraft. The

6-10

Exhaust Systems

fans often have both cold stream and hot stream

reversers. Some high bypass turbofans will have
only cold stream reversing because most of the
thrust is present in the fan discharge and a hot
stream reverser would be of minimum value and
become a weight penalty. [Figure 6-11]

Figure 6-10. Thrust reversers change the direction of flow of

the exhaust gases from a rearward direction to more of a
forward direction. This diagram shows a mechanical blockage thrust reverser.

power levers are then retarded to ground idle and

thrust reverse is deselected. [Figure 6-10]
Thrust reversers provide approximately 20 percent
of the breaking force under normal conditions.
Reversers must be capable of producing 50 percent
of rated thrust in the reverse direction. However,
exhaust gas exits a typical reverser at an angle to the
engine's thrust axis. Because of this, maximum
reverse thrust capability is always less than forward
thrust capability. Operating in reverse at low ground
speeds can cause re-ingestion of hot gases and compressor stalls. It can also cause ingestion of fine
sand and other runway debris. The most frequently
encountered thrust reversers can be divided into
two categories, the mechanical-blockage type and
the aerodynamic-blockage type.

NOISE SUPPRESSORS
Noise is best defined as unwanted sound that is
both irritating and harmful. Since most major airports are located near large cities, the need to minimize turbine exhaust noise is apparent. The aircraft
industry has reacted to the need for less offensive
operations by continually improving noise reduction techniques on every new generation of engine
and aircraft.

MECHANICAL-BLOCKAGE TYPE
Mechanical blockage is accomplished by placing a
movable obstruction in the exhaust gas stream
either before or after the exhaust exits the duct. The
engine exhaust gases are mechanically blocked and
diverted to a forward direction by an inverted cone,
half-sphere, or other device. The mechanical blockage system is also known as the "clamshell" thrust
reverser because of its shape.
AERODYNAMIC-BLOCKAGE TYPE
The aerodynamic-blockage type of thrust reverser
uses thin airfoils or obstructions placed in the gas
stream. These vanes are often referred to as
"cascades" and turn the escaping exhaust gases to a
forward direction, which in turn causes a rearward
thrust. Some aircraft may use a combination of the
aerodynamic-blockage and the mechanical-blockage
type reversers.
Mixed exhaust turbofans are configured with one
reverser, while unmixed or bypass exhaust turbo-

Figure 6-11. On this aerodynamic-blockage reverser diagram for a DC-10, the reverser doors are stowed when the
engine is producing forward thrust. When deployed, the
reverser doors divert both cold and hot stream air. To
deploy the thrust reversers, the power lever is retarded to
the idle stop, the reverser lever is raised from its stowed
position, and the power lever is advanced to decelerate the
aircraft as necessary.

Exhaust Systems

6-11

Figure
6-12.
Older
turbojet
engines
used
corrugated-perimeter noise suppressors attached to the
exhaust duct. The corrugations divide the exhaust stream
and reduce noise levels.

Noise suppressors used on the ground include

portable devices which can be positioned near the
rear of an engine whenever prolonged ground operation is anticipated. Furthermore, blast fences and
designated run-up areas are provided on most large
airports and aircraft operations are restricted to
certain times of the day.
Older turbojet engines produce a combination of
noise frequencies at very high levels. Although a
turbojet compressor produces a great deal of high
frequency sound, this noise decreases rapidly as the
distance from the source increases. On the other
hand, turbojet exhaust produces noise at a wide
range of frequencies and at very high energy levels.
This noise is audible over great distances and is
more damaging to human hearing. One solution to
turbojet exhaust noise is the use of a corrugated
perimeter noise suppressor that helps break up the
exhaust flow and raise its noise frequency.
Furthermore, some older engines can be fitted with
"hush kits" that reduce their noise emissions.
[Figure 6-12]
Newer engines employ a variety of techniques to
reduce harmful noise. For example, some turbofan
engines blend fan discharge air with the exhaust
gases to reduce sound emission. On these engines,
the sound from the inlet is likely to be louder than
from the tail pipe. In addition, the inlet and exhaust
ducts on turbofan engines are lined with sound
attenuating materials that greatly reduce noise levels. [Figure 6-13]

Figure 6-13. High bypass turbofan engines employ sound

absorbing materials at specific locations to minimize noise
emissions. Various materials and patterns are used depending on the temperature ranges at these locations.

6-72 ________________________________________________________________________ Exhaust Systems

Because of the characteristic of low frequency noise

to linger at a relative high volume, noise reduction
is often accomplished by increasing the frequency
of the sound. Frequency change is accomplished by
increasing the perimeter of the exhaust stream. This
provides more cold and hot air mixing space. This
reduces the tendency of hot and cold air molecules
to shear against each other and also to break up the
large turbulence in the jet wake.

ENGINE FUEL
AND FUEL METERING

INTRODUCTION
An aircraft's fuel delivery system must supply fuel to a fuel metering device in the proper quantity while maintaining the quality of the fuel. On the other hand, the primary purpose of a fuel metering device is to blend the fuel
and air needed for combustion. In early aircraft, the fuel system was simple, consisting of a fuel tank, fuel lines, a
selector valve, and a carburetor. However, as aircraft engines increased in power and complexity, the quantity of
fuel required increased dramatically. In addition, modern fuel systems have a greater number of components and
design considerations to increase safety and efficiency. Due to the complexities and importance of an aircraft's
fuel system, an aviation maintenance technician must be thoroughly familiar with the design, operation, and
maintenance of the aircraft's fuel delivery system.

FUEL SYSTEMS
evaporates. This increases the chances for the formation of carburetor ice. Therefore, the ideal aviation
fuel has a high volatility that is not excessive to the
point of causing vapor lock or carburetor ice.

Aircraft fuel systems are divided into two basic

sections; an airframe section and a powerplant
section. The airframe section consists of all fuel
system components from the fuel tanks to the
engine-driven fuel pump. The engine section, on
the other hand, consists of an engine-driven fuel
pump, if installed, a fuel metering device, and any
other fuel delivery components on the engine.
Although several components in an aircraft fuel
system are airframe components, the purpose of the
entire fuel system is to provide fuel to the engines.
Therefore, the following section primarily
discusses the components included in the
airframe section to the extent that you must know
to maintain and operate the aircraft engine. The
engine section components, on the other hand, are
discussed in the next section on fuel metering.
RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUELS
The dynamics of the internal combustion cycle
demand certain properties from gasolines. Aircraft
engines compound these demands because of the
wide range of atmospheric conditions in which they
must operate. One of the most critical
characteristics of aviation gasoline is its volatility,
which is a measure of a fuel's ability to change
from a liquid into a vapor. Volatility is usually
expressed in terms of Reid vapor pressure which
represents the air pressure above a liquid required
to prevent vapors from escaping from the liquid at
a given temperature. The vapor pressure of 100LL
aviation gasoline is approximately seven pounds
per square inch at 100 degrees F.
For obvious reasons, a fuel's volatility is critical to its
performance in an aircraft engine. For example, in a
piston engine, the fuel must vaporize readily in the
carburetor to burn evenly in the cylinder. Fuel that is
only partially atomized leads to hard starting and
rough running. On the other hand, fuel which vaporizes too readily can evaporate in the fuel lines and
lead to vapor lock. Furthermore, in an aircraft carburetor, an excessively volatile fuel causes extreme
cooling within the carburetor body when the fuel

Aviation gasoline is formulated to burn smoothly

without detonating or knocking, and fuels are
numerically graded according to their ability to
resist detonation. The higher the number, the more
resistant a fuel is to knocking. The most common
grading system used for this purpose is the octane
rating system. The octane number assigned to a fuel
compares the anti-knock properties of that fuel to a
mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane. For
example, grade 80 fuel has the same anti-knock
properties as a mixture of 80 percent iso-octane and
20 percent heptane.
Some fuels have two performance numbers, such
as 100/130. The first number is the lean mixture
rating while the second number represents the
fuel's rich mixture rating. To avoid confusion and
to minimize errors in handling different grades of
aviation gasolines, it has become common practice
to designate different grades of fuel by their lean
mixture performance number only. Therefore, aviation gasolines are identified as Avgas 80, 100, and
100LL. Although 100LL performs the same as
grade 100 fuel, the "LL" indicates it has a lower
lead content than the original 100/130 fuel.
One method petroleum companies use to help prevent engine detonation is to mix tetraethyl lead
into aviation fuels. However, it has the drawback
of forming corrosive components in the combustion chamber. For this reason, additional additives
such as ethylene bromides are added to the fuel.
These bromides actively combine with lead oxides
produced by the tetraethyl lead allowing the
oxides to be discharged from a cylinder during
engine operation.
To aid in identifying the different grades of aviation fuel, each fuel grade is color-coded with dye
for easy visual identification. The color code for

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

the aviation gasolines currently available is as

follows:
80 Red
100 Green
100LL Blue
In addition to coloring fuels, a marking and
coding system has been adopted to identify various
airport fuel handling facilities and equipment,
according to the kind and grade of fuel they contain.
For example, all aviation gasolines are identified
by name using white letters on a red background. In
addition, valves, loading and unloading
connections, switches, and other control
equipment are color-coded according to the grade,
or type of fuel they dispense. The fuel in piping is
identified by name and by colored bands painted or
decaled around the pipe at intervals along its length.
[Figure 7-1]
Fuel trucks and hydrant carts are marked with large
fuel identification decals on each side of the tank, or
body, and have a small decal on the dashboard in
the cab. These decals utilize the same color code. In
addition, the fixed ring around fueller dome covers
and hydrant box lids are also painted in accordance
with the color code. In short, all parts of the fueling
facility and equipment are identified and keyed into
the same marking and color code.

FUEL SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

All aircraft fuel systems must be designed to meet
the specific operating requirements outlined in Part
23 of the Federal Aviation Regulations. Some of the
requirements listed in the FARs include:

7-3

1.

Each fuel system must be constructed and

arranged to ensure fuel flow at a rate and
pressure established for proper engine and
auxiliary power unit functioning under all
likely operating conditions. (FAR 23.951)

2. Each fuel system must be arranged so that no

pump can draw fuel from more than one tank
at a time, or provisions must be made to pre
vent air from being drawn into the fuel supply
line. (FAR 23.951)
3.

Turbine-powered aircraft must be capable of

sustained operation when there is at least 0.75
cubic centimeters of free water per gallon of
fuel at 80. In addition, an engine must be
capable of sustained operation when the fuel
is cooled to its most critical condition
for icing. (FAR 23.951)

4. Each fuel system of a multi-engine aircraft

must be arranged so that the failure of any one
component (except a fuel tank) will not result
in the loss of power of more than one engine
or require immediate action by the pilot to
prevent the loss of power. (FAR 23.953)
5. If a single tank or assembly of interconnected
tanks is used on a multi-engine airplane, each
engine must have an independent tank outlet
with a fuel shutoff valve at the tank. (FAR
23.953)
6. A means of rapidly shutting off fuel in flight
to each engine of a normal category aircraft
must be provided to appropriate flight
crewmembers. The engine fuel shutoff valve
cannot be located on the engine side of any
firewall. (FAR 23.995)

Figure 7-1. This illustration depicts the colors and types of markings used on fuel conduits and controls.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-4

7. On multi-engine aircraft, the closing of an

individual fuel shutoff valve for any engine
shall not affect the fuel supply to the other
engines. (FAR 23.1189)
8. Tanks used in multi-engine fuel systems must
have two vents arranged so that they are not
likely to both become plugged at the same
time. (FAR 23.953)
9. All filler caps must be designed so that they
are not likely to be installed incorrectly or lost
in flight. (FAR 23.953)
10. The fuel systems must be designed to prevent the
ignition of fuel vapors by lightning. (FAR 23.954)
11. The fuel flow rate of a gravity-feed system
must be 150 percent of the takeoff fuel flow
when the tank contains the minimum fuel
allowable. The same requirement exists when
the airplane is positioned in the attitude that
is most critical for fuel flow. (FAR 23.955)
12. The fuel flow rate of a pump feed fuel system
for each reciprocating engine must be 125 per
cent of the takeoff fuel flow required. (FAR
23.955)
13. If an aircraft is equipped with a selector valve that
allows the engine to operate from more than one
fuel tank, the system must not cause a loss of
power for more than ten seconds for a singleengine or twenty seconds for a multi-engine air
plane, between the time one tank is allowed to
run dry and the time at which the required power
is supplied by the other tank. (FAR 23.955)
14. Turbine-powered aircraft must have a fuel sys
tem that will supply 100 percent of the fuel
required for operation in all flight attitudes, and
the flow must not be interrupted as the fuel sys
tem automatically cycles through all of
the tanks or fuel cells in the system. (FAR
23.955)
15. If a gravity feed system has interconnected
tank outlets, it should not be possible for fuel
feeding from one tank to flow into another tank
and cause it to overflow. (FAR 23.957)
16. The amount of unusable fuel in an aircraft must
be determined and this must be made known to
the pilot. Unusable fuel is the amount of fuel in a
tank when the first evidence of malfunction occurs.
The aircraft must be in the attitude that is most
adverse for fuel flow. (FAR 23.959)
17. The fuel system must be designed so that it is
free from vapor lock when the fuel is at its critical
temperature, with respect to vapor formation,
under the most critical operating conditions. (FAR
23.961)
18. Each fuel tank compartment must be
adequately vented and drained so no
explosive vapors or liquid can accumulate.
(FAR 23.967)
19. No fuel tank can be on the engine side of the
firewall, and it must be at least one-half inch

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

away from the firewall. (FAR 23.967)

Each fuel tank must have at least a 2 percent
expansion space that cannot be filled with
fuel. However, if the tank vent discharges clear
of the airplane, no expansion space is
required. (FAR 23.969)
Each fuel tank must have a drainable sump
where water and contaminants will normally
accumulate when the aircraft is in its normal
ground attitude. In addition, each reciprocat
ing engine fuel system must have a sediment
bowl that is accessible for drainage and has a
capacity of one ounce for every 20 gallons of
fuel. (FAR 23.971)
Provisions must be made to prevent fuel that
is spilled during refueling from entering the
aircraft structure. (FAR 23.973)
The filler opening of an aircraft fuel tank must
be marked at or near the filler opening with the
word "Avgas" and, for aircraft with reciprocat
ing engines, with the minimum grade of fuel.
For turbine-powered aircraft, the tank must be
marked with the permissible fuel designation.
If the filler opening is for pressure fueling, the
maximum permissible fueling and defueling
pressure must be specified. (FAR 23.1557)
Each fuel tank must be vented from the top
part of its expansion space. In addition,
ifmore than one fuel tank has
interconnected outlets, the airspace above
the fuel must also be interconnected. (FAR
23.975)
If a carburetor or fuel injection system has a
vapor elimination system that returns
fuel vapors to one of the tanks, the returned
vapors must go to the tank that is required to
be used first. (FAR 23.975)
All fuel tanks are required to have a strainer at
the fuel tank outlet or at the booster pump. For
a reciprocating engine, the strainer
should have an element of 8 to 16 meshes
per inch. For turbine engines, the strainer
should prevent the passage
of any
object that could restrict the flow or damage
any of the fuel system components.
(FAR23.977)
For engines requiring fuel pumps, there must
be one engine-driven fuel pump
for each engine. (FAR 23.991)
There must be at least one drain that will
allow safe drainage of the entire fuel system
when the airplane is in its normal ground
attitude. (FAR 23.999)

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

29. If the design landing weight of the aircraft is less

than that permitted for takeoff, there must be
provisions in the fuel system for jettisoning fuel
to bring the maximum weight down to the
design landing weight. (FAR 23.1001)
30. The fuel jettisoning valve must be designed to
allow personnel to close the valve during any
part of the jettisoning operation. (FAR 23.1001)

RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUEL

SYSTEMS
A reciprocating engine fuel system must supply the
proper amount of fuel to an engine at the right
pressure and during all ground and flight operations.
To do this, all fuel systems must contain some
basic components including one or more fuel tanks,
lines, valves, filtering devices, quantity gauges,
and a primer. In addition, many fuel systems also
include at least one fuel pump as well as fuel flow,
pressure, and temperature gauges. Two examples of
light aircraft reciprocating engine fuel systems are
the gravity-feed system and the pressure-feed
system.

7-5

PRESSURE-FEED SYSTEMS
On low-wing aircraft, the fuel metering device is
above the fuel tanks. Therefore, a fuel pump must be
used to pressure-feed fuel to the fuel metering
device. High wing aircraft equipped with fuel-injection or pressure carburetors also require a fuel
pump. In addition, a backup, or auxiliary pump is
installed in case the engine-driven pump should
fail. [Figure 7-3]
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A typical fuel system includes multiple fuel tanks,
lines, filtering units, pumps, gauges, and a priming
system. In addition, some systems will include
central refueling provisions, fuel dump valves,
and a means of transferring fuel. Although most of
the components just listed are considered to be
airframe components, failure of any one component
can lead to engine problems. Therefore, you must
have a thorough understanding of how certain
component failures impact engine operation.

GRAVITY-FEED SYSTEMS
The simplest form of aircraft fuel systems is the
gravity-feed system used on many high-wing, single-engine aircraft. A typical gravity-feed system
normally has two fuel tanks, a fuel selector valve, a
fuel strainer, a primer, and a carburetor. [Figure 7-2]

Figure 7-2. A typical gravity-feed fuel system consists of

two fuel tanks, a selector valve, a strainer, a primer, and a
carburetor.

Figure 7-3. Pressure-feed fuel systems are used in aircraft

where the fuel supply is located below the fuel metering
device.

7-6

FUEL TANKS

The condition of an aircraft's fuel tank can have a

tremendous effect on engine operations. Although
fuel tanks are originally constructed to meet FAR
certification requirements, they must be properly
maintained to continue meeting their original
design standards. For example, neglected or
improperly maintained fuel tanks can lead to
contaminated fuel being delivered to the engine or
fuel flow restrictions. Therefore, to increase your
ability to identify engine problems caused by an
improperly maintained fuel tank, you must have a
basic knowledge of fuel tank design and
maintenance requirements.
Fuel tank construction varies depending on the type
and intended use of the aircraft. In the early years of
aircraft construction, fuel was retained in welded or
riveted tanks that were positioned in a wing or fuselage cavity. Although the location of fuel tanks has
not changed much, the materials used and methods
of construction have changed. Some of the new
materials used include 3003 and 5052 aluminum
alloys and several composite type materials. These
materials may include neoprene impregnated fabric
used to form bladders, or fiberglass and honeycomb
materials that are formed into rigid tanks. In some
applications, a special corrosion resistant material
composed of steel coated with an alloy of lead and
tin is used. This material is commonly referred to as
terneplate.

Even with the use of corrosion resistant materials,

fuel cells are not corrosion proof. For example, any
time water enters the fuel cell, corrosion can occur
within a fuel system. In addition, fuel cell age can
dramatically effect a fuel system's integrity. For
example, as a fuel cell's gasket and sealant materials
age, they become brittle and can dislodge into the
fuel. Therefore, contaminants such as water, corrosion, and sealer materials can cause engine malfunctions by restricting or completely blocking fuel flow.
As an example, a partial blockage of fuel flow can
cause a dramatic leaning effect on the fuel/air mixture which, ultimately, can lead to severe engine
damage or even a complete engine failure.
All fuel tanks incorporate design features that help
alleviate fuel system contamination and other operational hazards. For example, all fuel tanks are
required to have a sump and drain installed at their
lowest point. The sump provides a convenient location for water and sediment to settle, allowing it to be
drained from the system. Additional tank design
requirements call for expansion space and venting.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

The expansion space provides room for the fuel to

expand when exposed to warm temperatures while
the venting prevents tank pressurization and allows
air to take the place of the fuel as it is burned. Based
on this, if a fuel vent becomes partially or completely
blocked, a low pressure will form in the tank as the
fuel is consumed. Eventually, this low pressure will
slow or completely stop fuel flow from the tank.
Therefore, if an engine is not receiving an adequate
amount of fuel, especially at high power settings, you
should check the fuel venting for blockage.
Another thing to keep in mind is that, if an aircraft's
fuel system returns unused fuel from the fuel metering system, the unused fuel must be returned to the
fuel tank that is required to be used first. In this case,
if you, as the aircraft operator, have not used enough
fuel from the first tank, it's possible for the tank to
overflow. Therefore, it is important that you be
familiar with a particular aircraft's fuel system
before you operate the engine.
To prevent fuel from entering the fuselage or other
structures during refueling, a scupper and drain are
sometimes installed near the filler neck of the tank.
A scupper collects overflowing fuel and directs it to
an overboard drain. However, if the drain system for
the scupper becomes obstructed, water and other
contaminants can collect in the scupper and
possibly enter the fuel tank when the filler cap
is removed. Therefore, an improperly maintained
scupper drain may present a source of fuel system
contamination leading to possible engine troubles.
LINES AND FITTINGS

Fuel lines routed in an engine compartment present

special maintenance considerations. Heat,
vibration, and corrosive elements are typically
greater in an engine compartment than in most other
locations and, therefore, fuel lines installed in an
engine compartment require special attention.
Consider that, if a fuel line fails in flight, not only
is the engine's operation affected, but an in-flight
fire or explosion may occur. In order to maintain the
integrity of these lines, special procedures must be
used in their installation and care.
In modern aircraft, flexible fuel lines are often constructed from synthetic materials such as neoprene
or Teflon , with the line's diameter being
dependent upon the engine's fuel flow
requirements. Although these materials are
designed to be both abrasive and chemical resistant,
there are additional steps that can be taken to
extend their life span. For

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

example, to increase a fuel line's fire resistance and

to help prevent deterioration, a fire sleeve may be
installed over the line. A fire sleeve is a hollow
sil-icone coated fiberglass tube that is slipped over
a length of the hose during fabrication. The sleeve
is held onto the hose by a stainless steel band that
is wrapped around the sleeve at each end.
Additionally, to prevent chemicals from entering
the fire sleeve, the sleeve's ends are typically
dipped in a silicone type sealer before final assembly. Although fire sleeves are invaluable in helping
to protect flexible lines, they present a hazard by
preventing the underlying line from being easily
inspected. Therefore, the safest method for verifying
the integrity of a shielded fuel line is to replace it at
the aircraft manufacturer's recommended intervals.
In addition to using a fire sleeve, some fuel lines
may require the use of stainless steel heat shields.
These shields are strategically placed in the engine
compartment to help radiate heat away from
flammable fluid lines. Therefore, it is important to
verify that these shields are installed where
appropriate and maintained in their original
condition. If they are not, the fuel within the fuel
line could become warm enough to vaporize and
cause vapor lock.
When working with Teflon fuel lines, keep in mind
that, although Teflon offers a high degree of heat and
chemical resistance, certain precautions must be followed to maintain their serviceability. For example,
Teflon hoses tend to assume a permanent set when
exposed to high temperatures. Therefore, to prevent
a Teflon hose from cracking or splitting when being
removed, a support wire should be tied between the
end fittings of the hose to maintain its shape.
Another consideration when working with flexible
hose is that, if a hose is allowed to remain twisted
after installation, it is possible for the resulting
torque on the hose to loosen the end fittings.
Additionally, twisting a hose tends to weaken it
which could lead to premature hose failure. To help
you identify when a hose is twisted, many manufacturers incorporate a lay line. When a flexible
hose is properly installed, the lay line should be
straight, with no signs of spiraling. [Figure 7-4]
On aircraft equipped with rigid fuel lines, the rigid
lines may be constructed from a number of materials including copper, aluminum, or stainless steel.
Copper lines, although slightly weaker than aluminum, have the advantage of being able to transfer
heat more readily than other types of materials. To
further increase the cooling ability of a copper line,
the line may be coiled to increase the tube's surface

7-7

Figure 7-4. A lay line provides a method for visually identifying whether a hose is twisted after it is installed. It should
be noted that, instead of using a solid lay line, some manufacturers use the identification markings as a lay line or an
alternating pattern of lines and identification markings.

area. Coiling the tubing also allows the line to

expand and contract under adverse temperature
conditions. One disadvantage of using copper tubing however, is its tendency to work harden.
Therefore, stress fractures may occur due to the
vibration and subsequent work hardening of the
line. Operational problems associated with a
fractured primer line include leaking fuel and, in
the case of a primer line, excess air being drawn
into a cylinder causing a leaning of the fuel/air
mixture. To help prevent fractures, some
manufacturers require periodic annealing of the
tubing to restore its ductility.
Aluminum fuel lines are typically constructed from
5052-O aluminum alloy. This material has good corrosion resistance, is reasonably easy to fabricate,
and weighs less than comparable strength materials.
For these reasons, aluminum tubing is used to fabricate aircraft fuel lines. However, since aluminum
tubing does not transfer heat well and corrodes
when exposed to high concentrations of corrosive
elements, it is rarely used in an engine compartment.
For fuel tubing applications where high temperatures and corrosive conditions exist or where high
strength is required, stainless steel tubing is used.
Reciprocating engine aircraft typically use a limited
amount of stainless tubing, however, turbine engine
aircraft use it rather extensively.
Another critical aspect of fuel lines is how they are
routed through the airframe and engine compartment. Several guidelines for the installation and
routing of fuel lines include:
1. Whenever possible, fuel lines should be
routed in separate sections of an aircraft.
However, if this is not possible, a fuel line
should be installed below electrical wiring
and clamped to the airframe. Under no
circumstances should an electrical wire
bundle ever be clamped to a fuel line.

7-8

2. Support all fuel lines in a manner to avoid strain

on the fittings and, during installation, never
pull a line into place by the fitting.
3. Rigid tubing must always have at least one
bend to compensate for slight misalignments
and vibration. In addition, a bend relieves ten
sion caused by expansion and contraction of a
fuel line due to temperature and pressure
changes.
4. All metal fuel lines should be electrically
bonded at each structural attachment point with
bonded cushion clamps.
5. Fuel lines should be installed in a way that
protects them from being used as a handhold
while performing other maintenance.
6. Where possible, fuel lines should be routed
along the top or along the sides near the top in
compartments so they cannot be stepped on or
be damaged by cargo.
7. Sharp curves, steep rises, and steep falls should
be avoided in fuel line installations to help
prevent vapor lock.
FUEL STRAINERS

FAR Part 23 requires a main strainer or fuel filter to

be installed in the fuel system to remove
contaminants and to provide a method for draining
the contaminants from the system. The strainer
represents the lowest point in a fuel system and
must be located between the fuel tank and either
the fuel metering device or engine-driven fuel
pump. A fuel strainer removes contaminants from
the fuel by providing a low point in the system
where water and solid contaminants can collect.
These contaminants collect in the strainer's
sediment bowl and are then drained through a
strainer drain. Additional filtering is provided by a
fine mesh screen or filter element within the
strainer. [Figure 7-5]

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-5. A fuel strainer represents the lowest point in an

aircraft's fuel system and should be checked periodically for
contaminants that could restrict fuel flow to the engine.

splined shear-shaft. A vane-type pump consists of a

housing that contains a steel sleeve with an
off-center bore, four vanes, a hollow steel rotor, and
a coupling that turns the rotor. In this type of pump,
the rotor turns on its center axis while the vanes are
free to slide in and out of the rotor. As each pair of
vanes passes the pump inlet, the volume between
the vanes increases and fuel floods between the
vanes at the pump inlet. As the vanes rotate toward
the outlet, the volume between the vanes decreases.
This pressurizes the fuel so that when the vanes
reach the pump outlet, the fuel is forced out of the
pump. [Figure 7-6]

ENGINE-DRIVEN FUEL PUMPS

Engine-driven fuel pumps are the primary fuel pressure pumps in a pressure-feed fuel system. The purpose of an engine-driven fuel pump is to deliver a
continuous supply of fuel at the proper pressure
during engine operation. To provide this continuous
fuel supply, a positive-displacement pump must be
used. A positive-displacement pump is a pump that
delivers a specific quantity per revolution. One type
of positive-displacement pump that is widely used
is the vane-type fuel pump.
A typical vane-type fuel pump is mounted on an
engine's accessory drive section and driven by a

Figure 7-6. In a vane-type pump, a set of vanes slide in and

out of a rotor as it rotates in a pump housing. Since the
rotor is offset in the pump housing, the volume between
each set of vanes alternately increases and decreases
allowing the pump to pull fluid in on one side and force it
out the other.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

With vane-type fuel pumps, more fuel is delivered

to the fuel metering device than is needed.
Therefore, to prevent excessive fuel from
overpres-surizing the fuel metering unit, most
engine-driven fuel pumps incorporate a spring
loaded relief valve that returns excess fuel back to
the inlet side of the fuel pump. To calibrate a fuel
pump to a fuel metering unit, most relief valves
have an adjusting screw which allows you to vary
the spring tension of the relief valve. When the
relief valve is functioning properly, it dampens
fuel pressure fluctuations during throttle
movements and maintains the fuel pressure within
safe limits.
In a vane-type fuel pump with a balanced relief
valve, the fuel pressure delivered to the fuel metering unit varies with changes in altitude and atmospheric pressure. To vary the fuel pressure, a
diaphragm is installed on the back side of the relief
valve. Fuel pressure acts on one side of the
diaphragm while either atmospheric or carburetor
inlet air is routed to the back side of the diaphragm.
This way, the combined force of spring pressure and
air pressure act on the relief valve to control the
amount of fuel that flows to the fuel metering unit.
As the pressure acting on the diaphragm varies, the
pressure at which the relief valve bypasses fuel back
to the pump's inlet also varies. [Figure 7-7]
AUXILIARY FUEL PUMPS

7-9

on the inlet side of the engine-driven fuel pump.

This helps prevent pump cavitation and vapor lock
by pressurizing the fuel in the lines. Additional uses
for boost pumps include providing the required fuel
pressure for starting and transferring fuel between
tanks which enables a pilot to redistribute fuel
weight in flight and maintain aircraft stability. In
addition, a boost pump may serve as a backup
source for fuel pressure to the engine if the
engine-driven fuel pump becomes clogged or fails.
When operating boost or auxiliary fuel pumps, it is
important to follow the aircraft and engine manufacturer's operating procedures closely. Depending
on the design of the fuel system, some boost pumps
are used only intermittently while others are
required to be in operation continuously. In addition, some electric boost pumps utilize different
switch positions to vary the fuel flow delivery rate.
Hand-Operated Pumps

Two hand-operated fuel pumps used in aircraft

include the wobble pump and manual primer. A
typical wobble pump consists of a vane and drilled
shaft assembly that is rotated by a pump handle. The
vane and shaft assembly are mounted inside a pump
housing that is divided into four chambers, each
with its own flapper valve. [Figure 7-8]
As the pump handle is pumped back and forth, the
two vanes alternately draw fuel into two chambers

The primary purpose of an auxiliary fuel pump, or

boost pump is to maintain a positive fuel pressure

Figure 7-7. A vane-type fuel pump with a balanced-type

relief valve has a diaphragm that allows either atmospheric
or carburetor inlet pressure to act on the relief valve in combination with spring pressure. This way, as the amount of
fuel needed by the engine decreases with altitude, the fuel
pressure required to open the relief valve also decreases.

Figure 7-8. A typical wobble pump consists of two vanes

that are attached to a rotating shaft with two drilled passages. When installed in a pump housing, the two vanes
create four chambers that fuel is alternately drawn into and
pumped out of.

7-70

while simultaneously pumping fuel out of the other

two chambers. For example, when the pump handle
is pulled upward, the volume of chambers A and C
are reduced and fuel is forced out of the pump
through the flapper valve in chamber C. At the same
time, chambers D and B fill with fuel through the
flapper valve in chamber D. When the pump handle
is pushed downward, the volume of chambers B and
D are reduced and fuel is forced out of the pump
through the flapper valve in chamber B. At the same
time, chambers A and C fill with fuel through the
flapper valve in chamber A.
The design and capacity of a typical wobble pump
allows the pump to be used as a backup to an
engine-driven pump and for transferring fuel from
one tank to another. In addition, on some aircraft, a
wobble pump is used to pressurize the fuel system
for starting as well as provide fuel for priming the
engine.
A more basic type of hand-operated pump is the
manual primer. In most cases, a manual primer is
installed in a secondary fuel line that parallels the
main fuel line coming off the fuel strainer. A basic
manual primer consists of a small cylindrical tube
inside the cockpit that, when pulled, draws fuel
through a check valve and into a small chamber.
Once the chamber is filled, the primer is pushed
inward to force fuel through a second check valve
and into the engine cylinders.
Since fluids tend to seep into the lower cylinders of a
radial engine (causing liquid lock), priming is usually restricted to the upper cylinders. For example,
on a nine-cylinder radial engine with a mutiple-point
priming system, cylinders one, two, three, eight, and
nine are the only cylinders that are primed.
For the most part, manual primers are reliable
pumps that require little maintenance. However, it
is important to note that if the primer is not in and
locked when an engine is running, the suction produced in the cylinders can draw fuel through the
primer and into the engine. This can cause the
fuel/air mixture within the cylinders to become
extremely rich which, in turn, can cause the engine
to run rough, or stop running altogether.
Centrifugal Pump

The most commonly used type of boost pump is the

centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pumps may be either
submerged in a fuel tank or attached to the outside
of the tank. A centrifugal pump is driven by an elec-

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

tric motor and uses a small impeller to build fuel

pressure. Once fuel pressure builds to a
predetermined level, fuel is no longer moved from
the tank to the engine. Therefore, centrifugal
pumps do not continually displace fuel and are not
positive displacement pumps. [Figure 7-9]
As fuel is drawn into a centrifugal pump, the highspeed impeller throws the fuel outward at a high
velocity. As the fuel is thrown outward, it is
channeled to a discharge line that is routed to the
engine. The high rotational speed produced by a
centrifugal pump swirls the fuel and produces a
centrifuge action that separates air from the fuel
before it enters the fuel line. This, along with the
increased pressure, greatly decreases the possibility
of vapor lock.
Seals between the impeller and power section of a
centrifugal pump prevent fuel from leaking into the
motor. In addition, the motor chamber of submerged
type pumps is vented to outside air. This way, any
fumes or liquid fuel that seeps into the motor section is vented overboard.
Most centrifugal boost pumps have two operating
speeds: high and low. The high speed setting is typically used during takeoff, high engine power settings, and at high altitudes, while the low speed is
used for engine starting.
Pulsating Electric Pumps

Pulsating electric pumps are another type of auxiliary fuel pump that is widely used in small,
low-wing aircraft. The design of this pump is
similar to fuel pumps used in automotive fuel
systems.
A typical pulsating fuel pump consists of a solenoid
coil installed around a brass tube that connects a
fuel inlet chamber with a fuel outlet chamber. To
force fuel from the inlet chamber to the outlet chamber, a steel plunger is installed in the center of the
coil. A calibrated spring forces the plunger to slide
upward while the electromagnetic forces produced
by the coil pull the plunger downward. One check
valve at the brass tube's inlet admits fuel as the
plunger slides up while a second check valve in the
plunger allows fuel to pass through the plunger and
to the outlet chamber as the plunger slides down.
[Figure 7-10]
When no current flows through the coil, the calibrated spring forces the plunger up, opening the
check valve and drawing fuel into the inlet cham-

7-11

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-9. A centrifugal boost pump consists of an impeller that is driven by an electric motor.

ber. In this position, the plunger attracts a magnet

which pulls a set of electrical contacts closed allowing current to flow through the coil. The resulting
electromagnetic forces pull the plunger downward
which closes the inlet chamber check valve, opens
the plunger check valve, and forces fuel to the outlet chamber. When the plunger is centered in the
coil, the magnet is no longer attracted to the plunger
and the contacts open allowing the calibrated spring
to force the plunger back up. This repeated cycling
of the plunger causes the pump to pulsate rapidly
until fuel pressure builds up in the fuel line. Once
the fuel metering device begins to control the fuel
usage, the pump begins to pulsate at a slower rate to
maintain a steady fuel pressure.

Figure 7-10. This pulsating-type boost pump uses a

calibrated spring and an electromagnet to force a plunger
up and down to pump fuel.

Pulsating electric pumps are normally installed in

parallel with an engine-driven fuel pump. This
arrangement allows either pump to provide fuel
pressure to the engine regardless of the other
pump's operation.

7-72

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

have an approved landing weight that is less than

the takeoff weight, a special valve is installed to
allow emergency fuel dumping. Most turbine fuel
systems also include a warning annunciator for low
fuel quantity and low fuel pressure conditions.
Most large turbine aircraft fuel systems include
central refueling provisions, and a means of
transferring fuel between tanks. Such a fuel system
is known as a crossfeed system and it allows fuel to
be fed to any engine from any tank. In addition, a
crossfeed system provides a means of balancing the
fuel load and maintaining aircraft stability.

TURBINE FUELS AND ADDITIVES

Figure 7-11. On engines that utilize both an engine-driven
pump and a boost pump, a bypass valve is generally
installed in conjunction with the pressure relief valve. This
way, when boost pump pressure exceeds the engine-driven
pump pressure, fuel can flow directly to the engine.

BYPASS VALVE
If an engine has both an engine-driven fuel pump
and a boost pump, bypass valves (when pumps are
in series) or check valves (when pumps are in
par-all) must be incorporated into the fuel system.
The purpose of these valves is to let fuel bypass
the engine-driven pump during engine starting or
in case the pump fails. In most cases, a bypass
valve consists of a spring loaded valve that is
installed in conjunction with a pressure-relief valve.
The spring tension acting on a bypass valve is
calibrated so that whenever the boost pump
pressure exceeds the engine-driven pump pressure,
the valve opens and allows fuel to flow directly to
the engine. [Figure 7-

The primary difference between aviation gasolines and turbine fuel is that all turbine fuels
contain kerosene. The reason for this is that
kerosene has more heat energy per gallon than
standard gasolines. Aviation turbine fuels
currently being used are JET A and JET A-l,
which are kerosene types, and JET B, which is a
blend of gasoline and kerosene. To determine
which type of turbine fuel is approved for a
given engine, check the engine type certificate
data sheet or the aircraft specifications.
The difference between JET A and JET A-l is that
JET A-l has a freeze point of -47 (-52.6)
whereas JET A has a freeze point of- 40 (-40).
JET B, which is similar to JP-4, is normally used by
the military, and is a blend of approximately 30 percent kerosene and 70 percent gasoline. This fuel has
an allowable freeze point of -50 (-58). One
thing to keep in mind is that jet fuel designations,
unlike those for avgas, are merely numbers that
label a particular fuel and do not describe any performance characteristics.

TURBINE FUEL SYSTEMS

The purpose of a turbine engine fuel system is basically the same as a reciprocating engine fuel system.
A turbine fuel system must store, transfer, and meter
fuel to a turbine engine in the proper amount and at
the right pressure. However, because of the type of
fuel used, turbine fuel systems require a few additional components.
A turbine fuel system consists of tanks, lines,
valves, pumps, filter devices, gauges, a fuel control
unit, and fuel nozzles. In addition, a fuel heater is
required to eliminate fuel metering problems
caused by ice crystals in the fuel. In aircraft that

Unlike the various grades of reciprocating engine

fuels that are dyed different colors to aid in
recognition, all turbine fuels are either colorless or
have a light straw color. An off-color may indicate
an unap-proved turbine fuel which does not meet
specifications. Therefore, you should avoid using
these fuels unless their suitability for aircraft use
can be verified. Approved turbine fuels are
identified by white letters on a black background.
In addition, valves, loading and unloading
connections, switches, and other control
equipment are color-coded according to the type of
fuel they dispense. The fuel in piping

7-13

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-12. Fuel conduits and controls are marked and coded to identify each type of turbine fuel.

is identified by name and by colored bands painted

or decaled around the pipe at intervals along its
length. [Figure 7-12]
As a general rule, turbine fuels are much more viscous than reciprocating fuels. This allows the fuel to
act as a lubricant in pumps and fuel control units.
However, the high viscosity also allows turbine
fuels to hold water and solid material that does not
easily settle out. Any time water is present in fuel,
the potential for fuel icing or microbial growth
exists. Because of this, many aircraft and engine
manufacturers recommend the use of anti-icing and
anti-microbial fuel additives. Except for very low
temperatures, anti-icing additives help prevent
water that is entrained in fuel from freezing. On the
other hand, anti-microbial agents kill the microbes,
fungi, and bacteria which tend to form slime or matted waste inside fuel tanks. These micro-organisms
can accumulate and clog filters and fuel lines as
well as create corrosive compounds that corrode
fuel cells.
Quite often, fuel additives are premixed in the fuel
by the distributor. However, when fuels are supplied
without additives, the appropriate quality of additives is metered into the fuel while refueling the aircraft. If metering is not available, the additives are

poured into the fuel tanks just before refueling. This

way, the turbulence created by the refueling process
sufficiently mixes the additive with the fuel. The
type and amount of additive used must be approved
by the aircraft manufacturer in order to maintain the
fuel system's airworthiness. Approved fuel and fuel
additives for each turbine engine are found in the
aircraft operator's manual or Type Certificate Data
Sheet. PRIST is a commonly used additive which
contains both anti-icing and anti-microbial agents.

ENGINE-DRIVEN PUMPS
The main fuel pump on all turbine engines is a constant displacement pump that is driven by the
engine as an accessory. Subsequently, the amount of
fuel delivered by the pump varies with engine
speed. A typical engine-driven pump is designed to
deliver a continuous supply of fuel to a fuel control
unit in quantities that exceed the needs of the
engine. Therefore, after the appropriate amount of
fuel is metered, the fuel control returns surplus fuel
to the fuel pump inlet.
Main engine-driven fuel pumps used on turbine
engines are typically gear type pumps with one
or two gear elements. In addition, some engine-

7-74

driven fuel pumps also contain a centrifugal

boost element that increases the fuel pressure
before the fuel reaches the primary gear element.
[Figure 7-13]
In a typical dual element fuel pump, when fuel
enters the pump, a boost element boosts the inlet
fuel pressure to between 30 and 60 psig. Once
through the impeller, the fuel passes through one of
two high pressure gear elements. One purpose for
using two elements is to distribute the pump load
thereby increasing pump life. Another reason for
using two elements is to provide a backup in case
one element should fail. To allow one gear element
to operate when the other element fails, most dual
element pumps incorporate shear sections on the
drive shaft. This way, if one gear element locks up,
its drive shaft will shear and the second element
continues operating.
To prevent fuel from draining out of the fuel system
when the engine is shutdown and to keep fuel from
recirculating within a failed gear element, a check
valve is installed at the outlet of each gear element.
In addition, a pressure relief valve is built into the
pump housing to limit pump fuel pressure and provide protection to the fuel system.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

A typical large dual element gear pump can produce

fuel pressures up to 1,500 psi with a volume of
30,000 pounds per hour. However, to help reduce
the chance of pump cavitation, many of these
pumps require the full time use of a boost pump. In
fact, these pumps typically have very strict life limits if they are operated without a boost pump.
FUEL TRANSFER EJECTORS
Fuel transfer ejectors, sometimes called jet pumps,
are used in some fuel systems to help the primary
and/or boost pump scavenge fuel from a fuel tank
and to facilitate the transfer of fuel from the main
tank to a boost pump sump. Typically, transfer
ejectors are located at the lowest point in a fuel tank
and remain submerged until the tank is virtually
empty. Transfer ejectors have no moving parts and
consist primarily of a tube with a constriction. This
way, when a fuel pump draws fuel through a
transfer ejector, a low pressure area forms at the
restriction. The low pressure area draws more fuel
from the tank into the line and enables the pump to
transfer virtually all the fuel from the tank. This
lowers the amount of unusable fuel that would
otherwise occupy a fuel tank and provides more
flexibility when balancing a fuel load.

Figure 7-13. A typical engine-driven fuel pump housing for a turbine engine contains a centrifugal boost pump impeller, dual gear
pump elements, check valves, and a relief valve.

7-15

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

FUEL HEATER
Water that is entrained in the fuel supply can
present a hazard to fuel system operation if the
water freezes. For example, if entrained water
freezes, the resulting ice crystals can clog fuel
filters or other fuel system components. In addition,
when a fuel filter becomes clogged with ice crystals
fuel begins to pass through a filter bypass valve. If
this happens, unfiltered fuel containing sediment
and ice crystals flows downstream to other fuel
system components possibly resulting in component
malfunction or fuel flow interruption.
To prevent such disastrous occurrences, most turbine engine fuel systems incorporate a fuel heater to
eliminate and prevent the formation of ice crystals
in the fuel supply. A typical fuel heater consists of a
heat exchanger that utilizes either engine oil or
bleed air to warm the fuel. [Figure 7-14]
In a typical fuel heater, fuel continuously flows
through the heat exchanger while the flow of
engine oil is regulated by a shutoff valve. Fuel heat
is normally used when the fuel temperature
approaches 32 or when a fuel filter bypass warning light illuminates in the cockpit. Fuel heat is
activated either manually or automatically. Manual
activation consists of selecting fuel heat with a
toggle switch in the cockpit. Switch closure
energizes a solenoid which opens the shutoff
valve and allows engine oil to pass through the
fuel heater and warm the fuel.

Excessive use of fuel heat can cause vapor lock or

heat damage to the fuel control unit. Therefore,
operating restrictions are typically placed on manually operated fuel heating systems. For example,
fuel heat is generally operated for one minute prior
to takeoff, and then for one minute during each 30
minutes of flight. It is important that fuel heat not
be operated during takeoff, approach, or
go-around. The dangers of using the fuel heater
during these critical flight regimes include engine
surging() and flameout.
Fuel systems with automatic activation of the fuel
heater are usually set for fuel temperatures
between 35 and 37. The cycle time is automatically controlled by an electric time and gate valve.
To verify that the system is operating properly, you
can observe gauge indications and the fuel filter
light. In addition, as the system cycles on and off,
oil temperature or EPR gauges will fluctuate. For
example, with a fuel heater that uses engine oil to
heat the fuel, oil temperatures should drop when
fuel heat is activated. On the other hand, in systems that utilize bleed air as a source of heat, EPR
readings usually decrease slightly when fuel heat
is used.
FUEL FILTERS
Most turbine engine fuel systems utilize both coarse
and fine filter elements. A coarse mesh filter is typically installed between the supply tank and the
fuel pump while a fine mesh filter is placed
between the fuel pump and the fuel control unit.
The effectiveness of a fuel filter is measured in
microns. One micron represents a size or distance
equal to one millionth of a meter, or
approximately .000039 inch. To put micron
measurements in perspective, consider that objects
must be approximately 40 microns or larger to be
distinguishable by the human eye.
Since the passages in fuel control units are so
small and can become plugged easily, most turbine engines must use micron filters to ensure a
clean supply of fuel. One type of micron filter uses
a cellulose fiber filter element that is capable of
removing particles that are between 10 and 25
microns.

Figure 7-14. One type of fuel heater utilizes engine oil to

heat turbine fuel and melt any ice crystals that are suspended in the fuel.

Another type of filter element is the screen disk element. A typical screen disk element consists of several wafer-type disks that are made out of a bronze,
brass, or stainless steel wire mesh. In addition to

7-76

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-15. A typical screen disk filter element consists of several thin wafer disks. Each disk is constructed of a fine wire mesh
that is capable of filtering extremely small particles.

being reusable, this type of filter element is well

suited to withstand fairly high operating pressures.
[Figure 7-15]
Two-stage filters fulfill the requirements for both
coarse and fine filtration into one unit. A typical
two-stage filter consists of a pleated mesh element
that filters the main system fuel on its way to the
combustor and has a filtration rating of 40 microns.
On the other hand, a cylindrical mesh element rated
at 10 microns provides the fine filtration needed for
reliable servo mechanism operation in the fuel control unit. [Figure 7-16]
WATER INJECTION
Water injection is a means of augmenting engine
thrust in a gas turbine engine. The maximum thrust
produced by a turbine engine depends, in part, on
the density, or weight of the airflow through the
engine. In other words, the less dense the airflow
passing through an engine, the less thrust produced.
Decreases in ambient air pressure or increases in air
temperature reduce air density. Therefore, either of
these conditions will reduce the maximum thrust of
the engine. However, in some cases, water injection

may be used to cool the airflow and increase air density. In addition, the vaporization of water in the
combustion chamber inlet increases the mass flow
through the turbine relative to the compressor. As a
result, the pressure and temperature drop across the
turbine is less when water injection is used. This
provides an increased tail pipe pressure which, in
turn, results in additional thrust. Furthermore, the
lower turbine inlet temperature resulting from water
injection allows the fuel control to increase the fuel
flow to the engine. With the advent of high bypass
gas turbine engines and emphasis on noise reduction, water injection is seldom found on current production aircraft.
A typical water injection system uses a mixture of
water and methanol. This is done because injecting
only water reduces the turbine inlet temperature.
The addition of methanol partially restores the drop
in turbine inlet temperatures because the methanol
acts as a source of fuel and burns in the combustion
chamber. In addition, the methanol works as an
antifreeze to help prevent the water from freezing
when the aircraft climbs to altitude.

Figure 7-16. This two-stage filtration unit combines the requirements for coarse filtration and fine filtration into one unit.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-17

Figure 7-17. This represents the components included in a typical water injection system that injects water into both the compressor inlet and the diffuser.

Water may be injected directly into the compressor

inlet, the diffuser just ahead of the combustion
chamber, or both the inlet and diffuser. Although
injecting water at the engine inlet is done, it does
pose a disadvantage in that it can produce ice at
the compressor inlet at takeoff rpm when ambient
temperatures are below 40. Injecting water into
the diffuser section is usually more suitable for
engines using an axial flow compressor and pro-

vides a more even distribution. In addition, injection at the diffuser allows a greater quantity of
water to be injected. On systems which utilize
water injection at the compressor inlet and at the
diffuser, full thrust augmentation is achieved by
activating both injection nozzles. However, there is
a limit to the amount of fluid injection any compressor or combustor can efficiently utilize.
[Figure 7-17]

7-18
The water injection system shown in the figure 7-17
is controlled by a cockpit switch which arms the circuit and allows water to flow into both injection
manifolds. Closure of the cockpit switch energizes
the water pump control relay and provides power to
the fuel control microswitch. Advancing the power
lever to its take off position actuates the
microswitch allowing power to flow to the water
pump control valve. This also opens a compressor
bleed air valve which allows bleed air to drive the
water pump. The air-driven water pump supplies
water at 200 to 300 psig to the dual manifold. If
water injection is not needed at the compressor, it is
deactivated by a cockpit switch. A pressure sensing
tube alerts the fuel control unit to schedule fuel
flow of a higher rate when water injection is being
used. The pressure sensing tube may be absent in

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

some systems when a water-alcohol mixture is used

exclusively. In such a system, combustion of the
alcohol keeps the turbine inlet temperature at its
required value.
A tank float level switch causes the water pump control valve to close when the tank is empty. This
switch also prevents system operation if the circuit is
activated with an empty water tank. When the water
injection system is not in use, a check valve at the
diffuser prevents high temperature compressor air
from flowing into the water system. Drains and check
valves allow the water supply lines to empty when
the system is not in use, preventing freeze-ups. Some
water injection systems are designed so that
crewmembers may use compressor bleed air to purge
the system of water after a water injection operation.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUEL METERING

In this section, we will discuss the operation and
maintenance of reciprocating engine fuel metering
devices. As discussed earlier, an engine's fuel
metering device is typically considered to be a
pow-erplant subsystem. Therefore, as a powerplant
technician, you must be familiar with the various
types of fuel metering devices used on aircraft
engines.
The fuel metering portion of an aircraft's fuel system
controls the amount of fuel being delivered to the
engine. To obtain the best engine performance and
fuel economy, the fuel metering device must be able
to properly mix fuel and air over a wide range of
operating and environmental conditions. In addition, a fuel metering device must be able to atomize
and distribute fuel in a manner that promotes complete and even burning in the cylinders. Without
proper atomization, the fuel will not completely
vaporize. In this situation, the unvaporized fuel will
not ignite and the engine will run lean even though
the correct amount of fuel is present. If this condition is not corrected, the lean mixture could eventually cause severe engine damage.

Figure 7-18. As air flows through the narrow portion, or

throat, of a venturi its speed increases while its pressure
decreases. This creates a pressure differential that can be
used to meter the amount of fuel needed to produce a combustible mixture.

TYPES OF METERING DEVICES

There are a number of fuel metering devices used on
modern aircraft. Each varies in design to accommodate different engine types as well as an aircraft's
designed purpose. Today, modern reciprocating
engines use either a carburetor or fuel injection unit
to meter fuel to the engine. The two types of carburetors used include the float-type carburetor, and
pressure-injection carburetor. On the other hand,
the two types of fuel injection systems available are
the continuous or direct fuel injection systems.

devices is Bernoulli's principle. If you recall,

Bernoulli's principle states that when air flows
through a venturi it is forced to speed up as it moves
through the restricted portion of the venturi. You
should also recall that as the air speeds up in a venturi, its pressure drops below the air ahead of, and
behind, the restriction. For a fuel metering device,
the pressure differential produced by a venturi is
used to meter the fuel delivery rate. [Figure 7-18]

METERING PRINCIPLES

FUEL/AIR CHEMISTRY

In order to understand how a fuel metering device

works, you must be familiar with some basic fuel
metering principles. For example, the operation of
all fuel metering devices is based on some basic
laws of physics and fluid mechanics. One physical
principle that is
widely used in fuel
metering

In order for gasoline and other liquid fuels to burn,

they must be mixed with air. Furthermore, for the
mixture to burn properly, the ratio of fuel to air must
be kept within a certain range. The acceptable range
is governed by the chemical composition of the
atmosphere and the fuel.
ATMOSPHERE CONTENT

Approximately seventy-eight percent of the atmosphere is nitrogen, while only twenty-one percent is
oxygen. The remaining one percent of the atmos-

7-20

phere's content is a combination of other gases, primarily argon and carbon dioxide. Since nitrogen is
an inert gas, it does not support combustion.
Oxygen, on the other hand, is required to support
combustion and even slight deviations from the
atmosphere's normal twenty-one percent oxygen
content can have a dramatic effect on the combustion process.
To achieve any specific fuel/air ratio, the air density must be taken into consideration. Density is
defined as the mass, or weight, of a substance per
unit of volume. Since the density of vaporized fuel
and air is dramatically affected by temperature,
pressure, and humidity, the only accurate method
to define a mixture ratio is in terms of weight
instead of volume.
As you recall, sea level air pressure is 29.92 in. Hg.
when it is at a temperature of 59 F (15). Under
these conditions, air weighs approximately .0765
pounds per cubic foot. However, if either the temperature, or water content of the air is increased,
its density, or weight, decreases. Given this fact,
any time the density of the air in a given fuel/air
ratio decreases, an enrichening effect occurs that
can cause the engine performance to decrease. On
the other hand, if either the water content or temperature of the air is decreased, air density
increases. Based on this, any time the air density
is high, more air and more fuel can be drawn into
an engine. Any time the mass of fuel and air entering an engine increases, engine performance also
increases. As an additional consideration, when
the water content of the air increases, a large quantity of oxygen molecules are displaced from the
volume of air. In addition, since the water vapor is
non-combustible, it causes the engine's volumetric
efficiency to decrease. Therefore, the result of a
fuel/air mixture with a high water content is a
decrease in engine power output regardless of the
aircraft's altitude.
FUEL/AIR RATIOS

The proportion of fuel and air that enters an engine

is referred to as an air/fuel ratio or mixture ratio. For
example, a mixture containing 12 pounds of air and
1 pound of fuel is referred to as a ratio of 12 to 1
(12:1). A mixture ratio can also be expressed as a
decimal. For example, a ratio of 12:1 is equivalent to
a .083 fuel/air mixture. As a general rule, an air/fuel
ratio between 8:1 and 16:1 will burn in an engine
cylinder. However, mixture ratios consisting of less
than 8 parts air or more than 16 parts air typically
result in incomplete combustion.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Theoretically, the perfect mixture for combustion of

air and fuel is 1 pound of air for .067 pounds of fuel,
or a 15:1 ratio. This chemically ideal ratio is known
as a stoichiometric mixture. With a stoichiometric
mixture, all the available fuel and oxygen are used
for combustion. In addition, a stoichiometric mixture produces the highest combustion temperatures
because the greatest amount of heat is released from
the mass of air/fuel charge. However, a stoichiometric mixture is not necessarily an ideal mixture for
proper engine operation. The reason for this is that,
a reciprocating engine is not 100 percent efficient at
burning fuel. Therefore, a richer mixture is required
to provide adequate engine performance. For example, a typical reciprocating engine develops maximum power with a air/fuel mixture of
approximately 12:1. On the other hand, an engine
operates at maximum economy with an air/fuel
mixture ratio of close to stoichometric, or 15:1.

MIXTURE RATIO TERMINOLOGY

Two common terms that are often used to describe a
fuel/air mixture are lean and rich. In actuality, both
terms are relative and describe variations in mixture
ratios. Lean indicates that air has been added or fuel
has been removed from a given mixture. As an
example, a mixture ratio of 10:1 is leaner than a mixture of 8:1. On the other hand, rich indicates that air
has been removed or fuel has been added to a given
mixture. In other words, a mixture ratio of 8:1 is
richer than a mixture ratio of 10:1.
In many cases, the position of the mixture control in
the cockpit used to obtain a desired performance
characteristic is expressed using a variety of terms.
For example, full rich, idle-cutoff, lean best power,
rich best power, and best economy are all terms that
describe a specific fuel consumption rate that is
determined by the position of the mixture control.
For example, full rich describes the position of the
mixture control which provides the maximum fuel
flow from the fuel metering unit. This condition is
achieved by placing the mixture control in the full
forward position and is normally used while operating an aircraft on the ground. However, if the aircraft
is operated at a high elevation airport, the mixture
should be leaned slightly to compensate for the less
dense air. Leaning is accomplished by pulling the
mixture control back and helps prevent an overly
rich mixture from entering the engine and fouling
the spark plugs.
Idle-cutoff describes the position of the mixture
control which completely cuts off the flow of fuel to
the engine. This condition is achieved by placing

7-21

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

the mixture control in the full out, or aft, position.

The idle-cutoff position is always used to shut
down an engine because it stops the flow of fuel and
allows the engine to burn off all the fuel in the
intake manifold and cylinders. This way, the engine
is less likely to inadvertently start if the propeller is
moved by hand.

reaches a maximum value. The position of the mixture control where the rpm is at its highest value is
considered to be the engine's best economy ratio. To
obtain the engine's best power ratio, enrichen the
mixture by pushing the mixture control slightly forward. This technique may be used with all engines
equipped with a fixed-pitch propeller aircraft.

Lean best power and rich best power describe the

range of mixture ratios that provide the maximum
rpm or manifold pressure for a given throttle position. Although both mixtures produce the same
engine performance, a lean best power setting uses
slightly less fuel than a rich best power setting.

Leaning the fuel/air mixture in an engine equipped

with a constant speed propeller operating in its governing range is accomplished in a different manner
than an engine with a fixed-pitch propeller. Simply
stated, a governing range is where the propeller
automatically changes pitch to maintain a constant
engine rpm. Based on this, it becomes obvious that,
if the rpm remains constant, the engine tachometer
does not reflect changes in engine power. In this situation, the manifold pressure gauge is used in the
same manner as the tachometer when leaning.

The final term, best economy, describes the mixture

ratio that will develop the greatest amount of
engine power for the least amount of fuel flow. This
condition is usually obtained by leaning the mixture control until the highest exhaust gas temperature and rpm are achieved while throttle is in a set
position. Although this mixture ratio provides the
best fuel economy, it can cause an engine to exceed
its rated temperature limits if it is used for
extended periods of time. Therefore, most engine
manufacturers recommend using the best power
mixture ratio for extended operations rather than
the best economy ratio.

LEANING TECHNIQUES
To achieve a desired mixture ratio, the mixture control must be adjusted to compensate for varying conditions. For example, as an aircraft climbs, the
amount of air entering an engine decreases as air
density decreases. Any time less air enters an
engine, the mixture ratio becomes excessively rich.
Therefore, to maintain adequate engine performance as an aircraft climbs, the mixture must be
leaned. On some aircraft, this is accomplished automatically; however, most reciprocating engines
require the operator to manually lean the mixture.
When leaning the fuel/air mixture, different techniques may be used depending on the engine instruments installed in the aircraft. Engine instruments
typically used to determine when the proper mixture ratio has been obtained include the tachometer,
manifold pressure gauge, or an exhaust gas temperature gauge, if available.
When leaning is accomplished using a tachometer,
gradually pull the mixture control aft toward the
idle-cutoff position. While accomplishing this,
monitor the tachometer to determine when the rpm

The most accurate method of leaning the mixture

requires the use of an exhaust gas temperature gauge.
An exhaust gas temperature, or EGT, gauge uses a
temperature sensing thermocouple in the exhaust
gas stream to measure the temperature of the exhaust
gases. If you recall from your earlier studies, as the
mixture is leaned, the temperature within the cylinders increases. Therefore, by monitoring the exhaust
temperature you can set the fuel/air mixture for best
economy or best power. For example, leaning the
fuel/air mixture to obtain a peak EGT value indicates
a mixture that results in best economy and maximum endurance. On the other hand, depending on
the engine manufacturer's instructions, a common
method of setting best power is to adjust the mixture
to peak EGT then enrichen it to approximately 25
cooler than peak EGT.

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

An engine's specific fuel consumption is the number of pounds of fuel burned per hour to produce
one horsepower. For example, if an engine burns 12
gallons per hour while producing 180 brake horsepower, specific fuel consumption (SFC) is .4 pounds
per horsepower hour. Most modern aircraft reciprocating engines have a brake specific fuel consumption that is between .4 and .5 pounds per horsepower hour. While not actually a measure of power,
specific fuel consumption is used to determine the
efficiency of an engine.
A properly functioning engine should have the
specific fuel consumption values specified by the
manufacturer. To verify specific fuel consumption

7-22

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

reciprocating engines promotes a complete even

burn of the fuel/air charge by providing two ignition
sparks at the same time. The plugs are located
across from one another so that as the flame
advances from each spark plug, the mixture burns
in a wavelike pattern toward the center of the cylinder. This type of combustion causes a smooth
buildup of temperature and pressure so that maximum force is applied to the piston at exactly the
right time in the power stroke.
Detonation is the uncontrolled, explosive ignition
of the fuel/air mixture in a cylinder. Detonation
causes high cylinder temperatures and pressures
which lead to a rough running engine, overheating,
and power loss. If detonation is allowed to occur,
damage or failure of pistons, cylinders, or valves
can happen. The high pressures and temperatures,
combined with the high turbulence generated,
cause a "hammering" or "scrubbing" action on a
cylinder and piston that can burn a hole completely
through either of them in seconds. If it weren't for
the noise created by the propeller, detonation could
be identified by an audible "knocking" from within
the engine.

Figure 7-19. By operating an engine at a specific rpm for a

given time period while monitoring the fuel flow rate from
the metering unit during that time, you can determine the
overall performance of the engine and confirm the proper
operation of a fuel metering device.

values and the proper operation of a fuel metering

device, you must perform an engine runup. Since
it is not easy to measure an engine's brake horsepower, you can use other performance data to
check the performance of the engine. For example,
by running an engine at a given rpm for a specific
period, while closely monitoring fuel flow, you can
determine the engine's SFC. In order to simplify
the presentation of data, several manufacturers
provide an engine's specific fuel consumption on a
chart. [Figure 7-19]
DETONATION AND PREIGNITION
A fuel/air mixture burns in a very controlled and
predictable way when normal combustion takes
place. Even though the process happens in a fraction of a second, the mixture starts burning at the
point where it is ignited by the spark plugs, then
burns away from the plugs until it is all consumed.
The dual spark plug design common in most aircraft

Detonation is caused by several factors including

the use of a lower-than-specified octane fuel or an
excessively lean fuel/air mixture. In either case, the
engine's operating temperature increases which, in
turn, increases the chance of detonation.
Preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixture
ignites too soon. It is caused by hot spots in a cylinder that ignite the fuel/air mixture before the spark
plugs fire. A hot spot can be caused by something as
simple as a carbon particle, overheated valve edges,
silica deposits on a spark plug, or a red-hot spark
plug electrode. Hot spots are caused by poor engine
cooling, dirty intake air filters, or shutting down the
engine at high rpm. When the engine continues running after the ignition is turned off, preignition may
be the cause.
Preignition and detonation can occur simultaneously, and one may cause the other. Sometimes it is
difficult to distinguish between the two, but either
condition can cause an engine to run rough and
have high operating temperatures.
BACKFIRE AND AFTERFIRE
While a lean fuel/air mixture can result in detonation, there is a point where the fuel/air mixture can
become so lean that it burns at an extremely slow

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

rate. This occurs because the fuel content is so low

that it can barely support combustion. With a slow
burning fuel/air mixture, it is possible for the
fuel/air charge to still be burning when the intake
valve opens on the next cycle. In this case, when the
fresh fuel/air charge enters the cylinder, it is ignited
before the intake valve closes and the engine backfires through the induction manifold, fuel metering
unit, and out the induction air filter.
Therefore, backfiring always occurs in the induction system. This is completely different from
after-firing which occurs in the exhaust system. In
most cases, afterfiring results from an excessively
rich fuel/air mixture. For example, when an
excessively rich fuel/air mixture is ignited, the lack
of oxygen causes the mixture to burn slowly. If the
fuel/air mixture is not completely burned before the
exhaust valve opens, it mixes with the air in the
exhaust system and continues to burn. This
typically causes flames to appear as the unburned
mixture exits the exhaust stacks.

CARBURETORS
Carburetors are classified as either updraft or
downdraft depending on the direction of airflow
through the carburetor. As you would guess, in an
updraft carburetor the air flows upward through the
carburetor barrel. On the other hand, in a
down-draft carburetor, the air flows downward
through the carburetor barrel. Most aircraft
utilize an updraft carburetor that is mounted
under the engine. Regardless of the type, all
carburetors mix fuel and air to establish an
optimum fuel/air ratio. In addition, all carburetors
atomize fuel and produce a fuel/air mixture which
is then distributed as evenly as possible to each of
the engine's cylinders. Ideally, the fuel/air charge
reaching each cylinder has exactly the same
volume and fuel/air ratio. However, in reality,
both the volume and ratio of the fuel/air charge
that reaches the cylinders varies because of the
different distances it has to travel through an
induction manifold.

7-23
explained by analyzing the airflow in terms of volume. For example, when a specific volume of air
enters a venturi, the exact same volume of air leaves
the venturi. The only way this can happen is if the
air speeds up as it passes through the venturi throat.
Based on this, the greater the volume of air passing
through a venturi, the greater the speed increase
required at the venturi throat. By the same token,
the greater the speed increase, the greater the pressure drop.
To control the volume of air that passes through a
venturi, all carburetors are equipped with a throttle
valve. The throttle valve, sometimes referred to as a
butterfly valve, consists of a flat, circular piece of
metal that is always installed between the venturi
and the engine. When the throttle valve is positioned parallel with the airflow, the maximum volume of air and fuel enter the engine and the engine
develops its maximum power. In this case, the only
thing that limits the volume of air entering the
engine is the venturi. However, as the throttle valve
is moved so that it is perpendicular to the airflow,
less air is admitted into the engine and engine
power output decreases. [Figure 7-20]
The position of a throttle valve is controlled by a
mechanical linkage that is connected to the throttle
lever in the cockpit. As the throttle lever is pushed
forward, the throttle valve opens and engine power
output increases. However, as the throttle lever is
pulled backward, the throttle valve closes and
engine power decreases.

CARBURETOR VENTURI PRINCIPLES

All carburetors depend on the differential pressure
created at the venturi throat to measure the amount
of air delivered to an engine and meter the proper
amount of fuel. If you recall, when air flows through
a venturi, the speed of the air flowing through the
venturi throat increases. At the same time, the pressure and temperature of the air in the venturi throat
decreases.
This
inverse
relationship
can
be

Figure 7-20. When the throttle valve is positioned parallel

with the airflow, the maximum volume of air and fuel enter
the engine. However, as the throttle valve is moved so it is
perpendicular with the airflow, less air and fuel is admitted
into the engine.

7-24

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

The size and shape of the venturi in a carburetor

varies with the size and requirements of the engine
for which the carburetor is designed. Therefore,
although the carburetor installed on similar engines
may appear to be identical, the size of the venturi is
usually different.
CARBURETOR SYSTEMS
To provide for proper engine operation under various engine loads, speeds, and air densities, most carburetors include at least the following five systems:
1. Main metering
2. Idling
3. Mixture control
4. Accelerating
5. Power enrichment or economizer
Although most carburetors utilize each of these systems, the construction and principle of operation of
these systems varies among carburetor types.
Therefore, each system will be described in detail as
it relates to the type of carburetor it is installed on.
The two types of carburetors that are discussed here
are the float-type carburetor and the pressure-injection carburetor.
FLOAT-TYPE CARBURETORS

The float-type carburetor is so named because it uses

a float to regulate the amount of fuel that enters a
carburetor. In a float-type carburetor, fuel is stored in
a float chamber. The amount of fuel allowed to flow
into a float chamber is controlled by a float-operated
needle valve installed in the fuel inlet. With this
type of system, as fuel enters the float chamber, the
float rises and begins to close the needle valve. Once
the fuel in the float chamber is at the correct level,
the float completely closes, or seats the needle valve
to stop the flow of fuel. [Figure 7-21]

Figure 7-21. All float-type carburetors store a quantity of

fuel in a float chamber. The amount of fuel allowed into a
float chamber is controlled by a float actuated needle valve.

MAIN METERING

The purpose of the main metering system is to supply the correct amount of fuel to the engine at all
speeds above idle. The main metering system is
comprised of one or more venturi tubes, a main
metering jet and discharge nozzle, and a throttle
valve. [Figure 7-22]

A carburetor float typically is constructed of brass

or some composite material. When brass is used, the
float is hollow and the air sealed inside the float
provides its buoyancy. However, when composite
materials are used, the float is typically constructed
as a solid piece. In this case, float buoyancy is provided by the air trapped in the porous composite
material used for construction.
To allow the air to enter and leave the float chamber
as the fuel level rises and falls, all float chambers
are vented. A typical vent passage opens directly to
the atmosphere or into the air intake. This way, the
air pressure within the float chamber is always the
same as atmospheric.

Figure 7-22. The primary components of a float-type carburetor's main metering system include one or more venturi
tubes, a metering jet and discharge nozzle, and a throttle
valve.

7-25

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Fuel metering begins with the venturi. If you recall,

as air flows through the venturi, its pressure
decreases. It is this drop in pressure that the metering system relies on to meter the appropriate amount
of fuel. In some carburetors, a single venturi is
unable to create the pressure drop necessary to
meter fuel. In this case, a second boost venturi is
installed inside, or just prior to, the primary venturi.
The discharge nozzle delivers fuel to the intake air
and is installed between the float chamber and the
venturi. When an engine is at rest, the fuel level in
the discharge nozzle matches that in the float chamber. In most cases, the float maintains a fuel level
that is approximately 1/8 inch below the opening in
the discharge nozzle. This distance is referred to as
the fuel metering head. The purpose of the fuel
metering head is to prevent fuel from leaking out of
the nozzle when the engine is shut down.
The operation of the discharge nozzle is based on the
difference in pressure between the venturi and the float
chamber. For example, when no air flows through the
venturi, the pressure in the float chamber and venturi
are the same. However, once air starts flowing through
the venturi, the air pressure in the venturi decreases
below the air pressure in the float chamber. This pressure differential, or metering force, forces fuel to flow
through the main metering jet and out the discharge
nozzle into the airstream. Based on this, the greater the
pressure differential between the float chamber and
discharge nozzle, the more fuel is discharged.
However, the maximum amount of fuel that can flow
through the discharge nozzle is ultimately limited by
the size of the main metering jet. [Figure 7-23]

Figure 7-24. A liquid's surface tension results from the

cohe-siveness of its molecules and tends to prevent the
liquid from readily breaking apart. This can be seen when
a container is slightly overfilled.

In most cases, a pressure differential of at least 0.5 in.

Hg. is required to raise the fuel past the fuel metering
head. At high power settings, the pressure differential is more than high enough to ensure a continuous
flow of fuel. However, at low engine speeds, when
the pressure differential is low, fuel delivery from the
discharge nozzle is hampered by the fuel's surface
tension. Surface tension is a physical property of fluids that is created by the cohesive forces of molecules. Because of this cohesiveness, liquids tend to
hold together instead of spread out or break up. An
example of a liquid's cohesive force is seen when a
container is slightly overfilled. [Figure 7-24]
Air Bleed

When fuel enters a discharge nozzle, its surface tension tends to cause the fuel to adhere to itself and the
walls of the nozzle. This can cause the fuel to intermittently discharge from the nozzle in large droplets
instead of a fine, continuous spray. To decrease the
surface tension of the fuel, an air bleed system is typically incorporated into the metering system.

Figure 7-23. When intake air passes through the venturi, the
pressure within the venturi (P 2 ) decreases below the pressure in the float chamber (P.,). This pressure differential
forces fuel to flow from the discharge nozzle and into the
airstream. The greater the pressure differential between P 1
and P 2 , the greater the amount of fuel that is discharged.

An air bleed consists of a passage with a small calibrated orifice. One end of the passage opens into the
discharge nozzle slightly below the fuel level while
the other end opens into an area behind the venturi
where the air is relatively motionless and the pressure is near atmospheric. To explain how the bleed
air system works, consider a liquid filled container
with a drinking straw. If you were to suck on the
straw, a solid stream of liquid would smoothly rise
up in the straw. However, if a small hole is pierced in
the side of the straw above the liquid, air, in the form
of bubbles, would be introduced into the liquid as it

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-26

Figure 7-25. (A) Air pressure, pushing down on a fluid in an open container, moves a solid stream of fluid up a straw when a
vacuum is applied to the straw. (B) A pin hole in the side of the straw introduces a small amount of air into the liquid stream,
disrupting the solid stream and greatly reducing the amount of fluid that can be drawn through the straw. (C) When air is introduced below the liquid level and a metering orifice is added, the fluid and the air emulsify better, resulting in a finely broken
fluid/air charge that can rise in the straw.

is drawn up through the straw. The amount of air

drawn through the pin hole is limited by the size of
the pin hole and the opening in the bottom of the
straw. For example, if the size of the pin hole is
increased without increasing the amount of vacuum,
the amount of liquid that can be drawn through the
straw is dramatically reduced. However, if a metering
orifice is placed at the bottom of the straw and air is
introduced through a siphon tube below the level of
the liquid, a larger amount of air can be drawn into
the liquid stream. The greater amount of air bleed
produces an even emulsion of air and liquid that can
still be drawn up into the straw. [Figure 7-25]

IDLING SYSTEM

When an engine is idling, the throttle valve is nearly

closed. As a result, the air velocity through the venturi is greatly reduced which, in turn, dramatically
reduces the pressure differential between the venturi and float chamber. In fact, in some cases, the
pressure differential may be so low that a sufficient

When an air bleed is installed in a carburetor, the

low pressure at the discharge nozzle draws fuel out
of the float chamber and bleed air from behind the
venturi. Ultimately, the bleed air and fuel mix in the
discharge nozzle, creating an emulsion, or mixture,
which lowers the fuel's density and helps to break
up its surface tension. By disrupting this surface
tension, the fuel discharges from the nozzle in a
fine, uniform spray which promotes vaporization.
[Figure 7-26]
An air bleed passage is equipped with an orifice that
is matched to the discharge nozzle to provide the
proper airflow. Therefore, if an air bleed passage
should become either partially or completely
blocked, the mixture will become excessively rich
at higher power settings.

Figure 7-26. The incorporation of an air bleed in the main

metering system decreases the fuel's surface tension which
improves fuel atomization.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-27

the needle valve is screwed in, the amount of fuel

discharged is reduced, and the idle mixture
becomes leaner. Conversely, by unscrewing the
valve, the amount of fuel discharged increases to
enrichen the idle mixture. Adjustments to this
valve are easily accomplished by way of a thumb
screw, that is accessible from the outside of the
carburetor. As a general rule, the mixture provided
by the idling system is rich when compared to the
main metering system. This is necessary for
engine cooling since airflow around the cylinders
of an idling engine is typically inadequate for
effective cooling.
In a multiple port idle discharge system, as the
throttle is opened, the edge of the throttle valve
moves past each idle discharge port. As more of
these ports become exposed, more fuel is
allowed into the throat of the carburetor. By
doing this, a smooth transition is provided
between idle power settings and higher power
settings where the main discharge nozzle
becomes effective.

Figure 7-27. A typical idling system consists of multiple discharge ports in the carburetor barrel near the edge of the
throttle valve.

amount of fuel cannot be drawn from the main discharge nozzle. To correct this condition, a series of
two or three small passages are provided in the
carburetor barrel near the edge of the throttle valve
where a small amount of air can still flow. These
passages, commonly referred to as idle discharge
ports, or idle jets, are connected by an idle emulsion tube to an annulus, or ring, that draws fuel
from the outlet of the main metering jet. The emulsion tube contains an idle metering jet that regulates the amount of fuel that can be drawn from
the main discharge system and an idle air bleed
that aids in emulsifying the fuel. [Figure 7-27]
When the throttle is closed, a venturi is established near the discharge ports. The resulting low
pressure area created by the venturi draws fuel
from the discharge ports and allows fuel to be discharged into the airstream.
To control the amount of fuel being discharged
into the airstream, an adjustable needle valve is
positioned in the upper idle discharge port. When

The relative position of the throttle to the idle

discharge ports is an important consideration
during engine starting. For example, if the throttle opening is less than that called for, an excessively rich mixture may be provided to the
engine. This is because a smaller opening
between the butterfly and throttle body creates a
high vacuum near the idle discharge ports which
draws more fuel.

MIXTURE CONTROL

A carburetor's mixture control system regulates the

ratio of fuel and air supplied to the engine. If you
recall, control of the fuel/air mixture is required in
aircraft to allow the engine to operate efficiently at
various altitudes and in a variety of conditions. The
two most common methods used to control the mixture include the use of either a variable orifice or
back suction.

Variable Orifice

With a variable orifice mixture control, the float

chamber is vented to the atmosphere and a valve is
installed in the float chamber that controls the size
of the passage between the float chamber to the
main metering jet. Some carburetors use a needle
valve to control fuel flow while other carburetors

7-28

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-28. In a carburetor with a variable orifice mixture

control, the mixture ratio is adjusted by changing the
size of the passage between the float chamber and
metering jet.

Figure 7-29. With a back suction mixture control system, a

mixture control vent valve is positioned to vary the pressure differential between the discharge nozzle and the float
chamber.

use a step-cut rotary valve. In either case, the valve

is installed in series with the main fuel metering jet.
[Figure 7-28]

is in the rich position, the vent valve is full open

and the float chamber is vented to the atmosphere.
This creates the largest pressure differential
between the float chamber and discharge nozzle
and, therefore, allows the greatest amount of fuel to
flow to the discharge nozzle. On the other hand,
when the mixture control is placed in the idle-cutoff position, the vent valve vents the float chamber
to the low pressure air in the venturi. This eliminates the pressure differential between the float
chamber and the discharge nozzle, thereby stopping the flow of fuel. Based on this, when the vent
valve is placed in an intermediate position, the
float chamber is vented to a combination of atmospheric air and venturi air. The combined air pressure of the two dictates the pressure differential
between the float chamber and discharge nozzle
which, in turn, controls the amount of fuel that is
discharged.

When the mixture valve is in the idle-cutoff position, no fuel flows to the main metering jet. On the
other hand, when the valve is fully open, the
amount of fuel allowed to flow to the discharge
nozzle is restricted only by the main metering jet.
When placed in an intermediate position, the
amount of fuel permitted to flow to the discharge
nozzle is determined by the size of the opening in
the mixture valve.
Back Suction Mixture Control

With a back suction mixture control system, low

pressure is used to control the pressure differential
between the venturi and the float chamber. With
this type of system, low pressure air is taken from
the venturi and routed through a mixture control
vent valve into the float chamber. [Figure 7-29]
On carburetors that use a back suction mixture
control, the float chamber is vented to the atmosphere and to a low pressure area near the venturi.
With this type of system, when the mixture control

Automatic Mixture Control

A few float-type carburetors utilize a mixture control system that automatically maintains the proper
fuel/air mixture during flight. With this type of system, as an aircraft ascends, the mixture is automatically leaned to provide the optimum fuel/air ratio.

7-29

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Likewise, as the aircraft descends, the automatic

mixture control enrichens the mixture.
The simplest type of automatic mixture control
(AMC) utilizes a sealed bellows that positions either
a back suction or variable orifice type mixture control
through an actuator. With this type of system, as the
aircraft climbs, the bellows expands and reduces the
amount of fuel permitted to flow to the discharge
nozzle. This leans the fuel/air mixture allowing the
engine to produce its maximum power output. On
the other hand, as the aircraft descends, the bellows
contracts and enrichens the mixture.
In aircraft that utilize an automatic mixture control
you must be familiar with engine operational problems that indicate a malfunction with the mixture
control system. For example, if an aircraft experiences rising cylinder head temperatures during a
descent, this may indicate that the mixture is
becoming progressively leaner. On aircraft
equipped with an automatic mixture control system, this could be caused by the control actuator
sticking in the extended position. On the other
hand, if the engine does not produce full power at
altitude, the control actuator could be stuck in the
retracted position or the bellows may be punctured.
In either case, an excessively rich mixture is provided to the engine.

ACCELERATION SYSTEM

When the throttle of a carburetor is rapidly opened,

the airflow through the carburetor increases before
the discharge nozzle has an opportunity to increase
the amount of fuel flow. This delayed response creates a momentary leaning of the fuel/air mixture
that can cause an engine to initially stagger before
accelerating. To prevent this, many carburetors are
equipped with an acceleration system. An acceleration system provides an immediate, but brief,
increase in fuel flow in the throat of the carburetor
to enrichen the mixture. By providing this extra
fuel, the engine can accelerate smoothly and
quickly, until the discharge nozzle can deliver fuel
at a rate that is proportional to the airflow rate. The
two most commonly used acceleration systems are
the acceleration well and accelerator pump systems.

Acceleration Well

The simplest type of acceleration system uses an

acceleration well in the main discharge nozzle. An

Figure 7-30. An acceleration well consists of an annular

chamber that stores a charge of fuel around the main discharge nozzle. With this type of acceleration system, when
the throttle is rapidly advanced, the fuel in the acceleration
well discharges into the airstream to temporarily enrichen
the mixture.

acceleration well is basically an enlarged annular

chamber that surrounds the main discharge nozzle
at the main air bleed junction. When the engine is
running at a set speed, a charge of fuel is stored in
the acceleration well. This way, when the throttle is
rapidly advanced, the excess fuel in the acceleration
well is drawn out through the discharge nozzle so
ample fuel is available to produce a rich mixture.
[Figure 7-30]
Accelerator Pump

A second type of acceleration system uses an accelerator pump to provide a momentary rich mixture
when the throttle is advanced rapidly. A typical
accelerator pump consists of a leather packing that
is held against the walls of a pump chamber by a
coiled spring. The pump is connected to the throttle
valve shaft and, therefore, is actuated by the throttle
linkage. This way, when the throttle valve is closed,
the accelerator pump piston moves upward in the
pump chamber. This action causes the pump chamber to fill with fuel from the float bowl through a
pump inlet check valve. However, when the throttle
valve is opened quickly, the piston moves down and

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-30

Figure 7-31. On carburetors equipped with an accelerator

pump, advancing the throttle rapidly causes an accelerator
pump piston to force stored fuel through a separate discharge nozzle into the airstream.

Figure 7-32. A needle-type economizer allows enrichment

fuel flow through an economizer metering jet when the
needle valve is pulled off its seat at full throttle settings.

forces the stored fuel past a discharge check valve

and through a separate discharge nozzle into the
airstream. [Figure 7-31]

A typical power enrichment system functions at

throttle settings above cruise power settings. In
addition, although a power enrichment system
increases the fuel flow at high power settings it does
permit an operator to use a leaner mixture during
normal cruise operations. For this reason, a power
enrichment system is sometimes referred to as an
economizer system.

Since the discharge check valve and nozzle are

much smaller than the accelerator pump piston, the
speed at which the piston pumps fuel must be limited. This is accomplished by installing the piston
on a spring-loaded telescoping shaft. This way,
when the throttle valve is opened rapidly, the telescoping shaft contracts so the throttle valve can be
fully opened. At the same time, the spring on the
telescoping shaft continues to force the piston
downward to pump fuel at a rate the discharge nozzle can handle.
POWER ENRICHMENT/ECONOMIZER SYSTEM

Aircraft engines are designed to produce a maximum amount of power consistent with their weight.
However, the heat generated while operating at
maximum power is typically more than most
engines are capable of dissipating without help.
Therefore, provisions must be made to facilitate the
dissipation of heat. One way of dissipating excess
heat is to incorporate a power enrichment system
that provides a rich fuel/air mixture at high power
settings. This way, the excess fuel in the mixture
helps cool the cylinders.

Needle Type

The needle-type economizer system uses an enrichment metering jet that operates in parallel with the
main metering jet. With this type of system, a needle valve is installed upstream of the enrichment jet
and is operated by the throttle shaft. When the
engine is operating below full throttle, a spring
holds the needle valve on its seat. This action prevents fuel from flowing through the economizer jet.
However, when the throttle is wide open, a linkage
lifts the economizer needle valve off its seat to allow
fuel to flow through the economizer jet and out to
the discharge nozzle. [Figure 7-32]
Air Bleed Type

As you know, when the air velocity through the

main venturi increases, the resulting decrease in
pressure draws more fuel out of the discharge noz-

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-31

sudden aircraft maneuvers and unusual aircraft attitudes. Another disadvantage of float-type carburetors is their tendency to accumulate ice. Carburetor
icing occurs when water freezes in a carburetor
ven-turi and restricts airflow to the engine. When
this happens, an engine may run rough, lose power,
or even quit in flight. Two categories of
carburetor icing include fuel evaporation ice and
throttle ice.

Figure 7-33. An air bleed economizer enrichens the fuel/air

mixture at high power settings by controlling the size of the
air bleed opening.

zle. In addition, to aid in fuel vaporization, a precisely sized air bleed is installed between the float
chamber and the discharge nozzle. If you recall, the
larger the air bleed, the leaner the fuel/air mixture.
By the same token, if the size of the air bleed is
decreased, the fuel/air mixture becomes richer.
Based on this, if you can control the size of the air
bleed, you can control the mixture ratio.
In an air bleed type economizer system, a needle
valve and seat are installed at the air bleed entrance.
When the engine is operating at cruising speeds, a
spring holds the needle valve off its seat and the full
effect of the air bleed is realized at the discharge
nozzle. However, when the throttle valve is fully
opened, an operating lever attached to the throttle
shaft presses against the needle valve thereby
restricting the air bleed. By restricting the air bleed,
additional fuel is supplied to the discharge nozzle.
[Figure 7-33]
CARBURETOR LIMITATIONS

Float-type carburetors are reliable and relatively

easy to maintain; however, they do have several distinct disadvantages. For example, float-type carburetors utilize relatively low operating pressures
which can result in incomplete vaporization and
inadequate fuel flow from the discharge nozzle. In
addition, the float design does not respond well to

Fuel evaporation ice results from the temperature

drop that occurs when fuel is vaporized in the
ven-turi. As fuel is discharged into the carburetor
ven-turi, it turns into a vapor and absorbs heat from
the surrounding air. This evaporation causes air
temperature in the venturi to drop 30 or more.
In some cases, this loss of heat is enough to cause
the moisture in the air to condense and freeze.
Because of this phenomenon, a carburetor is
typically one of the first areas in an aircraft to
accumulate ice during a flight. In fact, carburetor ice
can occur at ambient air temperatures up to 70
with relative humidity as low as 50 percent.
Optimum conditions for carburetor ice exist when
the outside air temperature is between 30 and 40
and the relative humidity is above 60 percent.
Throttle ice is the term used to describe ice which
forms on the rear side of the throttle valve when it
is partially closed. As air flows across and around
the throttle valve, a low pressure area is created on
the downstream side. This has a cooling effect on
the fuel/air mixture which can cause moisture to
accumulate and freeze on the backside of the valve.
Since throttle icing typically occurs with the throttle valve partially closed, a small amount of ice can
cause a relatively large reduction in airflow and a
corresponding loss of engine power. In severe cases,
a large accumulation of ice can jam the throttle and
render it immovable. Since the temperature drop
created by the low pressure area is small, throttle ice
seldom occurs at temperatures above 38CF.
FLOAT-TYPE CARBURETOR MAINTENANCE

As an aviation maintenance technician, you will be

expected to perform basic maintenance on
float-type carburetors. However, the exact type of
maintenance you are allowed to perform depends
on your proficiency level, the availability of
replacement parts, and the availability of the
required service equipment.
The most basic type of carburetor maintenance
include those things that can be done while the carburetor is installed on the engine. Examples of this

7-32

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

type of maintenance include periodically checking

all control linkages for freedom of movement
through their full range of motion. In addition, you
should examine the fuel lines and air hoses for
kinks, distortion, or indications of leakage.
While checking the linkages, lines, and hoses, verify the security of the carburetor mounting on the
engine. Give special attention to the mounting
flange and inspect it carefully for signs of cracks or
leaks. This inspection item is important because a
leak between the carburetor body and engine
mounting flange allows additional air to be introduced into the fuel/air mixture. Such a defect can
lean the fuel/air mixture enough to cause the engine
to idle rough and produce less than full power. If
severe enough, a leak can lean the mixture enough
to cause detonation and engine damage.
Additional carburetor maintenance tasks include
checking the main fuel filter and carburetor strainer
on a regular basis. Also, you should verify that all
safety wire and cotter pins are in place and secure.
On carburetors equipped with an automatic mixture
control, accelerator pump, or economizer, you
should periodically clean all linkages and moving
components. After cleaning, many manufacturers
recommend applying a small amount of oil to the
moving parts.
Although not part of a carburetor, the air filter
should also be checked for security, cleanliness, and
possible air leaks around the filter. In addition, the
carburetor heat valve should be checked for proper
travel and for air leaks. If you recall, application of
carburetor heat decreases the density of the air
entering the carburetor which decreases engine
power output.
Idle Mixture Adjustments

For an engine to operate normally at idle rpm, the

idle mixture must be adjusted correctly. When the
idle mixture is correct, an engine will idle smoothly
and spark plug fouling will be kept to a minimum.
Based on this, if an engine does not idle properly or
will not run at low rpm settings, the idle mixture
may be set improperly.
.
The idle mixture on most carburetors is controlled
by a needle valve that is constructed with a screw
head or knurled knob to facilitate adjustments. In
addition, most idle mixture valves are
spring-loaded to maintain a setting. [Figure 7-34]

Figure 7-34. The idle mixture valve of a float carburetor is

typically constructed with a screw head or knurled knob to
facilitate adjustments. In addition, the adjustment screw is
generally spring-loaded to hold a setting.

When checking the idle mixture, begin by running

the engine until the cylinder head temperature rises
to a normal value. Once the engine is warm, slowly
retard the mixture toward the idle-cutoff position
while simultaneously observing the tachometer. If
the mixture is adjusted properly, the engine rpm
will increase slightly before it drops off rapidly. A
typical rpm increase is between 25 and 50 rpm,
depending on the engine. An immediate rpm
decrease with no momentary increase indicates an
idle mixture that is too lean. On the other hand, a
momentary increase of more than 25 rpm indicates
a rich idle mixture. If the aircraft is equipped with a
manifold pressure gauge, an optimum idle mixture
will result in the manifold pressure decreasing just
before it increases when the engine ceases to fire.
The amount of manifold pressure drop varies from
engine to engine but a typical pressure drop is about
1/4 inch.
If the idle mixture check reveals a setting that is too
lean or too rich, increase or decrease the idle fuel
flow as required. Continue checking and adjusting
the idle mixture until the proper mixture is
obtained. After each adjustment, clear the engine by
briefly running it at a higher rpm to prevent spark
plug fouling. In addition, once the correct rpm indications are obtained, repeat the idle mixture check
with the cockpit mixture control several times to
ensure a consistent response.
Idle Speed Adjustment

After adjusting the idle mixture, you may need to

reset the idle rpm. In most cases, the aircraft manufacturer
specifies
the
appropriate
idle
o peed.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-33

Disassembly

Carburetor disassembly should be done on a clean

work bench where all carburetor parts can be laid
out systematically. Carefully disassemble the carburetor using the sequence recommended in the overhaul manual to prevent accidental damage to delicate parts. In addition, as each assembly is dismantled, try to keep all the parts of that assembly
together.
As a professional, you should always use the proper
tools for each task to avoid damaging the carburetor
parts. Whenever special tools are required, always
obtain and utilize them rather than improvising. For
example, all carburetors contain several small
bronze parts that must be removed and installed
with special tools to prevent damage.
Cleaning

Figure 7-35. To adjust the idle speed on most carburetors, a

spring-loaded screw is rotated to provide a contact for the
idle stop on the throttle valve linkage.

Typical idle speeds range from 600 to 800 rpm. To

allow you to adjust the idle speed, most carburetors
are equipped with a spring-loaded adjustment
screw. [Figure 7-35]
When checking the idle speed, it is important that
the engine be warm before any adjustments are
made. In addition, you should check the ignition
system for proper operation. If everything is operating properly, open the throttle to clear the engine,
then close the throttle and allow the rpm to stabilize. If the engine does not idle at the appropriate
rpm, adjust the idle speed screw as needed and
recheck the idle speed. To help ensure an accurate
idle speed check, open the throttle to clear the
engine after each adjustment.
CARBURETOR OVERHAUL

Typically, carburetor overhaul intervals are not

specified by the manufacturer. However, it is common practice to overhaul the carburetor at the time
of engine overhaul. Overhaul procedures require a
complete teardown of the carburetor and a visual
inspection of all internal components. In addition,
dimensional checks are made to determine serviceability of each reusable component.

Once a carburetor is completely disassembled and a

preliminary visual inspection has been accomplished, you must clean all the components that
will be reused. Recommended cleaning procedures
and solvents are normally specified in the overhaul
manual; however, some general procedures apply to
most carburetors. For example, all metal parts are
first placed in an approved carburetor cleaner, such
as Stoddard Solvent, to remove grease and oil. After
rinsing in fresh solvent, all parts should be
air-dried. Do not use wiping cloths or shop rags for
drying because lint and threads which are deposited
on the parts can obstruct metering jets and cause
close-fitting parts to bind.
Removal of carbon and gum deposits typically
requires the use of a decarbonizing solution.
However, be aware that certain decarbonizers attack
some of the metals used in carburetor components.
For that reason, always select decarbonizers
approved by the manufacturer and check the
instructions before use. In addition, decarbonizing
fluids pose a potential health hazard and, therefore,
you should always wear vision and hand protection
when working with decarbonizer solutions.
After the parts have been decarbonized for the
appropriate time, remove them from the decarbonizer bath. Rinse the clean parts with hot water,
then dry them with clean, dry, compressed air.
Give special attention to the internal passages,
bleeds, and recesses when rinsing and drying.
Carbon deposits which remain on aluminum parts
may be removed with No. 600 wet sandpaper and
water. In addition, corrosion on aluminum parts

7-34

may be removed by immersion in an alkaline

cleaner or an equivalent agent recommended by
the manufacturer.
Inspection

Once all parts are thoroughly clean, complete a

visual inspection to determine the serviceability of
each component. In particular, look for corrosion,
cracks, bent parts, and crossed threads. Also, parts
which are subject to wear should either be
dimen-sionally checked and compared against a
table of limits or replaced.
When inspecting the float bowl and venturi castings, pay particular attention to the numerous fuel
and air passages. To adequately inspect these passages requires the use of a magnifying glass and
light. You should never insert a piece of wire in a
passage because a piece of the wire could become
lodged in the passage rendering the component
useless.
The float assembly must be checked for freedom of
motion, proper fit, and proper clearance. In particular, the fulcrum pin and bushing on which a float
assembly is hinged should be inspected for binding.
Additional inspections that should be made to a
float assembly depend on what the float is constructed of. However, all float assemblies should be
checked for leaks and buoyancy. This is important
because if a float loses its buoyancy, it will sink in
the float bowl and allow the fuel level to rise. If this
happens, the carburetor may supply an excessively
rich mixture. On carburetors that use a hollow brass
float, the float should be immersed in hot water to
check for possible leaks. Immersing the float in hot
water causes the air and any fuel vapor present in
the float to expand and bubble through any existing
holes or cracks. If bubbles appear during the inspection, mark their location with a pencil. In most
cases, a leaky float must be replaced; however, some
manufacturers do permit minor leaks to be repaired.
A typical repair begins with drilling a very small
hole in the float to allow trapped fuel to drain. Next,
immerse the float in boiling water to ensure that all
fuel has evaporated. Once this is done, the leaks are
filled with solder.
On carburetors that use a solid composite float, the
float's buoyancy is derived from the air trapped
inside the porous material. Because of this, any
defects or loss of buoyancy is typically not
repairable and requires float replacement.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

In addition to inspecting the float, the float needle

valve and seat must be inspected for excessive wear,
grooves, scratches, and pits. If any sign of wear is
visible, the needle valve may not seat properly.
Typical symptoms of a needle valve that does not
seat properly include a leaking discharge nozzle
when the engine is shut down and carburetor flooding. Since a typical needle valve is constructed of
hardened steel and the needle valve seat is made
from bronze, the seat usually wears faster than the
needle. In some cases, the needle valve may have a
synthetic rubber tip to provide a more effective sealing surface and reduce wear between the valve tip
and seat. If a rubber tip is installed, it should be
checked for deterioration and tearing. In most cases,
if either the needle valve or its seat show signs of
wear, both must be replaced. In rare instances, you
may encounter some older models of carburetors
that have a needle valve and seat that can be lapped
together to re-establish a tight seal.
Once the float and needle valve assembly have been
inspected and repaired or replaced as necessary, the
components may be reassembled to check the float
level. As mentioned earlier, the fuel level in a
float-type carburetor is between 3/16 and 1/8 inch
from the top of the discharge nozzle. This is
important because if the fuel level is too low, a
greater pressure differential between the float
chamber and venturi is required to draw fuel into
the engine. On the other hand, if the fuel level is
too high, an excessive amount of fuel could be
drawn into the engine. As you recall, the fuel level
in a carburetor is determined by the position of the
float; therefore, an important thing that should be
checked when overhauling a carburetor is the float
level.
The method used to check float level depends on the
carburetor model. For example, on carburetors where
the float is suspended from the throttle body, the float
level is measured with a ruler or by slipping the
shank of the proper size twist drill between the gasket
and float with the throttle body inverted. When the
correct clearance exists, the drill should just touch the
float without causing it to rise. [Figure 7-36]
When checking the float level in this way, it is
important that you verify the clearance on both
sides of the float. If the float clearance is incorrect,
an adjustment tab is generally provided so you can
correct the clearance as necessary.
In other carburetors, the float and needle valve
assembly are mounted in the float bowl and fuel
must be used to check the float level. To do this,

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-36. The float clearance on some carburetors is

measured with a ruler or by slipping the shank of the
proper size twist drill between the gasket and float with the
throttle body inverted.

level the carburetor body on a flow bench and attach

a fuel supply of the correct pressure to the fuel inlet.
As the float bowl fills, the float will close the needle
valve. Once the needle valve completely closes, a
depth gauge is used to measure the distance
between the surface of the fuel and the carburetor's
parting surface. To help ensure an accurate measurement, the fuel level should be measured away
from the edge of the float chamber. Measurements
taken at the edge of the float bowl tend to be inaccurate because surface tension causes fuel to rise
near the float bowl wall. If the fuel level is incorrect,
it can be adjusted by inserting or removing shims
from underneath the needle valve seat.

7-35

Figure 7-37. To determine the float drop, hold the throttle

body in an upright position and measure the distance
between the throttle body mounting flange and the top of
the float. Once the float drop is known, you can calculate
the total float travel by subtracting the float clearance from
the float drop.

mounts to the bottom of the throttle body. After

placing the test fixture on the throttle body, the distance between the float and test fixture is measured
with a drill rod gauge of specified size. The gauge
must pass completely around the float without
binding. [Figure 7-38]
In addition to checking the float and needle valve
assembly, you must visually inspect and
dimen-sionally check the main metering system
components. For example, verify the size of a
metering jet

Once the proper fuel level is established, some manufacturers require you to check the total float travel.
To do this, hold the throttle body in its upright position and let the float rest in its lowest position. The
distance from the throttle body mounting flange to
the top of the float is referred to as the float drop. To
determine the total float travel, subtract the float
level from the float drop. [Figure 7-37]
If either the float drop or float travel are insufficient,
the float mechanism must be adjusted. Depending
on the type of carburetor, adjustments are made by
either bending an adjustment tab or filing the float
stop.
After establishing the correct float travel, some manufacturers require you to check the side clearance of
the float in the float chamber. This may be done
with
a special
cutaway float bowl
fixture that

Figure 7-38. To check the side clearance between the float

and float bowl, a special test fixture must be used so you
can pass a drill rod of a specified size completely around
the float.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-36

by comparing the jet with the overhaul manual

specifications. In most cases, the number stamped
on the metering jet corresponds with a numbered
drill size. Therefore, you may verify the correct jet
size by inserting the shank of a numbered drill
through the orifice. The drill shank should fit the
metering jet orifice without excessive play. Do not
insert the fluted portion of the drill into the metering jet as it could scratch or score the orifice, rendering it useless.
Inspect the main discharge nozzle for obstructions,
kinks, and bent sections. Next, verify that the throttle valve moves freely through its full range of normal travel. In addition, perform a dimensional
inspection on the throttle valve shaft and bushings
to check for excessive wear and play. Visually check
the bleed passages for obstructions and thoroughly
examine the venturi area for corrosion, deep
scratches, and scoring. When a boost venturi is
installed inside the primary venturi, check for broken or bent support arms.
Closely examine the idle discharge jet and the idle
system bleeds for obstructions, nicks, dents, and
upsets which could narrow the openings. In addition, check to be sure that the mixture control shaft
moves freely in the sleeve at the base of the float
bowl. After completing the visual inspection, perform a dimensional check to verify that all portions
of the mixture control fall within permissible limits
as listed in the overhaul manual.
Visually inspect and verify the security of the accelerator pump linkage, then check the moving parts
for proper travel and freedom of motion. Several
dimensional checks are made on an accelerator
pump including the dimension of the spring-loaded
telescoping shaft and its corresponding hole in the
throttle body. Check for proper spring tension and
check the condition of the leather packing. When a
carburetor is equipped with a power enrichment or
economizer system, complete the visual and dimensional inspections as required. The valve, valve
seat, and metering jet measurements must fall
within the permissible limits listed in the maintenance manual tables.

cial tools required for the reassembly must be utilized to prevent accidental damage to individual
components.
Bear in mind that most carburetor bodies are made
of aluminum alloy castings and, therefore, all
threaded openings can be damaged fairly easily. To
help prevent thread damage, it is common practice
to put a drop or two of thread lubricant on
threaded fittings before they are installed.
However, you should insert at least one thread of
the fitting into the casting before lubricant is
applied. This way, lubricant is prevented from getting inside the carburetor and plugging the jets or
other small passages.
When installing moving components such as the
accelerator pump telescoping shaft, you should
apply a small amount of lubricating oil to ease
reassembly. When installing threaded components, make sure you tighten them to the recommended torque settings. In addition, after all components are assembled and torqued, safety them as
required with safety wire or other specified safety
devices.
After carburetor reassembly, a final check of the
fuel level in the float bowl and proper operation of
the float and needle valve assembly should be
made. This check ensures that the carburetor has
been reassembled properly and torquing of the
threaded components has produced no binding of
the float and needle valve assembly. To perform
this check, level the carburetor body on a flow
bench and attach a sight glass tube to the carbure
tor fuel drain port with a piece of flexible rubber
hose. Align the glass tube vertically with a holding
clamp and, using a ruler, mark a line on the glass
tube level with the carburetor's parting surface.
Next, attach a fuel supply of the correct pressure to
the fuel inlet. After the float bowl fills to the correct
level, the float should seat the needle valve and
stop fuel flow. Measure the distance from the fuel
surface in the center of the glass tube to the parting
surface mark and compare the result with specified
limits. [Figure 7-39]
:
Installation

REASSEMBLY

With the cleaning and inspection phases of the overhaul complete, reassemble the carburetor in the
sequence outlined in the overhaul manual. Any spe-

Before you install a carburetor on an engine, you

should consult the appropriate installation instructions. The first step in most installations requires
the carburetor to be mounted onto the engine. Once
the carburetor is secured and safetied, the fuel lines

7-37

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-39. Once a line level with the carburetor's parting surface is marked on the sight glass, the distance between the fuel level
and parting surface can be measured. This check verifies a correct fuel level and the proper functioning of the float and needle
valve assembly.

and controls may be connected. When tightening

the fittings, comply with specified torque values to
avoid damaging the lines or fittings. To prevent
excessive play and imprecise control movement,
replace worn hardware as you connect the control
linkages and rods.
With the controls attached and safetied, check the
throttle and mixture for freedom of movement
through their full range of motion. In a typical
installation, the stops on the carburetor must be
reached before the cockpit controls reach their
stops. The amount of control travel that is possible
between the carburetor stop and the cockpit stop is
known as springback. A typical installation
requires an equal amount of springback at both the
full open and full closed positions.
Once the installation and rigging are complete, an
engine runup is performed to verify proper operation. Items that should be checked during a runup
include the idle mixture and idle rpm. If any adjustments are required, accomplish them using the procedures described earlier. Once the idle mixture and
speed are set, apply full throttle briefly to confirm
the engine's ability to develop its full rated power.

Once the engine runup is complete, move the mixture control to idle-cutoff to verify proper operation
and prompt engine shutdown.

PRESSURE-INJECTION CARBURETORS
Although pressure-injection carburetors are not
used on modern reciprocating engines, you may run
across them at some time in the field. Therefore, you
should have at least a basic understanding of how a
typical pressure-injection carburetor functions.
Aircraft that may still use a pressure-injection carburetor include many of the aircraft that were used
during WWII.
Pressure-injection carburetors differ from float-type
carburetors in many ways. For example,
pressure-injection carburetors do not utilize a float
chamber to store fuel. Instead, fuel is delivered
under pressure by a fuel pump through the
carburetor and out the discharge nozzle. Since fuel
pressure is responsible for forcing fuel out of the
discharge nozzle, there is no need to place the
discharge nozzle directly in a venturi. This greatly
reduces carburetor icing incidents and aids in fuel
vaporization.

7-38

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-40. The Bendix PS7BD pressure carburetor is pictured above to provide an overview of a typical pressure carburetor.
Notice that, although the operating principles of each system differ, a pressure carburetor utilizes the same basic systems that a
float-type carburetor does.

Although the operation and design of

pressure-injection carburetors differs as compared
to float-type carburetors, individual systems for
fuel metering, mixture control, idling, acceleration,
and

power enrichment are still required. However, the

operating principles of these systems are different
and, therefore, each system will be described in
detail. [Figure 7-40]

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-39

MAIN METERING

The purpose of the main metering system is to supply the correct amount of fuel to the engine. The
main metering system in a pressure carburetor is
comprised of a fuel regulator, or fuel control unit, a
main metering jet, and a throttle valve.
The fuel regulator, or fuel control unit is the device
responsible for metering the appropriate amount of
fuel for engine operation. A typical fuel regulator
unit consists of five distinct chambers, an inner and
outer diaphragm, a poppet valve assembly, and a
main metering jet. [Figure 7-41]
To understand how a fuel regulator unit works, refer
to the previous diagram. As filtered air enters the
carburetor body, some of it flows into an impact
pressure annulus around the venturi. As impact air
enters the annulus, its velocity decreases while its
pressure increases.
From the annulus, the impact air is directed into
chamber A of the regulator unit where it presses
against one side of the inner diaphragm. At the
same time, low pressure air from within the venturi is vented to chamber B where it acts on the
opposite side of the inner diaphragm. The difference between the impact pressure in chamber A
and the suction, or low pressure in chamber B
causes the inner diaphragm to move an amount
that is proportional to the volume of air entering
the engine. The force produced by the pressure
differential between chambers A and B is often
referred to as the air metering force and is proportional to the amount of air that flows through
the venturi.
As the air metering force builds, it overcomes spring
tension and opens a poppet valve. As the poppet
valve opens, a regulated amount of pressurized fuel is
allowed into chamber D. As regulated fuel fills chamber D, it pushes against the outer regulator diaphragm
in an attempt to close the poppet valve. This fuel
metering force balances the air meteing force to hold
the poppet valve off its seat an amount that is proportional to the volume of air entering the engine.
When the engine is idling, an insufficient amount of
airflow exists to produce a steady air metering force
to open the poppet valve. Therefore, a coil spring is
provided in chamber A to supplement the air metering force. At idle speeds, spring tension forces the

Figure 7-41. A fuel regulator unit consists of five separate

chambers that are typically labeled A through E. Additional
components include an inner and outer diaphragm, a poppet valve assembly, and a main metering jet.

diaphragm over and opens the poppet valve to provide the fuel pressure required to allow the engine
to idle.
Once regulated fuel fills chamber D, it passes
through a metering jet into chamber C. At this point,
the fuel is considered to be metered and its pressure
remains constant during all engine operations. From

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-40

chamber C, the metered fuel is routed through an

idle needle valve and on to the discharge nozzle.
[Figure 7-42]
At all power settings above idle, a combination of
spring pressure and low pressure on the back side of
a diaphragm hold the idle valve open far enough
that it does not impede the flow of fuel. Therefore,
above idle speeds, fuel metering is provided by the
main metering jet only. Once through the idle needle valve, fuel flows up to a diaphragm type discharge nozzle valve. The discharge nozzle valve is
spring loaded to the closed position and is opened
by a combination of fuel pressure and low pressure
on the back side of a diaphragm. The primary purpose of the discharge valve is to maintain a constant
fuel pressure after the main metering jet. In addition, the spring force within the discharge valve provides a positive fuel cutoff when the mixture control
is placed in the idle-cutoff position.
As mentioned earlier, fuel pressure forces fuel out of
the discharge nozzle on pressure carburetors. Because
of this, the discharge nozzle may be placed after the
venturi and throttle valve so the icing problems associated with the venturi are avoided. Once the fuel

reaches the discharge nozzle, air from the impact

annulus is mixed with the fuel in the discharge nozzle. This acts as an air bleed to help destroy the surface tension of the fuel to aid in vaporization.
As discussed earlier, the pressure differential
between chambers A and B when the engine is idling
is insufficient to hold the poppet valve off its seat.
Because of this, a spring is installed in chamber A to
hold the poppet valve open enough to let idling fuel
into the carburetor. However, this spring pressure
cannot precisely meter the fuel to the discharge nozzle. Therefore, to control the amount of fuel that
actually flows to the discharge nozzle, the idle needle valve is used. The exact amount the needle valve
is held open is determined by the idle speed adjustment which is attached to the throttle shaft.
MIXTURE CONTROL

As discussed earlier, a mixture control system regulates the ratio of fuel and air supplied to the engine.
This allows the engine operator to control the
fuel/air mixture so the engine can operate efficiently
at various altitudes and in a variety of conditions. If
a mixture control were not provided, the fuel/air
mixture would become progressively richer as an
aircraft climbs. In pressure carburetors, the amount
of fuel that flows to the discharge nozzle is determined by the pressure differential between the A
and B chambers. Therefore, by varying the pressure
differential between these two chambers, the amount
of fuel in the fuel/air mixture can be controlled.
The most common way of controlling the pressure
differential is to provide an air bleed between chambers A and B that can be varied either manually or
automatically. With a manual mixture control, the
size of the air bleed is determined by the position of
a needle valve that is controlled from the cockpit.
With this type of system, when the mixture control
in the cockpit is placed in the full rich position, the
needle valve is seated and the maximum pressure
differential exists between chambers A and B. On
the other hand, as the mixture control is pulled out,
the needle valve begins to off seat and the pressure
differential decreases. [Figure 7-43]

Figure 7-42. Once metered fuel flows out of chamber C it

flows through the idle valve and the discharge nozzle valve
before it is discharged into the airstream.

In addition to leaning, a mixture control also provides an idle-cutoff so fuel flow can be completely
stopped. If you recall, a spring is provided in
chamber A to hold the poppet valve off its seat
when an insufficient pressure differential exists
between chambers A and B. Therefore, the only
way to seat the poppet valve and completely stop
the flow of fuel is to remove the spring pressure

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-41

automatically adjusted to compensate for changes

in air density caused by changes in altitude and
temperature. A typical AMC consists of a brass bellows that is filled with helium and attached to a
reverse tapered needle. Like a manual mixture control, an AMC maintains the appropriate pressure
differential across the inner regulator diaphragm
by varying the size of the air bleed between chambers A and B. For example, when the pressure is
high, the bellows contracts causing the needle
valve to move to it's maximum thickness, which in
turn narrows the orifice. This decreases the size of
the air bleed opening and allows the maximum
pressure differential to exist between chambers A
and B. On the other hand, as an aircraft climbs and
the air density decreases, the bellows expands and
allows more air to bleed between the two chambers. This reduces the pressure differential across
the inner regulator diaphragm which closes the
poppet valve slightly and reduces the fuel flow to
the discharge nozzle.
On carburetors that use an automatic mixture control, you must be familiar with engine operational
problems that indicate a malfunction with the
control system. For example, if an engine begins
running rough while cruising at a high altitude,
but the problem clears up if you manually lean the
mixture, the needle valve in the AMC could be
sticking closed or the bellows may have ruptured.
On the other hand, if an aircraft experiences rising cylinder head temperatures during a descent,
this could indicate that the AMC needle valve is
sticking in the open position and the mixture is
becoming leaner.
Figure 7-43. To provide a way of controlling the fuel/air mixture, an air bleed is provided between chambers A and B.
By controlling the size of the air bleed, the pressure differential between chambers A and B is regulated and the
amount of fuel allowed into the carburetor is controlled.

from the inner diaphragm. To do this, a release

contact lever is installed in the regulator unit that
extends from chamber A out to the mixture control. When the mixture control is placed in the
idle-cutoff position, the release contact lever compresses the idle spring and removes all pressure
from the diaphragm. With no pressure on the
diaphragm, the poppet valve closes and cuts off
the fuel flow to the carburetor.
Some pressure carburetors utilize an automatic mixture control, or AMC. On carburetors with an automatic
mixture
control,
the
fuel/air
ratio
is

ACCELERATION SYSTEM

If you recall, when the throttle is rapidly opened, the

airflow through the carburetor increases faster than
the fuel flow. This delayed response creates a momentary leaning of the fuel/air mixture that can cause an
engine to initially stagger before accelerating. To prevent this, many carburetors are equipped with an
acceleration system. An acceleration system provides
an immediate, but brief, increase in fuel flow in the
throat of the carburetor to enrichen the mixture. By
providing this extra fuel, the engine can accelerate
smoothly and quickly until the carburetor can deliver
fuel at a rate that is prop'ortional to the air flow.
A typical acceleration system on a pressure carburetor consists of a single diaphragm pump consisting of
three chambers: an air chamber and a primary and
secondary fuel chamber. The air chamber and primary
fuel chamber are separated by a diaphragm while the

7-42
primary and secondary fuel chambers are separated
by a rigid divider with a combination check/relief
valve and a single fuel bleed. [Figure 7-44]
When the engine is started, the manifold pressure
decreases and partially compresses the spring in the
accelerator pump's air chamber. At the same time,
fuel fills the two fuel chambers. When the throttle is
opened rapidly, manifold pressure increases and
forces the pump diaphragm over. This forces fuel
from the primary fuel chamber into the secondary
fuel chamber and on to the discharge nozzle. The
combination check/relief valve allows a rapid discharge of fuel when the throttle is first opened.
However, the valve soon seats after the initial surge
and the remaining fuel discharges through the fuel
bleed to provide a sustained stream of fuel to the
discharge nozzle.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

POWER ENRICHMENT SYSTEM

The power enrichment system provides extra fuel

for operations above cruise power settings. The
extra fuel is used to aid in engine cooling and help
prevent detonation. Power,, enrichment on pressure
carburetors may be accomplished with either a double step idle valve or by incorporating an airflow
power enrichment valve.
Double Step Idle Valve

When the throttle is retarded rapidly, the corresponding decrease in manifold pressure causes the
pump spring to collapse rapidly and draw fuel into
the primary fuel chamber. To prevent the rapid
diaphragm movement from starving the discharge
nozzle of fuel as the pump fills, the combination
check/relief valve remains seated and permits fuel
to fill the primary fuel chamber through the fuel
bleed only.

In carburetors that utilize a double step idle valve

for power enrichment, the idle needle valve is
stepped to vary the amount of fuel that flows to the
discharge nozzle. At low power settings, the first, or
idle step of the idle needle valve off seats and allows
only idle fuel to flow to the discharge nozzle. Once
the engine is accelerated above idle to cruise power,
venturi suction increases and the needle valve off
seats further so that the second, or cruise step of the
needle valve regulates the fuel flow. Above cruise
power, venturi suction increases enough to completely off seat the needle valve so that additional
fuel can flow to the discharge nozzle to enrichen the
fuel/air mixture. At these high power settings, the
only thing that limits the fuel flow is the main
metering jet. [Figure 7-45]

Figure 7-44. A typical accelerator pump on a pressure injection carburetor consists of a single diaphragm pump with
an air chamber that is vented to manifold pressure and two
fuel chambers.

Figure 7-45. In carburetors that use a double step idle valve

for power enrichment, the needle valve is cut in steps to
regulate the amount of fuel that flows to the discharge nozzle for idle and cruise power settings.

7-43

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

causes the air pressure within the enrichment valve

housing to decrease enough to off seat the enrichment needle valve. Once the enrichment valve
opens, fuel is allowed to bypass the metering jet.
This increases the amount of fuel that flows to the
discharge nozzle which, in turn, enriches the
fuel/air mixture.
WATER INJECTION

Water injection systems were once used on some

large reciprocating engines to allow the engine to
produce its maximum power without suffering from
detonation or preignition. Because of this, water
injection systems are also commonly referred to as
anti-detonation injection, or ADI systems. With a
typical ADI system, a mixture of water and alcohol
are injected into the carburetor to create a fuel/air
mixture that helps prevent detonation.

Figure 7-46. The power enrichment system pictured above

utilizes a combination of venturi suction and fuel pressure
to overcome spring tension and allow additional fuel to
bypass the metering jet. This increases the fuel flow to the
discharge nozzle which enrichens the fuel/air mixture.

Airflow Enrichment Valve

In carburetors that use an airflow enrichment valve

for power enrichment, the enrichment valve is
located in a fuel passage that is parallel with the
main metering jet. A typical airflow power enrichment valve consists of a needle valve assembly that
senses the pressure drop in the venturi to determine
when the engine is operating at high power levels.
[Figure 7-46]
When an engine equipped with an airflow enrichment valve is operated at cruise power settings,
spring pressure holds the enrichment valve closed.
As long as the enrichment valve is closed, the main
metering jet limits the fuel flow to the discharge
nozzle. However, when engine power is increased
above cruise, the amount of air flowing through the
venturi increases. The increased airflow ultimately

On most large reciprocating engines, the carburetor

is adjusted to provide a somewhat rich mixture during high power operations. If you recall, the reason
for supplying a rich mixture is that the extra fuel
helps cool the engine and reduce the chance of detonation. However, a disadvantage of the richer mixture is that it does not allow the engine to produce
its maximum power output. Based on this, if an
anti-detonation system is installed to prevent
detonation, the fuel/air mixture can be leaned to
allow the engine to produce its maximum power.
PRESSURE CARBURETOR MAINTENANCE

A pressure carburetor is a precision piece of equipment that requires the use of a flow bench and other
specialized tools to perform any internal maintenance. Therefore, typical maintenance performed on
pressure carburetors is generally limited to inspection, installation, removal, and field adjustments.
When inspecting a pressure carburetor installed on
an engine, you should check the same things that
you do on a float-type carburetor. For example,
check the carburetor for security and for possible
leaks around the mating flange. Remember, if a leak
exists, additional air will be drawn into the carburetor and the fuel/air mixture will become leaner.
Depending on the size of the leak, this could result
in rough idling or, in severe cases, detonation and
engine damage.
Additional things to look at include security of all
the control linkages as well as freedom of movement
and proper contact with the stops. If all the controls

7-44

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

carburetor is typically conducted by the manufacturer or a certificated repair facility.

When you receive a freshly overhauled pressure
carburetor from the manufacturer, the fuel chambers
are typically filled with a preservative oil which
must be removed. In addition, the manufacturer
may require that the entire carburetor be submerged
in, or filled with, fuel for a specified time to limber
up all the diaphragms and seals. Once these steps
have been completed, the carburetor may be
installed on the aircraft. Since installations vary
from engine to engine, it is best to refer to the appropriate installation instructions.
Figure 7-47. The adjustment screws used to vary both the
idle mixture and the idle speed are typically collocated on
the throttle valve shaft.

are rigged properly, you can also check both the idle
mixture adjustment and the idle speed. Both the
idle mixture and idle speed are manually adjusted
by varying the length of one or more adjustment
screws on the side of the carburetor. [Figure 7-47]
When checking the idle mixture adjustment, the
procedures used with float-type carburetors are also
used on pressure carburetors. In other words, when
the engine is running and at operating temperature,
slowly move the mixture control toward the
idle-cutoff position while simultaneously observing
the tachometer. If the mixture is adjusted properly,
the engine rpm will increase slightly before it drops
off rapidly. If the aircraft is equipped with a
manifold pressure gauge, an optimum idle mixture
will result in the manifold pressure decreasing just
before the engine ceases to fire.
Once the idle mixture is adjusted, you may adjust
the idle speed. To do this, begin by verifying the
ignition system is operating properly and the mixture in the cockpit is set. If everything is operating
properly, open the throttle to clear the engine and
then close the throttle and allow the rpm to stabilize. If the engine does not idle at the appropriate
rpm, adjust the idle speed screw as needed and
recheck the idle speed.
CARBURETOR OVERHAUL

As mentioned earlier, the maintenance you can perform on pressure-injection carburetors is limited. In
fact, because of the requirement for precision equipment and a flow bench, the overhaul of a pressure

Once installed, the carburetor must be operationally

tested. To start an engine with a pressure carburetor,
the engine is primed and then the mixture control is
placed in the idle-cutoff position. Once the engine
starts, the mixture is immediately moved to the full
rich position. During a typical operational check,
the idle mixture and idle speed are checked and
adjusted as appropriate. In addition, the engine
should be run up to full power for a few minutes to
verify the appropriate power output. Once this is
done, the power should be reduced to recheck the
idle speed. If the engine idles properly, pull the
mixture control to the idle-cutoff position and verify that there is positive fuel cutoff.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS

Although carburetors provide an extremely reliable
means of metering the amount of fuel that flows into
an engine, they do have two major limitations. First,
because intake manifolds differ in length and shape,
the fuel/air mixture is not distributed evenly in carbureted engines. This is critical in modern aircraft
engines with high compression ratios since the introduction of a lean mixture in any one cylinder can
result in detonation and possible engine damage. The
second disadvantage shared by all carbureted
engines is their susceptibility to carburetor icing.
To overcome these limitations, fuel injection systems have been incorporated into many aircraft
designs. A fuel injection system differs from a carburetor in that, with fuel injection, fuel is injected
either directly into each cylinder or into the intake
port just behind the intake valve. When fuel is
injected directly into the engine cylinders, the injection system is referred to as a direct fuel injection
system. This type of fuel injection system was used
on some early radial engines and offered the benefit
of even fuel distribution and reduced chance of

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-45

Figure 7-48. The primary components of an RSA fuel injection system include a venturi housing, a fuel metering unit, a fuel regulator, a flow divider, and several fuel nozzles.

backfiring. A typical direct fuel injection system is

similar to a large pressure carburetor that meters the
correct amount of fuel into two multi-cylindered piston pumps. These pumps then forced the metered
fuel directly into the combustion chambers of the
individual cylinders as timed, high pressure spurts.
Although a direct fuel injection system worked well,
the close manufacturing tolerances and complex
components required by this type system made it
impractical and too expensive for aircraft use.
The most common type of fuel injection system
used in aircraft is the continuous-flow system. A
continuous-flow fuel injection system differs from a
direct fuel injection system in that fuel is injected
and mixed with air in each intake port just behind
the intake valve. In addition, fuel is continuously
injected throughout the entire combustion cycle
instead of only during the intake stroke. This allows
the fuel plenty of time to vaporize and mix with the
air before it is drawn into the cylinder when the
intake valve opens.
Today, there are two types of continuous-flow fuel
injection systems used on modern reciprocating

engines. The first is the Precision Airmotive RSA

system and the second is the Teledyne-Continental
system. Because of the differences between the two
systems, they are both discussed in detail.
RSA SYSTEM
Precision Airmotive produces two widely used fuel
metering systems known as the RS system and the
RSA system. Of the two, the RSA system is the most
modern and, therefore, is the system discussed in
this section. A typical RSA fuel injection system consists of five primary components: a venturi housing,
a fuel metering unit, a fuel regulator, a flow divider,
and several fuel nozzles. With this type of fuel injection system, fuel flows into the fuel metering unit
where the position of the idle lever and mixture control determine how much fuel is metered to the fuel
regulator. Once in the fuel regulator, a combination
of air and fuel metering forces regulate how much
fuel is sent to the flow divider for distribution to
each of the fuel nozzles. In most cases, the venturi
housing, fuel metering unit, and fuel regulator are
generally cast as a single unit. However, for ease of
understanding, the fuel metering unit is illustrated
as a separate unit. [Figure 7-48]

7-46

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

To control the airflow through the venturi, a throttle

valve is installed at the top of the venturi housing.
To provide adequate airflow for engine idling, three
holes are sometimes drilled through the throttle
valve near its edge. [Figure 7-49]
FUEL METERING UNIT

Figure 7-49. A typical venturi housing consists of a single

piece of cast aluminum with a venturi pressed into one end
and a throttle valve installed on the opposite end.

VENTURI HOUSING

The venturi housing of a RSA fuel injection unit is

typically cast out of aluminum as a single unit. Most
contain a single venturi that is also cast from aluminum and pressed into the bottom of the housing.

A typical fuel metering unit consists of a fuel

strainer, a mixture control and idle valve, and a
main and enrichment metering jet. Both the mixture
and idle valves are spring-loaded, flat plate-type
valves that are mechanically actuated to control the
amount of fuel that flows into and out of the metering jets. The mixture valve is actuated by the mixture control in the cockpit while the idle valve is
actuated by the throttle valve shaft through a
mechanical linkage. [Figure 7-50]
Fuel metering begins when unmetered fuel is
pumped into the fuel metering unit. Once through
the fuel strainer, the fuel passes through a port in
the mixture control valve. A typical mixture control
consists of a flat plate-type valve that is rotated over
a passageway leading to the metering jets. With this

Figure 7-50. In a typical RSA fuel metering unit, after fuel flows through a wire strainer, it must pass through the mixture control
valve to get to the metering jets. By the same token, the amount of fuel that is allowed to flow out of the metering jets is determined by the position of the idle valve.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-47

the fuel regulator. This unmetered fuel pressure is

used as a reference pressure for regulating the
amount of fuel that flows to the engine. This will be
discussed in more detail later in this section.
Once past the mixture valve, fuel can flow through
the metering jets. However, the amount of fuel that
can flow out of either the main or enrichment jet is
determined by the position of the idle valve. A typical valve plate used with an idle valve proportionately uncovers both the main and enrichment jets as
the throttle is advanced. For example, at low power
settings, only a small portion of the main metering
jet is uncovered. However, as the throttle is
advanced, more of the main metering jet is uncovered to provide additional fuel. When the throttle is
wide open, both the main and enrichment jet are
uncovered to provide the fuel required for high
power settings. [Figure 7-52]

Figure 7-51. (A) When the mixture control is set in the

idle-cutoff position, the entire passageway leading to the
metering jets is blocked. (B) As the mixture is advanced
to a lean setting, the valve plate begins to uncover the passageway leading to the metering jets and fuel begins to
flow. (C) In the full rich position, the valve plate completely exposes the passageway to the metering jets allowing maximum fuel flow.

type of valve, the passageway leading to the metering jet is uncovered as the mixture control in the
cockpit is advanced. [Figure 7-51]
In the rich position, the opening afforded by the mixture control is larger than the metering jet, and the jet
limits the flow. However, in any intermediate position, the opening is smaller than the main jet, and the
mixture control becomes the flow limiting device.
A second passageway in the mixture control base
allows unmetered, or inlet fuel pressure, to flow to

Figure 7-52. (A) When the throttle is set at idle, a small

portion of the main metering jet is uncovered. (B) As the
throttle is advanced to a cruise setting, nearly all the main
metering jet is exposed. (C) When the throttle is full forward, both the main and enrichment metering jets are
exposed to provide maximum fuel flow.

7-48
FUEL REGULATOR

The purpose of the fuel regulator is to supply the

correct amount of fuel to the engine. To do this, the
fuel regulator receives metered fuel from the fuel
metering unit and regulates it to the engine based on
the amount of air being taken in through the venturi.
A typical fuel regulator unit consists of four distinct
chambers, an air and fuel diaphragm, and a ball
valve. [Figure 7-53]
The fuel regulator uses the same operating principles as the regulator unit on pressure carburetors. In
other words, as air enters the venturi housing, some
of it flows into a series of impact tubes that project
out of the base of the venturi. Once in the impact
tubes, the air is directed into a sealed chamber
where it acts on one side of the air diaphragm. At
the same time, the chamber on the opposite side of
the air diaphragm is vented to the low pressure air
in the venturi. These two forces work together to
move the air diaphragm an amount that is proportional to the volume of air that is drawn through the

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

venturi. The force produced by the pressure differential across the air diaphragm is referred to as the
air metering force and is responsible for opening a
ball, or servo valve and allowing fuel to flow to the
flow divider.
At the same time the air metering force opens the ball
valve, inlet fuel pressure acts on one side of the fuel
diaphragm to move the ball valve toward the closed
position. However, as metered fuel flows into the
fuel chamber and past the ball valve, it opposes the
inlet fuel pressure to create a fuel metering force that
balances the air metering force. To understand how
these two forces work together, assume that the throttle is advanced from idle to cruise. When the throttle
is advanced, the impact air pressure increases while
the venturi pressure decreases. This increases the
pressure differential across the air diaphragm which
pulls the ball valve further off its seat. As the ball
valve opens, the metered fuel pressure drops while
the inlet fuel pressure remains relatively constant.
The increased difference between the metered fuel
pressure and the inlet fuel pressure causes more fuel

Figure 7-53. The fuel regulator in an RSA fuel injection system consists of four separate chambers, an air and fuel diaphragm, and a
ball valve.

7-49

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

to flow through the main metering jet in the metering

unit which, in turn, sends more fuel past the ball
valve and on to the engine. Therefore, the function of
the ball valve is to create a pressure differential
across the metering jet that is proportional to the airflow being drawn into the engine.
IDLE SYSTEM

At idle, the airflow through the engine is low and

the air metering force is unable to open the ball
valve to maintain a pressure differential across the
metering jet. Therefore, a method of holding the ball
valve off its seat at idle speeds is required. In the
RSA system, the force required to hold the ball
valve off its seat is provided by a constant head idle
spring. [Figure 7-54]
When a small amount of air is flowing through the
venturi, the constant head spring holds the ball
valve off its seat. Once the intake airflow increases,
the air diaphragm moves outward to compress the
constant head spring until the diaphragm bushing
contacts the stop on the end of the ball valve shaft
and takes over fuel regulation. To provide a smooth
transition between idle and cruise power settings,
the constant effort spring pre-loads the air
diaphragm to approximately a neutral position.

Figure 7-54. The idling system consists of a constant head

idle spring that opposes a constant effort spring to pull the
ball valve off its seat.

AUTOMATIC MIXTURE CONTROL

To help alleviate some of the work load on a pilot,

some RSA fuel injection systems are equipped with
an automatic mixture control. When this is the case,
the automatic mixture control is installed in parallel with the manual mixture control. A typical automatic mixture control utilizes a sealed bellows that
moves a reverse tapered needle to vary the size of an
air bleed between the impact and venturi air chambers. The bellows is filled with helium and expands
and contracts with changes in air density. For example, as an aircraft climbs, air density decreases and
the bellows expands. Since the bellows is connected to the reverse tapered valve, the expansion
movement pushes the needle valve off its seat to
open the bleed air port. This reduces the pressure
differential across the air diaphragm which partially
closes the ball valve. [Figure 7-55]
FLOW DIVIDER

Metered fuel flows from the regulator through a

flexible hose to the flow divider. Most flow dividers
are located on top of the engine in a central location.
A typical divider consists of a diaphragm operated
valve and a spring. When there is no fuel pressure,
a combination of atmospheric and spring pressure

Figure 7-55. An Automatic mixture control installed in an

RSA fuel injection system utilizes a helium filled bellows
that controls a reverse tapered needle valve.

7-50

holds the valve in the closed position. However,

once fuel pressure builds enough to overcome these
two forces, the valve opens and allows fuel into the
flow divider. From the flow divider, fuel flows
through 1/8 inch stainless steel tubing out to each
injector nozzle. In addition, an outlet is also provided for a pressure gauge in the cockpit. A typical
pressure gauge is calibrated in pounds per square
inch, gallons per hour, or pounds per hour.
By taking pressure readings at the flow divider, the
pressure indications obtained reflect the collective
pressure drop across all fuel injector nozzles. The
gauge pressure is directly proportional to the pressure
drop caused by the fuel flow through the nozzles.
At all speeds above idle, the small opening in the
nozzles restrict the amount of fuel that can flow into
each cylinder. This causes a back pressure to build
up in the metered fuel lines which, in turn, influences the fuel metering force. Based on this, the
nozzles control fuel pressure when engine rpm is
above idle. [Figure 7-56]

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

During idle, fuel flow through the nozzles is insufficient to create the back pressure required for fuel
metering. To remedy this, the coil spring on the air
side of the diaphragm holds the flow divider valve
closed until metered fuel pressure becomes sufficient to offseat the valve. Once metered fuel pressure rises enough to overcome spring tension, the
flow divider opens and evenly distributes fuel to the
cylinders during this low fuel flow condition. As an
added benefit, when the mixture control is placed
in the idle-cutoff position, the spring forces the
divider valve down and provides a positive fuel cutoff to the nozzles. This action reduces the chance of
vapor lock by trapping fuel in the injector lines.
INJECTION NOZZLES

The RSA system uses air bleed-type nozzles which

are threaded into the cylinder heads near the intake
ports. Each nozzle consists of a brass body constructed with a metering orifice, an air bleed hole,
and an emulsion chamber. In addition, to help
ensure that no contaminants are drawn into the air

Figure 7-56. A flow divider ensures equal fuel flow at a regulated pressure to each nozzle. In addition, it provides a convenient
location to take a system pressure reading.

7-51

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

bleed hole, a fine mesh metal screen and pressed

steel shroud surround the brass body. To provide
the air pressure needed to emulsify the fuel, the fuel
nozzles used on some turbocharged engines include
an extension that allows the nozzle to receive upper
deck air pressure. [Figure 7-57]
Each nozzle incorporates a calibrated metering orifice, or jet, that is manufactured to provide a specific flow rate plus or minus two percent. The jet
size is determined by the available fuel inlet pressure and the maximum fuel flow required by the
engine. In addition, nozzles of the same type are
interchangeable between engines, and between
cylinders. To allow you to identify the size of the jet
in any given nozzle, an identification mark is usually stamped on the hex flat of the nozzle opposite
the air bleed hole. The identification mark generally
consists of a single letter.

As fuel flows into a fuel nozzle, it passes through

the metering jet and into an emulsion chamber
where it is mixed with air. Since the end of the nozzle is exposed to manifold pressure which, on normally aspirated engines, is less than atmospheric
pressure air is pulled into the nozzle through the air
bleed. As the air and fuel mix in the emulsion
chamber, the fuel is atomized. Since the manifold
pressure in a turbocharged engine often exceeds
atmospheric pressure, a higher pressure air source
must be used for the air bleed. In most cases, the
high pressure air is taken off the upper deck.
When installing a fuel nozzle, you should always
attempt to position the bleed air hole so that it is
pointing upward. This way, when the engine is shut
down, fuel will be less likely to drain out of the nozzle and onto the engine. Another thing to watch out
for is a clogged air bleed. If an air bleed should
become plugged, the outlet side of the metering jet
will be exposed to manifold pressure instead of
atmospheric pressure. This increases the differential pressure across the nozzle metering jet which,
in turn, causes more fuel to flow through the nozzle.
Since the regulator unit delivers a set amount of fuel
to the flow divider at a given power setting, the nozzle with the clogged air bleed will essentially take
more fuel from the other nozzles. Based on this, the
nozzle with the clogged air bleed will provide a rich
mixture while the remaining nozzles will provide a
lean mixture. Furthermore, since the fuel pressure
gauge is also connected to the flow divider, a
clogged air bleed causes a low fuel flow indication.
RSA SYSTEM INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

When inspecting an RSA fuel injection system on

an airplane, you should begin by checking the security of all the components. For example, verify the
security of the venturi housing, flow divider, and
fuel lines. As with carburetors, give special attention to the mounting flange for evidence of cracks or
leaks. This is important because a leak between the
housing and the engine mounting pad will allow
excess air to be introduced into the fuel/air mixture.

Figure 7-57. (A) A typical RSA fuel injector consists of a

shrouded brass body that houses a metering orifice, an air
bleed hole, and an emulsion chamber. (B) The nozzles
used on normally aspirated engines are vented to ambient
air that is drawn into the nozzle from under a shroud. (C)
Since the manifold pressure in a turbocharged engine often
exceeds atmospheric pressure, the nozzles used on turbocharged engines have an extension that allows the nozzle to receive upper deck air pressure.

In addition to checking for security, you should

periodically check all control linkages for freedom
of movement and range of movement. Furthermore,
you should examine the fuel lines for kinks, distortion, or indications of leakage. At the same time,
verify that all fittings are properly tightened.
When inspecting the flow divider, verify that the
vent hole that allows atmospheric air into the
divider is free of obstructions. If the vent
hole

7-52

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

should become plugged, the pressure acting on one

side of the diaphragm will not vary with changes in
altitude and the divider valve will not open the correct amount, causing an excessively lean mixture.
As part of a regular maintenance program, the fuel
nozzles should be cleaned periodically to remove
any varnish or other contaminants. After the noz
zles have been cleaned, visually inspect the meter
ing jet for obstructions. If a nozzle is plugged, soak
the nozzle in an approved cleaner and blow it out
with compressed air until the obstruction is
removed.
,
Once all the nozzles are clean, it is a good idea to
make a flow comparison. To do this, install each
nozzle on its respective fuel line and position equal
sized containers under each nozzle outlet. Once in
place, turn on the aircraft's electric boost pump,
place the mixture in the full rich position, and
advance the throttle. With the controls in this position, let the containers fill until all of them are at
least half full. Once this occurs, place the mixture in
the idle-cutoff position and turn off the boost pump.
When fuel quits dripping from the nozzles, gather
the containers and place them side-by-side on a
level surface. The amount of fuel in each container
should be approximately the same. If the level in
any one container is substantially lower then the
others, a restriction may exist in the nozzle, supply
line, or flow divider.
FIELD ADJUSTMENTS

The two types of field adjustments that are made on

a fuel injection system include the idle mixture and
idle speed. The idle mixture on an RSA system is
controlled by adjusting the position of the idle fuel
valve in the fuel metering unit. If you recall, the idle
valve is connected to the throttle valve by an
adjustable mechanical linkage. Based on this, the
idle mixture is adjusted by varying the length of the
linkage between the two valves. On the other hand,
the idle speed is adjusted by turning a spring loaded
adjustment screw. [Figure 7-58]
To make an idle mixture adjustment, begin by starting the engine using the manufacturers starting
checklist. Once the engine is warm, adjust the mixture as necessary and retard the throttle to idle.
When engine speed has stabilized, slowly move the
mixture control toward the idle-cutoff position
while simultaneously observing the tachometer or
manifold
pressure gauge.
On
aircraft
that are

Figure 7-58. To adjust the idle speed on an RSA fuel injection unit, a spring-loaded adjustment screw is typically provided. On the other hand, the idle mixture is adjusted by
changing the length of the connecting rod between the idle
and throttle valves

equipped with a tachometer, the mixture is adjusted

properly if the engine rpm increases slightly just
before it drops off rapidly. However, if equipped
with a manifold pressure gauge, an optimum idle
mixture is indicated by the manifold pressure
decreasing just before the engine ceases to fire.
If the idle mixture check reveals a mixture that is
too lean or too rich, increase or decrease the idle
fuel flow as required. To increase the fuel flow, the
length of the connecting linkage is increased; however, to decrease the fuel flow, the length of the connecting linkage must be decreased. Once you have
adjusted the idle mixture, recheck the mixture using
the same procedure discussed earlier.
After adjusting the idle mixture, you may need to
reset the idle speed. To do this, the spring-loaded
idle screw is rotated to adjust when the throttle
shaft contacts the idle stop. If the idle speed needs
to be increased, the idle screw is turned clockwise.
On the other hand, to decrease the idle speed, turn
the idle screw counter-clockwise.
TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM
A second type of continuous-flow fuel injection system is the Teledyne Continental fuel injection system. Unlike the RSA system which utilizes both fuel
and air forces to meter fuel, the Teledyne
Continental system only uses a fuel metering force
to meter fuel. The basic components of a Teledyne

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Continental system include an engine-driven injector pump, a fuel/air control unit, a fuel manifold
valve, and injector nozzles.
INJECTOR PUMP

The injector pump used in a Teledyne Continental

system consists of a vane-type pump that is driven by
a splined shaft. Additional components that are
included in a typical injector pump include a
vapor-separator chamber, an adjustable orifice and
relief valve, a vapor ejector, and a bypass valve. [Figure
7-59]
As fuel enters an injector pump, it passes through a
vapor-separator chamber where it is swirled to
remove any remaining fuel vapor. From here, the
fuel passes through a vane-type pump. If you recall
from Section A, all vane-type pumps are positive
displacement pumps. This means that the pump
delivers a specific quantity per revolution. Because
of this, the output of an injector pump varies with
engine speed. Furthermore, with vane-type pumps,
more fuel is delivered to the fuel/air control unit
than is needed. Therefore, all injector pumps incorporate a return passage that routes excess fuel back
to the pump inlet. By incorporating a variable orifice in the return line, a fuel pressure that is pro-

7-53

portional to the engine's speed is provided. For

example, when the size of the orifice is increased,
the pump's output pressure decreases. On the other
hand, when the size of the orifice is decreased the
output pressure increases.
The use of an adjustable orifice works well to control fuel flow when the engine is operating at or
above cruise power settings. However, below cruise
power settings the orifice does not restrict fuel flow
enough to maintain a constant output pressure. To
remedy this condition, a spring-loaded pressure
relief valve is installed downstream from the orifice.
This way, when an engine is operated at low power
settings, the resistance offered by the spring-loaded
relief valve permits the injector pump to maintain a
constant output pressure.
To aid in removing excess fuel vapor from the vapor
chamber, some of the excess output fuel is routed
through a vapor ejector at the top of the vapor
chamber. A vapor ejector is nothing more than a
restriction in the fuel passageway that is open to the
vapor chamber. As fuel flows through the ejector
restriction, a low pressure area is created that draws
fuel vapor out of the vapor chamber and returns it to
the fuel tanks.

Figure 7-59. A typical injector pump in a Teledyne Continental fuel injection system consists of a vane-type pump that is housed
with a vapor separator, an adjustable orifice and relief valve, a vapor ejector, and a bypass valve.

7-54

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

Figure 7-60. Turbocharged engines are equipped with injector pumps that are equipped with an aneroid controlled variable
restrictor.

Another feature of the injector pump is a check

valve in the bypass line. The check valve allows fuel
from the aircraft boost pump to flow to the fuel control for starting. However, once the engine-driven
injector pump pressure exceeds boost pump pressure, the check valve closes and the injector pump
begins to supply fuel pressure to the fuel control.
When the throttle on a turbocharged engine is
advanced rapidly, the injector pump accelerates and
supplies additional fuel to the engine before the
tur-bocharger can speed up and supply additional
air. The imbalance created can cause the mixture to
temporarily become too rich causing the engine to
falter. To correct this problem, the injector pumps
used on turbocharged engines utilize an altitude
compensating bellows to control the metering orifice in the return line. [Figure 7-60]
The aneroid is surrounded by upper deck pressure
which is basically turbocharger discharge pressure. As the upper deck pressure fluctuates, the
aneroid moves the variable restrictor, controlling

the orifice size. As a result, the output fuel pressure is varied proportionally to the upper deck
pressure. This way, when the throttle is opened
suddenly, the aneroid holds the orifice open until
the volume of air flowing into the engine
increases. As the turbocharger speeds up, upper
deck pressure increases causing the bellows to
contract. As the bellows contracts, the orifice
becomes more restrictive and the fuel pressure to
the engine increases.
To protect the engine in case the injector pump fails,
the pump's drive shaft has a shear section. In addition, most injector pumps utilize a loose coupling to
compensate for slight misalignment between the
pump and the engine drive.
FUEL/AIR CONTROL UNIT

The fuel/air control unit is mounted on the engine's

intake manifold in the same way a carburetor is normally mounted. The section of the fuel/air control
unit which contains the throttle valve is known as

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-55

rotary-type valves that are constructed of stainless

steel and rotate in oil-impregnated bushings.
[Figure 7-61]
The end of each valve rotates against a fixed metering plug in the center of the fuel control unit. The
metering plug is also made of bronze and contains a
fuel metering jet that meters the fuel flow to the
engine. In addition, the metering plug contains one
passage that connects the fuel inlet with the fuel
return outlet and a second passage that connects the
mixture control valve chamber with the fuel metering valve chamber. The mixture valve in a Teledyne
Continental fuel control unit acts as a variable selector valve that directs fuel to either the metering jet
or back to the fuel pump. [Figure 7-62]

Figure 7-61. The fuel control assembly contains the manual

mixture control valve and fuel metering valve. Both valves
are rotary-type valves which are connected to cockpit control levers.

the air throttle assembly. The air throttle assembly

of a Teledyne Continental fuel injection system differs from others in that it has no venturi. Attached
to the side of the air throttle assembly is the fuel
control assembly. In most cases, the fuel control
unit body is made of bronze and houses both a mixture valve and a fuel metering valve. Both valves are

Once past the mixture valve, fuel can flow through

the metering jet. However, the amount of fuel that
can flow out of the main metering jet is determined
by the position of the fuel metering valve. A typical
valve plate used with a fuel metering valve proportionately uncovers the outlet of the main jet as the
throttle is advanced. For example, at low power settings, only a small portion of the main metering jet
is completely uncovered. However, as the throttle is
advanced, more of the main metering jet is uncovered to provide additional fuel. When the throttle is
wide open, the main jet is completely uncovered to
provide the fuel required for high power settings.
The fuel metering valve is operated with a control
arm that is connected to the cockpit throttle lever.

Figure 7-62. (A) When the mixture valve is placed in the idle-cutoff position, fuel is routed from the pump outlet back to the
pump inlet. (B) As the mixture control is advanced to a lean setting, the mixture valve begins to uncover a portion of the passageway leading to the metering jet. (C) When the mixture control is advanced to the full-rich position, all of the fuel from the
injector pump is directed to the fuel manifold valve.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-56

Figure 7-63. Once fuel flows past the mixture valve and metering jet, the fuel metering valve regulates the amount of fuel that
flows to the manifold valve for distribution. The fuel metering valve regulates the amount of fuel that flows to the manifold valve
by proportionately uncovering the outlet of the main jet as the throttle is advanced.

Therefore, the cockpit throttle lever controls both

the throttle air valve and the fuel metering valve.
[Figure 7-63]
FUEL MANIFOLD VALVE

Fuel flows from the fuel metering valve through a

flexible fuel line to the fuel manifold valve. The purpose of a fuel manifold valve, or distribution valve
is to evenly distribute fuel to all cylinders. In addition, the fuel manifold valve provides a positive fuel
shutoff to the nozzles when the mixture control is
placed in the idle-cutoff position. In most installations, the fuel manifold valve is mounted on top of
the engine and consists of a fuel inlet, a diaphragm
chamber, a poppet valve, and several outlet ports.
[Figure 7-64]
When the fuel pressure supplied by the metering
valve is sufficient, the diaphragm in the manifold
valve is forced up to lift the cutoff valve off its
seat. However, a spring-loaded poppet valve
within the cutoff valve stays on its seat, blocking
fuel flow. Once fuel pressure builds enough to
completely offseat the cutoff valve, the poppet
valve is forced open, allowing fuel to flow to the
nozzles. The opposition caused by the poppet
valve ensures a constant fuel pressure between
the main metering jet and manifold valve for consistent metering at idle. Above idle, fuel pressure
holds the cutoff and poppet valves fully open, and
fuel pressure is maintained due to the restriction
in each injector nozzle. When the mixture control
is placed in the idle-cutoff position, fuel pressure
to the fuel manifold valve drops and spring ten-

sion closes the cutoff valve. This provides a positive shutoff of fuel and traps fuel in the supply
lines leading to the injector nozzles.
The chamber above the diaphragm is vented to
ambient air pressure for unrestricted valve movement. To prevent air pressure fluctuations in the
chamber above the diaphragm, the fuel manifold
valve must be positioned to prevent ram air from
entering the chamber vent. Therefore, most fuel
manifold valves are positioned with the vent opening to the side or the rear.
INJECTOR NOZZLES

The injector nozzles used with the Teledyne

Continental fuel injection system are air bleed type
nozzles which are threaded into the cylinder heads

Figure 7-64. The fuel manifold valve distributes fuel evenly

to all the cylinders and provides a positive fuel shutoff when
the mixture is placed in the idle-cutoff position.

7-57

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

near the intake ports. Each nozzle consists of a brass

body constructed with a metering orifice, multiple
air bleed holes, and an emulsion chamber. In addition, to help ensure that no contaminants are drawn
into the air bleed holes, a fine mesh screen and
pressed steel shroud surround the brass body.
[Figure 7-65]
Each nozzle incorporates a calibrated metering orifice, or jet, that is manufactured to provide a specific flow rate. Currently, there are three different
sizes of metering jets used in Teledyne Continental
injector nozzles. The jet size used is determined by
the available fuel inlet pressure and the maximum
fuel flow required by the engine. To allow you to
identify the size of the jet in any given nozzle, a single letter identification mark is usually stamped on
the hex flat of the nozzle. For example, an A-size
nozzle will provide a specific amount of fuel for a
given pressure. On the other hand, B-size nozzles
provide one-half gallon more fuel per hour than an
A-size nozzle with the same pressure. C-size nozzles provide the largest metering jet and a full gallon
per hour more fuel than an A-size nozzle with the
same pressure. When an engine is calibrated during
its factory runup, the proper size nozzles are
installed and this nozzle size should not be arbitrarily changed.

Once the fuel flows through the metering jet it

enters an emulsion chamber where it is mixed with
air. Since the end of the nozzle is exposed to manifold pressure which, on normally aspirated engines,
is less than atmospheric pressure, air is pulled into
the nozzle through the air bleed. As the air and fuel
mix in the emulsion chamber, the fuel is atomized.
Since the manifold pressure in a turbocharged
engine often exceeds atmospheric pressure, a high
pressure air source must be used for the air bleed. In
most cases, the high pressure air is taken from the
turbocharger side of the throttle valve, or upper
deck. By doing this, high pressure turbocharger outlet air is directed into each injector nozzle as a
source of bleed air.
To meet the requirements of different engine models, Teledyne Continental injector nozzles are manufactured in several different styles. For example,
some engines require long nozzles so fuel is injected
farther into the intake chamber while other engine
designs function best with short nozzles. While nozzle styles differ in appearance, their purpose and
method of injecting metered fuel is the same.
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

All fuel injection system components should be

checked for security and integrity of mounting at
least once every one hundred hours. In addition, all
lines should be inspected for indications of chafing
or leaking as evidenced by the presence of fuel
stains. An important thing to note is that all the
injector nozzle supply lines on a given system are
manufactured to the same length. This helps ensure
that the same fuel pressure and quantity are delivered to each cylinder, Therefore, when installing or
maintaining these fuel lines, they cannot be shortened. Instead, if an excess length of fuel line exists,
it should be coiled midway between the nozzle and
manifold.
Once you have inspected the fuel lines, you should
check all moving parts for wear, and lubricate the
ends of the throttle linkage rods with a drop of
engine oil. In addition, the strainer in the fuel control unit and the fuel manifold valve must be
checked and cleaned.

Figure 7-65. A typical Teledyne Continental fuel injector

consists of a shrouded brass body that houses a metering
orifice, multiple air bleed holes, and an emulsion chamber.

Normally, injector nozzles do not require much service, therefore, manufacturers commonly establish
service intervals between 100 and 300 hours of
operation. Nozzle maintenance typically consists of
removal from the engine, soaking in acetone or lacquer thinner, and clearing out cleaning fluids with

7-58

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

clean, dry, air. One way to identify a clogged nozzle

is by the presence of fuel stains on a cylinder head
around the nozzle. When a nozzle becomes clogged,
fuel pressure forces fuel through the air bleed ports
and onto the engine.
When cleaning nozzles, do not use wires, drills,
or other cleaning tools to clear out orifice
obstructions. Doing so can damage the precision
passages, rendering the nozzle unserviceable.
Manufacturers typically require nozzle replacement if an obstruction cannot be cleared by soaking the nozzle in an approved cleaner or by blowing it out with compressed air. Once the nozzles
are clean, reinstall them and secure all other fuel
system components.
In addition to inspecting and cleaning the injector
nozzles, you should also inspect the fuel manifold.
When inspecting the fuel manifold, verify that the
vent hole is free of obstructions. If the vent hole
should become plugged, the pressure acting on one
side of the diaphragm will not vary with changes in
altitude and the divider valve will not open the correct amount.
FIELD ADJUSTMENTS

The two types of field adjustments that are made on

a fuel injection system include the idle mixture and
idle speed. The idle mixture on a Teledyne
Continental system is controlled by adjusting the
position of the fuel metering valve in the fuel control unit. If you recall, the fuel metering valve is
connected to the throttle valve by an adjustable
linkage. Based on this, the idle mixture is changed
by varying the length of the linkage between the two
valves. On the other hand, the idle speed is adjusted
by turning a spring loaded adjustment screw.
[Figure 7-66]
To make an idle mixture adjustment, begin by starting the engine using the manufacturers starting
checklist. Once the engine is warm, adjust the mixture as necessary and retard the throttle to idle.
When engine speed has stabilized, slowly move the
mixture control toward the idle-cutoff position
while simultaneously observing the tachometer or
manifold pressure gauge. On aircraft that are
equipped with a tachometer, the mixture is adjusted
properly if engine rpm increases slightly just before
it drops off rapidly. However, if equipped with a
manifold pressure gauge, an optimum idle mixture
is indicated by the manifold pressure decreasing
just before the engine ceases to fire.

Figure 7-66. To adjust the idle speed on a Teledyne

Continental fuel injection unit, a spring-loaded adjustment
screw is typically provided. On the other hand, the idle mixture is adjusted by changing the length of the connecting
rod between the fuel metering valve and the throttle valve.

If the idle mixture check reveals a mixture that is

too lean or too rich, increase or decrease the idle
fuel flow as required. To increase the fuel flow, the
length of the connecting linkage is decreased by
turning the adjustment nut counter-clockwise; however, to decrease the fuel flow, the length of the connecting linkage must be increased by turning the
adjustment nut clockwise. Once you have adjusted
the idle mixture, recheck the mixture using the
same procedure discussed earlier.
After adjusting the idle mixture, you may need to
reset the idle speed. To do this, the spring-loaded
idle screw is rotated to adjust when the throttle
shaft contacts the idle stop. If the idle speed needs
to be increased, the idle screw is turned clockwise.
On the other hand, to decrease the idle speed, turn
the idle screw clockwise.
Once idle speed and idle mixture are properly set
you should check both the low and high metered
fuel pressures. Metered fuel pressure checks are
made by connecting a calibrated fuel pressure gauge
into a T-fitting in the fuel line between the pump
and the fuel control. If you use a pressure gauge that
is vented to the atmosphere, you may have to correct the gauge readings depending on the local field
elevation.
To obtain an accurate low metered fuel pressure
indication, the engine must be warmed up and
idling at the proper rpm. If the indicated pressure

7-59

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

does not correspond with the manufacturer's specifications, adjust the relief valve to obtain the correct
pressure. To check the high metered fuel pressure,
operate the engine at full throttle and observe the
pressure gauge reading. Pressure readings not
within the manufacturer's specifications can be corrected by adjusting the orifice in the fuel pump
return line. When making this check and adjustment, try to limit high rpm engine operation to
avoid overheating the engine.
Once all metered fuel pressure checks have been
made, it may be necessary to recheck the idle
speed and idle mixture adjustments. The reason
for this is that all the adjustments effect one
another.
Once all the adjustments are satisfactory and
within specifications, remove the test gauge and
prepare the aircraft for a test flight to verify the
high metered fuel pressure. Since high metered
fuel pressure is observed on the aircraft's own fuel
flow gauge, a test flight is typically the best way to
make this check. High metered fuel pressure
should be checked at full throttle and maximum
permissible rpm after ten to fifteen minutes at a
cruise power setting.

TROUBLESHOOTING

Effective fuel injection system troubleshooting

requires several skills. For example, you should not
instantly assume that the fuel injection system is the
cause of a rough running engine. Although the fuel
injection system may be at fault, you must also
check for proper ignition and consider the possibility of induction system problems before dismantling
fuel injection components. Taking these preliminary
steps may save time and effort. Typically, Teledyne
Continental furnishes troubleshooting charts to help
you diagnose fuel injection problems. In addition,
the individual aircraft maintenance manuals may
contain troubleshooting flowcharts to help you
determine the cause of a rough running engine.
OVERHAUL

Fuel injection systems, like carbureted systems, are

normally overhauled simultaneously with an engine
overhaul. Overhaul of most fuel injection systems
requires specialized tools, flow benches, and specialized training. Therefore, unless you are employed by
a certified repair station which is equipped for fuel
injection system overhauls, you are ordinarily limited to basic inspections and field adjustments.

TURBINE ENGINE FUEL METERING

the detected parameter information, a fuel control
provides the precise fuel flow needed. In addition,
many fuel control units incorporate several automatic functions to help prevent flameouts, over-temperature occurrences, and over-speed conditions.
Turbine engine fuel metering devices have the same
purpose as their reciprocating engine counterparts. In
other words, they must meter fuel to a turbine engine
for reliable ground and air operations. If you recall
from your earlier studies on turbine engines, the
power output of a turbine engine varies with the
amount of air that is drawn into the compressor and
the amount of heat that is generated in the combustion section. You should also recall that the amount of
heat produced in the combustors is determined by the
amount of fuel that is scheduled into the engine.
Based on this, a turbine engine fuel metering device
must schedule the proper amount of fuel to the engine
to obtain a given power output. Due to the inertia of
the main turbine and the large changes in airflow
associated with power changes, turbine engines do
not respond rapidly to abrupt power lever movements. For example, when an engine is decelerated
and the fuel flow is decreased more rapidly than the
airflow through the engine, an incombustible fuel/air
mixture could result and cause what is known is a
lean die-out. On the other hand, if an engine is accelerated too rapidly, and an excessive amount of fuel is
scheduled into the combustors before the main turbine has time to accelerate, a rich blowout can occur.
For these reasons, a turbine engine fuel metering
device must control fuel flow and engine acceleration
and deceleration rates. The main components of a
typical turbine engine fuel metering system include a
fuel control unit and fuel nozzles.

Turbine engine fuel controls are designed to meter fuel

by weight rather than by volume. The reason for this is
that the heat energy per pound of fuel is a constant
value regardless of fuel temperature, while the heat
energy per unit volume of fuel varies. If you may recall,
as the temperature of turbine fuel increases, its volume
also increases. By the same token, as the temperature of
turbine fuel decreases, its volume decreases.

FUEL CONTROL UNITS

HYDROMECHANICAL

When the engine operator makes a power setting

with the cockpit controls, the fuel control unit, or
FCU, responds by adjusting fuel flow to the engine.
The FCU meters fuel in accordance with the power
lever position to provide the precise amount of fuel
necessary for the desired thrust.

A typical hydromechanical fuel control unit is

divided into a fuel metering section and a computing
section. The fuel metering section consists of a fuel
pump, a pressure regulating valve, a single metering
valve, and a fuel shutoff valve. On the other hand, the
computing section consists of a speed sensitive control, or governor, that responds to the position of the
power lever and the speed of the engine. Additional
components include a servo valve that controls the
rate of engine acceleration and deceleration, and two
bellows that adjust fuel flow based on burner and
inlet air pressure. [Figure 7-67]

In order to perform its fuel metering functions, a fuel

control unit monitors several engine operating
parameters including power lever position, engine
rpm, compressor inlet air temperature and pressure,
and burner or compressor discharge pressure.
Based on

Fuel control units meter the correct amount of fuel

into the combustion section to obtain an optimum
air-to-fuel mixture ratio of 15:1 by weight. This ratio
represents 15 pounds of combustor primary air to
one pound of fuel. If you recall from Section B, a
mixture ratio of 15:1 is the theoretically perfect mixture for combustion.
A typical fuel control unit is an engine-driven
accessory that meters fuel using hydromechanical,
hydro-pneumatic, or electronic forces. Today,
hydromechanical and electronic fuel control units
are used on most turbojet and turbofan engines. On
the other hand, hydro-pneumatic units are used on
several turboprop engines.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-61

Figure 7-67. The simplified hydromechanical fuel control unit pictured here is provided as an overview of a typical system. The fuel
metering portion of the fuel control unit utilizes a fuel pump to send pressurized fuel to a main metering valve and on to the combustion section. On the other hand, the computing section monitors power lever position, engine speed, burner pressure, and
engine inlet pressure to control the amount of fuel that is allowed through the metering jet and in to the engine.

7-62

FUEL METERING SECTION

The primary purpose of the fuel metering section of

a hydromechanical fuel control unit is to meter the
appropriate amount of fuel to the combustion section at the correct pressure. In order to do this, a typical fuel metering section utilizes a positive
displacement fuel pump, a main metering valve,
and a pressure regulating valve. In addition, to provide a positive means of stopping the flow of fuel to
the engine for engine shut down, a fuel shutoff valve
is provided downstream from the main metering
valve. [Figure 7-68]
To understand how the fuel metering section works,
refer to figure 7-68. To begin, boost pump fuel is
directed to the main fuel pump which sends
unpressurized fuel to the main metering valve. A
typical metering valve consists of a tapered valve
that meters the fuel flow to the combustors based
on power lever position and the pressure at the
engine inlet and within the burners. As
unmetered fuel flows through the opening created
by the metering valve, it becomes metered fuel and
a pressure differ-

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

ential is created across the metering valve. In order

to properly meter fuel by weight, a constant pressure differential, or drop, must be maintained. To do
this, a pressure regulating valve is installed in parallel with the main metering valve. A pressure regulating valve is similar to a pressure relief valve in
that a spring-loaded valve controls the amount of
fuel that is bypassed back to the inlet of the fuel
pump. However, in order to maintain a constant
pressure differential across the metering valve, a
pressure regulating valve utilizes a diaphragm that
is exposed to pump pressure on one side and
metered fuel pressure on its opposite side. This way,
the pressure regulating valve senses the pressure
drop across the metering valve and is able to maintain a pre-determined pressure drop based on the
spring pressure.
To better understand the function of the differential pressure regulating valve, consider the following example. For a given power setting the fuel
pump delivers an excess amount of fuel to the
metering valve. However, the pressure regulating
valve continually returns excess fuel back to the
pump inlet to maintain a specified pressure drop
across the metering valve. The amount of fuel that
is routed back to the pump inlet is determined by
the pressure differential across the metering valve
and a set, or constant, spring pressure. As engine
speed increases, the main metering valve is
pushed inward causing the metering orifice to
become larger. When this occurs, the metered fuel
pressure increases while the unmetered fuel pressure decreases. This reduced pressure differential
across the metering valve causes the pressure regulating valve to close and allow less fuel to pass
back to the pump inlet. When this occurs, the
unmetered fuel pressure builds until the appropriate pressure differential exists across the
metering valve. Once the pressure differential is
established, the pressure regulating valve opens
enough to maintain the same pressure differential
for the higher power setting.
To help ensure adequate fuel flow during idle power
settings, a minimum flow stop is installed on the
main metering valve. The purpose of the minimum
flow stop is to prevent the metering valve from closing too far and causing erratic pressure fluctuation
across the metering valve during idle operations.

Figure 7-68. The components that make up the fuel metering section include a fuel pump, a main metering valve, a
pressure regulating valve, and a fuel shutoff valve.

Since the minimum flow stop will not allow the

metering valve to completely stop the flow of fuel
to the combustors, a fuel shutoff valve must be
installed to provide a positive means of stopping
the flow of fuel for engine shutdown. In addition,

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

the shutoff valve also ensures that the correct fuel

pressure builds within the fuel control unit during
an engine start cycle. Control of the fuel shutoff
valve is provided by a mechanical, electric, or
pneumatic linkage that is activated by a fuel shutoff
lever in the cockpit.
COMPUTING SECTION

The computing section of the fuel control is

responsible for positioning the metering valve to
obtain the appropriate power output and control
the rate of acceleration and deceleration. To do this,
a typical computing section utilizes a speed
sensitive governor, a servo valve, and two pressure
sensitive bellows. [Figure 7-69]

7-63

During engine operation, forward movement of the

power lever causes the spring cap to slide down the
pilot servo valve rod and compress the flyweight
speeder spring. This action forces the tops of the
flyweights inward, creating an under-speed condition. When this occurs, the fuel in the pilot servo
valve is displaced from top to bottom causing the
slider to move down. The pilot servo valve is a
hydraulic dampener which transforms sudden
throttle movements into slow, smooth commands
to reposition the main metering valve. As the slider
moves down the inclined plane of the multiplying
linkage, it moves to the left and forces the metering
valve to open. Any time the metering valve is
opened further, more fuel flows to the engine to
increase the power output. As power output
increases, engine speed also increases causing the
governor drive to rotate faster. The increased rotational speed increases the centrifugal force acting
on the flyweights causing them to return to an
upright position.
On many engines, the static pressure within the
combustors is a useful measure of mass airflow. For
example, if mass airflow is known, the fuel/air
ratio can be more carefully controlled. For this reason, a bellows that is vented to the combustion section is installed in many fuel control units. As
burner pressure (P b ) increases, the burner pressure
bellows expands to the right. If the pilot servo
valve rod remains stationary, the multiplying linkage will force the slider to the left and open the
metering valve to match fuel flow to the increased
mass airflow.
Another factor that is important in determining the
proper fuel/air ratio is the density and/or pressure
of the air entering the engine. To permit a fuel control unit to sense the pressure of the air entering an
engine, a second bellows that is vented to the engine
inlet is installed. This way, when the inlet air pressure increases, the bellows expands and forces the
multiplying linkage and slider to the left to increase
fuel flow.
HYDRO-PNEUMATIC

Figure 7-69. The computing section in a typical

hydromechanical fuel control unit consists of a pilot servo
valve that controls acceleration and deceleration rates, a
governor that senses engine speed, and two pressure
sensitive bellows.

As mentioned earlier, hydro-pneumatic fuel controls are often used on turboprop engines. A
hydro-pneumatic fuel control differs from a
hydromechanical fuel control in that a hydro-pneumatic fuel control utilizes a pneumatic computing
section that determines fuel flow rates based on the
position of the power lever, N 1 rpm, compressor discharge air (P 3 ), and outside air pressure (P o ).

7-64

Two governors, an N 1 governor, and an N 2 governor

are also used in this type of fuel control unit. The N 1
governor controls compressor turbine speed while
the N 2 governor controls the power turbine speed.
The propeller of a free-turbine type of turboprop
engine is driven by N 2 and, therefore, propeller rpm
is controlled by the N 2 governor. Both governors
sense compressor discharge air and are connected to
the pneumatic computing section. Therefore, functions of the governors and pneumatic computing
section are interdependent.
A starting flow control unit also is utilized in this
type of fuel control and is installed between the
main metering valve and fuel nozzles. A starting
flow control unit consists of a casing which contains a ported plunger that slides in a ported sleeve.
A rack and pinion assembly converts rotational
movement of the input lever into linear motion for
moving the plunger. The starting flow control unit
ensures the correct fuel pressure to the nozzles and
provides a means of draining residual fuel from the
fuel manifolds when the engine is shutdown. This
helps to prevent fuel from boiling and fouling the
system with carbon due to heat absorption after
engine shutdown.
ELECTRONIC
As turbine engines advanced in technology, scheduling the proper amount of fuel to the engine
became more important. In fact, the only way a
modern turbofan engine can realize its optimum
designed efficiency is if the fuel is precisely
scheduled to the engine while several engine
parameters are monitored. To obtain the monitoring
and control needed, most modern turbofan engines
utilize an electronic engine control, or EEC, to
schedule fuel.
In addition to its ability to monitor and precisely
meter fuel, an EEC offers the benefit of saving fuel,
increasing reliability, reducing operator workload,
and reducing maintenance costs. Furthermore, a
properly functioning EEC can prolong engine life by
preventing over-temperature and over-speed occurrences. Today, there are two types of electronic
engine controls used; the supervisory engine control system and the full-authority control system.
SUPERVISORY EEC

A supervisory EEC consists of an electronic control and a conventional hydromechanical fuel control unit. With this type of system, the hydromechanical fuel control unit controls most engine
operations including starting, idle, acceleration,
deceleration, and shutdown. On the other hand,

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

the electronic control monitors several engine

operating parameters and adjusts the fuel control
unit to obtain the most effective engine operation
based on the position of the power lever. With this
type of system, once the operator sets the power
lever to obtain a specific engine pressure ratio
(EPR), the electronic engine control adjusts the
fuel control unit as necessary to maintain the
selected EPR as the aircraft climbs or as atmospheric conditions change. In addition, most EECs
also limit an engine's operating speed and temperature to prevent over-speed and over-temperature
occurrences. In fact, some supervisory EECs may
be used primarily as an engine speed and temperature limiting control. For example, the supervisory EEC used on a Rolls Royce RB-211 works on
a hydromechanical schedule until the engine is
accelerated to near full engine power. However,
once the engine nears its maximum rotational
speed and operating temperature, the EEC begins
operating as a limiter to limit the amount of fuel
that goes to the engine. [Figure 7-70]
As a safety feature, if a supervisory EEC should malfunction, control automatically reverts back to the
hydromechanical fuel control. In addition, a warning light illuminates in the cockpit to warn the aircraft operator that the EEC is no longer inputting
information to the fuel control unit. By the same
token, an aircraft operator can manually revert to
the hydromechanical control whenever it is deemed
necessary.
FULL-AUTHORITY EEC

A full-authority digital engine control, or FADEC,

performs virtually all the functions necessary to
support engine operation during all phases of flight.
In addition, all FADEC systems are fully redundant
and, therefore, eliminate the need for a hydromechanical fuel control unit. A typical FADEC system
consists of a redundant, two-channel EEC that can
pull information from either channel. In most cases,
the EEC receives input on engine speed (N a and N2 ),
throttle lever position, bleed-air status, aircraft altitude, total inlet air pressure and temperature, stator
vane angle, fuel flow rate, fuel and oil temperature,
turbine exhaust pressure and temperature, and
burner pressure. This input information is analyzed
by the EEC and then a series of commands are
issued to a set of actuators that control engine operating parameters.
On aircraft equipped with a FADEC system, the aircraft operator simply places the power lever in a
specific position to obtain a given EPR, or power
output, and the EEC automatically accelerai.es or

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-65

Figure 7-70. In the figure above, the control amplifier acts as the electronic control and receives input on N-,, N 2 , and turbine gas
temperature (TGT). With this type of system, the control operates on a hydromechanical schedule until the engine output
approaches its maximum speed. At that point, the electronic circuit begins to function as a fuel limiter. To do this, the control
amplifier sends a signal to the differential pressure regulator to divert more fuel back to the inlet side of the high pressure pump.

decelerates the engine to the EPR desired. In addition, the EEC maintains the selected EPR as the aircraft changes altitude or ambient conditions change.
This greatly reduces pilot workload as well as
over-speed and over-speed occurrences. In
addition, since an EEC closely monitors and
controls the engine operating parameters so that
maximum thrust is obtained for a given amount
of fuel, engines that are equipped with an EEC are
usually more fuel efficient.
To provide a high degree of reliability, FADEC systems are designed with several redundant and dedicated subsystems. For example, as mentioned earlier, an EEC consists of two redundant channels that
send and receive data. Each channel consists of its
own processor, power supply, memory, sensors, and
actuators. In addition, any one channel can take
information from the other channel. This way, the
EEC can still operate even if several faults exist. As
a second backup should both channels fail, the actuators are spring loaded to a fail safe position so the
fuel flow will go to minimum.

FUEL NOZZLES
Fuel nozzles, sometimes referred to as fuel
distributors, are the last component in a turbine
engine fuel metering system. Fuel nozzles are
typically located in the diffuser or inlet of the
combustion chamber where they deliver fuel in a
specified quantity. In addition, since liquid fuel
does not burn efficiently, the fuel nozzles must
mix the fuel with air and vaporize it as it enters
the combustion chamber. Most fuel nozzles can be
classified as either an atomizing nozzle or a
vaporizing nozzle.
ATOMIZING NOZZLES
Atomizing fuel nozzles receive fuel from a
manifold, mix the fuel with air, and then deliver it
to the combustor in an atomized spray pattern. In
most cases, the spray pattern is cone shaped to
provide a large fuel surface area of very fine fuel
droplets. This spray pattern is designed to provide
optimum fuel/air mixing as well as prevent the
combustion flame from contacting the combustor
lining. The

7-66

most common types of atomizing fuel nozzles

include the Simplex nozzle, the Duplex nozzle, the
spill-type nozzle, the variable-port nozzle, and the
air-spray type nozzle.
SIMPLEX NOZZLE

A Simplex nozzle is used on early jet engines and

provides a single spray pattern. The nozzle itself
incorporates an internally fluted spin chamber that
imparts a swirling motion to the fuel as it exits the
nozzle. The swirling motion reduces the fuel's
forward velocity which promotes better
atomization. To prevent fuel from dribbling out of
the fuel manifold and into the combustor after
engine shutdown, Simplex nozzles incorporate an
internal check valve that shuts off the flow of fuel
at the base of the nozzle. [Figure 7-71]
A disadvantage of Simplex nozzles is that they do
not atomize the fuel well or produce a desirable
flame pattern when the engine is turning at slow
speeds and the fuel is supplied at a low pressure. To
help remedy this problem, some fuel systems incorporate a second set of smaller Simplex nozzles. The
small nozzles are sometimes referred to as primers,
or starting nozzles, and spray a very fine atomized
mist for improved engine starting.
DUPLEX NOZZLE

A Duplex nozzle differs from a Simplex nozzle in

that a Duplex nozzle has two independent discharge orifices; one small and the other large. The
use of two orifices provides several benefits
including better fuel vaporization and a more uniform spray pattern. The small orifice is located in
the center of the nozzle and discharges pilot, or
primary, fuel at a wide angle during engine start
and acceleration to idle. The second orifice encir-

Figure 7-71. A Simplex nozzle provides a single spray pattern and incorporates an internally fluted spin chamber and
a check valve. A typical Simplex nozzle is mounted internally in an engine and is accessible only when a combustor
is removed.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

cles the center orifice and discharges main, or

secondary, fuel when fuel flow increases above
that needed for idle. Since the secondary fuel is
discharged at higher flow rates and higher pressures, it narrows the spray pattern which, in turn,
helps hold the flame in the center of the combustion liner at higher power settings. In addition,
the high pressure secondary flow helps prevent
orifice fouling caused by entrained contaminants.
[Figure 7-72]
Two common types of Duplex fuel nozzles are the
single-line and dual-line. A single-line Duplex nozzle receives fuel at one port. Once the fuel enters the
nozzle body, it enters a flow divider that distributes
fuel through a primary and a secondary spray orifice. The flow divider always allows primary fuel to
flow to the primary discharge orifice while secondary flow begins only when the inlet fuel pressure rises enough to open the flow divider valve.
[Figure 7-73]
Duplex nozzles also utilize spin chambers for each
orifice. In addition, the head of a Duplex nozzle is
designed with air bleed holes which cool and clean
the head and spray orifices. In addition, some primary air is provided for combustion by the holes.
During engine start with only primary fuel flow, the
cooling airflow helps prevent primary fuel from
back-flowing into the secondary orifice and
carbonizing.

Figure 7-72. With a Duplex nozzle, primary fuel is ejected

out of a small center orifice during engine starting and
acceleration to idle. However, above idle, higher pressure,
secondary fuel is ejected out of a larger orifice and combines with the primary fuel flow to create a narrower
spray pattern.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-67

engines. This type of atomizing nozzle differs from

other nozzles in that there are openings in back of
the nozzle that allow primary combustion airflow to
aerate the fuel spray. Once the air enters the nozzle,
it passes through a set of inner swirl vanes just prior
to entering a swirl chamber. In the swirl chamber,
the fuel and air are mixed and ejected through an
orifice in the center of a set of outer swirl vanes. The
turbulence created by the passage of the primary
combustion air through the vanes helps to evenly
distribute the fuel spray with combustion air.

Figure 7-73. With a single line Duplex nozzle, fuel enters the
nozzle body where it passes through a filter screen and a
flow divider. Primary fuel always flows through the flow
divider while secondary fuel only flows when inlet fuel
pressure rises enough to open the flow divider valve.

SPILL-TYPE NOZZLE

On some turbine engines that supply high pressure

fuel to the fuel nozzles at all times, spill-type nozzles
may be used. A spill-type nozzle is basically a
Simplex nozzle with a passage leading away from the
spin chamber. This passage is referred to as a spill
passage and is required to return the excess fuel supplied during low power output operations back to the
nozzle inlet. The advantage of supplying fuel at high
pressure to the nozzle at all times is improved
atomization at all engine speeds. One disadvantage
of this type of nozzle is the extra heat generated by
recirculating large amounts of fuel at low engine
speeds.

VAPORIZING NOZZLES
Vaporizing nozzles differ from atomizing nozzles in
that instead of delivering the fuel directly to the primary air in the combustor, a vaporizing nozzle
pre-mixes the primary air and fuel in a vaporizing
tube. In most cases, the vaporizing tube extends
into the combustion chamber so that when the
fuel/air mixture is in the vaporizing tube, the
heated air surrounding the tube causes the mixture
to vaporize before exiting into the combustor flame
zone. Some vaporizing type nozzles have only one
outlet and are referred to as cane-shaped vaporizers.
However, another type of vaporizing nozzle is
T-shaped and provides two outlets. [Figure 7-74]
One shortcoming of vaporizing nozzles is that they
do not provide an effective spray pattern for starting. To help alleviate this problem, an additional set

VARIABLE-PORT NOZZLE

A variable-port nozzle, or Lubbock nozzle, was

developed to properly atomize fuel over a wide
range of fuel flow rates. To do this, an internal
spring-loaded piston regulates the swirl chamber
inlet port size according to the fuel flow rate. For
example, at low flow rates, the inlet ports are partially covered; however, at high flow rates, they are
fully uncovered. One disadvantage of this type of
nozzle is the tendency for the sliding piston to stick
because of dirt particles in the fuel.
AIR-SPRAY NOZZLE

The final type of atomizing nozzle discussed here is

the air-spray type nozzle used in some Rolls Royce

Figure 7-74. With a T-shaped vaporizing nozzle, fuel and air

enter the nozzle body and are mixed and vaporized in two
vaporizing tubes before being ejected into the combustion
chamber.

7-68

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

of small atomizing-type spray nozzles may be

installed to aid in engine starting. This system is
generally referred to as a primer, or starting, fuel
system. The Olympus engine in the Concord SST
utilizes vaporizing fuel nozzles with separate
primer fuel nozzles.
NOZZLE MALFUNCTIONS
A normally functioning fuel nozzle produces a
spray pattern that holds the flame in the center of
the liner. However, anytime an internal passage or
air bleed hole becomes plugged a distorted spray
pattern or incomplete atomization can result. In
cases where spray pattern distortion occurs, the
combustion flame can come in contact with the
combustion liner. On the other hand, if the fuel
doesn't atomize properly, an unatomized stream of
burning fuel may extend beyond the combustion
chamber and strike turbine components. When this
occurs, the burning fuel leaves visible streaks on the
components it contacts. This is often referred to as
hot streaking and must be corrected immediately.

PRESSURIZATION AND
DUMP VALVE
A pressurization and dump valve, commonly
referred to as a P&D valve, is frequently
incorporated into fuel metering systems which
utilize dual line duplex nozzles. The operation of a
P&D valve is two fold; first, the valve pressurizes
the fuel in the primary and secondary fuel
manifolds, and second, the valve empties, or dumps
all the fuel in the two fuel manifolds upon engine
shutdown. To accomplish these two things, a typical
P&D valve consists of a spring-loaded pressurizing
valve and a dump valve. [Figure 7-75]
When the power lever is opened for engine start, a
pressure signal is sent from the fuel control unit to
the P&D valve. The signal shifts the dump valve to
the left, closing the dump port. Once closed,
metered fuel pressure builds enough to open the
inlet check valve so fuel can flow into the P&D
valve. As fuel enters the P&D valve, it passes
through an inlet screen and pressurizes the primary
fuel manifold for engine starting. Once the engine
starts and accelerates slightly above ground idle,
metered fuel pressure builds enough to overcome
the spring pressure holding the pressurizing valve
closed and fuel begins flowing into the secondary
manifold. At this point, both fuel manifolds are
pressurized and fuel flows out both orifices in the
Duplex fuel nozzle.

Figure 7-75. A typical pressurization and dump valve consists of a spring-loaded pressurizing valve and a dump
valve that is positioned based on a control signal that corresponds to the power lever position.

When the cockpit fuel cutoff lever is moved to the

cutoff position, the fuel control pressure signal is
removed. This allows spring pressure to open the
dump valve and the dump port. At the same time,
the dump valve blocks the flow of fuel to both fuel
manifolds. With the fuel inlet blocked, the remaining fuel in the fuel manifold has a path to drain out
of the dump port and back into the fuel supply.
Since fuel flow through the P&D valve is stopped,
spring pressure closes the inlet check valve, leaving
metered fuel in the inlet line for the next engine
start. [Figure 7-76]
Since the dump valve opens the dump port and
stops the flow of fuel almost simultaneously, engine
shutdown occurs almost instantly after the valve
exposes the dump port. The purpose of dumping all
manifold fuel at engine shutdown is to prevent the
residual engine heat from vaporizing the fuel in the
fuel lines. This is important because, if the fuel were
allowed to vaporize, carbon deposits would form
within the lines and manifolds and possibly clog
the finely calibrated passageways.

DRAIN VALVES
Current EPA regulations prohibit the dumping of
fuel onto the ground or siphoning of fuel in flight.

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

7-69
engine. The primary purpose for trimming a fuel
control unit is to ensure the availability of maximum thrust output when needed.
Trim checks are completed whenever engine thrust
is suspect, and after such maintenance tasks as
prescribed by the manufacturer. An engine change,
fuel control change, or throttle linkage adjustments
for proper control cushion and springback are all
examples which require trimming procedures. A
fuel control may also need to be retrimmed when
deterioration of engine efficiencies occur as service
time takes its toll. Another example is when wear
and tear on engine control linkages cause
misalignment between the cockpit and engine.

Figure 7-76. Upon engine shutdown, spring pressure forces

the dump valve to the right, blocking the flow of fuel and
opening the dump port so both fuel manifolds can drain.

Therefore, fuel that is dumped during engine shutdown must be either dumped into a separate storage
tank or sent through a recovery system. If dumped
to a storage tank, the tank must be drained manually
into a container; however, if a recovery system is
used, manual draining is eliminated. For example,
one type of recovery system returns dumped fuel to
the supply tank when the fuel cutoff lever is actuated. Another type of system uses bleed air to force
fuel out of the fuel nozzles and into the combustion
chamber. This system prolongs combustion slightly
until fuel starvation occurs.
A system which neither recovers or burns dump
fuel allows fuel to drain out of the lower nozzles
and into the combustion chamber on shutdown.
Once drained, the fuel evaporates in the combustor.
This system is used only in engines that have no
tendency to develop carbon buildups in the fuel
nozzles from residual heat.

TURBINE FUEL CONTROL

MAINTENANCE
Turbine engine fuel control repairs in the field consist of control replacement or occasional field
adjustments. Furthermore, adjustments are limited
to idle and maximum speed adjustments. If you
recall, the process of adjusting a turbine engine fuel
control is commonly referred to as trimming the

Manual trimming procedures vary widely between

engine models; therefore, before you attempt to trim
an engine, you should take time to review the specific procedures in the engine's maintenance manual. A typical trimming procedure requires you to
install calibrated instruments for reading turbine
discharge pressure or EPR. In addition, a calibrated
tachometer must be installed to read N 2 rpm. Once
the instrumentation is installed, the aircraft should
be pointed into the wind. However, if the velocity of
the wind blowing into the intake is too great, elevated compression and turbine discharge pressures
will result which, ultimately, will produce a low
trim setting. Another step in the trimming procedure is to measure the barometric pressure at the
engine inlet and the ambient temperature. This is
required to correct performance readings to standard sea-level conditions. To obtain a temperature
reading it is common practice to hang a thermometer in the shade of the nose wheel well. The ideal
conditions for trimming a turbine engine are no
wind, low humidity, and standard temperature and
pressure.
Once you have calculated the maximum power output for the engine you are trimming, start the engine
and let it idle as specified in the maintenance manual. This is necessary so the engine has time to stabilize. To ensure an accurate trim setting, all engine
bleed air must be turned off. Bleeding air off the
compressor has the same effect as decreasing the
compressor's efficiency. Therefore, if a trim adjustment is made with the bleeds on, an inaccurate, or
over trimmed condition will result.
With the engine running at idle and maximum
power, observe the turbine discharge or EPR readings to determine how much trimming is necessary.
If trimming of either the idle or maximum settings is

7-70

necessary, it is typically accomplished by turning a

screw type adjustment on the fuel control unit.
However, most manufacturers recommend that in
order to stabilize cams, springs, and linkages within
the fuel control, all final adjustments must be made
in the increase direction. If an over adjustment is
made, the trim should be decreased below target
values, then increased back to the desired values.
[Figure 7-77]
Typical trim adjustments only require simple hand
tools such as an Allen wrench, screwdriver, or
wrench.
Adjustment
components
are
usually

Engine Fuel and Fuel Metering

equipped with some sort of friction lock that does

not require the use of lockplates, locknuts, or
lock-wire. Some engines are designed to
accommodate remote adjusting equipment. A
remote control unit allows you to make the trim
adjustments from the cockpit during ground test
with the cowls closed.
Another important part of the trim procedure is to
check for power lever cushion, or springback. You
should move the power lever full forward and
release it before and after the trim run. The amount
of lever springback is then measured against prescribed tolerances. If the cushion and springback
are out of limits, you must make the necessary
adjustments in accordance with the manufacturer's
rigging instructions. Correct power lever springback
ensures a pilot that takeoff power will be obtained
and that additional power lever travel is available
for emergencies. Correct springback is indicated
when the fuel control reaches its internal stop
before the cockpit power lever reaches its stop.
A trim check is normally followed by an acceleration check. After completing the trim check, place a
mark on the cockpit power lever quadrant at the
takeoff trim position. Then, advance the power
lever from the idle position to takeoff thrust position and measure the time against a published tolerance. A typical acceleration time from idle to takeoff thrust for a large gas turbine engine ranges from
5 to 10 seconds.

Figure 7-77. A typical turbine engine fuel control unit is

equipped with adjustment screws for trimming the engine.
Trimming procedures allow you to adjust both idle rpm and
maximum rated thrust.

Once the fuel control unit has been trimmed and

control springback is correct, the engine should produce its rated thrust in standard conditions. In
non-standard conditions with high ambient
temperatures, the rated thrust is degraded. While
low humidity is desirable for purposes of accuracy
during trimming procedures, high atmospheric
humidity actually degrades rated thrust very little.
The reason for this is that only 25 percent of the air
passing through a turbine engine is used for
combustion.

ELECTRICAL, STARTING, AND

IGNITION SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must be familiar with modern aircraft electrical systems, including
the ways in which electricity is generated and routed to the various aircraft components. Although a great deal of
the work done on these systems is often accomplished by certified repair stations, it is essential that you, as an
aviation maintenance technician, have a thorough understanding of basic aircraft electrical systems.

GENERATORS

Energy for the operation of most electrical equipment on large aircraft and some small aircraft is supplied by a generator. A generator is any piece of
equipment which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy by electromagnetic induction.
Generators designed to produce direct current are
called DC generators whereas generators that produce alternating current are called AC generators.
On many older aircraft, the DC generator is the
source of electrical energy. With this type of system,
one or more DC generators are driven by the
engine(s) to supply power for all electrical equipment as well as for charging the battery. In most
cases only one generator is driven by each engine;
however, some large aircraft have two generators
that are driven by a single engine.
THEORY OF OPERATION
After it was discovered that electric current flowing
through a conductor creates a magnetic field around
the conductor, there was considerable scientific
speculation about whether a magnetic field could
create current flow. The English scientist, Michael
Faraday, demonstrated in 1831 that this, in fact,
could be accomplished. This discovery is the basis
for the operation of the generator.
To show how an electric current is created by a magnetic field, several turns of wire are wrapped around
a cardboard tube, and the ends of the conductor are
connected to a galvanometer. A bar magnet is then
moved through the tube. As the magnet's lines of
flux are cut by the turns of wire, the galvanometer
deflects from its zero position. However, when the
magnet is at rest inside the tube, the galvanometer
shows a reading of zero, indicating no current flow.
When the magnet is moved through the tube in the
opposite direction, the galvanometer indicates a
deflection in the opposite direction. [Figure 8-1]
The same results are obtained by holding the magnet stationary and moving the coil of wire. This
indicates that current flows as long as there is relative motion between the wire coil and the magnetic
field. The strength of the induced current depends

Figure 8-1. Current flow induced into a coil by magnetic flux

lines is seen on a galvanometer. The direction of current
flow is dependent upon how the magnetic fields cross the
conductor.

on both the strength of the magnetic field and the

speed at which the lines of flux are cut.
When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field,
an electromotive force (EMF) is induced into the conductor. The direction, or polarity, of the induced EMF
is determined by the direction the conductor is
moved in relation to the magnetic flux lines.
The left-hand rule for generators is one way to determine the direction of the induced EMF. For example, if
you point your left index finger in the direction of the
magnetic lines of flux (north to south), and your thumb
in the direction the conductor is moved through the
magnetic field, your second finger indicates the direction of the induced EMF when extended perpendicular to your index finger. [Figure 8-2]
When a conductor in the shape of a single loop is
rotated in a magnetic field, a voltage is induced in
each side of the loop. Although the two sides of the
loop cut the magnetic field in opposite directions,
the induced current flows in one continuous direction within the loop. This increases the value of the
induced EMF. [Figure 8-3]
When the loop is rotated half a turn so that the sides
of the conductor have exchanged positions, the
induced EMF in each wire reverses its direction.
This is because the wire formerly cutting the lines of

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-2. When applying the generator left-hand rule,

your index finger points in the direction the lines of magnetic flux travel, your thumb indicates the conductor's
direction of movement, and your second finger indicates
the direction of induced EMF.

flux in an upward direction is now moving downward and the wire formerly cutting the lines of flux
in a downward direction is now moving upward. In
other words, the sides of the loop cut the magnetic
field in opposite directions.
In a simple generator, two sides of a wire loop are
arranged to rotate in a magnetic field. When the
sides of the loop are parallel to the magnetic lines of
flux, the induced voltage causes current to flow in
one direction. Maximum voltage is induced at this
position because the wires are cutting the lines of
flux at right angles. This means that more lines of
flux per second are cut than in any other position
relative to the magnetic field.

8-3

Figure 8-3. When a loop of wire is rotated in a magnetic

field, the current induced in the wire flows in one continuous direction.

As the loop approaches the vertical position, the

induced voltage decreases. This is because both
sides of the loop become perpendicular to the lines
of flux; therefore, fewer flux lines are cut. When the
loop is vertical, the wires momentarily travel perpendicular to the magnetic lines of flux and there is
no induced voltage.
As the loop continues to rotate, the number of flux
lines being cut increases until the 90 degree point is
reached. At this point, the number of flux lines cut
is maximum again. However, each side of the loop
is cutting the lines of flux in the opposite direction.
Therefore, the direction, or polarity, of the induced
voltage is reversed. Rotation beyond the 90 degree
point again decreases the number of flux lines being
cut until the induced voltage becomes zero at the
vertical position. [Figure 8-4]

Figure 8-4. In a simple generator, the magnets are called pole pieces and the loop of wire is called the armature. Attached to each end of
the loop is a slip ring on which a set of brushes ride to complete a circuit through a load. Maximum voltage is induced into the armature
when it is parallel with the flux lines. Once the armature is perpendicular with the flux lines, no lines of flux are cut and no voltage is
induced. As the armature rotates to the 90 degree point, the maximum number of flux lines are being cut, but in the opposite direction.

8-4

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

To explain how DC current is obtained, start with

the armature at zero degrees where no lines of flux
are cut and therefore, no output voltage is obtained.
Once the armature begins rotating, the black brush
comes in contact with the black segment of the commutator and the white brush comes in contact with
the white segment of the commutator. Furthermore,
the lines of flux are cut at an increasing rate until
the armature is parallel to the lines of flux and the
induced EMF is maximum.

Figure 8-5. The output of an elementary generator is represented by the sine curve as a loop rotates 360 degrees
through the lines of magnetic flux.

When the voltage induced throughout the entire 360

degrees of rotation is shown on an oscilloscope, the
curve increases from a zero value at zero degrees, to
a maximum positive voltage at 90 degrees. Once
beyond 90 degrees the curve decreases until it
reaches 180 degrees where the output is again zero.
As the curve continues beyond 180 degrees the
amount of negative voltage produced increases up
to the 270 degree point where it is maximum. The
amount of negative voltage then decreases to the
zero point at 360 degrees. [Figure 8-5]
As you can see in the illustration, the output produced by a single loop rotating in a magnetic field is
alternating current. By replacing the slip rings of the
basic AC generator with two half-cylinders, commonly referred to as a single commutator, a basic
DC generator is obtained. [Figure 8-6]

Once the armature completes 180 degrees of rotation, no lines of flux are being cut and the output
voltage is again zero. At this point, both brushes are
contacting both the black and white segments on the
sides of the commutator. After the armature rotates
past the 180 degree point, the brushes contact only
one side of the commutator and the lines of flux are
again cut at an increasing rate.
The switching of the commutator allows one brush
to always be in contact with that portion of the loop
that travels downward through the lines of flux and
the other brush to always be in contact with the half
of the loop that travels upward. Although the current reverses its direction in the loop of a DC generator, the commutator action causes current to flow
in the same direction. [Figure 8-7]
The variation in DC voltage is called ripple, and is
reduced by adding more loops. As the number of
loops increases, the variation between the maximum and minimum values of voltage is reduced. In
fact, the more loops that are used, the closer the output voltage resembles pure DC. [Figure 8-8]
As the number of armature loops increases, the
number of commutator segments must also
increase. For example, one loop requires two commutator segments, two loops requires four segments, and four loops requires eight segments.
The voltage induced in a single-turn loop is small.
Increasing the number of loops does not increase
the maximum value of the generated voltage.
However, increasing the number of turns in each
loop does increase the voltage value. This is because
voltage is obtained as an average only from the peak
values. The closer the peaks are to each other, the
higher the generated voltage value.

Figure 8-6. In this illustration the black side of the coil is

connected to the black segment and the white side of the
coil to the white segment. The segments are insulated from
each other and two stationary brushes are placed on opposite sides of the commutator. The brushes are mounted so
that each brush contacts each segment of the commutator
as it revolves with the loop.

DC GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION
Generators used on aircraft differ somewhat in
design because they are made by various manufacturers. However, all are of the same general construction and operate similarly. The major parts, or

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

8-5

Figure 8-7. As the armature rotates in a DC generator, the commutator allows one brush to remain in contact with that portion of
the loop that moves downward through the flux lines and the other brush to remain in contact with the portion of the loop that
moves upward. This commutator action produces pulsating DC voltage that varies from zero to a maximum twice in one revolution.

assemblies, of a DC generator include the field

frame, rotating armature, and brush assembly.
[Figure 8-9]
FIELD FRAME

The field frame, or yoke, constitutes the foundation

for the generator. The frame has two primary functions; 1) it completes the magnetic circuit between
the poles and 2) it acts as a mechanical support for

Figure 8-8. Increasing the number of loops in an armature

reduces the ripple in DC voltage.

the other parts. In small generators, the frame is

made of one piece of iron; however, in larger generators, it is usually made up of two parts bolted
together. The frame is highly permeable and,
together with the pole pieces, forms the majority of
the magnetic circuit.
The magnetizing force inside a generator is produced by an electromagnet consisting of a wire coil

Figure 8-9. Cross section of a typical 24-volt generator with

major parts labeled.

8-6

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-11. Field coils are form fitted around the pole shoes
and are connected in such a manner that the north and
south poles are in alternate polarity order.

securely fastened over the iron core of the pole

shoes. The current used to produce the magnetic
field around the shoes is obtained from an external
source or from the current generated by the unit
itself. Remember that the magnetic field created
flows through the field coils and there is no electrical connection between the windings of the field
coils and the pole shoes. [Figure 8-11]
Figure 8-10. Generator field frames typically house either
two or four pole shoes. These shoes are not permanent
magnets, and rely on the field windings to produce a magnetic field. To try and produce the magnetic field necessary
with only permanent magnets would greatly increase the
physical size of the generator.

called a field coil and a core called a field pole, or

shoe. The pole shoes are bolted to the inside of the
frame and are usually laminated to reduce eddy current losses and concentrate the lines of force produced by the field coils. The frame and pole shoes
are made from high quality magnetic iron or sheet
steel. There is always one north pole for each south
pole, so there is always an even number of poles in
a generator. [Figure 8-10]
Note that the pole shoes project from the frame. The
reason for this is that since air offers a great deal of
resistance to a magnetic field, most generator
designs reduce the length of air gap between the
poles and the rotating armature. This increases the
efficiency of the generator. When the pole pieces are
made to project inward from the frame, they are
called salient poles.
The field coils are made up of many turns of insulated wire. The coils are wound on a form that is

ARMATURE

As mentioned earlier, the armature assembly consists of the armature coils, the commutator, and
other associated mechanical parts. The armature is
mounted on a shaft which rotates in bearings
located in the generator's end frames. The core of
the armature acts as a conductor when it is rotated
in the magnetic field and it is laminated to prevent
the circulation of eddy currents. [Figure 8-12]
A drum-type armature has coils placed in slots in
the core of the armature. However, there is no electrical connection between the coils and core. The
coils are usually held in the slots by wooden or fiber
wedges. The coil ends are brought out to individual
segments of the commutator.
COMMUTATORS

The commutator is located at one end of the armature and consists of wedge-shaped segments of
hard-drawn copper. Each segment is insulated
from the other by a thin sheet of mica. The
segments are held in place by steel V-rings or
clamping flanges fitted with bolts. Rings of mica
also insulate the segments

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

8-7

Figure 8-14. Lap winding connects one end of two coils to

each commutator segment and the ends of each coil to
adjacent segments.

Figure 8-12. The armature rotates within the frame assembly and current is induced into it by the electromagnetic
field created by the field coils and pole shoes.

from the flanges. The raised portion of each segment

is called the riser, and the leads from the armature
coils are soldered to each riser. In some generators,
the segments have no risers. In this situation the
leads are soldered to short slits in the ends of the
segments. [Figure 8-13]
One end of a single armature coil attaches to one
commutator segment while the other end is soldered
to the adjacent segment. In this configuration, each

Figure 8-13. Each segment of a commutator is mounted to

an inner wedge and separated by thin pieces of insulating
mica. The risers on each segment hold the leads coming
from the armature coils.

coil laps over the preceding one. This is known as

lap winding. When an armature rotates at operational speed, the magnetic fields that it produces
lags behind the speed of rotation. Lap winding is a
method for stabilizing these armature magnetic
fields. [Figure 8-14]
BRUSHES

Brushes ride on the surface of the commutator and

act as the electrical contact between armature coils
and an external circuit. A flexible braided-copper
conductor, called a pig-tail, connects each brush to
the external circuit. The brushes are made of
high-grade carbon and held in place by
spring-loaded brush holders that are insulated from
the frame. The brushes are free to slide up and
down in their holders so they can follow any
irregularities in the commutator's surface and
allow for wear. A brushes' position is typically
adjustable so that the pressure on the commutator
can be varied, and so the brush position with
respect to the risers can be changed as necessary.
[Figure 8-15]

Figure 8-15. Carbon brushes connect to an external circuit

through pig tails. The brushes are typically adjustable to
allow varied pressure on the commutator and position on
the segments.

8-8

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

The constant making and breaking of connections to

the coils of the armature necessitates the use of a
brush material that has a definite contact resistance.
This material must also have low friction to prevent
excessive wear. The high-grade carbon used to make
brushes must be soft enough to prevent undue wear
to the commutator and yet hard enough to provide
reasonable brush life. The contact resistance of carbon is fairly high due to its molecular structure and
the commutator surface is highly polished to reduce
friction as much as possible. Oil or grease must
never be used on a commutator and extreme care
must be used when cleaning a commutator to avoid
marring or scratching its surface.
TYPES OF DC GENERATORS
There are three types of DC generators. They are the
series-wound, shunt-wound, and shunt-series or
compound-wound. The difference between each
depends on how the field winding is connected to
the external circuit.
SERIES-WOUND

The field winding of a series-wound generator is

connected in series with the external load circuit. In
this type of generator, the field coils are composed
of a few turns of large wire because magnetic field
strength depends more on current flow than the
number of turns in the coil.
Because of the way series-wound generators are
constructed, they possess poor voltage regulation
capabilities. For example, as the load voltage
increases, the current through the field coils also
increases. This induces a greater EMF which, in
turn, increases the generator's output voltage.
Therefore, when the load increases, voltage
increases; likewise, when the load decreases, voltage decreases.
One way to control the output voltage of a
series-wound generator is to install a rheostat in
parallel with the field windings. This limits the
amount of current that flows through the field coils
thereby limiting the voltage output. [Figure 8-16]
Since series-wound generators have such poor voltage regulation capabilities, they are not suitable for
use in aircraft. However, they are suitable for situations where a constant RPM and constant load are
applied to the generator.

Figure 8-16. The diagram and schematic of a series-wound

generator show that the field windings are connected in
series with the external load. A field rheostat is connected
in parallel with the field windings to control the amount of
current flowing in the field coils.

SHUNT-WOUND

A generator having a field winding connected in

parallel with the external circuit is called a
shunt-wound generator. Unlike the field coils in a
series-wound generator, the field coils in a
shunt-wound generator contain many turns of
small wire. This permits the field coil to derive its
magnetic strength from the large number of turns
rather than the amount of current flowing
through the coils. [Figure 8-17]
In a shunt-wound generator the armature and the
load are connected in series; therefore, all the current flowing in the external circuit passes through
the armature winding. However, due to the resistance in the armature winding some voltage is lost.
The formula used to calculate this voltage drop is:
IR drop = current x armature resistance

8-9

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

ting on the field rheostat, the terminal voltage at the

armature brushes is approximately equal to the generated voltage minus the IR drop produced by the
armature resistance. However, this also means that
the output voltage at the terminals drops when a
larger load is applied. Certain voltage-sensitive
devices are available which automatically adjust the
field rheostat to compensate for variations in load.
When these devices are used, the terminal voltage
remains essentially constant.
The output and voltage-regulation capabilities of
shunt-type generators make them suitable for light to
medium duty use on aircraft. However, most of these
units have generally been replaced by DC alternators.
COMPOUND-WOUND

A compound-wound generator combines a series

winding and a shunt winding so that the characteristics of each are used. The series field coils consist of
a relatively small number of turns made of large copper conductor, either circular or rectangular in cross
section. As discussed earlier, series field coils are
connected in series with the armature circuit. These
coils are mounted on the same poles as the shunt
field coils and, therefore, contribute to the magnetizing force, or magnetomotive force, which influences
the generator's main field flux. [Figure 8-18]

Figure 8-17. In a shunt-wound generator the field windings

are connected in parallel with the external load.

From this formula you can see that as the load, or

current, increases the IR drop in the armature also
increases. Since the output voltage is the difference
between induced voltage and voltage drop, there is
a decrease in output voltage with an increased load.
This decrease in output voltage causes a corresponding decrease in field strength because the current in the field coils decreases with a decrease in
output voltage. By the same token, when the load
decreases, the output voltage increases accordingly,
and a larger current flows in the windings. This
action is cumulative and, if allowed, the output
voltage would rise to a point called field saturation.
At this point there is no further increase in output
voltage. Because of this, a shunt-wound generator is
not desired for rapidly fluctuating loads.
To control the output voltage of a shunt generator, a
rheostat is inserted in series with the field winding.
In this configuration, as armature resistance
increases, the rheostat reduces the field current
which decreases the output voltage. For a given set-

Figure 8-18. Compound-wound generators utilize both

series and shunt windings. In this type of generator, voltage
regulation is controlled by a diverter.

8-10

If the ampere-turns of the series field act in the same

direction as those of the shunt field, the combined magnetomotive force is equal to the sum of the series and
shunt field components. Load is added to a
compound-wound generator in the same manner as a
shunt-wound generator; by increasing the number of
parallel paths across the generator. When this is done,
the total load resistance decreases causing an increase
in armature-circuit and series-field circuit current.
Therefore, by adding a series field, the field flux
increases with an increased load. Thus, the output
voltage of the generator increases or decreases with
load, depending on the influence of the series field
coils. This influence is referred to as the degree of
compounding.

The amount of output voltage produced by a compound-wound generator depends on the degree of
compounding. For example, a flat-compound generator is one in which the no-load and full-load voltages
have the same value. However, an under-compound
generator has a full-load voltage less than the no-load
voltage, and an over-compound generator has a
full-load voltage that is higher than the no-load
voltage.
Generators are typically designed to be over-compounded. This feature permits varied degrees of
compounding by connecting a variable shunt across
the series field. Such a shunt is sometimes called a
diverter. Compound generators are used where voltage regulation is of prime importance.
If, in a compound-wound generator, the series field
aids the shunt field, the generator is said to be
cumulative-compounded. However, if the series

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Differentially compounded generators have somewhat the same characteristics as series generators in
that they are essentially constant-current generators. In other words, they produce the same amount
of current regardless of the load size. However, they
do generate voltage when no load is applied and the
voltage drops as the load current increases.
Constant-current generators are ideally suited as
power sources for electric arc welders and are used
extensively for this task.
If the shunt field of a compound-wound generator is
connected across both the armature and the series
field, it is known as a long-shunt connection.
However, if the shunt field is connected across the
armature alone, it is called a short-shunt connection. These connections produce essentially the
same generator characteristics.
STARTER-GENERATORS

Many small turbine engines are equipped with

starter generators rather than separate starters and
generators. This saves appreciably in weight, as
both starters and generators are very heavy. A typical starter generator consists of at least two sets of
windings and one armature winding. When acting
as a starter, a high current flows through both sets
of field windings and the armature to produce the
torque required to start the engine. However, in the
generator mode, only the high resistance
shunt-winding receives current while the
series-winding receives no current. The current
flowing through the shunt-winding is necessary to
produce the magnetic field that induces voltage
into the armature. Once power is produced, it
flows to the primary bus.
ARMATURE REACTION
As you know, anytime current flows through a
conductor, a magnetic field is produced.
Therefore, it stands to reason that when current
flows through an armature, electromagnetic fields
are produced in the windings. These fields tend to
distort or bend the lines of magnetic flux between
the poles of the generator. This distortion is called
armature reaction. Since the current flowing
through the armature increases as the load
increases, the distortion becomes greater with
larger loads. [Figure 8-20]

field opposes the shunt field, the generator is said to

Figure 8-19. The generator characteristics chart above illustrates a summary of characteristics involving various types
of generators.

be differentially compounded. [Figure 8-19]

Armature windings of a generator are spaced so

that during rotation there are certain positions
when the brushes contact two adjacent segments on

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

the commutator, thereby shorting the armature

windings. When the magnetic field is not distorted,
there is no voltage induced in the shorted windings
and no harmful results occur. However, when the

8-11

field is distorted by armature reaction, a voltage is

induced in the shorted windings and sparking takes
place between the brushes and the commutator segments. Consequently, the commutator becomes pitted, the wear on the brushes becomes excessive,
and the output of the generator is reduced.
To correct this condition, the brushes are set so that
the plane of the coils being shorted is perpendicular
to the distorted magnetic field. This is accomplished by moving the brushes forward in the direction of rotation. This operation is called shifting the
brushes to the neutral plane, or plane of commutation. The neutral plane is the position where the
plane of the two opposite coils is perpendicular to
the magnetic field in the generator. On a few generators, the brushes are shifted manually ahead of the
normal neutral plane to the neutral plane caused by
field distortion. On nonadjustable brush generators,
the manufacturer sets the brushes for minimum
sparking.
In some generators, special field poles called
inter-poles are used to counteract some of the
effects of field distortion when the speed and load
of the generator are changing constantly. An
interpole is another field pole that is placed
between the main poles. [Figure 8-21]
An interpole has the same polarity as the next main
pole in the direction of rotation. The magnetic flux
produced by an interpole causes the current in the
armature to change direction as the armature winding rotates under the interpole's field. This cancels

Figure 8-20. The lines of flux in the field coil flow in a horizontal path from north to south and induce voltage into the
armature. However, as this is done, magnetic fields are produced in the armature that tend to distort or bend the lines
of flux produced by the field coil.

Figure 8-21. This generator has four poles and four

inter-poles. The interpoles are used to counter the effect of
armature reaction.

8-12

the electromagnetic fields produced by the armature

windings. The interpoles are connected in series
with the load and, therefore, the magnetic strength
of the interpoles varies with the generator load.
Since the field distortion also varies with the load,
the magnetic field of the interpoles counteract the
effects of the field around the armature windings
and minimize distortion. In other words, the interpoles keep the neutral plane in the same position for
all loads.
GENERATOR RATINGS
A generator is rated according to its power output.
Since a generator is designed to operate at a specified voltage, the rating is usually given as the number of amperes the generator can safely supply at its
rated voltage. For example, a typical generator rating is 300 amps at 28.5 volts. A generator's rating
and performance data are stamped on the name
plate attached to the generator. When replacing a
generator make sure it is the proper rating.
The rotation of generators is termed as either clockwise or counterclockwise, as viewed from the driven end. If no direction is stamped on the data
plate, the rotation is marked by an arrow on the
cover plate of the brush housing. To maintain the
correct polarity, it is important to use a generator
with the correct direction of rotation.
The speed of an aircraft engine varies from idle rpm
to takeoff rpm; however, the majority of flight, is
conducted at a constant cruising speed. The generator drive is usually geared between 1-1/8 and 1-1/2
times the engine crankshaft speed. Most aircraft
generators have a speed at which they begin to produce their normal voltage. This is termed the coming-in speed, and is typically around 1,500 rpm.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

and passes through the load before returning

through the positive brush.
GENERATOR VOLTAGE REGULATION
Efficient operation of electrical equipment in an aircraft depends on a voltage supply that varies with a
system's load requirements. Among the factors
which determine the voltage output of a generator,
the strength of the field current is the only one that
is conveniently controlled.
One way to control the field current is to install a
rheostat in the field coil circuit. When the rheostat
is set to increase the resistance in the field circuit,
less current flows through the field coils and the
strength of the magnetic field decreases.
Consequently, less voltage is induced into the
armature and generator output decreases. When the
resistance in the field circuit is decreased with the
rheostat, more current flows through the field coils,
and the magnetic field becomes stronger. This
allows more voltage to be induced into the armature which produces a greater output voltage.
[Figure 8-22]
One thing to keep in mind is that, the weaker the
magnetic field is, the easier it is to turn the armature. On the other hand, if the strength of the magnetic field is increased, more force is required to
turn the armature. This means that, when the load
on a generator increases, additional field current
must be supplied to increase the voltage output as
well as overcome the additional force required to
turn the armature.

GENERATOR TERMINALS
On large 24-volt generators, electrical connections
are made to terminals marked B, A, and E. The positive armature lead connects to the B terminal, the
negative armature lead connects to the E terminal,
and the positive end of the shunt field winding connects to terminal A. The negative end of the shunt
field winding is connected to the negative terminal
brush. Terminal A receives current from the negative generator brush through the shunt field winding. This current passes through the voltage regulator and back to the armature through the positive
brush. Load current, which leaves the armature
through the negative brush, comes out of the E lead

Figure 8-22. When generator voltage is regulated by field

rheostat, more resistance results in less output voltage
while less resistance results in more output voltage.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-13

exceeds the spring tension and contact B opens.

This reinserts the field rheostat in the field circuit.
The additional resistance reduces the field current
and lowers output voltage. When the output voltage
falls below a certain value, contact B closes, shorting the field rheostat and the terminal voltage starts
to rise. Thus, an average voltage is maintained with
or without load changes. The dashpot P provides
smoother operation by acting as a dampener to prevent hunting, and capacitor C across contact B helps
eliminate sparking.

Figure 8-23. With the generator running at normal speed

and switch K open, the field rheostat is adjusted so that the
output voltage is about 60 percent of normal. At this level,
solenoid S is weak and contact B is held closed by the
spring. However, when K is closed, a short circuit is placed
across the field rheostat. This action causes the field current to increase and the output voltage to rise.

This principle is further developed by the addition

of a solenoid which electrically connects or
removes the field rheostat from the circuit as the
voltage varies. This type of setup is found in a
vibrating-type voltage regulator. [Figure 8-23]

When the output voltage rises above a specified critical value, the downward pull of the solenoid's coil

With a vibrating-type voltage regulator, contact B

opens and closes several times per second to maintain the correct generator output. Based on this, if
the solenoid should malfunction or the contacts
stick closed, excess current would flow to the field
and generator output would increase.
Certain light aircraft employ a three-unit regulator
for their generator systems. This type of regulator
includes a current limiter, a reverse current cutout,
and a voltage regulator. [Figure 8-24]
The action of the voltage regulator unit is similar to
the vibrating-type regulator described earlier. The
current limiter is the second of three units, and it
limits the generator's output current. The third unit
is a reverse-current cutout which disconnects the

Figure 8-24. A voltage regulator contains three coils: a voltage regulator coil, a current limiter coil, and a reverse current cutout coil.

8-14

battery from the generator when the generator output is lower than the battery output. If the battery
were not disconnected, it would discharge through
the generator armature when the generator voltage
falls below that of the battery. When this occurs the
battery attempts to drive the generator as a motor.
This action is called motoring the generator and,
unless prevented, the battery discharges in a short
time.
Since contacts have a tendency to pit or burn when
large amounts of current flow through them,
vibrat-ing-type regulators and three-unit regulators
cannot be used with generators that require a high
field current. Therefore, heavy-duty generator
systems require a different type of regulator, such as
the carbon-pile voltage regulator. The carbon-pile
voltage regulator relies on the resistance of carbon
disks arranged in a pile or stack. The resistance of
the carbon stack varies inversely with the
pressure applied. For example, when the stack is
compressed, less air exists between the carbon disks
and the resistance decreases. However, when the
pressure is reduced, more air is allowed between
the disks causing the resistance to increase.
Pressure on the carbon pile is created by two opposing forces: a spring and an electromagnet. The
spring compresses the carbon pile, and the electro-

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

magnet exerts a pull on the spring which decreases

the pressure. [Figure 8-25].
Whenever the generator voltage varies, the pull of
the electromagnet varies. If the generator voltage
rises above a specific amount, the pull of the electromagnet increases, thereby decreasing the pressure exerted on the carbon pile and increasing its
resistance. Since this resistance is in series with the
field, less current flows through the field winding
and there is a corresponding decrease in field
strength. This results in a drop in generator output.
On the other hand, if the generator output drops
below a specified value, the pull of the electromagnet decreases and the carbon pile places less resistance in the field winding circuit. This results in an
increase in field strength and a corresponding
increase in generator output. A small rheostat provides a means of adjusting the current flow through
the electromagnet coil.
DC GENERATOR SERVICE AND
MAINTENANCE
Because of their relative simplicity and durable construction, generators operate many hours without
trouble. The routine inspection and service done at
each 100-hour or annual inspection interval is generally all that is required to keep a generator in good

Figure 8-25. A carbon pile voltage regulator relies on the amount of air space within a stack of carbon disks to control generator
voltage. Pressure is maintained on the disks by a spring while an electromagnet controls spring tension

8-15

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

working order. Generator overhaul is often accomplished at the same time as engine overhaul. This
minimizes aircraft down time and increases the
likelihood of trouble free operation when the aircraft is placed back in service.
ROUTINE INSPECTION AND SERVICING

The 100-hour and annual inspection of a generator

should include the following items:
1. Inspect generator for security of
mounting,
check the mounting flange for cracks and loose
mounting bolts.
2. Inspect mounting flange area for oil leaks.
3. Inspect generator' electrical connections
for
cleanliness and security of attachment.
4. Remove band covering the brushes and commu
tator. Use compressed air to blow out accumu
lated dust. Inspect brushes for wear, and free
dom of movement. Check tension of the brush
springs, using a spring scale.
5. Inspect commutator for cleanliness, wear, and
pitting.
6. Inspect area around the commutator and brush
assemblies for any solder particles. The pres
ence of solder indicates that the generator has
overheated and melted the solder attaching the
armature coils to the risers. When this happens,
an open is created in the armature.
If a DC generator is unable to keep an aircraft battery
charged, and if the ammeter does not show the
proper rate of charge, you should first check the aircraft electrical system associated with the battery
and generator. Physically check every connection in
the generator and battery circuit and electrically
check the condition of all fuses and circuit breakers.
Check the condition of all ground connections for
the battery, battery contacts, and the generator control units. When you have determined that there is
no obvious external problem and the generator
armature turns when the engine is cranked, check
the generator and the voltage regulator.
One of the easiest ways to determine which unit is
not operating is to connect a voltmeter between the
G terminal of the voltage regulator and ground. This
checks the generator's output voltage. However,
because this check requires the generator to be turning it must be accomplished with the engine running, or on an appropriate test stand. In either case,
observe proper safety precautions. Even when the
field winding is open, or the voltage regulator is
malfunctioning, the generator should produce residual voltage. In other words, the voltage produced by

the armature cutting across the residual magnetic

field in the generator frame produces voltage. This
should be around one or two volts.
If there is no residual voltage, it is possible that the
generator only needs the residual magnetism
restored. Residual magnetism is restored by an operation known as flashing the field. This is accomplished by momentarily passing current through the
field coils in the same way that it normally flows.
The methods vary with the internal connections of
the generator, and with the type of voltage regulator
used. For example, in an "A" circuit generator the
field is grounded externally, and you must touch the
positive terminal of the battery to the armature. You
also may have to insulate one of the brushes by
inserting a piece of insulating material between the
brush and commutator. To flash the field in an internally grounded "B" circuit generator, the positive
battery terminal is touched to the field. Whatever
the case, be certain to follow the specific manufacturer instructions. Failure to do so could result in
damage to the generator and/or voltage regulator.
If the generator produces residual voltage and no
output voltage, the trouble could be with the generator or the regulator. To determine which, operate
the engine at a speed high enough for the generator
to produce an output, and bypass the voltage regulator with a jumper wire. This method varies with
the type of generator and regulator being used, and
should be performed in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. If the generator produces voltage with the regulator shorted, the problem is with the voltage regulator. If this is the case,
be sure that the regulator is properly grounded,
because a faulty ground connection prevents a regulator from functioning properly. It is possible to service and adjust some vibrator-type generator controls. However, due to expense, time involved, and
test equipment needed to do the job properly, most
servicing is done by replacing a faulty unit with a
new one.
If the generator does not produce an output voltage
when the regulator is bypassed, remove the generator from the engine and overhaul or replace it with
an overhauled unit.
GENERATOR OVERHAUL

Generator overhaul is accomplished any time a generator is determined to be inoperative, or at the

same time the aircraft engine is overhauled.
Although an overhaul can be done in some aircraft

8-16

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

repair facilities, it is more often the job of an FAA

Certified Repair Station licensed for that operation.
The steps involved in the overhaul of a generator are
the same for the overhaul of any unit: (1) disassembly, (2) cleaning, (3) inspection and repair, (4)
reassembly, and (5) testing.
DISASSEMBLY

Disassembly instructions for specific units are covered in the manufacturer's overhaul manual and
must be followed exactly. Specialized tools are
sometimes required for removing pole shoes since
the screws holding these in place are usually staked
to prevent them from accidentally backing out.
Special instructions must also be followed when
removing bearings. If the incorrect procedures or
tools are used, damage to the bearings or their seating area could result.
CLEANING

Care must be taken when cleaning electrical parts.

The proper solvents must be used, and generally
parts are not submerged in solvent tanks. Using the
wrong solvent could remove the lacquer-type insulation used on field coils and armatures resulting in
short circuits after the generator is reassembled.
INSPECTION AND REPAIR

Inspect components for physical damage, corrosion, or wear, and repair or replace as required.
Testing for proper operation of electrical components is accomplished using a growler and an electrical multimeter. A growler is a specially designed
test unit for DC generators and motors and a variety of tests on the armature and field coils are performed using this equipment. Growlers consist of a
laminated core wound with many turns of wire
that are connected to 110 volts AC. The top of the
core forms a vee into which the armature of a DC
generator fits. The coil and laminated core of the
growler form the primary of a transformer, while
the generator armature becomes the secondary.
Also included on most growlers is a 110 volt test
lamp. This is a simple series circuit with a light
bulb that illuminates when the circuit is complete.
[Figure 8-26]
To test an armature for an open, place it on an energized growler. Using the probes attached to the test
lamp, test each armature coil by placing the probes
on adjacent segments. The lamp should light with

Figure 8-26. A growler is used to test the armature of a DC

generator for open circuits.

each set of commutator bars. Failure of the test lamp

to illuminate indicates an open in that coil, and
replacement of the armature is called for.
Armatures are also tested for shorts by placing
them on a growler, energizing the unit and holding
a thin steel strip, typically a hacksaw blade,
slightly above the armature. Slowly rotate the
armature on the growler, if there are any shorts in
the armature windings, the blade vibrates vigor
ously. [Figure 8-27]
.
A third test for armature shorts is accomplished
using a 110 volt test lamp to check for grounds. To
use a test lamp, one lead is touched to the armature
shaft while the second lead is touched to each commutator segment. If a ground exists between any of
the windings and the core of the armature, the test
lamp illuminates. [Figure 8-28]

Figure 8-27. When a short exists in the armature windings

the hacksaw blade vibrates vigorously.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-17

field coil should indicate between 2 and 30 ohms,

depending on the specific coil. A series type field
coil shows almost no resistance. In some cases a
current draw test is specified by the manufacturer.
This test is accomplished by connecting a battery of
proper voltage across the field coils and measuring
the current flow. This value must be within the limits specified in the manufacturer's test specifications. [Figure 8-30]
To resurface or to remove irregularities and pitting
from a commutator, an armature is turned in a special armature lathe, or an engine lathe equipped
with a special holding fixture. When doing this,
remove only enough metal to smooth the commutator's surface. If too much material is removed, the
security of the coil ends are jeopardized. If the commutator is only slightly roughened, it is smoothed
using No. 000 sandpaper. Never use emery cloth or
other conductive material since shorting between
commutator segments could result.
Figure 8-28. When a ground exists between the windings
and the armature core, the test light illuminates. This test
is also accomplished using an ohmmeter.

You can also test a generator's field coil for shorts by

using a test lamp. To do this, one probe is placed at
the field winding and the other probe at the generator frame. If the light illuminates, a short exists.
[Figure 8-29]

With some commutators, the mica insulation

between the commutator bars may need to be
undercut. However, when doing this, you must follow the most recent instructions provided by the
manufacturer. This operation is accomplished using
a special attachment for the armature lathe, or a
hack-saw blade. When specified, the mica is undercut about the same depth as the mica's thickness, or
approximately 0.020 inch.

You can also test the field coil for continuity using
an ohmmeter set to the low-ohms scale. A shunt

Figure 8-29. In order for the frame and field windings to be

considered good, the light should not illuminate.

Figure 8-30. To test for shorted turns in a field coil, measure

the current drawn by the field at a specific voltage. The current drawn by the field must be within the manufacturer's
prescribed range in order for the field windings to be good.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-18

REASSEMBLY

Prior to reassembly, the painted finish on the exterior of the frame is restored. In certain cases the special insulated coatings on the interior surfaces are
renewed. Furthermore, all defective parts are
replaced according to the reassembly order specified by the manufacturer.
When reassembling a generator, make certain that
all internal electrical connections are properly
made and secured, and that the brushes are free to
move in their holders. Check the pigtails on the
brushes for freedom, and make sure they do not
alter or restrict the brushes' free motion. The purpose of the pigtail is to conduct current and help
eliminate any current in the brush springs that
could alter its spring action. The pigtails also eliminate possible sparking caused by movement of the
brush within the holder, thus minimizing brush
side wear.
Generator brushes are normally replaced at overhaul, or when half worn. When new brushes are
installed they must be seated, or contoured, to maximize the contact area between the face of the brush
and the commutator. Seating is accomplished by
lifting the brush slightly to permit the insertion of
No. 000, or finer sandpaper, rough side out. With the
sandpaper in place, pull the sandpaper in the direction of armature rotation, being careful to keep the
ends of the sandpaper as close to the commutator as
possible to avoid rounding the edges of the brush.
When pulling the sandpaper back to the starting
point, the brush is raised so it does not ride on the
sandpaper. [Figure 8-31]

Figure 8-31. When a new brush is installed in a generator,

the brush must be contoured to fit the commutator. To do
this, insert a piece of No. 000 sandpaper between the brush
and the commutator and sand the brush in the direction of
rotation.

be used for seating brushes or smoothing commutators, since they contain conductive materials.
TESTING

The brush spring tension is checked using a spring

scale. A carbon, graphite, or light metal brush
should only exert a pressure of 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 psi on
the commutator. If the spring tension is not within
the limits set by the manufacturer, the springs must
be replaced. When a spring scale is used, the pressure measurement exerted by a brush is read
directly on the spring scale. The scale is attached at
the point of contact between the spring arm and the
top of the brush, with the brush installed in the
guide. The scale is then pulled up until the arm just
lifts the brush off the commutator. At that instant,
the force on the scale is read.
After the generator has run for a short period, the
brushes should be reinspected to ensure that no
pieces of sand are embedded in the brush. Under no
circumstance should emery cloth or similar abrasive

Operational testing of generators is accomplished on

test benches built for that purpose. Bench testing
allows the technician the opportunity to flash the
field, and ensure proper operation of the unit before
installation. Generator manufacturers supply test
specifications in their overhaul instructions that
should be followed exactly.

GENERATOR SYSTEMS
When installed on most aircraft, the output of a generator typically flows to the aircraft's bus bar where
it is distributed to the various electrical components. In this type of system, the allowable voltage
drop in the main power wires coming off the generator to the bus bar is two percent of the regulated
voltage when the generator is producing its rated
current. As added insurance to make sure that a

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

given electrical load does not exceed a generator's

output capability, the total continuous electrical
load permitted in a given system is limited to 80
percent of the total rated generator output. For
example, if an aircraft has a 60 amp generator
installed, the maximum continuous load that can be
placed on the electrical system is 48 amps.
In the event a generator quits producing current or
produces too much current, most aircraft systems

8-19

have a generator master switch that allows you to

disconnect the generator from the electrical system.
This feature helps prevent damage to the generator
or to the rest of the electrical system. On aircraft that
utilize more than one generator connected to a common electrical system, the Federal Aviation
Regulations require individual generator switches
that can be operated from the cockpit. This allows
you to isolate a malfunctioning generator and protect the remaining electrical system.

ALTERNATORS

There are two types of alternators used in today's

aircraft. They are the DC alternator and the AC
alternator. DC alternators produce relatively small
amounts of current and, therefore, are typically
found on light aircraft. AC alternators, on the
other hand, are capable of producing a great deal
of power and, therefore, are typically found on
larger aircraft and military aircraft. Furthermore,
since AC electricity can be carried through smaller
conductors, AC alternators allow an appreciable
weight savings.

DC ALTERNATORS
DC alternators do the same thing as DC generators.
They produce AC that is then converted to DC
before it enters an aircraft's electrical system. The
difference, however, is that in an alternator the magnetic poles rotate and induce voltage into a fixed, or
stationary winding. Furthermore, the AC current
produced is rectified by six solid-state diodes
instead of a commutator. [Figure 8-32]

ROTOR
An alternator rotor consists of a wire coil wound on
an iron spool between two heavy iron segments
with interlacing fingers. Some rotors have four fingers while others have as many as seven. Each finger forms one pole of the rotating magnetic field.
[Figure 8-33]
The two coil leads pass through one segment and
each lead attaches to an insulated slip ring. The
slip rings, segments, and coil spool are all pressed
onto a hardened steel rotor shaft which is either
splined or has a key slot. In an assembled alternator, this shaft is driven by an engine accessory
pad, or fitted with a pulley and driven by an
accessory belt. The slip-ring end of the shaft is
supported in the housing with a needle bearing
and the drive end with a ball bearing. Two carbon
brushes ride on the smooth slip rings to bring a
varying direct current into the field and carry it
out to the regulator.

STATOR
As the rotor turns, the load current is induced into
stationary stator coils. The coils making up the stator are wound in slots around the inside periphery
of the stator frame, which is made of thin laminations of soft iron. Most alternators are three-phase

All alternators are constructed in basically the same

way. The primary components of an alternator
include the rotor, the stator, the rectifier, and the
brush assembly.

Figure 8-33. Rotors consist of interlacing fingers that form

the poles of the rotating magnetic field.

Figure 8-32. DC alternators are used in aircraft that require

a low or medium amount of electrical power.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-21

alternators. This means that the stator has three separate coils that are 120 degrees apart. To do this, one
end of each coil is brought together to form a common junction of a Y-connection. [Figure 8-34]
With the stator wound in a three-phase configuration, the output current peaks in each set of windings every 120 degrees of rotation. However, after
the output is rectified, the DC output becomes much
smoother. [Figure 8-35]
Because an alternator has several field poles and the
large number of stator windings, most alternators
produce their rated output at a relatively low rpm.
This differs from a generator which must rotate at a
fairly high speed to produce its rated output.

Figure 8-36. This circuit diagram illustrates how the AC produced in each winding is rectified into DC.
Figure 8-34. Three sets of coils in a stator are typically
brought together to form a Y-connection.

RECTIFIERS
The three-phase, full-wave rectifier in an alternator
is made up of six heavy-duty silicon diodes. Three
of the diodes are pressed into the slip-ring end
frame, and the other three are pressed into a heat
sink that is electrically insulated from the end
frame. [Figure 8-36]
By referring to figure 8-36, you can see that at the
instant the output terminal of winding "A" is positive
with respect to the output end of winding "C," current
flows through diode 1 to the load, and back through
diode 2 which is pressed into the alternator end frame.
From this diode, it flows back through winding "C."
As the rotor continues to turn, winding "B"
becomes positive with respect to winding "A" and
the current flows through diode 3 to the load, and
then back through diode 4 and winding "A."

Figure 8-35, (A)he waveform produced by a three-phase

stator winding results in a peak every 120 degrees of rotation. (B)nce rectified, the output produces a relatively
smooth direct current, with a low-amplitude, high-frequency ripple.

When the rotor completes 240 degrees of rotation,

"C" becomes positive with respect to "B." When
this occurs, current flows through diode 5 to the
load, and back through diode 6. After 360 degrees of
rotation, the process begins again.

8-22

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

BRUSH ASSEMBLY
The brush assembly in an alternator consists of two
brushes, two brush springs, and brush holders.
Unlike a generator which uses brushes to supply a
path for current to flow from the armature to the
load, the brushes in an alternator supply current to
the field coils. Since these brushes ride on the
smooth surface of the slip rings, the efficiency and
service life of alternator brushes is typically better.

ALTERNATOR CONTROLS
The voltage produced by an alternator is controlled
in the same way as in a generator, by varying the DC
field current. Therefore, when the output voltage
rises above the desired value, the field current is
decreased. By the same token, when the output voltage drops below the desired value, the field current
is increased.
The process of increasing and decreasing the field
current could be accomplished in low-output alternators with vibrator-type controls that interrupt the
field current by opening a set of contacts. However,
a more efficient means of voltage control has been
devised that uses a transistor to control the flow of
field current.
The transistorized voltage regulator utilizes both
vibrating points and transistors for voltage control.
The vibrating points operate the same as they do in
vibrator-type voltage regulators. However, instead of
the field current flowing through the contacts, the
transistor base current flows through them. Since
this current is small compared to the field current
that flows through the emitter-collector there is no
arcing at the contacts. [Figure 8-37]
In a completely solid-state voltage regulator, semiconductor devices replace all of the moving parts.
These units are very efficient, reliable, and generally have no serviceable components. Therefore, if a
completely solid-state unit becomes defective, it is
typically removed from service and replaced.
Alternator control requirements are different from
those of a generator for several reasons. For example, since an alternator uses solid-state diodes for
rectification, current cannot flow from the battery
into the alternator. Therefore, there is no need for a
reverse-current cutout relay. Furthermore, since the
alternator field is excited by the system bus whose
voltage is limited, there is no way an alternator can
put out enough current to burn itself out. Because of
this, there is no need for a current limiter.

Figure 8-37. Alternator field current flows from the emitter

to the collector only when the voltage regulator contacts
are closed and current flows to the base.

With an alternator there must be some means of

shutting off the flow of field current when the alternator is not producing power. To do this, most systems utilize either a field switch or a field relay that
is controlled by the master switch. Either setup
allows you to isolate the field current and shut it off
if necessary.
Another control that most aircraft alternator circuits
employ is some form of overvoltage protection. This
allows the alternator to be removed from the bus
should a malfunction occur that increases the output voltage to a dangerous level. This function is
often handled by an alternator control unit or ACU.
Basically, the ACU drops the alternator from the circuit when an overvoltage condition exists.

DC ALTERNATOR SERVICE AND

MAINTENANCE
When an alternator fails to keep the battery charged,
you should first determine that the alternator and
battery circuits are properly connected. This
includes checking for open fuses or circuit breakers.
If everything is connected properly, check for battery voltage at the alternator's battery, or "B" terminal and at the "Batt" or "+" terminal of the voltage
regulator.
There are basically two problems that prevent an
alternator from producing electrical power. The
most likely is a shorted or open diode in the rectifying circuit. The other problem is the possibility of
an open circuit in the field.
To check for a shorted circuit, measure the resistance between the alternator's "B" terminal and
ground. To accomplish this, set the ohmmeter on

8-23

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Solid-state diodes are quite rugged and have a long

life when properly used. However, they can be damaged by excessive voltage or reverse current flow.
For this reason you should never operate an alternator that is not connected to an electrical load.
Since alternators receive their field current from the
aircraft bus and do not rely on residual magnetism
to be started, you must never flash the field or polarize an alternator.
To aid in systematic alternator troubleshooting,
some manufacturers have specialized test equipment. This test equipment is usually plugged into
the aircraft electrical system between the voltage
regulator and the aircraft bus. Through the use of
indicator lights, the test equipment tells you
whether a problem exists in the voltage regulator,
the overvoltage sensing circuit, or the alternator
field/output circuit. By using this type of test equipment, you can save time and avoid the unnecessary
replacement of good components.
To avoid burning out the rectifying diodes during
installation, it is extremely important that the battery be connected with the proper polarity. In addition, anytime an external power source is connected
to the aircraft, ensure correct polarity is applied.

AC ALTERNATORS

Figure 8-38. (A) A good diode produces a high resistance

reading when reverse biased. (B) On the other hand, resistance should be low when forward biased. A shorted diode
typically causes a low resistance reading when checked in
the forward and reverse biased direction while an open
diode produces high resistance readings in either direction.

the R x 1 scale and measure resistance. Then,

reverse the ohmmeter leads and measure the resistance again. If the diodes are good, you get a relatively low resistance reading when the diodes are
forward biased, and an infinite or very high reading
when the diodes are reverse biased. If an infinite or
very high reading is not obtained, one or more of the
diodes are shorted. [Figure 8-38]
Since the diodes in an alternator are connected in
parallel, an open diode cannot be detected with an
ohmmeter. However, if the diodes are checked individually, an ohmmeter will identify an open diode.

Direct current is used as the main electrical power

for small aircraft because it is storable and aircraft
engines are started through the use of battery power.
However, large aircraft require elaborate ground service facilities and external power sources for starting. Therefore, they can take advantage of the appreciable weight savings provided by using alternating
current as their primary power source.
In addition to saving weight, alternating current has
the advantage over direct current in that its voltage
is easily stepped up or down. Therefore, when
needed, AC carries current a long distance by passing
it through a step-up transformer. This promotes additional weight savings since high voltage AC is conducted through a relatively small conductor. Once
the voltage arrives at its destination it passes through
a step-down transformer where voltage is lowered
and current is stepped up to the value needed.
In some situations, such as charging batteries or
operating variable speed motors, direct current is
required. However, by passing AC through a series
of semiconductor diodes it is easily changed into
DC with relatively little loss. This is another advantage of AC as compared to DC.

8-24

TYPES OF AC ALTERNATORS
AC alternators are classified in order to distinguish
differences. One means of classification is by the
output voltage phase numbers. Alternating current
alternators can be single-phase, two-phase,
three-phase, and sometimes even six-phase or
more. However, almost all aircraft electrical systems
use a three-phase alternator.
In a single-phase alternator, the stator is made up of
several windings connected in series to form a single circuit. The windings are also connected so the
AC voltages induced into each winding are in
phase. This means that, to determine a single-phase
alternator's total output, the voltage induced into
each winding must be added. Therefore, the total
voltage produced by a stator with four windings is
four times the single voltage in any one winding.
However, since the power delivered by a
single-phase circuit is pulsating, this type of circuit
is impractical for many applications. [Figure 8-39]
Two-phase alternators have two or more single-phase
windings spaced symmetrically around the stator so
that the AC voltage induced in one is 90 degrees out

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

of phase with the voltage induced in the other. These

windings are electrically separate from each other so
that when one winding is cutting the maximum number of flux-lines, the other is cutting no flux lines.
A three-phase or polyphase circuit is used in most
aircraft alternators. The three-phase alternator has
three single-phase windings spaced so that the voltage induced in each winding is 120 degrees out of
phase with the voltage in the other two windings.
[Figure 8-40]
The three individual phase voltages produced by a
three-phase alternator are similar to those generated
by three single-phase alternators, whose voltages
are out of phase by 120 degrees. In a three-phase
alternator, one lead from each winding is connected
to form a common junction. When this is done, the
stator is Y- or star-connected. A three-phase stator
can also be connected so that the phases are
end-to-end. This arrangement is called a delta
connection.
Still another means of classifying alternators is to
distinguish between the type of stator and rotor
used. When done this way, there are two types of
alternators, the revolving-armature type and the
revolving-field type.
The revolving-armature type alternator is similar in
construction to the DC generator, in that the armature rotates within a stationary magnetic field. This
type of setup is typically found only in alternators
with a low power rating and generally is not used.
The revolving-field type alternator has a stationary
armature winding (stator) and a rotating-field winding (rotor). The advantage of this configuration is
that the armature is connected directly to the load
without sliding contacts in the load circuit. Direct
connection to the armature circuit makes it possible

Figure 8-39. In this single-phase alternator the rotating field

induces voltage into the stationary stator. The number of
stator windings determines the output voltage.

Figure 8-40. Sinewave "A" is 120 degrees out of phase with

sinewave "B," and sinewave "B" is 120 degrees out of
phase with sinewave "C."

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-25

cooled. Since the brushiess alternators have no current flow between brushes or slip rings they are very
efficient at high altitudes where brush arcing is
often a problem.

Figure 8-41. In a revolving-field type alternator, the armature is directly connected to the load without the use of
sliding contacts. The rotating-field alternator is used almost
universally in aircraft systems.

to use large cross-section conductors that are adequately insulated for high voltage. [Figure 8-41]
BRUSHLESS ALTERNATORS

The AC alternators used in large jet-powered aircraft are of the brushiess type and are usually air

As discussed earlier, alternator brushes are used to

carry current to the rotating electromagnet.
However, in a brushiess alternator, current is
induced into the field coil through an exciter. A
brushiess alternator consists of three separate fields,
a permanent magnetic field, an exciter field, and a
main output field. The permanent magnets furnish
the magnetic flux to start the generator producing an
output before field current flows. The magnetism
produced by these magnets induces voltage into an
armature that carries the current to a generator control unit, or GCU. Here, the AC is rectified and sent
to the exciter field winding. The exciter field then
induces voltage into the exciter output winding.
The output from the exciter is rectified by six silicon diodes, and the resulting DC flows through the
output field winding. From here, voltage is induced
into the main output coils. The permanent magnet,
exciter output winding, six diodes, and output field
winding are all mounted on the generator shaft and
rotate as a unit. The three-phase output stator windings are wound in slots that are in the laminated
frame of the alternator housing. [Figure 8-42]
The main output stator winding ends of a brushiess
alternator are connected in the form of a Y, and in
the case of the previous figure, the neutral winding
is brought to the outside of the housing along with

Figure 8-42. In a brushiess alternator there are actually three generators. The permanent magnet generator, the exciter generator,
and the main generator. The permanent magnet generator induces voltage into the exciter generator which in turn supplies the
field current for the main generator.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-26

the three-phase windings. These alternators are usually designed to produce 120 volts across a single
phase and 208 volts across two phases.
The GCU actually monitors and regulates the main
generator's output by controlling the amount of current that flows into the exciter field. For example, if
additional output is needed, the GCU increases the
amount of current flowing to the exciter field winding which, in turn, increases the exciter output. A
higher exciter output increases the current flowing
through the main generator field winding thereby
increasing alternator output.
Since brushless alternators utilize a permanent magnet, there is no need to flash the field. In addition,
the use of a permanent magnet eliminates the need
to carry current to a rotating assembly through
brushes.
ALTERNATOR RATINGS

AC alternators are rated in volt-amps which is a

measure of the apparent power being produced by
the generator. Because most AC alternators produce
a great deal of power, their ratings are generally
expressed in kilo-volt amperes or KVA. A typical
Boeing 727 AC alternator is rated at 45 KVA.

the AC frequency produced by an alternator, the

more times the current switches direction and the
greater the back voltage, or inductive reactance.
Because aircraft systems use 400-hertz AC, inductive reactance is high and current is low. However,
because of this higher frequency, motors wound
with smaller wire produce a high torque value.
Furthermore, transformers are made much smaller
and lighter.
To provide a constant frequency as engine speed
varies and maintain a uniform frequency between
multiple generators, most AC generators are connected to a constant speed drive unit, or CSD.
Although CSDs come in a variety of shapes and
sizes, their principle of operation is essentially the
same. The drive units consist of an engine-driven
axial-piston variable-displacement hydraulic pump
that supplies fluid to an axial-piston hydraulic
motor. The motor then drives the generator. The displacement of the pump is controlled by a governor
which senses the rotational speed of the AC generator. The governor action holds the output speed of
the generator constant and maintains an AC frequency at 400-hertz, plus or minus established tolerances. [Figure 8-43]
Some modern jet aircraft produce AC with a generator called an Integrated Drive Generator or IDG. An

FREQUENCY

The AC frequency produced by an AC generator is

determined by the number of poles and the speed of
the rotor. The faster the rotor, the higher the frequency. By the same token the more poles on a rotor,
the higher the frequency for any given speed. The
frequency of AC generated by an alternator is determined using the equation:
P
N
F = =PN
2
60
Where:
F = Frequency
P = the number of poles
N = the speed in rpm
With this formula you can determine that a two-pole,
3,600 rpm alternator has a frequency of 60 hertz.
F = g-X 3'600 = 60 Hz 120
Since AC constantly changes rate and direction, it
always produces a back voltage that opposes current
flow. If you recall from your general studies, this
opposition is called inductive reactance. The higher

Figure 8-43. A constant-speed drive axial-gear differential,

like the one above, is used in the Sunstrand Integrated
Drive Generator.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

8-27

IDG differs from a CSD in that both the constant

speed drive unit and the generator are sealed in the
same housing. [Figure 8-44]
AC ALTERNATOR MAINTENANCE
Maintenance and inspection of alternator systems is
similar to that of DC systems. The proper maintenance of an alternator requires the unit to be kept
clean and all electrical connections tight and in good
repair. Alternators and their drive systems differ in
design and maintenance requirements; therefore,
specific information is found in the manufacturer's
service publications and in the maintenance program approved for a particular aircraft.

Figure 8-44. The constant speed drive unit is included in the

housing with the Sunstrand Integrated Drive Generator
above. Also shown is the generator's control unit and a current transformer assembly.

MOTORS AND STARTING SYSTEMS

Many aircraft functions require an application of

force greater than a pilot can perform manually. For
example, raising and lowering the landing gear by
hand or extending and retracting the flaps would
take a great deal of time and effort on larger, high
performance aircraft. Electric motors can perform
this and many other operations quickly and easily.

DC MOTORS
Many devices in an airplane, from the starter to the
auto-pilot, depend upon the mechanical energy furnished by direct-current motors. A DC motor is a
rotating machine that transforms direct-current
electrical energy into mechanical energy.

netic poles flow in a counterclockwise direction,

the flux lines reinforce each other at the bottom of
the wire. This happens because the lines of flux produced by the magnet and the flow of flux lines at the
bottom of the wire are traveling in the same direction. However, at the top of the wire the flux lines
oppose, or neutralize, each other. The resulting
magnetic field under the wire is strong and the magnetic field above the wire is weak. Consequently,
the wire is pushed away from the side where the
field is the strongest. [Figure 8-45]
Using this same principle, if the current flow
through the wire were reversed, the flux lines encircling the wire would flow in the opposite direction.
The resulting combination of the magnetic flux
lines and wire flux lines would create a strong magnetic field at the top of the wire and a weak magnetic field at the bottom. Consequently, the wire is
pushed downward away from the stronger field.
PARALLEL CONDUCTORS

MOTOR THEORY
As you know, the lines of flux between two magnets
flow from the north pole to the south pole. At the
same time, when current flows through a wire, lines
of flux set up around the wire. The direction these
flux lines encircle the wire depends on the direction
of current flow. When the wire's flux lines and the
magnet's flux lines are placed together, a reaction
occurs. For example, when the flux lines between
two magnetic poles are flowing from left to right and
the lines of flux encircling a wire between the mag-

When two current-carrying wires are in the vicinity

of one another they exert a force on each other. This
force is the result of the magnetic fields set up
around each wire. When the current flows in the
same
direction,
the
resulting
magnetic
fields

Figure 8-45. (A) When no current flows through a wire that is between two magnets, the lines of flux flow from north to south
without being disturbed. (B) When current flows through the wire, magnetic flux lines encircle it. (C) The flux lines from the
magnet and the flux lines encircling the wire react with one another to produce a strong magnetic field under the wire and a weak
magnetic field above it.

8-29

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-46. When two parallel wires have current flowing

through them in the same direction they are forced in the
direction of the weaker field, which is toward each other.

encompass both wires in a clockwise direction.

These fields oppose each other and, therefore, cancel each other out. [Figure 8-46]
When the electron flow in the wires is opposite, the
magnetic field around one wire radiates outward in
a clockwise direction while the magnetic field
around the second wire rotates counterclockwise.
These fields combine, or reinforce each other
between the wires. [Figure 8-47]
DEVELOPING TORQUE

When a current-carrying coil is placed in a magnetic

field, the magnetic fields produced cause the coil to
rotate. The force that produces rotation is called
torque. [Figure 8-48]

Figure 8-48. The coil above has current flowing inward on

side A and outward on side B. Therefore, the magnetic field
encircling wire A is counterclockwise while the magnetic
field encircling wire B is clockwise. The resultant force
pushes wire B downward, and wire A upward. This causes
the coil to rotate until the wires are perpendicular to the
magnetic flux lines. In other words, torque is created by the
reacting magnetic fields around the coil.

netic field, the number of turns in the coil, and the

position of the coil in the field.
The right-hand motor rule is used to determine the
direction a current-carrying wire moves in a magnetic field. If you point your right index finger in
the direction of the magnetic field and your second
finger in the direction of current flow, your thumb
indicates the direction the wire moves. [Figure 8-49]
BASIC DC MOTOR

The amount of torque developed in a coil depends

on several factors including, the strength of the mag-

Torque is the technical basis governing the construction of DC motors. Recall that a coil only
rotates when it is at a 90 degree angle to the mag-

Figure 8-47. When the flow of electrons in two wires is

opposite, the resulting magnetic fields force the wires
apart.

Figure 8-49. When using the right-hand motor rule, your

right index finger indicates the direction the magnetic flux
flows, while your second finger indicates the direction of
current flow and your thumb the direction the coil rotates.

8-30

netic field produced by two magnets. Therefore,

when a coil lines up with the magnetic field it does
not rotate. This is because the torque at that point
is zero.
The coil of a motor must rotate continuously in
order for the motor to operate efficiently. Therefore,
it is necessary for a device to reverse the coil current
just as the coil becomes parallel with the magnet's
flux lines. When the current is reversed, torque is
again produced and the coil rotates. When a current-reversing device is set up to reverse the current
each time the coil is about to stop, the coil rotates
continuously.
One way to reverse the current in a coil is to attach
a commutator similar to what is used on a generator.
When this is done, the current flowing through the
coil changes direction continuously as the coil
rotates, thus preserving torque. [Figure 8-50]
A more effective method of ensuring continuous
coil torque is to have a large number of coils wound
on an armature. When this is done, the coils are
spaced so that, for any position of the armature, a
coil is near the magnet's poles. This makes torque

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

both continuous and strong. However, it also means

that the commutator must contain several segments.
To further increase the amount of torque generated,
the armature is placed between the poles of an electromagnet instead of a permanent magnet. This provides a much stronger magnetic field. Furthermore,
the core of an armature is usually made of soft iron
that is strongly magnetized through induction.
DC MOTOR CONSTRUCTION
The major parts in a practical motor are the armature assembly, the field assembly, the brush assembly, and the end frames. This arrangement is very
similar to a DC generator.
ARMATURE ASSEMBLY

The armature assembly contains a soft iron core,

coils, and commutator mounted on a rotatable steel
shaft. The core consists of laminated stacks of soft
iron that are insulated from each other. Solid iron is
not used because it generates excessive heat that
uses energy needlessly. The armature windings are

Figure 8-50. (A) As current flows through the brushes to the commutator and coil, torque is produced and the coil rotates. (B)
As the coil becomes parallel with the magnetic lines of flux, each brush slides off one terminal and connects the opposite terminal to reverse the polarity. (C) Once the current reverses, torque is again produced and the coil rotates. (D) As the coil
again becomes parallel with the flux lines, current is again reversed by the commutator and torque continues to rotate the coil.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-31

Figure 8-51. As you can see, the armature of a typical DC

motor is similar to that of a DC generator.

Figure 8-52. Two of the most common brushes used in DC

motors are the tube type and box type.

made of insulated copper wire that is inserted into

slots and protected by a fiber paper that is sometimes
referred to as fish paper. The ends of the windings are
physically connected to the commutator segments
with wedges or steel bands. The commutator consists
of several copper segments insulated from each other
and the armature shaft by pieces of mica. Insulated
wedge rings hold the segments in place. [Figure 8-51]

the gear while a windshield wiper motor must have

variable speeds to suit changing weather conditions.
Certain internal or external changes need to be made
in the motor design to allow these operations.

FIELD ASSEMBLY

The field assembly consists of the field frame, a set

of pole pieces, and field coils. The field frame is
located along the inner wall of the motor housing
and contains the laminated steel pole pieces on
which the field coils are wound. The field coils consist of several turns of insulated wire that fit over
each pole piece. Some motors have as few as two
poles, while others have as many as eight.

CHANGING MOTOR SPEED

A motor in which the speed is controlled is called a

variable speed motor and is either a shunt or series
motor. Motor speed is controlled by varying the current in the field windings. For example, when the
amount of current flowing through the field windings is increased, the field strength increases, causing the armature windings to produce a larger
counter EMF which slows the motor. Conversely,
when the field current is decreased, the field
strength decreases, and the motor speeds up
because the counter EMF is reduced. [Figure 8-53]

BRUSH ASSEMBLY

The brush assembly consists of brushes and their

holders. The brushes are usually made of small
blocks of graphitic carbon because of its long service
life. The brush holders permit the brushes to move
somewhat and utilize a spring to hold them against
the commutator. [Figure 8-52]
END FRAME

The end frame is the part of the motor that the armature assembly rotates in. The armature shaft, which
rides on bearings, extends through one end frame
and is connected to the load. Sometimes the drive
end frame is part of the unit driven by the motor.
MOTOR SPEED AND DIRECTION
Certain applications call for motors whose speed or
direction are changeable. For example, a landing
gear motor must be able to both retract and extend

Figure 8-53. A shunt motor with variable speed control uses

a rheostat to control the motor's speed.

8-32

In a shunt motor, speed is controlled by a rheostat

that is connected in series with the field winding.
Therefore, the speed depends on the amount of current flowing through the rheostat to the field windings. To increase motor speed, the resistance in the
rheostat is increased. This decreases the field current which decreases the strength of the magnetic
field and counter EMF. This momentarily increases
the armature current and torque which, in turn,
causes the motor to speed up until the counter EMF
increases and causes the armature current to
decrease to its former value. Once this occurs, the
motor operates at a higher fixed speed.
To decrease motor speed, resistance in the rheostat
is decreased. This action increases the current flow
through the field windings and increases the field
strength. The higher field strength causes a momentary increase in the counter EMF which decreases
the armature current. As a result, torque decreases
and the motor slows until the counter EMF
decreases to its former value. Once the counter EMF
and armature current are balanced, the motor operates at a lower fixed speed than before.
In a series motor, the rheostat speed control is connected in one of three ways. The rheostat is either
connected in parallel or in series with the motor
field, or in parallel with the motor armature. Each
method of connection allows for operation in a
specified speed range. [Figure 8-54]

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

REVERSING MOTOR DIRECTION

The direction of a DC motor's rotation is reversed by

reversing the direction of current flow in either the
armature or the field windings. In both cases, this
reverses the magnetism of either the armature or the
magnetic field the armature rotates in. If the wires
connecting the motor to an external source are interchanged, the direction of rotation is not reversed
since these wires reverse the magnetism of both the
field and armature. This leaves the torque in the
same direction.
One method for reversing the direction of rotation
employs two field windings wound in opposite
directions on the same pole. This type of motor is
called a split field motor. A single-pole,
double-throw switch makes it possible to direct
current to either of the two windings. [Figure 8-55]
Some split field motors are built with two separate
field windings wound on alternate poles. An example of this is the armature in a four-pole reversible
motor. In this configuration, the armature rotates in
one direction when current flows through one set of
windings and in the opposite direction when current flows through the other set of windings.
Another method of reversal is called the switch
method. This type of motor reversal employs a double-pole,
double-throw
switch
that
changes the

Figure 8-54. (A) With a motor that is to be operated below normal speed, the rheostat is connected in parallel with the armature and the motor speed is increased by decreasing the current. (B) When a motor is operated in the normal speed range, the
rheostat is connected in series with the motor field. In this configuration, motor speed is increased by increasing the voltage
across the motor. (C) For above normal speed operation, the rheostat is connected in parallel with the series field. In this configuration, part of the voltage bypasses the series field causing the motor to speed up.

8-33

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-55. When the switch is in the lower position, current flows through the lower field winding creating a north
pole at the lower field winding and at the lower pole piece.
However, when the switch is placed in the up position, current flows through the upper field winding. This reverses
the field magnetism and causes the armature to rotate in
the opposite direction.

Figure 8-56. In the illustration above, a double-pole,

double-throw switch is used to reverse the current
through the field. When the switch is in the "up" position,
current flows through the field windings. This establishes a
north pole on the right side of the motor. When the switch
is moved to the "down" position, polarity is reversed and
the armature rotates in the opposite direction.

direction of current flow in either the armature or

the field. [Figure 8-56]

SERIES DC MOTOR

TYPES OF DC MOTORS
DC motors are classified by the type of field-armature connection used and by the type of duty they
are designed for. For example, there are three basic
types of DC field-armature connections. They are
the series, shunt, and compound.

In a series motor, the field windings consist of heavy

wire with relatively few turns that are connected in
series with the armature winding. This means the
same amount of current flows through the field
windings and the armature windings. In this configuration, an increase in current causes a corresponding increase in the magnetism of both the field and
armature. [Figure 8-57]

Figure 8-57. Since the field windings and armature in a series motor are connected in series, an increase of current through the
field windings results in an increase of current in the armature.

8-34

The series motor is able to draw a large starting current because of the winding's low resistance. This
starting current passes through both the field and
armature windings and, therefore, produces a high
starting torque. For this reason, series motors are
often used in aircraft as starters and for raising and
lowering landing gear, cowl flaps, and wing flaps.
However, as the speed of a series motor increases,
the counter EMF builds and opposes the applied
EMF. This, in turn, reduces the current flow through
the armature which reduces the current draw.
The speed of a series motor depends on the load
applied. Therefore, any change in load is accompanied by a substantial change in speed. In fact, if the
load is removed entirely, a series motor will operate at
an excessively high speed and the armature could fly
apart. In other words, a series motor needs mechanical resistance to stay within a safe operating range.
SHUNT DC MOTOR

In a shunt motor, the field winding is connected in

parallel with the armature winding. To limit the
amount of current that passes through the field, the
resistance is high in the field winding. In addition,
because the field is connected directly across the
power supply, the amount of current that passes
through the field is constant. In this configuration,
when a shunt motor begins to rotate, most of the current flows through the armature, while relatively little current flows to the field. Because of this, shunt
motors develop little torque when they are first
started. [Figure 8-58]
As a shunt-wound motor picks up speed, the counter
EMF in the armature increases causing a decrease in
the amount of current draw in the armature. At the
same time, the field current increases slightly which

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

causes an increase in torque. Once torque and the

resulting EMF balance each other, the motor will be
operating at its normal, or rated, speed.
Since the amount of current flowing through the
field windings remains relatively constant, the
speed of a shunt motor varies little with changes in
load. In fact, when no load is present, a shunt motor
assumes a speed only slightly higher than the
loaded speed. Because of this, a shunt motor is well
suited for operations where a constant speed is
desired and a high starting torque is not,
COMPOUND DC MOTOR

The compound motor is a combination of the series

and shunt motors. In a compound motor there are
two field windings: a shunt winding and a series
winding. The shunt winding is composed of many
turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with
the armature winding. On the other hand, the series
winding consists of a few turns of large wire and is
connected in series with the armature winding. The
starting torque is higher in a compound motor than
in a shunt motor and lower than in the series motor.
Furthermore, variation of speed with load is less
than in a series-wound motor but greater than in a
shunt motor. The compound motor is used whenever the combined characteristics of the series and
shunt motors are desired. [Figure 8-59]
TYPE OF DUTY

Electric motors must operate under various conditions. For example, some motors are used for
intermittent operations while others operate continuously. In most cases, motors built for intermittent
duty may only be operated for short periods of time
before they must be allowed to cool. On the other

Figure 8-58. In a shunt-wound motor, the field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding. Because of this, the
amount of current that flows to the field when the motor is started is limited, and the resulting torque is low.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-35
minimum, a laminated core made of thin, insulated
sheets of iron is used. The thinner the laminations, the
greater the reduction in eddy current losses.
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF DC
MOTORS
The inspection and maintenance of DC motors
should be in accordance with the guidelines established by the manufacturer. The following is indicative of the types of maintenance checks typically
called for:

Figure 8-59. In a compound motor, one field winding is connected to the armature winding in series while the other is
connected in parallel.

hand, motors built for continuous duty are operable

at their rated power for long periods.
ENERGY LOSSES IN MOTORS
When electrical energy is converted to mechanical
energy in a motor, some losses do occur. By the
same token, losses also occur when mechanical
energy is converted to electrical energy. Therefore,
in order for machines to be efficient, both electrical
and mechanical losses must be kept to a minimum.
Electrical losses are classified as either copper
losses or iron losses, while mechanical losses originate from the friction of various moving parts.
Copper losses occur when electrons are forced
through the copper armature and field windings.
These losses occur because some power is dissipated in the form of heat due to the inherent resistance possessed by copper windings. The amount of
loss is proportional to the square of the current and
is calculated with the formula:
Copper Loss = I2R
Iron losses are divided into hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses result from the armature
revolving in an alternating magnetic field and becoming magnetized in two directions. Since some residual
magnetism remains in the armature after its direction
is changed, some energy loss does occur. However,
since the field magnets are always magnetized in one
direction by DC current, they produce no hysteresis
losses. Eddy current losses occur because the armature's iron core acts as a conductor revolving in a magnetic field. This sets up an EMF across portions of the
core causing currents to flow within the core. These
currents heat the core and, when excessive, can damage the windings. To keep eddy current losses to a

1. Check the unit driven by the motor in accordance

with the specific installation instructions.
2. Check all wiring, connections, terminals, fuses,
and switches for general condition and security.
3. Keep motors clean and mounting bolts tight.
4. Check the brushes for condition, length,
and
spring tension. Procedures for replacing brushes,
along with their minimum lengths, and correct
spring tensions are given in the applicable man
ufacturer's instructions. If the spring tension is
too weak, the brush could begin to bounce and
arc causing commutator burning.
5. Inspect the commutator for cleanliness, pitting,
scoring, roughness, corrosion, or burning. Check
the mica between each of the commutator seg
ments. If a copper segment wears down below
the mica, the mica will insulate the
brushes
from the commutator. Clean dirty commutators
with the recommended cleaning solvent and a
cloth. Polish rough or corroded commutators
with fine sandpaper (000 or finer) and blow out
with compressed air. Never use emery paper
because it contains metal particles which can
cause shorts. Replace the motor if the commuta
tor is burned, badly pitted, grooved, or worn to
the extent that the mica insulation is flush with
the commutator surface.
6. Inspect all exposed wiring for evidence of over
heating. Replace the motor if the insulation on the
leads or windings is burned, cracked, or brittle.
7. Lubricate only if called for by the manufacturer's
instructions.
Most motors used today do
not
require lubrication between overhauls.
8. Adjust and lubricate the gearbox or drive unit in
accordance with the applicable manufacturer's
instructions.
Troubleshoot any problems and replace the motor
only when the trouble is due to a defect in the motor
itself. In most cases, motor failure is caused by a
defect in the external electrical circuit or by
mechanical failure in the mechanism driven by the
motor.

8-36

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

AC MOTORS
AC motors have several advantages over DC motors.
For example, in many instances AC motors do not
use brushes or commutators and, therefore, cannot
spark like a DC motor. Furthermore, AC motors are
well suited for constant-speed applications although
some are manufactured with variable speed characteristics. Other advantages some AC motors have
include their ability to operate on single or multiple
phase lines as well as at several voltages. In addition,
AC motors are generally less expensive than comparable DC motors. Because of these advantages, many
aircraft are designed to use AC motors.
h.jmc u-uu. & ,v.v.v..v, .... u&>b~

Because the subject of AC motors is very extensive,

this text does not attempt to cover everything.
However, those types of AC motors common to aircraft systems are covered in detail.
Because aircraft electrical systems typically operate
at 400 hertz AC, an electric AC motor operates at
about seven times the speed of a 60-hertz commercial motor with the same number of poles. In fact, a
400-hertz induction type motor typically operates at
speeds ranging from 6,000 rpm to 24,000 rpm. This
high rotation speed makes AC motors suitable for
operating small high-speed rotors. Furthermore,
through the use of reduction gears, AC motors are
made to lift and move heavy loads such as wing
flaps and retractable landing gear, as well as produce enough torque to start an engine.
TYPES OF AC MOTORS
There are three basic types of AC motors. They are
the universal motor, the induction motor, and the
synchronous motor. Each type represents a variation
on basic motor operating principles.
UNIVERSAL MOTORS

Fractional horsepower AC series motors are called

universal motors. A unique characteristic of universal motors is that they can operate on either alternating or direct current. In fact, universal motors
resemble DC motors in that they have brushes and a
commutator. Universal motors are used extensively
to operate fans and portable tools like drills,
grinders, and saws. [Figure 8-60]
INDUCTION MOTORS

The most popular type of AC motor is the induction

motor. In an induction motor there is no need for an
electrical connection between the motor housing
and the rotating elements. Therefore, there are no

.-
u u ...

. motor which is

similar in construction to a series-wound DC motor.

brushes, commutators, or slip rings to contend with.

Induction motors operate at a fixed rpm that is
determined by their design and the frequency of AC
applied. In addition, an induction motor can be
operated on either single-phase or three-phase alternating current.
A single-phase induction motor is used to operate
devices like surface locks, intercooler shutters, oil
shutoff valves, and places where the power requirements are low. Single-phase induction motors
require some form of starting circuit that automatically disconnects after the motor is running.
Single-phase induction motors operate well in
either rotational direction, with the direction
determined by the starting circuit.
Unlike single-phase induction motors, three-phase
induction motors are self-starting and are commonly
used when high power is needed. Common applications for three-phase induction motors include
engine starting, operating flaps and landing gear,
and powering hydraulic pumps.
Construction

The two primary parts of an induction motor are the

stator and the rotor. The stator is unique in the fact
that instead of having field poles that extend outward, windings are placed in slots around the
sta-tor's periphery. These windings comprise a
series of electromagnets that produce a magnetic
field.
The rotor of an induction motor consists of an iron
core made of thin circular laminations of soft steel
that are keyed in to a shaft. Longitudinal slots are
cut into the rotor's circumference and heavy copper
or aluminum bars are embedded in them. These

8-37

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

bars are welded to a heavy ring of high conductivity

on either end. [Figure 8-61]
When AC is applied to the stator, the strength and
polarity of the electromagnets changes with the
excitation current. Furthermore, to give the effect of
a rotating magnetic field, each group of poles is
attached to a separate phase of voltage.
When the rotor of an induction motor is subjected to
the revolving magnetic field produced by the stator
windings, a voltage is induced in the longitudinal
bars. This induced voltage causes current to flow
through the bars and produce its own magnetic field
which combines with the stator's revolving field. As
a result, the rotor revolves at nearly a synchronous
speed with the stator field. The only difference in the
rotational speed between the stator field and the rotor
is that necessary to induce the proper current into the
rotor to overcome mechanical and electrical losses.
If a rotor were to turn at the same speed as the rotating field, a resonance would set up. When this hap-

pens, the rotor conductors are not cut by any magnetic lines of flux and no EMF is induced into them.
Thus, no current flows in the rotor, resulting in no
torque and little rotor rotation. For this reason, there
must always be a difference in speed between the
rotor and the stator's rotating field.
The difference in rotational speed is called motor
slip and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed. For example, if the rotor turns at
1,750 rpm and the synchronous speed is 1,800 rpm,
the difference in speed is 50 rpm. The slip is therefore equal to 50/1,800 or 2.78 percent.
Single-Phase Induction Motor

A single-phase motor differs from a multi-phase

motor in that the single-phase motor has only one
stator winding. In this configuration, the stator
winding generates a field that pulsates. This generates an expanding and collapsing stator field that
induces currents into the rotor. These currents generate a rotor field opposite in polarity to that of the
stator. The opposition of the field exerts a turning
force on the upper and lower parts of the rotor
which try to turn it 180 degrees from its position.
Since these forces are exerted in the center of the
rotor, the turning force is equal in each direction. As
a result, the rotor will not begin turning from a
standing stop. However, if the rotor starts turning, it
continues to rotate. Furthermore, since the turning
force is aided by the rotor momentum, there is no
opposing force.
Shaded-Pole Induction Motor

The first effort in the development of a self-starting,

single-phase motor was the shaded-pole induction
motor. Like the generator, the shaded-pole motor
has field poles that extend outward from the motor
housing. In addition, a portion of each pole is encircled with a heavy copper ring. [Figure 8-62]

Figure 8-61. The complete rotor in an induction motor is

sometimes called a squirrel cage and, therefore, motors
containing this type of rotor are often called squirrel cage
induction motors.

Figure 8-62. In a shaded-pole induction motor, a portion of

each salient pole is encircled by a copper ring.

8-38

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

The presence of the copper ring causes the magnetic

field through the ringed portion of the pole face to
lag appreciably behind that of the other half of the
pole. This results in a slight component of rotation
in the field that is strong enough to cause rotation.
Although the torque created by this field is small, it
is enough to accelerate the rotor to its rated speed.
[Figure 8-63]
Split-Phase Motor

There are various types of self-starting motors, one

type is known as split-phase motor. Split-phase
motors have a winding that is dedicated to starting
the rotor. This "start" winding is displaced 90
degrees from the main, or run, winding and has a
fairly high resistance that causes the current to be
out of phase with the current in the run winding.
The out of phase condition produces a rotating field
that makes the rotor revolve. Once the rotor attains
approximately 25 percent of its rated speed, a centrifugal switch disconnects the start winding
automatically.
Capacitor-Start Motor

With the development of high-capacity electrolytic

capacitors, a variation of the split-phase motor was
made. Motors that use high-capacity electrolytic
capacitors are known as capacitor-start motors.
Nearly all fractional horsepower motors in use today
on refrigerators, oil burners, and other similar appliances are of this type.
In a capacitor-start motor, the start and run windings are the same size and have identical resistance

Figure 8-63. The portion of magnetic flux lines that pass

through the shaded pole lag behind the opposite pole,
thereby creating a slight component of rotation.

values. The phase shift between the two windings is

obtained by using capacitors connected in series
with the start winding. [Figure 8-64]
Capacitor-start motors have a starting torque comparable to their rated speed torque and are used in
applications where the initial load is heavy. Again,
a centrifugal switch is required for disconnecting
the start winding when the rotor speed is approximately 25 percent of the rated speed.
Although some single-phase induction motors are
rated as high as 2 horsepower, most produce 1
horsepower or less. A voltage rating of 115 volts for
the smaller sized motors and 110 to 220 volts for
one-fourth horsepower and up is normally sufficient. Poly-phase motors are used for higher power

Figure 8-64. A single-phase motor with capacitor start windings has a capacitor connected in series with an alternator and the
start winding.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-39

ratings since they have much better starting torque

characteristics.
Direction of Rotation

The direction of rotation for a three-phase induction

motor is changed by reversing two of the motor
leads. The same effect is obtained in a two-phase
motor by reversing the connections on one phase. In
a single-phase motor, reversing the connections to
the start winding reverses the direction of rotation.
Most single-phase motors designed for general
application are built so you can readily reverse the
connections to the start winding. On the other hand,
a shaded-pole motor cannot be reversed because its
rotational direction is determined by the physical
location of the copper shaded ring.
After starting, if one phase of a three-phase motor is
rendered useless, the motor will continue to run.
However, it delivers only one-third of its rated
power. On the other hand, a two-phase motor that
loses one phase delivers only one-half its rated
power. One thing to keep in mind is that neither
motor will start if a wire connection to a phase is
broken.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

Like the induction motor, a synchronous motor uses

a rotating magnetic field. However, the torque
developed by a synchronous motor does not depend
on the induction of currents in the rotor. Instead, the
principle of operation of the synchronous motor
begins with a multi-phase source of AC applied to a
series of stator windings. When this is done, a rotating magnetic field is produced. At the same time,
DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a second magnetic field. A synchronous motor is
designed so that the rotor is pulled by the stator's
rotating magnetic field. The rotor turns at approximately the same speed as the stator's magnetic field.
In other words, they are synchronized.
To understand the operation of a synchronous
motor, use the following example. Assume that
poles A and B in figure 8-65 are physically rotated
clockwise in order to produce a rotating magnetic
field. These poles induce the opposite polarity in
the soft-iron rotor between them thereby creating an
attraction between the rotating poles and the rotor.
This attraction allows the rotating poles to drag the
rotor at the same speed. [Figure 8-65]
When a load is applied to the rotor shaft, its axis
momentarily falls behind that of the rotating field.

Figure 8-65. In a synchronous motor, a rotating magnet

induces opposite magnetic fields in a soft iron rotor. The
rotor then turns at the same speed as the magnet.

However, the rotor catches up and again rotates

with the field at the same speed, as long as the load
remains constant. If the load is too large, the rotor
pulls out of sync with the rotating poles and is
unable to rotate at the same speed. In this situation
the motor is said to be overloaded.
The idea of using a mechanical means to rotate the
poles is impractical because another motor would
be required to do this. Therefore, a rotating magnetic field is produced electrically by using phased
AC voltages. In this respect, a synchronous motor is
similar to the induction motor.
The synchronous motor consists of a stator field
winding that produces a rotating magnetic field.
The rotor is either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. If permanent magnets are used, the
rotor's magnetism is stored within the magnet. On
the other hand, if electromagnets are used, the magnets receive power from a DC power source through
slip rings.
Since a synchronous motor has little starting
torque, it requires assistance to bring it up to synchronous speed. The most common method of
doing this is to start the motor with no load, allow
it to reach full speed, and then energize the magnetic field. The magnetic field of the rotor then

8-40

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

locks with the magnetic field of the stator and the

motor operates at synchronous speed. [Figure 8-66]
The magnitude of the induced rotor poles is so
small that sufficient torque cannot be developed for
most practical loads. To avoid the limitation on
motor operation, a winding is placed on the rotor
and energized with direct current. To adjust the
motor for varying loads, a rheostat is placed in
series with the DC source to provide a means of
varying the pole's strength.
A synchronous motor is not self-starting. Since
rotors are heavy, it is impossible to bring a stationary rotor into magnetic lock with a rotating magnetic field. As a result, all synchronous motors have
some kind of starting device. One type of simple
starter used is another AC or DC motor which brings
the rotor up to approximately 90 percent of its synchronous speed. The starting motor is then disconnected and the rotor locks in with the rotating field.
Another method utilizes a second squirrel-cage type
winding on the rotor. This induction winding brings
the rotor almost to synchronous speed before the
direct current is disconnected from the rotor windings and the rotor is pulled into sync with the field.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
STARTING SYSTEMS
During the early days of aviation, aircraft engines
were started by a procedure known as "hand propping." In other words, the propeller was pulled
through the compression strokes by hand with the
ignition on until the engine started. Although hand
propping is still used today on some aircraft, it does
have some definite drawbacks. For example, in cold
weather, thick oil can make hand propping
extremely difficult. In addition, as engines got
larger, hand propping became more difficult and
much more dangerous. Therefore, several methods
were devised to replace hand propping with safer,
more reliable starting procedures.
INERTIA STARTER
The inertia starter was one of the first types of
mechanical engine starting devices used in aviation.
With this type of starter, a hand crank is used to spin
up a flywheel through a step-up gear drive assembly. Once the flywheel is spinning at a high speed,
the hand crank is removed and the starter engage
handle is pulled to extend a ratchet-type jaw that
meshes with a mating ratchet on the crankshaft. The
kinetic energy in the mass of the spinning flywheel

Figure 8-66. The weak field induced in the rotor poles limits
the poles ability to produce torque. This problem is overcome by applying DC current through a rheostat to vary the
pole's field strength.

is then converted to mechanical energy to drive the

engine crankshaft. A torque-overload clutch located
between the flywheel and ratchet jaws prevents
damage to the engine or starter when the starter is
first engaged.
.
As an improvement to the inertia starter, an electric
motor was mounted on the starter and used to spin
the flywheel for easier engine starts. However, the
hand cranking feature was left intact to address the
possible problem of insufficient battery power to
drive the motor. The combination electric inertia
starter with a manual backup was the standard for
large engines through World War II.
DIRECT-CRANKING STARTERS
Today, the most widely used starting system on all
types of reciprocating engines is the direct-cranking
starter. A direct-cranking starter differs from the
inertia starter in that it provides instant and continual cranking 'when energized. This eliminates the
need to store preliminary energy in a flywheel.
Series-wound DC motors are the most common
direct-cranking starter motors because they are
capable of producing a high starting torque. Starter
motor characteristics provide a relatively constant
voltage throughout a starting cycle while drawing a
very high current at the start of motor rotation. The
high current draw provides the starting torque
needed to crank an engine. However, as engine and

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

starter speed increase, counter electromotive forces

build and limit the amount of current the starter can
draw. Typically, starter circuits do not contain fuses
or circuit breakers. The reason for this is that initial
starter motor current would create the nuisance of a
tripped circuit breaker or blown fuse each time the
engine is started.
SMALL ENGINE STARTERS

Some small horizontally opposed engines use a

direct-cranking starter that utilizes a small
series-wound electric motor with a small gear. The
small gear meshes with a large gear that is part of an
overrunning clutch that drives a pinion, or drive
gear.

8-41

This type of starter is typically engaged by either a

hand-pulled cable or a solenoid that engages a shift
lever. [Figure 8-67]
Typically, the shift lever is attached by a cable or
rod to a tee-handle or electrical switch that activates
a solenoid. When the tee-handle is pulled or the
switch is closed, the shift lever compresses the
meshing spring and forces the pinion gear outward
to mesh with the starter gear inside the engine
accessory case. When the pinion and the starter gear
are fully meshed, further movement of the shift
lever closes the starter motor switch, and the starter
cranks the engine. When the engine starts, the over-

Figure 8-67. Some small horizontally opposed aircraft engines use a direct-cranking starter that utilizes a small DC motor to drive
an over-running clutch. The over-running clutch drives a pinion, or drive gear that turns the engine.

8-42

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-68. A direct-cranking starter similar to the type widely used in automotive applications utilizes a Bendix drive to turn the
flywheel on an engine. Once the engine starts, the inertia created by the spinning flywheel spins the Bendix pinion gear backward
until it disengages from the flywheel. This type of starter is used with many Avco-Lycoming engines.

running clutch allows the pinion to spin freely with

the engine until the tee-handle or starter switch is
released and the return spring pulls the pinion away
from the starter gear.
Another type of direct-cranking electric starter also
uses a series-wound DC motor but the over-running
clutch is replaced by a Bendix drive similar to what
is found on automobile engines. The Bendix drive,
developed by the Bendix Corporation, consists of a
drive spring, drive pinion, and drive shaft with helical splines. When the starter switch is closed, the
starter motor spins the pinion through the Bendix
drive spring. The drive pinion fits loosely over the
drive shaft and, as the armature spins, the pinion
moves forward on the helical splines. As the pinion
moves forward, it engages the teeth on the engine's
flywheel and the engine turns.
When the engine starts, the spinning flywheel gear
begins to spin the Bendix drive pinion faster than

the starter motor. This forces the pinion back along

the helical splines until it disengages from the flywheel. [Figure 8-68]
Some new generation Teledyne-Continental aircraft engines use a starter mounted on the side of
the accessory case. This type of starter utilizes a
series-wound electric motor that drives the starter
worm gear. The worm gear is permanently meshed
with a worm wheel in the engine's accessory case.
A clutch spring is attached to the worm wheel
and, as the worm wheel turns, the spring tightens
around a knurled drum on the engine's starter
shaft. When the spring gets tight enough, the
starter shaft begins to rotate at approximately the
same speed as the worm wheel and starter motor.
Attached to the starter shaft is a starter shaft gear
that is permanently meshed with the crankshaft
gear in the engine accessory case. Therefore, once
the starter shaft is spun by the starter motor, the
starter
shaft
gear
turns
the
crankshaft. Upon

8-43

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-69. Commonly used on Teledyne-Continental aircraft engines, a side mounted starter equipped with a worm-gear drive
assembly engages a worm wheel and spring clutch assembly to turn the engine over for starting.

engine start, the crankshaft will spin faster than

the starter gear shaft causing the clutch spring to
release the knurled drum on the starter shaft. This
allows the engine to accelerate to idle speed without causing damage to the starter or the worm
wheel mechanism before the starter is disengaged.
The generator drive pulley is mounted on the end
of the starter gear shaft and, with the clutch spring
disengaged, serves as the generator drive shaft.
[Figure 8-69]
LARGE ENGINE STARTERS

Figure 8-70. High horsepower engines typically utilize a

starter unit that contains a starter motor reduction gear
assembly, and an engaging and disengaging mechanism.

Because of the increased force required to turn over

a high horsepower engine, a typical direct-cranking
electric starter for large, reciprocating engines must
employ some sort of reduction gear assembly. The
reduction gear assembly, along with the motor
assembly and an automatic engaging and disengaging mechanism, are contained in a single starter
unit. [Figure 8-70]

8-44

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-71. The reduction gear train on a starting motor used on a large reciprocating engine converts the motor's high speed
low torque to the low speed high torque needed to crank an engine. To do this, the motor's pinion gear drives an intermediate
countershaft assembly that, in turn, rotates the sun gear of a planetary reduction gear assembly. As the sun gear rotates, the planetary gears rotate around the sun gear and cause the starter jaw to engage the engine.

The motor section consists of all the components

found in a typical motor as well as a motor pinion
assembly. The starter motor used is typically a
non-reversible series interpole motor whose speed
varies directly with the applied voltage and
inversely with the load.

TURBINE ENGINE
STARTING SYSTEMS

The starter reduction gear assembly consists of a

housing with an integral mounting flange, an integral gear assembly, a planetary gear reduction, a
torque-limiting clutch, and a jaw and cone assembly. In this type of assembly, starter motor torque
is transmitted to the starter jaw through an inter-

Gas turbine engines are generally started by a starter

that connects to the main gearbox. In this configuration, the starter rotates the compressor through the
gearbox. On engines that utilize a dual axial compressor, the starter rotates the high speed compressor and Nj turbine system only. Likewise, on turboprop and turboshaft engines utilizing a free-turbine,

nal gear assembly and reduction gear assembly.

[Figure 8-71]

8-45

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

only the compressor and its associated turbine assembly is rotated by the starter.
Compressor rotation by a starter provides the
engine with sufficient air for combustion and also
aids the engine in self-accelerating to idle speed
once combustion occurs. Neither the starter nor
the turbine wheel have sufficient power on their
own to bring an engine from rest to idle rpm.
However, when used in combination, the process
takes place smoothly in approximately 30 seconds
on a typical engine.
Many starting systems have a speed sensor device
which automatically disengages the starter after
self-accelerating speed is reached. At this point,
turbine power is sufficient to accelerate the engine
to idle rpm. If an engine is not assisted to the correct speed, a hung start may occur. A hung start
occurs whenever an engine lights up but does not
accelerate to idle rpm. If a hung start occurs, the
engine must be shut down and the cause for insufficient starting speed corrected before another
attempt is made. Any attempt to accelerate an
engine that is hung can often lead to a hot start,
because the engine is operating with insufficient
airflow to combust more fuel.
Starting systems for turboprop and turboshaft
engines are designed according to whether the
engine is a fixed shaft or free-turbine design. For
example, with a fixed shaft turbiprop engine, the
starter must rotate the engine and propeller.
Therefore, starters used on fixed shaft turboprops
engines typically develop more torque. In addition,
to help reduce drag, fixed shaft turboprop engines
are started with the propeller in low pitch allowing
more speed and airflow. Free-turbine engines, on
the other hand, present very little drag on turbine
acceleration because only the gas generator portion
of the engine is being turned by the starter. This factor allows the use of less powerfull, lighter weight
starters. In addition, since since the propeller is not
turned by the starter, the engne can be started with
thepropeller blades in any position.

ELECTRIC STARTERS
Like reciprocating engines, several gas turbine
engines utilize an electric starting motor. The two
most common types of electric starter motors include
the starter-generator and direct-cranking starter.

Figure 8-72. Units such as this starter-generator are frequently used on light gas turbine engines. To save weight
and reduce complexity, a starter-generator turns the engine
during the starting process and then becomes a generator
to supply electrical power once the engine is running.

STARTER-GENERATORS

Starter-generators provide an efficient means of

accomplishing both starting and power generation
functions. In addition, since a starter-generator performs the functions of both a starter and generator, it
provides an inherent weight-savings. Because of the
efficiency and weight-saving features, starter-generators are widely utilized on both turboprop and corporate jet aircraft. [Figure 8-72]
There are several different types of starter-generators in use today. Most contain two field coils and a
common armature winding. One field coil is connected in series with the armature and has a low
resistance, while the second shut winding has a
comparatively high resistance. When used as a
starter, current flows through both the series field
winding and the armature to produce the torque
needed to rotate the engine. However, in the generator mode, the shut field receives current while the
series field receives no current.
To properly control a starter-generator during the
start sequence, there are several components that
must be used in a starter-generator circuit. For example, in addition to needing a battery and/or master
switch, many starter-generator circuits use an under-

8-46

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-73. A typical aircraft turbine engine starter-generator circuit contains several switches, relays, and solenoids. This circuit
can be used to track the sequence of the engine start, fuel flow, ignition, and electrical power generation events.

current controller, a start switch, some sort of power

lever relay, and an ignition solenoid. [Figure 8-73]
The purpose of an undercurrent controller is to
ensure positive action of the starter and to keep it
operating until the engine is rotating fast enough to
sustain combustion. A typical undercurrent controller contains two solenoids; a starter solenoid
and an undercurrent solenoid. The starter solenoid
controls the input to the starter, while the undercurrent solenoid controls the starter solenoid.
To start an engine equipped with an undercurrent
solenoid, you must first close the battery and engine
master switches. This completes the circuit from the
aircraft's bus to the start switch, fuel valves, and
power lever relay. Energizing the power lever relay
starts the fuel pumps which provides the necessary
fuel pressure for starting the engine.

As the start switch is turned on, two solenoids

close, the starter solenoid and the ignition solenoid.
The starter solenoid closes the circuit from the
power source to the starter motor while the ignition
solenoid closes the circuit to the ignition units. As
soon as current begins flowing to the motor through
the starter solenoid, the undercurrent solenoid
closes. Once closed, the undercurrent relay completes a circuit from the bus to the starter solenoid
coil and ignition solenoid coil, allowing the start
switch to be returned to its neutral position while
the start sequence continues.
As the motor builds up speed, the current draw of
the motor begins to decrease. Once the current draw
falls below approximately 200 amps, the undercurrent solenoid opens. This action breaks the circuit
from the bus to the coil of the starter and ignition

8-47

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

solenoid. This, in turn, stops current flow to the

starter motor and ignition exciters.
Once the start sequence is complete, the engine
should be operating efficiently and ignition should
be self-sustaining. If, however, the engine hangs, or
fails to reach sufficient speed to halt the starter
operation, the start switch should be moved to the
stop position to break the circuit from the positive
bus to the main contacts of the undercurrent relay.
If there is not enough battery power to accelerate the
engine to starting speed, most starter-generator circuits allow the use of an external power source.
However, when external power is used, there must
be a switch in the circuit that prevents the battery
from being connected to the bus.
As an added feature in most starter-generator circuits, a means of testing the ignition exciters is typically provided. In the example used earlier, the
ignition exciters are tested by means of a test switch
that bypasses the ignition solenoid. To get current to
the test switch, the battery switch and engine master switch must be turned on, while the power

lever(s) must be advanced to close the power lever

switch and relay.
STARTER-GENERATOR TROUBLESHOOTING

The need for troubleshooting is dictated by unsatisfactory starter-generator performance. Efficient troubleshooting is based on a systematic analysis of
what is happening so you will be able to determine
the cause of a malfunction. There is no magic in
successful troubleshooting, but rather an application of logic and a thorough knowledge of the basics
of engine operation. For example, if you are faced
with a problem of deteriorating starter-generator
performance, the first thing you should do is get all
of the facts. Take nothing for granted, and ask the
pilot questions. For example, find out if the trouble
comes about suddenly or was it a gradual decrease
in performance? Under what conditions does this
performance loss show up?
After getting all of the facts, perform a ground check
to see if the problem can be duplicated. The next
step is to eliminate all of the areas that are not likely
to cause the trouble. To assist in the troubleshooting
process, some manufacturers provide troubleshooting charts. [Figure 8-74]

Figure 8-74. A typical starter-generator system troubleshooting guide facilitates the process of correcting starter-generator system faults.

8-48

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-75. (A) The electric motor used in a typical direct-cranking starter for a turbine engine is similar to the motors used with
other starters. (B) A typical direct-cranking starter for a turbine engine incorporates a clutch assembly. (C) When engaged, the
pawls in the clutch assembly engage the engine drive gear to rotate the engine. Once the engine starts, the engine drive gear
accelerates and the pawls disengage.
DIRECT-CRANKING STARTERS

Direct-cranking starters are seldom used on large

turbine engines; however, they are used frequently
for starting auxiliary and ground power units. A typical direct-cranking electric starter used on a small
turbine engine consists of an electric motor, a set of
reduction gears, and an automatic engaging and disengaging clutch mechanism. [Figure 8-75]
The automatic clutch assembly performs two main
functions. First, the clutch assembly prevents the
starter from applying excessive torque to the engine
accessory drive gearbox. To do this, an adjustable
torque setting within the clutch assembly is set at
approximately 130 inch-pounds of torque.
Whenever the starter applies more than 130
inch-pounds of torque to the engine drive gear,
small clutch plates within the clutch housing slip,
thereby reducing the chance of damaging the drive
gear. During starting, the friction clutch is
designed to

slip until the differential torque between the engine

and starter falls below the slip torque setting.
The second function of the clutch assembly is to act
as an over-run clutch. When the starter is rotated,
centrifugal force causes the pawls to move inward
against spring tension to engage the engine drive
gear. As the armature drives the clutch housing, the
housing bumps the pawls inward until they catch
the engine drive gear. This occurs because the pawl
cage assembly floats within the pawl clutch housing. Once the engine begins to exceed starter speed,
the pawls slip out of the tapered slots of the engine
drive gear and are disengaged by the retracting
springs. This over-running feature prevents the
engine from driving the starter to burst speed.
AIR TURBINE STARTERS
As an alternative to either of the electric starters just
discussed, the air turbine, or pneumatic starter was

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-76. A typical air turbine starter consists of small

turbine assembly, reduction gearing, and a clutch assembly.

developed. As its name implies, an air turbine

starter utilizes a small turbine wheel to convert the
velocity energy of a moving airstream into mechanical energy to turn an engine. A typical air turbine
starter consists of a small turbine assembly, reduction gear assembly, and clutch assembly. Because
there are so few parts in an air turbine starter, they
typically weigh about one-fifth the weight of a comparable electric starter. This gives air turbine
starters a high power-to-weight ratio. Because of
this, pneumatic starters are used almost exclusively
on commercial jet aircraft. [Figure 8-76]
To activate a pneumatic starter, a high volume air
source of approximately 40 psig at 50 to 100 pounds
per minute is required. The air source may be an onboard auxiliary power unit, ground power unit, or
an operating engine bleed air source. Air is supplied
to the starter inlet where it enters the air turbine
assembly.
Two common types of turbine assemblies used on
pneumatic starters are the radial inward flow turbine and the axial-flow turbine. As soon as air
enters a pneumatic starter, the air passes through a
set of turbine nozzle vanes. The vanes convert the
low pressure, high volume air to a high velocity
airstream that spins the turbine blades at high
kinetic energy levels.
In a typical pneumatic starter, the turbine rotates at
60 to 80 thousand rpm. This rotational speed is
reduced 20 to 30 times through a reduction gear
assembly that is lubricated by an integral oil supply.
The output end of the reduction gearing connects to
a sprag clutch assembly which is located inside the
drive shaft housing. A typical sprag clutch assembly

8-49

Figure 8-77. In the sprag clutch assembly used with pneumatic starters, the pawls are forced inward by leaf springs
to engage the clutch ratchet. However, once the engine
starts and the drive shaft housing accelerates beyond the
speed of the starter, centrifugal force pulls the pawls away
from the clutch ratchet.

consists of a set of pawls and a clutch ratchet. When

standing still, the pawls are forced inward by small
leaf springs to engage the sprag clutch ratchet. In
this configuration, when the sprag clutch ratchet is
turned by the starter, the drive shaft and housing
also turn. Once the engine starts and accelerates to
idle speed, centrifugal force pulls the pawls outward, disengaging the starter from the drive shaft
housing. Once the start sequence is complete, the
air supply is shut off automatically by a centrifugal
cutout switch that closes the inlet air supply valve.
This allows the sprag clutch ratchet and starter gear
to coast to a halt while the drive shaft housing and
pawls continue rotating at engine gearbox speed.
[Figure 8-77]
To prevent a pneumatic starter from being damaged
in the event the clutch does not release from the
engine drive shaft housing during the start
sequence, a drive shaft shear point is typically
incorporated. In other words, if the engine starts to
drive the starter, the drive shaft will shear once the
engine induces a predetermined amount of torque
on the starter.
As discussed earlier, when the engine begins accelerating to idle speed, the air supply powering the
starter should shut off automatically. However, if
this does not happen, most pneumatic starters have
an air inlet design that chokes off the airflow so the
starter turbine stabilizes at a maximum speed. If this
feature were not incorporated, the airflow would
accelerate the turbine assembly until it fails at its
burst speed.

8-50

On some engines that use a pneumatic starter

equipped with a sprag clutch, a clicking sound can
sometimes be heard after the engine has been shut
down and is coasting. This sound is considered normal and is the result of the spring tension on the
pawls overcoming centrifugal force and forcing the
pawls to ride on the clutch ratchet.
AIR SUPPLY VALVE

On aircraft that use a pneumatic starter, an air supply valve is installed in the air inlet line leading to
the starter. A typical air supply valve consists of a
control head and a butterfly valve. In most cases, the
control head is actuated by a switch in the cockpit,
while the butterfly valve is actuated pneumatically
or manually. [Figure 8-78]
The following discussion describes how the components in the control head of an air supply valve regulate the amount of air supplied to the starter. To aid
in understanding how the components work
together, you should refer to the previous figure. As
mentioned previously, the control head is actuated
electrically by a switch in the cockpit. Once activated, the control crank rotates and pushes the control rod to extend the bellows fully. In addition, the
control crank applies pressure to seat the pilot valve
rod and displace the pilot valve cap. With the pilot
valve cap off its seat, filtered air is allowed to flow
to the servo piston. As air pressure compresses the
servo piston, the butterfly valve opens and allows
air to flow to the starter.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

As pressure builds in the air supply line downstream

from the butterfly valve, the control rod bellows partially compresses. As this occurs, the pilot valve rod
lifts off its seat, allowing servo piston air to vent to
the atmosphere. When downstream air pressure
reaches a preset valve, the amount of air flowing to
the servo piston will equal the amount of air being
bled to the atmosphere and the system will be in a
state of equilibrium. At this point, the control head is
allowing maximum air pressure to the starter.
When a predetermined starter drive speed is
reached, a centrifugal cutout flyweight switch
de-energizes a solenoid which forces the control
crank to release the pilot valve cap. Once the pilot
valve cap seats, all air pressure vents to the
atmosphere and the butterfly valve closes.
When the starter air valve cannot be controlled electrically due to a malfunction, a manual override
handle can be used to position the butterfly valve.
However, when attempting to start an engine using
the manual override, make sure you follow the manufacturers procedures.

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

Air turbine starters are pneumatic accessories

designed to operate at high rpm in a high temperature environment. Because of this, adequate lubrication is crucial. Routine inspections of pneumatic

Figure 8-78. The air supply valve used with a pneumatic starter controls the amount of air that flows to the starter turbine.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

pneumatic starters should include a check of the

starter's oil level and examination of the magnetic
drain plug. It is normal for small particles to be
present on the drain plug, but particles that feel
sandy or gritty are evidence of some sort of internal failure.

8-51

In addition to normal maintenance practices, there

may be times when you have to troubleshoot a malfunction. To facilitate the troubleshooting process,
some manufacturers provide a chart listing several
common malfunctions as well as the probable cause
and remedy. [Figure 8-79]

Figure 8-79. To aid in troubleshooting a pneumatic starter, some manufacturers include a troubleshooting guide in their service
manuals that indicate probable causes and remedies for specific malfunctions.

8-52

COMBUSTION STARTER
A combustion starter is a completely self-contained starter consisting of the same components
found in a typical free turbine engine. In other
words, a combustion starter has a compressor,
combustion, turbine, and exhaust section; as well
as its own fuel and oil supply, ignition system, and
starting system. The compressor section typically
consists of a small centrifugal compressor while
the combustion section generally consists of a
reverse flow combustion chamber. The air supply
needed to operate a combustion starter is either

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

drawn from the surrounding air, or supplied by

another high pressure source.
Operation of a combustion starter is typically automatic. In other words, once a single start switch is
actuated in the cockpit, the starter ignites and
begins turning the free turbine. As soon as the free
turbine begins rotating, the main engine is also
rotated through a series of reduction gears. Once the
main engine starts and reaches its self-sustaining
speed, a cutout switch shuts down the combustion
starter. [Figure 8-80

Figure 8-80. A combustion starter consists of a gas turbine engine that delivers engine starting power through a high-ratio reduction
gear system. Operation of a typical combustion starter consists of actuating a single switch in the cockpit.

ELECTRICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The satisfactory performance of any modern aircraft
depends on the continuing reliability of electrical
systems and subsystems. Improperly or carelessly
installed or maintained wiring can be a source of
both immediate and potential danger. Because of
this, this section will look at the installation of
wiring and circuit components that are primarily
used in powerplant electrical systems.
The electrical installation in an aircraft consists of a
source of electrical energy and an electrical load.
Between the source and the load, there must be conductors of sufficient size to carry the required current without overheating or producing an excessive
voltage drop. There must also be adequate circuit
protection to ensure that excessive current cannot
flow in the circuit. Excessive current can damage
electrical equipment and produce enough heat to
create a fire hazard.

WIRE
When choosing the wire for an electrical system,
there are several factors that must be considered.
For example, the wire selected must be large enough
to accommodate the required current without producing excessive heat or causing an excessive voltage drop. In addition, the insulation must insulate
enough to prevent electrical leakage as well as be
strong enough to resist damage caused by abrasion.

WIRE TYPES
The majority of wiring in aircraft is done with
stranded copper wire. In most cases, the wiring is
coated with tin, silver, or nickel to help prevent oxidation. Prior to the mid 1990's, the wire used most
often was stranded copper wire manufactured to
MIL-W-5086 standards. This wire is made of strands
of annealed copper covered with a very thin coating
of tin. For insulation purposes, a variety of materials are used, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC),
nylon, and glass cloth braid. Most of these insulators are rated to 600 volts. [Figure 8-81]

Figure 8-81. MIL-W-5086 wire consists of stranded copper

conductors that are cabled with tin and wrapped in a PVC
insulation. For added protection, most of this type of wiring
is also covered in a nylon jacket.

In the mid 1990's it was discovered that polyvinyl

chloride insulation emits toxic fumes when it
burns. Therefore, a new group of mil spec wires,
MIL-W-22759, was introduced which consists of
stranded copper wire with Teflon insulation.
Today, MIL-W-22759 is used in lieu of MIL-W-5086
in new wiring installations and should be used
when replacing original aircraft wiring. However,
prior to replacing any aircraft wiring, you should
consult the manufacturer's service manual and service bulletins for specific instructions and information regarding both wire type and size.
Where large amounts of current must be carried for
long distances, MIL-W-7072 aluminum wire is often
used. This wire is insulated with either fluorinated
ethylene propylene (FEP Fluorocarbon), nylon, or
with a fiberglass braid. While aluminum wire does
save weight, it does have a few disadvantages. For
example, aluminum wire can only carry about
two-thirds as much current as the same size copper
wire. In addition, when exposed to vibration,
aluminum

8-54

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

wire can crystallize and break. In fact, aluminum

wire smaller than six-gauge is not recommended
because it is so easily broken by vibration.
In situations where you are going to replace a length
of copper wire with aluminum wire, a handy rule of
thumb is to always use an aluminum wire that is
two wire gauge numbers larger than the copper wire
it is replacing. Therefore, if you want to replace a
piece of four-gauge copper wire with aluminum,
you should use at least a two-gauge wire.

Figure 8-83. When wiring a new component in an aircraft,

you must know the system voltage, the allowable voltage
drop, and the components duty cycle. As you can see in this
figure, all of these factors are interrelated.

WIRE SIZE
Aircraft wire is measured by the American Wire
Gage (AWG) system, with the larger numbers representing the smaller wires. The smallest size wire
normally used in aircraft is 22-gauge wire, which
has a diameter of about 0.025 inch. However, conductors carrying large amounts of current are typically of the 0000, or four aught size, and have a
diameter of about 0.52 inch.
The amount of current a wire is capable of carrying
is determined by its cross-sectional area. In most
cases, a wire's cross-sectional area is expressed in
circular mil sizes. A circular mil is the standard
measurement of a round conductor's cross-sectional
area. One mil is equivalent to .001 inches. Thus, a
wire that has a diameter of .125 is expressed as 125
mils. To find the cross-sectional area of a conductor
in circular mils, square the conductor's diameter.
For example, if a round wire has a diameter of 3/8
inch, or 375 mils, its circular area is 140,625 circular mils [375 X 375 = 140,625).
The square mil is the unit of measure for square or
rectangular conductors such as bus bars. To determine the cross-sectional area of a conductor in
square mils, multiply the conductor's length by its
width. For example, the cross-sectional area of a
strip of copper that is 400 mils thick and 500 mils
wide is 200,000 square mils.

It should be noted that one circular mil is .7854 of

one square mil. Therefore, to convert a circular mil
area to a square mil area, multiply the area in circular mils by .7854 mil. Conversely, to convert a
square mil area to a circular mil area, divide the area
in square mils by .7854. [Figure 8-82]
When replacing wire to make a repair, all you typically have to do is replace damaged wire with the
same size and type of wire. However, in new installations, several factors must be considered in selecting the proper wire. For example, one of the first
things you must know is the system operating voltage. You also must know the allowable voltage drop
and whether your wiring operates on a continuous
or intermittent basis. [Figure 8-83]
To see why these factors are important, let's assume
that you are going to install a cowl flap motor in a
28-volt system. Since cowl flaps are moved infrequently during a flight, a cowl flap motor is considered to operate on an intermittent basis. By looking
at the chart in the previous figure, you can see the
allowable voltage drop for a component installed in
a 28-volt system that is operated intermittently is 2
volts. Once these three factors are known, an electric wire chart is used to determine the wire size
needed for installation. [Figure 8-84]
Notice that the three curves extend diagonally
across the chart from the lower left corner to the
right side. These curves represent the ability of a
wire to carry the current without overheating. Curve
1 represents the continuous rating of a wire when
routed in bundles or conduit. If the intersection of
the current and wire length lines are above this
curve, the wire can carry the current without generating excessive heat.

Figure 8-82. Relationship between circular mils and square mils.

If the intersection of the current and wire length

lines falls between curve 1 and 2, the wire can

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-55

Figure 8-84. In this example, assume a 28-volt cowl flap motor draws six amps continuously and 40 feet of wire must be used for
the installation. To determine the correct wire size, locate the column on the left size of the chart representing a 28-volt system
(item 1). Move down in this column until you find the horizontal line representing a wire length of 40 feet (item 2). Follow this line
to the right until it intersects the diagonal line for 6 amps (item 3). Because the wire carries an intermittent current, you must be
at or above curve 3 on the chart (item 4). In this case, the intersection is above curve 3 and all you have to do is drop down vertically to the bottom of the chart. The line falls between wire sizes 14 and 16 (item 5). Whenever the chart indicates a wire size
between two sizes, you must select the larger wire. In this case, a 14 wire is required.

only be used to carry current continuously in free

air. If the intersection falls between curves 2 and
3, the wire can only be used to carry current
intermittently.
WIRE MARKING
There is no standard system for wire identification among the manufacturers of general aviation
aircraft. However, most manufacturers do put
some form of identification mark about every 12
to 15 inches along a wire. The identification
marking should identify the wire with regard to
the type of circuit, location within the circuit, and
wire size. Each manufacturer will have a code letter to indicate the type of circuit. For example,
wire in flight instrumentation circuits are often
identified with the letter "F" while the letter "N"
is sometimes used to identify the circuit ground.
Easy identification of each wire greatly facilitates
troubleshooting procedures and saves time.
[Figure 8-85]

Figure 8-85.The marking J14C-20 indicates that this wire is

part of an ignition circuit (J) and is the 14th wire in chat circuit (14). In addition, it is the third individual segment of
wire number 14 (C) and it is a 20-gauge wire.

8-56

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-86. A two-letter identification code is used in some wire marking systems to provide more detail on a wire's function and
location.

A typical wire identification code would be

F26D-22N. In this case, the letter "F" indicates the
wire is in the flight instrumentation circuit, while the
"26" identifies the wire as being the 26th wire in the
circuit. The "D" indicates the fourth segment of the
number 26 wire. The "22" is the gauge size of the
wire, and the "N" indicates that the wire goes to
ground.
Another wire marking system that is sometimes
used employs a two-letter identification code. This

marking system provides much more detail about

the location of a given wire making it especially
helpful in large aircraft having many systems.
[Figure 8-86]
In addition to marking individual wires, wire bundles may have a specific identification number. In
this case, pressure-sensitive tape or flexible sleeves
are stamped with identification codes and wrapped
around a wire bundle. Individual wires within each

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-57

connect one end of the wires to their destination terminal strip or connector before securing them
together in a bundle. Wiring harnesses fabricated at
a factory are typically made on a jig board prior to
installation in an aircraft. This method allows the
manufacturer to preform the wire bundles with the
bends needed to fit the bundle in an aircraft.
Regardless of the method of bundle assembly, a
plastic comb can be used to keep individual wires
straight and parallel in a bundle. [Figure 8-88]

Figure 8-87. Several methods of identifying wire bundles

include pressure-sensitive tape and sleeve markers tied in
place.

bundle are usually hot-stamped for easy identification. Typically, wire bundles are marked near the
points at which they enter and leave a compartment. [Figure 8-87]

Where possible, limit the number of wires in a single bundle. This helps prevent the possibility of a
single wire faulting and ultimately damaging an
entire bundle. In addition, no single bundle should
include wires for both a main and back-up system.
This helps prevent the possibility of neutralizing a
system if a bundle were damaged. Another thing to
keep in mind is that it is better to keep ignition
wires, shielded wires, and wires not protected by a
fuse or circuit breaker separate from all other
wiring.
Once all the wires in a bundle are assembled, the
bundle should be tied together every three to four
inches. Typically, wire bundles that are assembled

WIRING INSTALLATION
As a general rule, electrical wiring is installed in aircraft either as open wiring or in conduit. With open
wiring, individual wires or wire bundles are routed
inside the aircraft structure without protective covering. On the other hand, when installed in conduit,
electrical wiring is put inside either a rigid or flexible tubing that provides a great deal of protection.
OPEN WIRING
The quickest and easiest way to install wiring is to
install it as open wiring. In addition, open wiring
allows easy access when troubleshooting or servicing individual circuits.
To help provide a more organized installation, electrical wiring is often installed in bundles. Several
methods of assembling wires into bundles may be
utilized, depending on where a bundle is fabricated.
For example, in the shop, wires stamped with identification markings may be lined up parallel to one
another on a bench and tied together. However,
inside an aircraft, wires may be secured to an existing bundle, or laid out to form a new bundle and
tied together. In some cases, it may be helpful to

Figure 8-88. A plastic comb is a helpful tool used to keep

wires straight and parallel when making up new wire bundles.

8-58

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-89. When tieing a wire bundle together with either

linen or nylon cord, it is best to use a clove hitch that is
secured by a square knot.

on a jig are tied together with waxed linen or nylon

cord using a clove hitch secured with a square knot.
[Figure 8-89]
In the field a patented nylon strap called a
TYRAP is often used to hold wire bundles
together. This small nylon strap is wrapped around
the wire bundle and one end is passed through a
slot in the other end and pulled tight. Once tight,
the excess strapping is cut off.

Figure 8-90. Cushion clamps, or Adel clamps, are used to

support and secure wire bundles to the aircraft structure.

Another method that is used to hold wire bundles

together is with either single- or double-lacing.
However, lacing should not be used with wire bundles installed around an engine because a break anywhere in the lacing cord loosens an entire section of
the bundle.

When electrical wires are routed parallel to oxygen

or any type of fluid line, the wiring should be least
six inches above the fluid line. However, the distance can be reduced to two inches as long as the
wiring is not supported in any way by the fluid line
and the proper mechanical protection is provided.
Acceptable "secondary" protection typically
includes additional clamps, approved sleeving, and
the use of conduits.

Once tied, some wire bundles are covered with a

heat-shrinkable tubing, a coiled "spaghetti" tubing
or various other types of coverings made of Teflon,
nylon, or fiberglass. However, when these coverings
are used, a wire bundle is still considered to be open
wiring.

Wire bundles must be securely clamped to the aircraft structure using clamps lined with a non-metallic cushion. In addition, the clamps should be
spaced close enough together so the wiring bundle
does not sag (maximum 1/2") or vibrate excessively.
[Figure 8-90]

All of the wire bundles installed in aircraft should

be routed so they are at least three inches away from
any control cable and so they will not interfere with
any moving components. If there is any possibility
that a wire or wire bundle could touch a control
cable, some form of mechanical guard must be
installed to keep the wire bundle and cable separated.

Another thing to keep in mind when securing wire

bundles is that, once installed, you should be able
to deflect a bundle about a half inch with normal
hand pressure applied between any two supports.
In addition, the last support should allow enough
slack that a connector can be easily disconnected
and reconnected for servicing. In some cases, a service loop in the wiring is the preferred method for
providing adequate slack to enable equipment
removal and replacement.

If possible, it is better to route electrical wiring along

the overhead or the side walls of an aircraft rather
than in the bottom of the fuselage. This helps prevent the wires from being damaged by fluids that
may leak into low areas. In addition, electrical
wiring must be routed where it cannot be damaged
by persons entering or leaving the aircraft or by any
baggage or cargo.

Any bundle that passes through a bulkhead should

be clamped to a bracket which centers the bundle in
the hole. In addition, if there is less than one-quarter
inch clearance between the bundle and the hole, a
protective rubber grommet must be installed. The
grommet prevents wiring from being cut by the
sharp edges of the metal hole should the centering
bracket break or become bent. [Figure 8-91]

ROUTING AND CLAMPING

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-59

Like open wiring, conduit must be supported by

clamps from the aircraft structure. In addition, a
one-eighth inch drain hole must be made at the lowest point in each run of the conduit. This is done to
provide a means of draining any moisture that condenses inside the conduit.
Fabricating conduit for electrical wiring requires
you to remove all burrs and sharp edges from the
conduit. In addition, bends must be made using a
radius that will not cause the conduit tube to kink,
wrinkle, or flatten excessively.
SHIELDING

Figure 8-91. When a wire bundle must pass through a bulkhead or frame, a supporting bracket is required. If less than
one-quarter inch clearance exists, a rubber grommet is
installed to prevent possible wiring damage.

Where bundles must make a bend, use a bend radius

that does not cause the wires on the inside of the
bend to bunch up. Using a bend radius of approximately ten times the diameter of the wire bundle is
a good practice.
CONDUIT
The method of installation that provides the best
protection for electrical wiring is to enclose the
wiring in either a rigid or flexible metal conduit.
This is the preferred method of installation in areas
such as wheel wells and engine nacelles where wire
bundles are likely to be chafed or crushed.
The inside diameter of the conduit must be 25 percent larger than the maximum diameter of the wire
bundle. When figuring the conduit size needed,
bear in mind that the nominal diameter of a conduit
represents the conduit's outside diameter.
Therefore, you must subtract twice the wall thickness from the conduit's outside diameter to determine the inside diameter.
When installing a wire bundle inside a conduit,
keep in mind that, if you find it difficult to slide a
wire bundle through a conduit, blow some
soap-stone talc through the tubing first. The talc
will act as a lubricant between the wiring and
conduit wall. Another installation tip is to attach a
long piece of lacing cord to the bundle and blow it
through the tubing with compressed air. Once
through the tubing, the lacing cord can be used to
help pull the wire bundle through.

Anytime a wire carries electrical current, a magnetic

field surrounds the wire. If strong enough, this magnetic field could interfere with some of the aircraft
instrumentation. For example, even though the tiny
light that illuminates the card of a magnetic compass is powered with low-voltage direct current, the
magnetic field produced by the current flow is
enough to deflect the compass. To minimize this
field, a two-conductor twisted wire is used to carry
the current to and from this light. By using a twisted
wire, the fields cancel each other.
Alternating current or pulsating direct current has
an especially bad effect on electronic equipment. To
help prevent interference, wires that carry AC or
pulsating DC are often shielded. Shielding is a
method of intercepting electrical energy and shunting it to electrical ground.
Most shielding consists of a braid of tin-plated or
cadmium-plated copper wire that surrounds the
insulation of a wire. Typically, the braid is connected to aircraft ground through a crimped-on ring
terminal. When a wire is shielded, the radiated
energy from the conductor is received by the
braided shielding and passed to the aircraft's
ground where it cannot cause interference.
Shielding in the powerplant electrical system is typically grounded at both ends of the wiring run.
However, shielding in electronic circuit wiring is usually grounded at one end to prevent setting up a loop
which could cause electromagnetic interference.
WIRING TERMINALS
Electrical wiring used in aircraft is generally terminated with solderless terminals that are staked, or
crimped, on to the wire. Crimping is a term used to
describe the squeezing of a terminal around a wire

8-60

Figure 8-92. Wire gauge sizes 10 through 22 are typically

terminated with preinsuiated solderiess terminals that are
color-coded to identify various sizes.

to secure the wire and provide a high quality electrical connection. There are several different types
of terminals used in aircraft including the ring terminal, slotted terminal, and hook type terminal.
However, the ring terminal is used most often
because it virtually eliminates the possibility of circuit failure due to terminal disconnection.
Typically, solderiess terminals used on 10-gauge
and smaller wire use colored insulation to
preinsu-late the terminals. For example, terminals
with red insulation are used on wire gauge sizes 22
through 18, while blue insulation identifies a
terminal used on 16- and 14-gauge wires. If a
terminal has yellow insulation, it is used for 12- and
10-gauge wires. [Figure 8-92]
Wires larger than 10-gauge typically use uninsulated terminals. In this case, a piece of vinyl tubing
or heat-shrinkable tubing is used to insulate the terminal. However, the insulating material must be
slipped over the wire prior to crimping. Then, after
the crimping operation, the tubing is pulled over the
terminal barrel and secured. [Figure 8-93]

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-93. Solderiess terminals installed on wire larger

than 10-gauge require a separate piece of insulation.
Heat-shrink tubing may be used or vinyl tubing may be
secured over the terminal's barrel with lacing cord.

stripping a wire, you should expose as little of the

conductor as necessary to make the connection. In
addition, you must be careful not to damage the
conductor beyond allowable limits. [Figure 8-94]
The FAA specifies limits for the number of nicked
or broken strands on any conductor. For example, a
20-gauge copper wire with 19 strands may have 2
nicks and no broken strands. In general, the larger
the number of strands or the larger the conductor,
the greater the acceptable number of broken or
nicked strands.
Special crimping tools are needed to crimp a terminal onto a wire. A properly crimped terminal provides a joint between the wire and the terminal as
strong as the wire itself. The preferred crimping tool
is a ratchet-type crimper that is periodically cali-

When choosing a solderiess terminal, it is important

that the materials of the terminal and wire are compatible. This helps eliminate the possibility of dissimilar metal corrosion.
Before you can attach a wire to a terminal, the protective insulation must be removed. This is typically done by cutting the insulation and gently
pulling it from the end of the wire. This process is
known as stripping the wire. Whenever you are

Figure 8-94. When stripping electrical wire, it is best to use

a quality stripper that is designed for a specific size of wire.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-61

Figure 8-95. Ratchet-type crimping tools are periodically

calibrated to provide a quality crimp on every terminal.

brated to ensure a consistent and proper crimp.

When using a ratchet-type crimping tool, the handles of the tool will not release until the jaws have
moved close enough together to properly compress
the terminal barrel. [Figure 8-95]
Pneumatic crimping tools are often used on wire
gauge sizes 0 through 0000 because of the force
required to properly crimp the wire. Like the
ratchet-type crimper, a pneumatic crimper must be
calibrated periodically.
Aluminum wire presents some special problems
when installing terminals. Aluminum wire oxidizes
when exposed to air and the oxides formed become
an electrical insulator. Therefore, to ensure a good
quality electrical connection between an aluminum
wire and terminal, the inside of a typical aluminum
terminal is partially filled with a compound of
petroleum jelly and zinc dust. This compound
mechanically grinds the oxide film off the wire
strands when the terminal is compressed and then
seals the wire from the air, preventing the formation
of new oxides. [Figure 8-96]
CONNECTORS
Connectors are usually installed on wiring that is
frequently disconnected. As an example, the wiring
that is used to supply power to avionic components

Figure 8-96. (A) To help prevent oxidation, special terminals filled with a compound of petroleum jelly and zinc dust
are required for terminating aluminum wiring. (B)
When a stripped wire is inserted into this type of
terminal, the wire strands become impregnated with the
petroleum jelly and zinc compound. (C) As the terminal
is crimped, the zinc dust cleans the wire while the
petroleum jelly creates an airtight seal. (D) Once
crimped, a piece of vinyl tubing is tied over the terminal
end to protect it from moisture.

typically utilize multi-pin connectors that can be

easily removed to perform maintenance. AN and
MS connectors are the most common connectors
used in aircraft electrical circuits and are available
in a variety of sizes and types. Mating connectors
consist of one connector with female contacts, or
sockets, and another connector with male contacts,
or pins. The ground side of an electrical power
conductor is typically connected to a male connector while the power side of the conductor is
attached to the female connector. This is done to
reduce the chance of an accidental short between

8-62

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-97. As you can see, electrical connectors come in many types and sizes. This provides a great deal of flexibility when
attaching electrical wiring to various components.

the power side of a circuit and any conductive surface when the mating connectors are separated.
[Figure 8-97]
There are two ways the wires are typically connected to the contacts in a connector. Newer plugs
use tapered pins that are crimped onto the wire end.
The pin is then slipped into a tapered hole in the pin
or socket end of a connector. A special tool is used
to remove or replace the pin if it is ever necessary.
Another type of connector plug requires the wires to
be soldered into each end of a connector. To install a
typical soldered connector, begin by stripping
enough insulation from the end of each wire to provide approximately V 32 inch of bare wire between
the end of the insulation and the end of a pin when
inserted. Next, slip a specified length of insulated
tubing over the end of each wire. Using an appropriate soldering iron, solder, and flux, apply a small
amount of solder to the stripped portion of each
wire. This is a process known as tinning the wires
and greatly facilitates their insertion into the con-

nector pins. Once the wires are tinned, fill the end of
each pin, or solder pot, with solder. While keeping
the solder in a solder pot molten, insert the appropriate wire. Once inserted, remove the soldering iron
and hold the wire as still as possible until the solder
solidifies. If the wire is moved before the solder
solidifies, the solder will take on a granular appearance and cause excessive electrical resistance.
Repeat this process until all pins and wires have
been soldered in place. After all of the wires are in
place, clean any remaining flux residue from the
connector with an approved cleaner. [Figure 8-98]
Inspect the soldered connector before final assembly. If excess solder is bridging two pins or if some
pins do not have enough solder, re-solder the connection. The solder in a properly soldered connection should completely fill each pot and have a
slightly rounded top. However, the solder must not
wick up into the strands of each wire or the wire
may become brittle and break when bent. When you
are satisfied with all of the soldered joints, slip the
insulation tubing on each wire over its respective

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-98. (A) After the wires have been timed, fill a solder pot with solder. (B) When doing this, make sure you
allow enough time for the pot to heat up sufficiently. If this
is not done, resin could become trapped in the solder producing a weak connection. (C) Once installed, there
should be a minimum of 1/ 32 of an inch clearance between
the wire insulation and the top of the solder joint. In addition, a piece of vinyl tubing should be slipped over each
connection and the wires tied off.

solder pot. Once all solder pots are covered, spot tie
the bundle just above the insulation tubing to keep
it in place.
TERMINAL STRIPS
A terminal strip consists of a series of threaded
studs that are mounted on a strip of insulating material. A typical terminal strip is made of a plastic or
a paper-based phenolic compound that provides a
high mechanical strength as well as good electrical
insulation properties. In addition, most terminal
strips have barriers between adjacent studs to keep
the wires properly separated. [Figure 8-99]

8-63

Figure 8-99. (A) A common terminal strip used in aircraft

consists of several studs set in a nonconductive base. (B)
To help prevent shorting between terminal connectors,
most terminal strips have some sort of barrier between
each stud.

The size of the studs on a terminal strip range from

size 6 up to about 1/4-inch in diameter, with the
smaller sizes suitable only for low current control
circuits. The smallest terminal stud allowed for
electrical power systems is a number 10. Terminal
studs smaller than number 10 are seldom used in
the powerplant portion of an electrical system since
many of the circuits are electrical power circuits.
When attaching the terminal ends of a wire bundle
to a terminal strip, fan the wires out from the bundle so the wires align with the terminal studs. A
typical installation centers the wires and arranges
them at right angles to the terminal strip. A short
distance from the terminal strip, the wires are then
turned 90 degrees to form a wire bundle.
Ideally, there should be only two wires attached to
any one stud. However, the FAA allows up to four
terminals to be stacked on any single stud. When
attaching multiple terminals to one stud, or lug, the

8-64

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

sparks jump from one component to another. For

example, all the control surfaces on an aircraft are
electrically grounded to the main aircraft structure
with braided bonding straps. This helps prevent the
inherent resistance in a control surface's hinge from
insulating the control surface from the main structure.
In
the
powerplant
compartment,
shock-mounted components are also bonded to the
main structure with bonding straps.

Figure 8-100. (A) A typical method of attaching multiple

wires to a terminal stud stacks and angles the wires out
from each stud. (B) Proper stacking of four terminals
requires terminal tongues to be alternately placed up and
down.

wires must be angled out from the terminal stud

and stacked to avoid damaging the tongue of each
terminal. [Figure 8-100]
JUNCTION BOXES
Junction boxes installed in aircraft powerplant compartments are typically made of an aluminum alloy
or stainless steel. In addition, they are mounted in a
way that minimizes the possibility of water getting
into the box and causing electrical shorts or corrosion. Most junction boxes in powerplant compartments are mounted vertically to help prevent small
hardware from becoming lodged between terminals
and causing a short circuit or electrical fire.

Any electrical component which uses the aircraft

structure as the return path for its current must be
bonded to the structure. When selecting a bonding
strap, it must be large enough to handle all the
return current flow without producing an unacceptable voltage drop. An adequately bonded structure
requires bonding straps that hold resistance readings to a negligible amount. For example, the resistance between any component and the aircraft
structure must be three milliohms or less. In addition, a bonding strap must be long enough to allow
free movement of a component as well as be made
from a material which does not produce galvanic
corrosion. [Figure 8-101]
The large flow of current from an electrical engine
starter requires a heavy bonding strap between the
engine and airframe. This is especially necessary on
engines that are mounted in rubber shock mounts
which have high electrical insulation properties. If
a bonding strap is not installed between the engine
and airframe, or if a break or extensive corrosion
exists in an installed bonding strap, the risk of fire
is greatly increased because much of the starter
return current will be forced to pass through metal
fuel and primer lines to reach ground.

Junction boxes should be isolated from electrical

power whenever you are working in them. On occasions where it is necessary to apply power to circuits in a junction box for performing maintenance,
be very cautious. A metal tool carelessly placed
across several terminals could cause severe damage
to the aircraft electrical system and components. In
addition, remove any rings or a watch that you are
wearing to avoid accidental shocks or burns.

BONDING
Bonding is a process that grounds all components in
an aircraft together electrically. This prevents a difference in potential from building to the point that

Figure 8-101. A braided bonding strap of adequate length

and electrical capacity provides protection to
shock-mounted components.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

CIRCUIT PROTECTION
Electrical circuit protection devices are installed
primarily to protect the wiring. To do this adequately, circuit protection devices should be located
as close as possible to the electrical power source
bus. The two types of circuit protection devices that
are used on aircraft include circuit breakers and
fuses. The exact type and size of circuit protection
device required in a given electrical circuit is usually specified by the electrical equipment or aircraft
manufacturer.
Since it is easier to reset a circuit breaker than
replace a fuse, circuit breakers are used more than
fuses as circuit protection devices in aircraft. The
three basic types of circuit breakers used in aircraft
electrical systems are the push-to-reset, push/pull,
and toggle types. [Figure 8-102]
All aircraft circuit breakers are of the trip-free type
which means that, once the breaker opens, the circuit remains open until the circuit cools regardless
of the position of the operating control. With this
type of breaker, it is impossible to hold the circuit
closed if an actual fault exists.

8-65

FAR Part 23 requires manual reset of a tripped circuit breaker and prohibits the use of automatic
reset types.
Although it is rare, some aircraft electrical circuits
are protected with fuses. A fuse is made of a
low-melting-point alloy enclosed in a glass tube.
The fuse is installed in a circuit and, when current
flow becomes excessive, the metal alloy melts and
opens the circuit. Some fuses are designed to
withstand a momentary surge of current, but create
an open if the current is sustained. These
slow-blow fuses have a small spring attached to a
link so when the sustained current softens the link,
the spring pulls the link apart and opens the
circuit.
FAR Part 91 requires the operator of an aircraft
using fuses as protective devices to carry a spare set.
The spare set may consist of a complete replacement set of fuses or a quantity of three replacement
fuses for each kind required.

Automatic reset circuit breakers automatically reset

themselves
after
a
cool-down
period.
However,

A circuit breaker or fuse should open an electrical

circuit before its conductors become hot enough to
emit smoke. In order to achieve this, a circuit
breaker or fuse is selected with time/current characteristics which fall below that of the associated conductor. Circuit protection should be matched to
obtain maximum utilization of the equipment operated by the circuit. [Figure 8-103]

Figure 8-102. Most circuit protection for modern aircraft is

provided by circuit breakers that can be reset in flight. The
push/pull type is shown in the upper panel with the
push-to-reset type in the lower panel.

Figure 8-103. This chart is an example of the type used to

select circuit breaker and fuse protection for copper conductors. Such charts are usually applicable to a specific set
of ambient temperatures and wire bundle sizes.

8-66

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

nents such as landing gear or flaps should be

installed so the switch moves in the same direction
as the desired motion.
Certain circuits must be operated only in an emergency. For these circuits, the switch is normally
enclosed in a cover that must be lifted before the
switch can be actuated. These switches are said to
be guarded. If the circuit is one that could endanger
a system if it were operated inadvertently, the cover
may be safety-wired shut with a very light safety
wire that can be broken if it becomes necessary to
actuate the switch.

Figure 8-104. This sample switch derating chart is typical of

the type used for selecting the proper nominal switch rating when the continuous load current is known.

Specifically designed switches should be used in

circuits where switch malfunctions or inadvertent
activation would be hazardous. Such switches
should be rugged and have sufficient contact capability to break, make, and carry the connected load
current continuously.

SWITCHES
The purpose of a switch is to interrupt the flow of
current to the component it controls. Switches are
rated with regard to the voltage they can withstand
and the current they can carry continuously. In most
cases, a switch's rating is stamped on the switch
housing.
When installing a switch in a circuit, the continuous current is not typically the limiting factor. For
example, in circuit's having inductive loads, the
continuous circuit is much less than the "rush-in"
current required to initially power up the circuit.
Therefore, any switch that is installed in an
inductive circuit must be derated to prevent
switch failure. [Figure 8-104]
SWITCH ORIENTATION
Hazardous errors in switch operation can be
avoided by logical and consistent installation. For
example, two position "on-off" switches should be
mounted so that the "on" position is reached by an
upward or forward movement of the toggle. In addition, switches that control movable aircraft compo-

RELAYS AND SOLENOIDS

Relays and solenoids allow electrical components
to be controlled remotely. For example, with a solenoid, a very small switch can be used to control the
high current needed to operate an aircraft engine
starter. Relays and solenoids are quite similar, with
only a mechanical difference. Normally a relay has
a fixed soft iron core around which an electromagnetic coil is wound. Movable contacts are closed by
the magnetic pull exerted by the core when the coil
is energized, and are opened by a spring when the
coil is de-energized. A solenoid, on the other hand,
has a movable core that is pulled into the center of
an electromagnetic coil when the coil is energized.
Due to the movable core, solenoids typically
respond quicker and are stronger than relays. Both
relays and solenoids are used for electrical controls.
Solenoids are typically used for high current applications and also find important use as mechanical
control devices such as moving locking pins into
and out of mechanically actuated devices. To eliminate the confusion between relays and solenoids,
many aircraft manufacturers often refer to magnetically activated switches as contactors.

RECIPROCATING ENGINE IGNITION SYSTEMS

A typical ignition system must be capable of delivering a high voltage spark to each cylinder under all
operating conditions. In addition, the spark must be
created and delivered at the correct moment during
the operating cycle. For example, if a particular
engine fires 24 degrees before top dead center on the
compression stroke, the ignition system must be
able to deliver a spark at that specific time.
For obvious reasons, aircraft ignition systems must
have a high degree of reliability. For this reason,
FAR Part 33 states that "Each spark ignition engine
must have a dual ignition system with at least two
spark plugs for each cylinder and two separate electrical circuits with separate sources of electric
energy, or have an ignition system of equivalent inflight reliability." Several advantages are realized
using two magneto systems; first, one magneto system serves as a backup if the other system fails, and
second, it allows the use of two spark plugs in each
cylinder which increases combustion efficiency and
engine power output. Traditionally, the requirement
for two separate sources of electric energy has been
met using either a battery ignition system, a magneto ignition system, or a combination of the two.

BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM

Some early aircraft engines utilized a battery as the
source of electrical energy for one or both of the
required ignition systems. This type of system is
similar to that used in many automobiles. A typical
battery ignition system consists of a battery, ignition
coil, a set of breaker points, a cam, a capacitor, a distributor, and spark plugs. [Figure 8-105]
In a battery ignition system, the battery supplies
current to the primary winding of an ignition coil.
The ignition coil then steps up the voltage to the
level necessary to create a spark in each cylinder.
However, if you recall from your studies of coils, in
order for a coil to step up voltage, the current flowing through the primary winding of the coil must
pulsate. To convert the pure DC provided by a battery to pulsating DC, a set of breaker points, or contacts, are connected in series with the primary
winding. Breaker points are a mechanical device
consisting of two electrical contacts that are opened
and closed at regular intervals to control when current flows through the primary winding. When the
contacts are closed, the electrical circuit is complete

Figure 8-105. The major components in a battery ignition system include a battery, ignition coil, a set of breaker points, a cam, a
capacitor, a distributor, and spark plugs.

8-68
and current flows through the primary winding.
However, when the contacts are opened, the circuit
is interrupted, and the magnetic field surrounding
the primary winding collapses. As the magnetic
field collapses, current is induced into the ignition
coil's secondary winding.
In order to prevent arcing across the points when
they open and increase the rate the magnetic field in
the primary winding collapses, a capacitor, or condenser, is placed across the breaker points. If you
recall from your studies on basic electricity, the
faster a magnetic field collapses, the more current it
can induce.
The device that opens and closes the points is called
a cam and consists of a metal disc with two or more
raised lobes. As the cam rotates, the lobes force the
points apart to interrupt current flow in the primary
winding. However, once the cam rotates to its low
cam position, spring pressure forces the points
closed again to complete the primary circuit and permit current to flow through the primary winding.
As current is induced into the secondary winding of
the ignition coil, its voltage is stepped up and sent
to the distributor. The distributor distributes the
high voltage produced by the ignition coil to the
spark plugs. A distributor consists of two components; a rotating finger and a distributor block. The
rotating finger rotates within the distributor block
and distributes the voltage produced by the ignition
coil to the contacts mounted in the distributor block.
From here, the voltage passes through individual
ignition leads to the spark plugs.
The final component in a battery ignition system is
the ignition switch. The ignition switch provides a

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

means of controlling when an ignition system is

active. For example, in a battery ignition system,
when the ignition switch is "on" and the breaker
points are closed, battery current flows through the
ignition coil's primary circuit. However, when the
ignition switch is "off," the primary circuit is
opened, disabling the system.

MAGNETO IGNITION SYSTEMS

Today, nearly all aircraft reciprocating engines utilize a magneto ignition system. A magneto is basically a permanent-magnet AC generator that uses
electromagnetic and induced current principles to
develop high voltage energy to fire a set of spark
plugs. All magneto systems are designated as either
high-tension or low-tension systems.
HIGH-TENSION SYSTEMS
The basic components of a high-tension magneto
system include a single high-tension magneto, a
wiring harness, and a set of spark plugs. Unlike the
battery ignition system, the magneto in a high-tension system utilizes a rotating magnet instead of a
battery to induce voltage into an ignition, or magneto coil. The coil steps up the voltage just before it
reaches the distributor and is distributed to the
spark plugs. This results in a constant voltage from
the magneto to the spark plugs. [Figure 8-106]
Currently, high-tension magnetos are available in
either a single magneto or dual magneto configuration. A single magneto consists of a permanent magnet having two, four, or eight poles that are fixed to
a single rotating shaft. The flux lines produced by
the magnet cut across and induce current into the
primary winding of the magneto coil. Once induced,

Figure 8-106. High-tension magneto systems generate high voltage energy using a magneto coil within the magneto housing. The
high voltage pulses are then routed to the spark plugs through a distributor block and ignition leads.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

8-69

Figure 8-107. A single magneto consists of a multi-pole

magnet that induces current into a magneto coil. Once
induced, the current is stepped up and distributed to the
spark plugs.

the current is stepped up and distributed to the

spark plugs. To comply with the requirement for a
dual system, two single magnetos must be installed
on a single engine. [Figure 8-107]
A dual magneto differs from a single magneto in
that one housing contains two independent ignition systems that share a common rotating magnet.
In other words, a dual magneto contains two of
everything except the rotating magnet and cam.
[Figure 8-108.]
Early high-tension magneto systems had problems
associated with the production and distribution of
high voltage pulses to the spark plugs. One of the
main problems was known as flashover. Flashover
is a term used to describe an occurrence inside a
high-tension magneto where a spark jumps to the
wrong electrode in the distributor block. High altitude operations increase the likelihood of flashover
due to lower air density. The less dense the air, the
less dielectric, or insulating strength the air has.
Flashover can lead to carbon tracking which
appears as a fine pencil-like carbon trail inside the
distributor. Over time, carbon tracks can form a
conductive path to ground, increasing the possibility of flashover.
Over the years, several design changes were made to
prevent flashover inside a high-tension magneto.
For example, some magneto manufacturers made
their distributors larger to increase the distance a
spark would have to jump. Others relied on a low-

Figure 8-108. The Bendix D-3000 dual magneto contains two

separate and independent ignition systems that share a
common four pole rotating magnet.

tension magneto system that distributed a relatively

low voltage to a high-tension transformer near each
spark plug. However, these measures were only partially effective. The most success in overcoming
flashover came with the invention and use of
improved ignition component materials with better
insulation properties. In addition, the practice of
pressurizing magnetos greatly improved ignition
system performance at high altitudes. With a pressurized magneto, a regulated air source pumps air
into the magneto housing to maintain a pressure
above ambient. This made it more difficult for a
spark to jump.
LOW-TENSION SYSTEMS
The low-tension magneto system was originally
designed as a means of overcoming the problem of
flashover experienced in early high-tension magnetos. A low-tension magneto differs from a high-tension magneto in that the magneto coil has only one
winding. As a result, relatively low voltage is produced by the magneto and flashover is kept to a
minimum.
To boost the voltage enough to create a spark, all
low-tension systems utilize several high-tension
transformers mounted on the cylinders near each

8-70

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-109. A low-tension magneto utilizes a magneto coil that has only one winding. As a result, the magneto produces and
distributes a relatively low voltage that is stepped up by a high-tension transformer just before it reaches the spark plugs.

spark plug. Each transformer contains a primary

coil and a secondary coil which boosts the magneto
voltage enough to create a spark. [Figure 8-109]
Although low-tension magneto circuits overcame
some of the problems intrinsic to older high-tension
systems, they still had some limitations. For example, there are more components in a low-tension
system. This is especially true on large radial
engines where each cylinder requires one transformer for each spark plug.
Low-tension ignition systems were originally built
for large 18 and 24 cylinder radial engines and,
therefore, the demand for low-tension systems has
largely disappeared. In addition, new construction
materials and techniques have all but eliminated
the need for a low-tension system.

MAGNETO OPERATING PRINCIPLES

High- and low-tension magneto systems operate on
the same principle for generating electrical energy.
However, since low-tension systems are not used in
modern aircraft, the following discussion on operating principles focuses on a typical high-tension
magneto.
A high-tension magneto consists of a mechanical
system and three distinct circuits; a magnetic circuit, a primary electrical circuit, and a secondary
electrical circuit. The operation of these circuits is
controlled with a cockpit mounted ignition switch.
THE MECHANICAL SYSTEM
The mechanical system of a magneto includes the
housing, the magneto drive shaft, and all of the nonelectrical portions of the magneto. Most magnetos

are encased in an aluminum alloy housing that

mounts to an engine. Housings are made from an
aluminum alloy because they will not interfere with
the magnetic circuit. In addition, aluminum provides mechanical strength and rigidity for the
mounting and is relatively light weight.
Magneto housings are designed with two different
types of mounting provisions; base mount and
flange mount. Base-mounted magnetos are bolted
rigidly to a bracket on the engine accessory case.
This type of mount is typically found on early radial
engines. Flange-mounted magnetos, on the other
hand, are more common and are used on horizontally opposed engines. The mounting flange on this
type of magneto is cast as an integral part of the
magneto housing. One type of flange-mount
attaches to an engine with mounting bolts that pass
through banana shaped slots. Another type of
mount uses two L-shaped lockdown tabs to clamp
the flange to the engine. Bolts pass through the tabs
into threaded holes in the engine accessory case.
[Figure 8-110]
Protruding from one end of a magneto's housing is
a single hardened steel shaft that runs the length
of the magneto. Mounted to this shaft inside the
magneto are the rotating magnet, a gear that drives
the distributor finger, and a cam. The shaft itself
is typically supported by either ball or needle
bearings.
There are two types of cams used in high-tension
magnetos: uncompensated and compensated. An
uncompensated cam is used for most modern reciprocating engines. This cam has a uniform distance
between cam lobes because the number of degrees
of crankshaft rotation between the firing of each

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-71

Figure 8-110. Both types of flange mounts used on magnetos allow the magneto to be rotated slightly so you can time the magneto to the engine.

spark plug is uniform. The number of lobes on an

uncompensated cam is equal to the number of
poles on the rotating magnet. This type of cam is
normally mounted to the end of the rotating magneto shaft drive.
A compensated cam is used in magnetos installed
on radial engines. With this type of cam, a separate
cam lobe is provided for each cylinder. This is necessary because the number of degrees between spark
plug firing events is not uniform. Unlike other reciprocating engines, the number of degrees of crankshaft rotation between cylinders reaching top dead
center on a radial engine varies. This is caused by
the elliptical path that link rods must follow.
Therefore, compensation is provided by varying the
distance between the cam lobes so each spark plug
can fire at the proper time. The spacing between
each lobe is tailored to a particular cylinder of a particular engine.
Since a compensated cam has one lobe for each
cylinder, the cam must complete one revolution for
every two revolutions of the crankshaft. Because of
this, compensated cams are usually driven by a gear
assembly.

two north and two south poles opposite each other.

On an eight-pole magnet all the poles are 45
degrees apart.
Rotating magnets are often made from Alnico, an
alloy of aluminum, iron, nickel, and cobalt. Due to
its excellent magnetic properties, Alnico retains
magnetism for an indefinite length of time.
Permalloy is another alloy with similar qualities
commonly used for rotating magnet construction.
The rotating magnet in a magneto is geared to the
engine and rotates between two pole shoes. To
complete the circuit, the pole shoes are joined at
one end by the magneto coil core. Both the pole
shoes and the coil core are constructed of several
laminated layers of high-grade soft iron. The
laminate architecture reduces eddy currents,
keeping the magneto cooler and boosting efficiency. In addition, soft iron has a high permeability which allows flux lines to pass through it
easily. [Figure 8-111]

THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

The magnetic circuit consists of a rotating permanent magnet, pole shoes, pole shoe extensions, and
a coil core. A rotating magnet may have two, four,
or eight magnetic poles. Magnets with more than
two poles are arranged with alternating north and
south poles that are spaced evenly around the magneto drive shaft. For example, on a four-pole magnet, all the poles are 90 degrees apart with both the

Figure 8-111. The components in a magnetic circuit include

a rotating magnet, a set of pole shoes, and a coil core.

8-72

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

that the magnetic field is the strongest. As a magnet

rotates beyond full register, the magnetic field
slowly collapses until no lines of flux pass through
the coil core. This position is the neutral position
and represents the point where the magnetic field
flowing through the coil is at its weakest point.
Continued rotation of the magnet again aligns the
magnetic poles with the pole shoes in the full register position. However, the orientation of the poles is
opposite and, therefore, the flux lines flow in the
opposite direction. [Figure 8-112]
One revolution of a two pole magnet produces two
positions of maximum flux line concentration and
two positions of zero flux flow in the coil core. In
addition, the direction of flux travel reverses twice.
Therefore, as a magnet rotates in a magneto, it produces a magnetic field that is continuously expanding and collapsing. This pulsating magnetic field
induces current into the primary winding.
If you recall, when current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. This magnetic
field resists changes in current flow. Therefore, as
the rotating magnet induces current flow into the
primary winding, the magnetic field produced by
the initial current flow opposes additional current
flow. However, once the flux density reaches its
highest point and the magnetic field produced by
the rotating magnet starts to collapse, the electromagnetic field produced by current flow attempts to
sustain the collapsing field. In other words, primary
current attempts to hold the flux in the core at a
high value until the rotating magnet reaches the
neutral position. [Figure 8-113]

Figure 8-112. (A) When the magnetic poles are aligned

with the pole shoes, the magnet is in the full register position and the maximum number of flux lines flow through the
coil core. (B) However, when the magnetic poles are in the
neutral position, no lines of flux pass through the coil core.
(C) Once past the neutral position, the number of flux lines
passing through the coil's core increases until the magnet
reaches the full register position again. However, this time
the flux lines pass through the coil core the opposite way.

As you know, magnetic flux lines flow from the

north pole to the south pole. Therefore, each time a
pair of magnetic poles line up with the pole shoes,
magnetic lines of flux flow through the coil core.
The greatest density of flux lines flow through the
coil core when a pair of magnetic poles are fully
aligned with the pole shoes. This position is known
as the full register position and it is at this position

Figure 8-113. The static flux curve represents changes in

flux concentration caused by magnet rotation with no current flow in the primary winding. When the primary circuit
is completed and current flows, the combined effects of
magnet rotation and current flow flatten the curve. The flux
from the magnetic field produced by current flow combines
with the flux produced by the rotating magnet to delay the
collapse of the magnetic field.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Once a magnet rotates beyond magnetic neutral, a

magnetic field of opposite polarity starts to build. At
this point, the greatest magnetic field stress exists.
The specific number of degrees beyond the neutral
position where this occurs is known as the efficiency gap, or E-gap angle.

THE PRIMARY CIRCUIT

The primary electrical circuit in a magneto consists
of the primary winding of an insulated magneto coil,
a set of breaker points, and a capacitor. The primary
winding in a typical magneto coil consists of 180 to
200 turns of 18 gauge copper wire. The wire is coated
with an enamel insulation and is 'wound directly
over the laminated core in the magnetic circuit. One
end of the primary winding is attached to a ground
lead while the other end connects to one end of the
secondary winding and the ungrounded, or insulated, side of the breaker points. [Figure 8-114]
The breaker points are normally mounted to the
magneto housing and held closed by a leaf-type
spring. To open the points, a cam mounted on the
end of the rotating magnet shaft is used to force one
contact away from the other.
To allow the magnet to induce the maximum
amount of current into the primary winding, the
points are forced open when the greatest magnetic
field stress exists. If you recall, the point where the
greatest stress exists is the E-gap position. Opening
the breaker points at this time interrupts the current
flow in the primary circuit and allows current to be
induced into the secondary coil. In addition, once
the points close, the magnet is near the full register
position so there is a quick reversal of the magnetic
field in the coil core. The sudden flux reversal
causes a high rate of flux change in the core.

8-73
of the points increases and the current flowing
through the resistance produces heat. This heat
becomes so intense that it ionizes the air allowing
current to flow through it in the form of an arc. When
arcing occurs, it delays the collapse of the magnetic
field in the primary winding and causes metal to
transfer from one breaker point to the other. If arcing
is severe enough, it could weld the points together.
To reduce arcing, a capacitor is installed in parallel
with the points. With a capacitor installed, electrons
flow into the capacitor when the points begin to
open. By the time the capacitor is charged up
enough to stop the flow of electrons, the points have
opened far enough that no arcing can occur. With the
flow of electrons in the primary winding stopped,
the magnetic field collapses rapidly and induces a
high voltage pulse into the secondary circuit.
In addition to accelerating field collapse and preventing arcing, the capacitor in some magnetos
helps to reduce electromagnetic radiation from the
primary lead. To do this, the capacitor is installed in
parallel with the breaker points and in series with
the ignition switch. Typically, this type of capacitor
has a pigtail lead that connects to the insulated
breaker point and a threaded terminal that connects
to the ignition switch lead. When installed in a magneto, the capacitor's metal case grounds to the magneto housing. With this type of capacitor, any radio
frequency energy that is induced into the primary
lead when the points open is carried to ground
before it leaves the magneto. This type of capacitor
is known as a feed-through or filter capacitor.
[Figure 8-115]

Any time moving contact points interrupt a flow of

current, an arc is produced between the points. As
the points begin to separate, the electrical resistance

Figure 8-114. The primary circuit in a magneto consists of

the primary winding of a magneto coil, a set of breaker
points, and a capacitor.

Figure 8-115. Some magnetos utilize a special feed-through

capacitor to help reduce electrical noise generated by the
breaker points. This helps to protect electronic equipment
from voltage spikes.

8-74

Figure 8-116. The high-tension terminal that is connected to

the secondary winding appears as a tab that protrudes
from the magneto coil. To insulate the primary and secondary winding, the entire magneto coil is typically
encased in Bakelite , varnished cambric, or some type
of thermosetting plastic.

THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT

The secondary circuit of a magneto is the circuit
which produces the high voltage energy required to
cause a spark. The circuit components within the
magneto that make up the secondary circuit include
the secondary winding in the magneto coil and the
distributor.
The amount of current induced into the secondary
winding of a magneto coil is directly related to two
factors; the rate at which the magnetic field around
the primary winding collapses and the ratio of
windings between the primary and secondary.
Therefore, the secondary winding in a magneto coil
is made from approximately 13,000 turns of very
fine wire. This produces a turn ratio between the
primary and secondary windings that is capable of
producing a 20,000 volt pulse. One end of the secondary winding is attached to the primary winding
to provide a path to ground while the opposite end
is attached to a high voltage contact that protrudes
from the magneto coil body. [Figure 8-116]
To allow current to flow from the secondary winding to the distributor, a spring loaded carbon brush
mounted in the center of the distributor rotor
presses against the high voltage contact on the magneto coil. As a result, high voltage energy passes
through the carbon brush into the distributor rotor.
The distributor rotor in a typical magneto consists
of a conductive arm, or finger that carries the high
voltage current to the electrodes for each spark plug
in the distributor block. The rotor is driven by a
gear that is mounted to the magneto drive shaft.
[Figure 8-117]

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-117. In a typical magneto, current is routed to the

distributor rotor through a small carbon brush. From the
distributor rotor, current is passed to the distributor block
through a distributor finger.

The distributor rotor is geared to provide a high

voltage path to the distributor block at definite
points in its rotation. In fact, to allow an aircraft
engine to operate, the distributor rotor must complete one revolution for every two revolutions of the
crankshaft. With this 2:1 ratio, a magneto can fire all
the spark plugs once for each 720 degrees of crankshaft rotation.
A typical distributor block is constructed of a lightweight insulating material and is mounted in one
half of the magneto housing. One side of the distributor has a set of electrodes while the other side
has a corresponding set of receptacles for receiving
the spark plug leads. The electrodes and receptacles
are arranged circumferentially around the distributor block. Each time the rotating magnet is in the
E-gap position, the distributor finger lines up with
an electrode on the distributor and delivers a high
voltage pulse. [Figure 8-118]

Figure 8-118. The distributor block on a typical magneto is

made of insulating material with electrodes on one side and
spark plug wire receptacles on the other.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Once current reaches the distributor block, it is

immediately routed through the spark plug leads to
the spark plugs. At each spark plug, the current
jumps the air gap between the center and ground
electrodes thereby completing the electrical circuit
from the spark plug back to the magneto.
SAFETY GAP

To help protect the secondary winding in a magneto

coil, some magnetos provide an alternate path for
current if there is an open in the secondary circuit.
This backup ground path is called a safety gap and is
connected in series with the secondary winding by
two electrodes. One electrode is connected to a
high-tension brush holder, while the other is
connected to a ground plate. In this configuration, if
the path to the spark plug gap becomes interrupted,
the excessive voltage induced into the secondary
winding jumps the safety gap to ground. This helps
ensure that the voltage in the secondary winding
does not rise high enough to damage the magneto
coil.

MAGNETO SPEED
As mentioned earlier, the distributor rotor in a magneto always rotates at one-half the engine crankshaft
speed. This is necessary because the engine crankshaft must complete two revolutions in order to fire
each spark plug once. Although the rotational speed
of the distributor is set, the speed of the rotating
magnet shaft varies with the number of cylinders on
the engine and number of poles on the rotating magnet. To determine the relationship between magneto
speed and engine crankshaft speed, use the following formula:

Number of cylinders 2
x number of poles

8-75

AUXILIARY IGNITION SYSTEMS

One of the primary limitations of magnetos is that,
when the magnet inside a magneto turns at a slow
speed, the magneto produces relatively little voltage. However, as magneto speed increases, the
amount of current induced into the primary circuit
increases and the magneto produces a higher voltage spark.
In most cases, the voltage generated at low magneto
speeds is insufficient to fire a spark plug. The speed
at which a magneto must rotate to produce enough
voltage to fire a spark plug is known as a magneto's
coming-in speed. Although the coming-in speed of
different magnetos varies, a typical speed is
between 100 and 200 rpm.
When attempting to start an engine, the starter
motor cannot crank the engine fast enough for a
magneto to reach its coming-in speed. In addition,
since the spark event normally occurs prior to top
dead center on the compression stroke, normal ignition timing can cause an engine to kick back when
it is started. To help prevent engine kick back, some
magnetos use a second set of retard breaker points
to retard the spark during engine starting. The term
retard indicates that the spark is delayed until later
in the combustion cycle. In most cases, the spark is
retarded until after the piston reaches top dead center on the compression stroke.
Although retarded ignition promotes easier starting, it does nothing to increase the voltage a magneto generates at slow rotational speeds. To do
this, almost all magnetos incorporate some form
of ignition booster or auxiliary ignition unit.
Some of the more common ignition boosters
include the impulse coupling, induction vibrator,
shower of sparks ignition system, and booster
magneto.

For example, assume a six-cylinder engine uses a

magneto with a two-pole magnet. Using the formula
above, the magneto speed is determined to be lV 2
times the crankshaft speed.
IMPULSE COUPLINGS

Based on this, when the engine is turning at 2,000

rpm, the magneto shaft is rotating at 3,000 rpm.

Impulse couplings are one of the most widely used

auxiliary ignition devices found on magnetos. An
impulse coupling is a small spring-loaded device that
provides a magneto with a momentary high rotational
speed and a retarded spark. To do this, an impulse
coupling uses a spring loaded mechanical linkage
that is wound up by the magneto drive gear and then
released to momentarily increase the magneto's rotational speed. The components that make up an
impulse
coupling
include
the
impulse

coupling

8-76

Figure 8-119. The basic components of an impulse coupling

include a body, or housing, a set of flyweights mounted to a
cam, and a spring.

body, a set of flyweights mounted to a cam, and a

coiled spring. [Figure 8-119]
The cam assembly of an impulse coupling is keyed
to the magneto shaft while the impulse coupling
body rotates with the engine. When assembled, the

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

coiled spring inside an impulse coupling links the

cam assembly and body together. When an engine is
being turned by a starter, the flyweights on the
impulse coupling contact stop pins on the magneto
housing. The stop pins stop magneto shaft rotation
while the engine continues to rotate and wind up
the impulse coupling spring. At the same time that
engine rotation brings a piston to top dead center, a
projection on the impulse coupling body contacts a
trigger ramp on the flyweights, forcing the flyweights off the stop pins. This releases the stored
spring force and accelerates the magneto shaft fast
enough to produce a high voltage, retarded spark.
[Figure 8-120]
An impulse coupling produces a high voltage spark
for every spark plug during the starting process.
However, once an engine starts and the magneto
begins spinning fast enough to provide a high voltage
spark on its own, centrifugal force pulls the heel of
the flyweights outward so they can no longer contact
the stop pins. At this point, the impulse coupling is
disabled and the sparks produced by the magneto
revert back to their normal advanced timing.

Figure 8-120. (A) When the flyweights contact the stop pins, the magneto stops spinning while the engine continues to rotate
the impulse coupling body. (B) Once the body extensions contact the trigger ramp on each flyweight, the flyweights pivot off
the stop pins and spring tension rotates the magnet inside the magneto at a high speed.

8-77

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

INDUCTION VIBRATOR
Another type of auxiliary ignition unit is known as
an induction vibrator. An induction vibrator supplies pulsating direct current to the primary winding of a magneto coil. As you know, any time pulsating current flows through the primary winding,
current is induced into the secondary winding. The
faster the pulsating DC, the greater the current
induced into the secondary winding for starting.
The frequency of the pulsating direct current is
determined by the induction vibrator.
A typical induction vibrator operates whenever the
engine starter switch is held in the "start," or
"engage" position. With the switch in this position,
battery current flows into the induction vibrator and
pulsating current is produced. [Figure 8-121]
When the magneto breaker points are closed, the
current produced by the vibrator coil flows to
ground through the points. However, when the
breaker points open, the pulsating DC flows
through the primary winding. This allows the
magneto to produce high voltage pulses that are
sent to the distributor block for distribution to a
spark plug. The frequency of the pulses produced by the vibrator coil allow multiple sparks
to be produced at a spark plug as long as the
points remain open. As soon as the points close,
the pulsating current produced by the vibrator
coil is again routed to ground. This process is
repeated each time the breaker points open and
pulsating current flows to the primary winding.
Once the engine starts and the starter switch is
disengaged, current stops flowing to the induction vibrator.
SHOWER OF SPARKS

Figure 8-121. In an ignition system equipped with an induction vibrator, when the starter switch is closed, battery current flows into the induction vibrator. This closes a normally open relay and allows the vibrator coil to start producing pulsating DC that flows to the primary winding of
the magneto coil.

A more modern version of the induction vibrator

is know as the shower of sparks ignition system.
This system works the same as the induction
vibrator system except that, with the shower of
sparks system, a set of retard breaker points are
provided to retard the spark while the engine is
being cranked. In most cases, the retard breaker
points are located in the left magneto with the
advance points. With this type of system, when
the magneto switch is in the "start" position, a
relay in the starting vibrator grounds the right
magneto and provides pulsating current to the left
magneto. However, since both the retard and
advance points provide a path to ground for the

8-78

starting vibrator current, both sets of points must

be open before pulsating current flows to the primary winding. [Figure 8-122]
After the engine starts and the ignition switch is
turned to the "both" position, battery power is
removed from the starting vibrator. In addition, the

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

right magneto is ungrounded and the retard points

in the left magneto are electrically disconnected. At
this point, both magnetos operate normally and produce advanced spark ignition.
In most cases, the starting vibrator used in a shower
of sparks system is mounted to the aircraft firewall.

Figure 8-122. In the "start" position, battery power is applied to the starting vibrator and the right magneto is grounded. Once
pulsating current is produced in the vibrator, it flows to the left magneto. Once both sets of points open, vibrator current flows
to the primary winding and high voltage pulses are created. The distributor sends the high voltage pulses to the proper spark plug
where a "shower of sparks" are produced.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-79

Figure 8-124. Booster magnetos utilize a trailing finger in

the distributor rotor. The trailing finger delivered a hot
retarded spark to each cylinder to promote engine starting.

Figure 8-123. A typical vibrator unit consists of several solid

state components that are sealed in a case and mounted to
the aircraft's firewall.

In addition, several of the components used are

solid state so there is little you can do for maintenance. Typically, if a component fails, the entire
unit must be removed and replaced. [Figure 8-123]
BOOSTER MAGNETOS
Although booster magnetos are not used much
today, they were widely used until the end of World
War II. A typical booster magneto consisted of a separate magneto that was mounted inside the cockpit
and turned by hand. Once adequate voltage was
generated by a booster magneto, the output was sent
to a special distributor that directed a spark to the
cylinder just behind the one that was normally fired
by the engine driven magneto. For example, consider a nine-cylinder radial engine with a firing
order of 1-3-5-7-9-2-4-6-8. In this example, a booster
magneto sends a spark to cylinder number 1 when
the engine driven magneto is positioned to fire
cylinder number 3. This retards the spark so that
ignition occurs when a piston is already on the
power stroke. [Figure 8-124]
IGNITION SWITCH
To provide a means of controlling when an ignition
system is on and operating, an ignition switch is

installed in all ignition systems. A typical ignition

switch is located in the cockpit so a pilot has direct
control over the ignition system. A magneto ignition
switch operates differently from most other
switches in that, when the switch is in the "OFF"
position, the switch contacts are closed and the
switch circuit is completed to ground. On the other
hand, when placed in the "ON" position, the switch
contacts are open and the switch circuit is open.
An ignition switch is wired in parallel with the
breaker points; therefore, switching to "OFF" shorts
the breaker points and grounds the primary coil.
This prevents the magnetic field in the primary
winding from collapsing and inducing current into
the secondary winding. Conversely, when an ignition switch is in the "ON" position, its contacts are
open and the breaker points interrupt primary current flow to produce the pulsating current necessary
to generate a high energy spark. In other words, an
ignition switch in the "ON" position has no effect
on the primary circuit other than allowing the circuit to perform its function.
The ignition switch lead which connects the switch
and the primary circuit is commonly referred to as
the P-lead. A typical P-lead consists of several
strands of copper wire that are shielded to help
reduce radio interference.
A typical ignition switch controls both magnetos on
an engine and has four positions: "OFF," "LEFT,"
"RIGHT," and "BOTH." When in the "OFF" position, the P-leads on both magnetos are grounded. In
the
"LEFT"
position,
the left magneto
operates

8-80

while the right magneto is grounded; however, in

the "RIGHT" position, the right magneto operates
while the left magneto is grounded. When switched
to "BOTH," the left and right magnetos operate
simultaneously to produce spark.
As an aviation maintenance technician, you should
perform an operational check of an ignition switch
any time maintenance is performed on an ignition
system. To do this, start the engine using the manufacturers checklist. Once started, the engine is accelerated to between 1,500 and 1,700 rpm. When the
engine rpm stabilizes, the ignition switch is moved
from the "BOTH" to the "LEFT" position. At this
point, the right magneto is grounded and, as a
result, the engine rpm should drop slightly. If this is
the case, the ignition switch should be moved back
to the "BOTH" position and engine rpm should
increase to its original value. Once it does, the ignition switch is moved from the "BOTH" to the
"RIGHT" position. This grounds the left magneto
causing a slight rpm drop. If this is the case, the
ignition switch should be returned to the "BOTH"
position. If, while operating on either the left or
right magneto, engine rpm drops to zero, a short
exists between the magneto and the ignition switch.
To complete the operational check, allow the engine
rpm to stabilize at idle. Once stabilized, turn the
magneto switch to the "OFF" position momentarily
and then back to the "BOTH" position. When doing
this, the engine should quit running while the ignition switch is in the "OFF" position. This verifies
that the magnetos are grounded and that the ignition
switch is operating properly. Failure of an engine to
cease firing after turning the magneto switch to
"OFF" is an indication of an open P-lead or faulty
ignition switch. When conducting this check, the
ignition switch must be moved as quickly as possible with the engine running at the slowest possible
rpm. The reason for this is, when the ignition switch
is turned off, fuel is still being drawn into the cylinders and, if excessive amounts of fuel accumulate
before the switch is returned to "BOTH," the mixture could spontaneously ignite and cause the
engine to backfire.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Since the tools and test equipment needed to overhaul a magneto are relatively expensive, magnetos
are often sent to the manufacturer or a certified
repair station for overhaul or exchange for rebuilt
magnetos. However, as an aviation maintenance
technician, you may overhaul a magneto; therefore, the following discussion looks at some of the
general procedures for overhauling and testing a
magneto.
DISASSEMBLY AND CLEANING
As with any accessory, whenever you disassemble
and clean a magneto, you must follow the procedures outlined in the manufacturer's maintenance
manual. In addition, all components should be handled carefully to avoid accidental damage. In the
case of a rotating magnet, soft iron keepers should
be placed across the poles of the magnet whenever
it is removed. A keeper links the poles of a magnet
and provides a highly permeable path for the lines
of flux to flow. This helps the magnet to retain its
magnetism.
Cleaning magneto components must be done only
with approved solvents and cleaning methods. A
list of the approved cleaning solvents is typically
contained in the overhaul manual. For example,
most manufacturers specify that acetone be used for
cleaning grease and carbon tracks from capacitors
and coils. Use of an unapproved cleaning solvent
could damage the enamel insulation on the coil
windings or the finish on the distributor block or
rotor.
INSPECTION

MAGNETO OVERHAUL

When a magneto is overhauled, manufacturers typically require the replacement of several components. However, before discarding these components, it is a good idea to inspect them for evidence
of a malfunction and excessive wear. Components
that are typically replaced during an overhaul
include the breaker point assembly, capacitor, all
bearings, and the distributor block and rotor. In
addition, hardware such as lock washers, gaskets,
cotter pins, self-locking nuts or screws, and oil seals
are always replaced.

Most magnetos provide reliable operation and

remain relatively trouble-free during the service life
of an engine. In fact, most magnetos remain on an
engine until the engine is overhauled. This is possible because the component materials used to build
a magneto are extremely durable.

The remaining components should be inspected as

described in the manufacturers overhaul manual.
This typically requires the use of some precision
measuring equipment and specialized electrical
testing equipment.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

MAGNETO CASE

During an overhaul, a magneto case should be carefully inspected for cracks. Areas that are prone to
cracking include the mounting flange, bearing surfaces, areas around threaded holes, and near mating
surfaces. If cracking exists, the case must be
replaced.
In addition to cracking, the bearing races and case
interior should be inspected for signs of pitting or
corrosion. If light corrosion exists, remove it using a
method approved by the manufacturer. However, if
excessive corrosion exists, the case must be
replaced.
To help prevent corrosion, most magneto cases have
one or more drains and at least one vent. The drain
helps prevent condensation moisture from pooling
inside the magneto case while the vent allows the
corrosive gases produced by normal arcing to
escape. In addition, good magneto ventilation helps
to cool a magneto and evaporate light condensation.
ROTATING MAGNET

Both the magnet and magneto shaft should be visually inspected for physical damage and wear. In
addition, most manufacturers require you to
dimen-sionally inspect the magneto shaft to
determine if it is within serviceable limits.
To determine if a magnet has sufficient strength, its
field strength should be checked. This requires the
use of a magnetometer, or gauss meter. In cases

8-81

addition, you should check the coil leads for general

condition and security. Most manufacturers require
you to check for continuity and resistance in each
winding. Both of these checks can be done with
either an ohmmeter or multimeter.
BREAKER ASSEMBLY

The breaker point assembly is subjected to the most

intense wear of any component in a magneto.
Because of this, a new set of points must be
installed whenever a magneto is overhauled.
However, before discarding the old points, you
should inspect them for clues to other ignition system problems. For example, if a set of points are
badly pitted, it may indicate that the capacitor is not
working properly.
DISTRIBUTOR

If a manufacturer permits the reuse of a distributor

assembly, you must inspect the distributor block
and rotor for cracks, carbon tracks, soot, and other
signs of arcing. In addition, the gear teeth on the distributor rotor should be checked for excessive play.
To do this, most manufacturers instruct you to insert
a specific size drill between each of the gear teeth. If
the drill fits snugly, the gear is within tolerances.
[Figure 8-125]
Another thing that must be checked on a distributor
rotor is the distance between the rotor shaft and the
end of the rotor finger. This provides an indirect
indication of the distance between the rotor finger

where the magnet has lost too much of its magnetism, it may be remagnetized by special equipment.
GEAR ASSEMBLIES AND BEARINGS

Distributor drive gear assemblies must be cleaned

and inspected for excessive wear, cracks, and broken teeth. Excessive backlash or play in a distributor drive gear is cause for rejection of the gear
assembly.
In most cases, all magneto shaft bearings and races
must be replaced when a magneto is overhauled.
However, some manufacturers permit you to reuse a
bearing and its associated race. If this is the case,
you must inspect and service the bearing as prescribed by the manufacturer.
MAGNETO COIL

When inspecting a magneto coil, carefully check the

insulating material for cracks and burn marks. In

Figure 8-125. To check for excessive wear between the

teeth on a distributor gear, a specific sized drill is placed
between the teeth. If the drill fits snugly, the gear is within
specifications.

8-82

and the contacts in the distributor block. For example, if the distance between the rotor shaft and finger is too small, the gap between the rotor finger and
distributor block will be too large.
If there are no signs of cracking or arcing on a distributor block, the distributor block should be
tested. To check a distributor block for shorts or
electrical leakage, a high-tension harness tester is
typically used.
If replacement is not required and the distributor
components are serviceable, you should prepare
them for reassembly. In some cases, the rotor and
distributor may have to be coated with wax to help
prevent arcing. However, before doing this, you
should refer to the manufacturer's instructions.
CAM

Magnetos traditionally use cams that are made of

either a solid piece of metal or a phenolic compound. If the cam is made of metal and the manufacturer permits it to be reused, the cam must be
dimensionally checked. However, if a phenolic cam
is used, the old cam must be discarded and replaced.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

magnetos, you should always follow the manufacturer's timing instructions.

When aligning the drive and distributor gears in a
Bendix magneto, the rotating magnet should be
placed in a neutral position. To do this, rotate the
magnet shaft with your hand until you feel the magnet grab, or pull into alignment. In some cases, it
will feel like the magnet has slipped into a detent.
When this occurs, the magnet is in the neutral position and resists movement in both directions.
With the magnet in the neutral position, align the
timing marks on the distributor gear and drive gear
and mesh them together. In most cases, the distributor gear is marked so it can be used in both clockwise and counterclockwise rotating magnetos. A
typical distributor gear has directional markings
and two timing marks for each direction. To help
you identify which marks you should use, distributor gears are typically marked with a "CW" and
"CCW" indicating clockwise and counterclockwise,
or "RH" and "LH" indicating right hand and left
hand rotation. Additional marks are also included
so a distributor gear mark can be seen through an
inspection port in the magneto case. [Figure 8-126]

ASSEMBLY AND INTERNAL TIMING

Once the magneto components are cleaned,
inspected, and replaced as necessary, the magneto
may be reassembled in accodance with the manufacturer's instructions. In most cases, reassembly
begins with pressing new bearing races into the case
halves and new bearings onto the magneto shaft. If
the bearings are not sealed, they should be lubricated as prescribed.
Once the bearings and races are installed, you can
install the magneto coil. Magneto coils are typically
held in place by a set of retaining clamps or by two
wedges that are driven in between the coil ends and
the magneto case. Additional components that must
be installed before the case halves are joined
include the distributor block and rotor, breaker
points, and capacitor.
Once all the components are installed in a magneto, you can join the case halves. However, when
doing this, the magneto drive gear must be properly lined up with the distributor rotor gear. This
step is part of the internal timing process and is
necessary so that voltage is delivered to the proper
contact in the distributor block at the correct time.
Since
internal
timing
procedures
vary
between

Figure 8-126. In most magnetos, the same distributor gear

can be used for a clockwise rotating magneto or a counterclockwise rotating magneto. This distributor gear has an
indented timing mark that aligns with the drive gear mark
for rotation in either direction. Each indented timing mark
has a corresponding chamfered tooth that is painted so it
can be seen through an inspection port.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

With the drive and distributor gears properly

aligned, carefully slide the magneto case halves
together. When doing this, it is important that you
do not use excessive pressure or you could damage
the distributor gear. In addition, you should avoid
turning the case halves so you do not damage the
carbon brush on the high-voltage tab protruding
from the magneto coil. The case halves must contact
each other all the way around their mating surfaces
before they are screwed together.
Once the case halves are assembled, you must complete the internal timing procedure by adjusting the
points to open when the magnet reaches the E-gap
position. To do this, verify that the magnet is in the
neutral position. In addition, verify that the distributor is ready to fire on the number 1 cylinder by
observing the painted gear tooth offset to one side of
the inspection port. Now, attach a timing scale to
the magneto housing and a pointer to the screw
attaching the cam to the magneto drive shaft. Set the
pointer to zero on the scale and then rotate the magneto shaft in the normal direction of rotation until
the pointer is aligned with the correct E-gap angle.
[Figure 8-127]
Once you have the magnet in the E-gap position,
there are two different tools you can use to hold
the magnet in that position. One type of tool
threads into the inspection port and locks the distributor gear so the magnet cannot turn. The other
tool clamps directly to the magneto shaft and locks

Figure 8-127. To adjust the points in a Bendix magneto, you

will need a Bendix timing kit containing a scale marked in
degrees and a pointer. These items are used so you can
identify when the magnet is in the E-gap position.

8-83

to the magneto flange by adjustable friction.

[Figure 8-128]
Once the magnet is locked in position, connect a
magneto timing light across the breaker points.
Now, adjust the breaker points so they just begin to
open and the timing light comes on. Most timing
light units are designed to illuminate when the
breaker points begin to open. Once the points are
set, lock them down and remove the holding tool.
With your hand, rotate the magnet back to the neutral position so the indicator needle again reads
zero. Now, slowly rotate the magnet to the E-gap
angle. The points should just begin to open and the
timing light come on just as the pointer reaches the
E-gap angle. If this does not occur, adjust the points
again using the procedures just discussed.
In some Bendix magnetos, a timing, or index mark
is cast into the case while a second mark is stamped
onto the cam. In this case, when the timing mark on
the case and the mark on the cam are aligned, the
magnet is in the E-gap position.
On magnetos equipped with a set of retard points,
the retard points must be adjusted to open after the
main points. The exact number of degrees the points
are retarded is typically stamped on the casing
inside the breaker housing. To set the retard points
using an indicator needle, you must add the degrees
of retard to the E-gap angle reading. For example, if
the main breaker points open at 10 degrees, and the
retard is supposed to be at 35 degrees, then the magnet must be rotated until the timing needle indicates
45 degrees. With the timing needle indicating 45

Figure 8-128. A magneto holding tool is provided in a

Bendix timing kit for holding the magnet at the correct
E-gap angle.

8-84

degrees, the magnet should be locked into position

using a holding tool and the retard points adjusted
so they just begin to open.
Once the points are adjusted, rotate the magneto
drive shaft until the cam is in the high cam position.
Using a thickness gauge, measure the point gap and
compare it to the clearance specified in the maintenance manual. If the gap is not within specifications, readjust the points and recheck the timing
with the timing light.
The internal timing procedures of a typical Slick
magneto differ from those of a Bendix magneto in
that the breaker points must be adjusted and set
before the case halves are joined. To do this, the
magnet is either locked in the E-gap position by a
timing pin or by a special tool that is placed inside
the magneto temporarily. Once the magnet is in the
E-gap position, the points can be set using the
process described earlier. [Figure 8-129]
Once a Slick magneto has been internally timed,
the case halves may be joined. To do this, you must
align the timing marks on the drive and distributor
gears and then gently slide the case halves
together. As discussed earlier, you must not force
the case halves together or you could damage the
distributor rotor.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

BENCH TESTING
After a magneto has been reassembled and internally timed, it must be tested. To do this, you
must have access to a magneto test stand. There
are several different types of magneto test stands
manufactured. A typical test stand includes a
variable-speed drive motor, a tachometer, and a
spark rack.
To use a test stand, begin by mounting a magneto
on the stand. Once mounted, verify that the gap
between the points on the spark rack are set properly. This is crucial because, if the gap is too wide,
excessive voltage could build in the magneto's secondary circuit causing a spark to discharge internally. If this happens, the magneto coil or distributor could be damaged. Bear in mind that the gap
on the spark rack must be greater than the gap
between spark plug electrodes because a spark
will jump farther in free air than in a pressurized
cylinder.
Once the gap on the spark rack is properly
adjusted, connect the high-tension leads coming
off the magneto to the spark rack. Since the motors
used on most test stands can drive a magneto in
either direction, you should verify the direction of
rotation before engaging the motor. Once verified,
slowly bring the magneto up to operating speed. As
the magneto's coming-in speed is approached, you
should begin to see sparking on the spark rack.
After running the magneto at its maximum design
speed and checking its performance, slowly
decrease the rpm until the unit is stopped. Remove
the magneto and record the test results. If the
actual coming-in speed is higher than the specified
speed, stop the test and troubleshoot the cause of
the poor performance. Possible causes include
improper internal timing, a weak capacitor, or a
weak magnet.
In addition to verifying that a magneto fires properly, you can also check the strength of the rotating
magnet. To do this, hold the breaker points open
and check the ouput of the primary coil with an AC
ammeter as the magneto is rotated at a specified
speed. Compare the readings with values specified
in the overhaul manual.

Figure 8-129. To set the magnet in a Slick magneto to the

E-gap position, a special E-gap tool or a timing pin is used.
Once the magnet is in the E-gap position, the breaker
points are adjusted.

MAGNETO-TO-ENGINE TIMING
If a magneto performs accordingly on a test stand, it
may be installed on an engine. When doing this, you

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

must time the magneto to the engine. A variety of

methods are used to time magnetos to engines,
therefore, it is imperative that you follow the engine
manufacturers instructions.
When timing two magnetos to an engine, the engine
manufacturer can specify either synchronized or
staggered ignition timing. Synchronized ignition
timing requires both magnetos be timed to fire both
spark plugs in each cylinder at the same time.
Staggered ignition timing, on the other hand,
requires the two spark plugs in each cylinder to be
fired at slightly different times. When this is done,
the spark plug located nearest a cylinder's exhaust
port is typically fired first. The reason for this is that
the fuel/air mixture near the exhaust port becomes
diluted by exhaust gases and tends to burn more
slowly than the mixture in the rest of the cylinder.
Therefore, it is desirable to ignite the mixture in this
area slightly ahead of the mixture in the rest of the
cylinder.
Different procedures are used for timing flange- and
base-mounted
magnetos.
Of
the
two,
flange-mounted magnetos are more common and,
therefore, the focus of the following discussion is
timing a typical flange-mounted magneto to an
engine.

FLANGE -MOUNTED MAGNETO

Before installing a magneto on an engine, the number one piston must be in its firing position. If you
recall, this will be between 15 and 30 degrees before
top dead center of the compression stroke. The
exact position is indicated on the engine data tag,
in the engine type certificate data sheet, and the
engine maintenance manual. To position the piston,
begin by removing the top spark plug from each
cylinder. Next, place your finger over the number
one spark plug hole and turn the prop in the normal
direction of rotation until the number piston is on
the compression stroke. The piston will be on the
compression stroke when air is forced past your finger. Once on the compression stroke, continue
rotating the engine until the number one piston is
at top dead center between the compression and
power strokes. Now, locate the engine timing reference marks. On Lycoming engines, these marks are
typically on the front side of the flywheel. On
Continental engines, the reference marks are usually on the propeller mounting flange. The exact
location will be specified in the engine maintenance manual.

8-85

If the number one piston is at top dead center

between the compression and power strokes, a
"TC" reference mark will be aligned with a fixed
index mark on the engine case or starter. A series of
degree markings will also be visible. These markings represent the number of degrees before top
dead center a piston is located. At this point, you
need to rotate the engine opposite the direction of
rotation until the degree mark representing the
point where ignition is supposed to occur is a few
degrees beyond the index mark. Now, rotate the
engine in the normal direction of rotation until the
ignition timing mark is aligned with the index
mark. The exercise of moving the piston beyond the
ignition timing mark and then back helps remove
any play in the accessory drive gears. The engine is
now positioned so the number one cylinder is ready
to fire.
As an alternative to using the timing reference
marks on the engine, there are more accurate instruments built that will indicate the position of the
number one piston. One such device is the
Time-Rite indicator. A Time-Rite indicator is
considered more accurate because, once it is
calibrated, it measures the actual number of degrees
a piston is from top dead center. [Figure 8-130]
Once the engine is properly set, you may install
the magnetos. When installing a magneto with an
impulse coupling, be sure the impulse coupling
is disengaged before mounting the magneto to the

Figure 8-130. With a Time-Rite indicator, you can accurately

measure the position of a piston within a cylinder.

8-86

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-131. Some magnetos are mounted to an engine with an anti-vibration coupling. The engine drives the magneto through
a rubber cushion held in a pressed steel retainer set into the magneto drive gear. The cushion reduces the amount of vibration that
is transferred to the magneto.

engine. Other magnetos may utilize a rubber

anti-vibration coupling that is installed
between the accessory drive gear and the
magneto. [Figure 8-131]

the timing lights just illuminate again. Now, check

the timing reference marks on the engine. If the correct degree setting is opposite the index mark, the
magneto is properly timed to the engine.

With the magneto locked in position to fire the

number one spark plug and number one piston
properly positioned, mount the magneto to the
engine. As you slip the magneto drive gear into the
accessory case, you may have to rotate the magneto
somewhat to get the accessory gear and magneto
drive gear to mesh. If the two gears do not mesh
right away, do not try to force the magneto into the
accessory case.

BASE-MOUNT MAGNETOS

Once the magneto is in place, insert the mounting

bolts and tighten them enough to support the magneto. However, make sure you leave the bolts loose
enough so you can rotate the magneto. With the
magneto installed, remove the magneto locking
device. Forgetting to do so could result in substantial damage if the propeller is moved.
With the magneto mounted on the engine, attach a
timing light to each magneto. Now, rotate each magneto until its respective timing light just comes on
and tighten the magneto mounting bolts. If the propeller was not moved while you were installing the
magneto, the magneto should be timed correctly. To
verify the timing, rotate the propeller opposite the
direction of normal rotation until both timing lights
extinguish. Then, rotate the propeller forward until

On rare occasions, you may have to adjust the magneto-to-engine timing of a base-mounted magneto.
These magnetos are typically found on radial
engines and are coupled to the engine accessory
drive with a vernier coupling. A vernier coupling is
a special toothed coupling with a slotted rubber disk
sandwiched between two gears with different numbers of teeth. The rubber disk is slotted to fit
between the two gears in an almost infinite number
of positions. Magneto-to-engine timing is adjusted
by disconnecting the coupling and rotating the rubber disk the necessary number of slots.
OPERATIONAL CHECK
After reinstalling a magneto on an engine, a thorough operational check must be done. However,
before doing this, you must verify the P-leads are
correctly hooked up and that each of the spark plug
leads are properly installed. When installing the
spark plug leads, bear in mind that the numbers on
the distributor represent the firing order of the magneto, not the engine cylinders. Therefore, you must
match the firing order of the magneto to the firing
order of the engine. For example, if a four cylinder
engine has a firing order of 1-3-2-4, you must attach
cylinder number 1 plug wire to distributor electrode

8-87

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

number 1. Cylinder number 3 plug wire must be

attached to distributor electrode number 2. Cylinder
number 2 plug wire attaches to distributor electrode
number 3 and the number 4 plug wire attaches to
distributor electrode number 4.
Once you have verified that the entire ignition system
is properly installed, you may proceed with the operational check. The first step in conducting an operational check is to start the engine using the manufacturers starting procedures. Once the engine is started
and the rpm stabilizes at idle, listen for smooth engine
operation. If engine operation is normal, advance the
throttle to increase engine speed to the rpm specified
in the checklist. Once engine rpm stabilizes, turn the
magneto switch from "BOTH" to "LEFT" and allow
the engine to stabilize. Note the drop in engine rpm,
then return the magneto switch to "BOTH." The
engine rpm should return to the original rpm setting.
Now, move the magneto switch from "BOTH" to
"RIGHT" and allow the engine rpm to stabilize. Note
the drop in engine rpm, then return the magneto
switch to "BOTH." Proper operation of the magnetos
will result in a slight drop in rpm when the ignition
switch is in the "RIGHT" and "LEFT" positions.
If, while operating on either the left or right magneto, an excessive rpm drop results, or, if the difference between the rpm drops on each magneto
exceed allowable limits, you must troubleshoot the
ignition system. The likely cause of a rapid rpm
drop when switching to a single magneto is faulty or
fouled spark plugs. On the other hand, a slow rpm
drop could indicate incorrect ignition timing or
improperly adjusted valves.
To complete the operational check, allow the engine
rpm to stabilize at idle. Once stabilized, turn the magneto switch to the "OFF" position momentarily and
then back to the "BOTH" position. When doing this,
the engine should quit running while the ignition
switch is in the "OFF" position. This verifies that the
magnetos are grounded and that the ignition switch is
operating properly. When conducting this check, the
ignition switch must be moved as quickly as possible
with the engine running at the slowest possible rpm.
The reason for this is, when the ignition switch is
turned off, fuel is still being drawn into the cylinders
and, if excessive amounts of fuel accumulate before
the switch is returned to both, the mixture could
spontaneously ignite and cause the engine to backfire.

For example, if you are working on an aircraft that

is using an older magneto, the only maintenance
you may be able to do is time the magneto to the
engine. However, in other cases, you may be able to
inspect and perform corrective maintenance as necessary. The following discussion will examine some
of the common maintenance items that you, as a
maintenance technician, can perform.
When conducting a typical 100-hour or annual
inspection, the magnetos should be thoroughly
examined. However, in most cases, the magnetos
can be inspected while they are still installed on the
engine. Some of the things that should be inspected
on a magneto include the integrity and security of
the magneto case, the condition of the points, capacitor, and distributor, and the magneto-to-engine timing. In addition, you should perform an operational
check to verify magneto performance.
CASE
The two most common types of damage that are
found on a magneto case include cracking and corrosion. Areas where cracking is likely to occur
include around the mounting flange and near screw
holes. If a magneto case is cracked, the case must be
replaced.
Although not as common as cracking, magnetos that
are exposed to a salt-air environment can corrode.
This is especially true for magneto cases that are
made from an alloy containing magnesium. If minor
corrosion is found, it can typically by removed and
the magneto case painted to help prevent further
corrosion. However, if corrosion resulting in severe
pitting exists, the magneto case should be replaced.
In addition to salt air, clogged vents in a magneto
case or a plugged orifice in a pressurized magneto
case can lead to corrosion. Unvented moisture and
gases from arcing form a corrosive atmosphere
inside the magneto case. If these gases are not
vented to the atmosphere, the nitric acid in the
gases will corrode the internal parts of a magneto.
BREAKER ASSEMBLY

MAGNETO MAINTENANCE

If a magneto's breaker assembly is accessible, it

should be inspected. However, to do this, the P-lead
typically must be disconnected. If this is the case,
bear in mind that the magneto will be on regardless
of the ignition switch position.

As an aviation maintenance technician, you are

sometimes limited in what you can do to a magneto.

The points of a new breaker assembly have a

smooth, flat surface with a dull gray, sandblasted, or

8-88

frosted appearance. However, after a few hours of

operation, points typically take on a wavy appearance. This is caused by metal transfer between the
two points. Some metal transfer is normal; however,
if excessive metal transfer takes place and the points
become pitted or coarse-grained, the points must be
replaced. Severe pitting shows up as a substantial
protrusion on one contact with a corresponding pit
on the other contact. [Figure 8-132]
Excessive wear on a breaker assembly can shift the
internal timing of a magneto. For example, if a set of
breaker points are worn, they will open early and
advance the spark. In addition, the points will be
open for a longer period of time resulting in a
decrease in spark intensity.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

In cases where the breaker points are serviceable, no

attempt should be made to file or resurface them.
Reworking breaker points will never produce a satisfactory surface. The presence of oil on the breaker
surface will not necessarily keep the magneto from
working. It will, however, attract contaminating
metal and dirt particles that can lead to burning or
pitting over time. To remove oil from the breaker
point surface, open the points and insert a piece of
clean hard cardboard, such as a business card,
between the two contacts. Now, close the points to
blot any oil from the surface. Re-open the points and
remove the card. Never slide the cardboard between
the closed points or particles could be left behind
that will contaminate the points.
In addition to inspecting the breaker points, you
should check the spring tension exerted on the
points. This is done by attaching a small spring
scale to the movable arm of the breaker assembly
and carefully pulling the contact points apart. Open
the points no more than one-sixteenth inch to prevent damage to the breaker spring. If spring tension
readings are below acceptable levels, the points
could float, or bounce at high speeds causing a loss
of spark energy.
The breaker cam is visually checked for wear limits
and damage such as pitting or distortion. Unless the
cam surface is smooth and wear on the cam lobes
are within limits, it must be replaced. Excessive
wear may be traced to a dry lubrication pad on the
breaker assembly. Excessive wear on a cam results
in the points opening late and retarding the spark.
In addition, a worn cam holds the points open for a
shorter time which decreases the spark intensity.
CAPACITOR
Excessive point wear is typically caused by a defective capacitor. A capacitor is checked with a capacitance test device, sometimes called a condenser
tester. These testers use AC voltage to check a
capacitor's capacity and DC voltage to check for
electrical leakage. If a capacitor's capacitance value
is too low, the breaker points will likely become
burned and pitted.

Figure 8-132. (A) A new set of points are usually smooth

and have a frosty appearance. (B) After a few hours of
operation, some metal transfers between the points and
they take on a slightly wavy appearance. (C) The mound
extending above the surrounding surface on this contact
indicates excessive wear requiring replacement of the
breaker assembly.

DISTRIBUTOR
The distributor block and rotor should be visually
inspected for cracks, carbon tracks, soot, and other
signs of arcing. A cracked distributor block or rotor
typically provides a low resistance path to ground

8-89

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

for secondary voltage; therefore, even a small crack

requires component replacement.

The presence of engine oil in a magneto generally

indicates that an oil seal has failed. Since oil conducts electricity, anytime oil is found in a magneto,
the magneto must be removed from the engine, disassembled, cleaned, and inspected.

is correct, the magneto's internal timing may have to

be adjusted. The only way to adjust a magneto's
internal timing is to remove the magneto from the
engine. Once removed, adjust the internal timing
using the manufacturer's procedures. It is important
to note that, anytime the breaker assembly in a magneto is removed for cleaning or replacement, the
internal timing must be readjusted. Furthermore,
anytime you time a magneto internally, you must
also retime the magneto to the engine.

TIMING

ENGINE ANALYZER

As part of a 100-hour and annual inspection, magneto-to-engine timing should be checked. To do this,
attach a timing light to each magneto and rotate the
engine until the number one piston is in the firing
position. Now, rotate the engine opposite the direction of rotation until the timing lights go out. Once
the lights extinguish, continue, rotating the engine
opposite the normal direction of rotation an additional 5 to 10 degrees. Now, rotate the engine in the
normal direction until the timing lights just come on.
Once on, check the engine timing marks to verify that
the magnetos are firing at the appropriate time.

To aid in diagnosing engine problems, some older

reciprocating engine aircraft were equipped with an
analyzer that monitored engine performance.
Aircraft, such as the Lockheed Constellation had
large complex radial engines which benefitted from
a continuous engine monitoring system. These
monitoring systems tracked ignition system performance and engine vibration and displayed them on
an adaptation of a laboratory oscilloscope. While
some units were portable, most of these older monitoring systems were permanently installed and
weighed approximately 45 pounds. [Figure 8-133]

If a magneto performs unsatisfactorily during an

operational check and the magneto-to-engine timing

Today, cylinder head temperature gauges and

exhaust gas temperature gauges are primarily used

SEALS

Figure 8-133. Multi-engine aircraft with large complex radial engines often used engine analyzers to monitor ignition system performance and engine vibrations. Some of the more basic indications of ignition system problems are indicated in this figure.

8-90

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

as indirect indicators of ignition system efficiency.

Along with proper fuel/air mixture ratios, ignition
timing greatly effects the amount of heat generated
during the combustion process. This can easily be
seen on digital cylinder head temperature gauges
that monitor the temperature of each cylinder.

IGNITION HARNESS
In order for any ignition system to be efficient, the
high energy voltage produced by a magneto must be
delivered to the spark plugs with minimal loss.
Therefore, the purpose of an ignition harness is to
deliver high energy voltage from a magneto to the
spark plugs through a low resistance electrical path
that keeps electrical leakage to a minimum.
A typical ignition harness consists of 4, 6, or 8 individual ignition leads. One end of each ignition lead
attaches to a receptacle on a magneto distributor
block while the other end attaches to a spark plug.
CONSTRUCTION
The conductor used in a modern spark plug lead is
made of either stranded wire or a single coiled conductor. The conductor is typically encased in one or
two layers of rubber or silicone insulation which is
covered with a braided metal shield. The insulation
prevents current leakage while the shielding collects and channels the high frequency electromagnetic waves emanating from an ignition lead to
ground to reduce radio interference. To help protect
the shielding from chaffing and moisture, the
shielding is typically impregnated with a silicone
material. [Figure 8-134]
There are two different size ignition leads used in
aircraft ignition harnesses; 5 millimeter and 7 millimeter. The 5 millimeter is the size most commonly
used today while 7 millimeter was used on some
older ignition systems. In addition, most modern
ignition leads are available with terminal ends to fit
either a 5/8-24 shielded spark plug or the 3/4-20
all-weather spark plug.
Ignition leads are terminated with straight terminals
whenever possible, however, some ignition leads
may have to be bent to facilitate installation. If this
is the case, sharp bends must be avoided. The reason for this is that, over time, the stress imposed by
sharp bends causes weak points in the insulation
which could allow high-tension current to leak. The
7 millimeter ignition leads require a large bend
radius and, therefore, angled lead terminals
are

Figure 8-134. (A) A typical ignition lead consists of a center conductor, one or more layers of insulation, and a layer of
metal shielding that is impregnated with a silicone material.
(B) In addition to using stranded wire, some ignition leads
use a single wire that is shaped into a continuous spiral.

often used when a bend is required. Angled terminals are available with 70 , 90 , 110 , and
135 elbows. In addition, 5 millimeter straight
terminal ends can be bent if a bracket is installed to
hold the lead at a safe bend radius.[Figure 8-135]
The terminal ends used on modern ignition leads
consist of a silicone rubber nose and coiled wire
that slip into a spark plug body. This type of terminal is often referred to as an all-weather terminal
because the silicone rubber forms a water tight seal
at the top of the spark plug body. These terminals
are crimped onto an ignition lead and the coiled
wire screws over the end of the terminal so they can
be replaced if they become damaged. [Figure 8-136]
Some older terminals are designed with a phenolic or ceramic insulator tube commonly referred to
as a cigarette. This type of terminal contains a
coiled spring that extends beyond the end of the
insulator tube and provides positive electrical contact between the ignition lead and spark plug.
[Figure 8-137]

8-91

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

Figure 8-137. A phenolic or ceramic insulator tube is used in

the ignition lead terminal of some older-style ignition harnesses.

When installing a cigarette-type terminal, the ignition lead insulation is cut away enough to allow the
conductor wire to protrude through a hole in the
back of the cigarette. The stranded wire conductor is
then fanned out to secure the wire to the cigarette
and provide good electrical contact.
Like the spark plug end of an ignition lead, the magneto end of modern leads also utilize crimp on type
connectors. However, the exact type of connector
used varies depending on the type of magneto
installed. [Figure 8-138]

Figure 8-135. (A) Ignition wiring is terminated with

straight terminals whenever possible. (B) However, if an
installation requires a lead to be bent, angled terminals are
available. (C) In some situations, a bracket can be used
with a straight terminal to hold the lead at an angle.

Another method that was used to connect ignition

leads to a distributor block was with cable piercing
screws. With this type of installation, the conductor
of an ignition lead is cut so that it is even with the
insulation. The lead is then inserted into a distributor block where a cable piercing screw is used to

Figure 8-136. With an all-weather terminal, the terminal is crimped onto an ignition lead. In addition, the ignition shielding is held
tightly between an inner and outer ferrule providing a durable ground connection.

Figure 8-138. A typical magneto end of an ignition lead is crimped onto the lead using ferrules.

8-92

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

hold the lead in place. Once inserted, the screw

forms threads in the lead's conductor.

marking such as IT indicates a lead cut to length for

the top spark plug in cylinder number one.

When installing either the spark plug or magneto

terminals on an ignition lead, the braided shield
must be secured at both ends. If it is not, radio interference could occur when the engine is running.
With terminals that are crimped on, the shielding is
grounded through the attachment nut.

Install the new harness on the magneto and route

the leads to their respective cylinders. Ensure that
the leads are routed around hot exhaust components and will not interfere with movement of the
engine controls. Once properly routed, secure the
harness with the clamps and hardware provided in
the kit or with the old hardware.

MAINTENANCE

In circumstances where an ignition lead system is

causing radio interference, carefully inspect all the
leads to verify that the shielding is properly
grounded. If all leads are properly grounded and the
interference persists, the existing shielding may be
unable to carry all the electromagnetic interference
to ground. In this case, a second layer of shielding
may be installed.

Ignition harnesses typically provide hours of trouble free operation; however, at times, periodic maintenance may be required. Typical maintenance consists of repairing or replacing terminal ends or
replacing a chaffed lead. In most cases, a single
damaged ignition lead can be replaced without
resorting to replacement of the entire harness. When
ignition harness manufacturers supply individual
replacement components, they also provide
detailed information on replacement procedures.
The approved methods and tools prescribed by the
manufacturer for installing a new lead on a spark
plug terminal or magneto terminal must be followed
precisely. [Figure 8-139]
If an entire ignition harness must be replaced, you
can typically purchase a harness kit for a specific
engine make and model. The ignition harness kits
usually make the assembly and installation of a
complete harness fairly simple. In most cases, the
ignition wires are precut to the proper length and all
necessary terminal hardware is provided.
When removing the old ignition harness, retain the
serviceable hardware and clamps used for routing
the leads. If not already preassembled, install the
terminals on the leads. Pay close attention to wire
markings
that
indicate
the
distributor
terminal-to-spark plug destinations for each
lead. A typical

Figure 8-139. Special terminal installation tools are required

when making an ignition harness repair.

TESTING
Any time a conductor carries high voltage energy
and is installed near a conductive mass, the insulation around the conductor is exposed to what is
known as high voltage corona. Repeated exposure to
high voltage corona can cause the dielectric strength
of the insulation to breakdown and increase the possibility of arcing. To help you detect a breakdown in
the insulating strength of an ignition lead several different types of high-tension harness testers have
been developed. One type of tester applies 15,000
volts DC to an ignition lead and then uses a
micro-ammeter to detect current leakage. Another
type of detector applies high voltage to an ignition
lead and insulation breakdown is indicated by the
illumination of an indicator light or by the inability
of a spark to jump an air gap in the tester. [Figure
8-140]

Figure 8-140. Ignition harness testers are useful for the

detection of intermittent ignition harness problems.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-93

SPARK PLUGS
The end result of the activity in an ignition system
is the production of a spark that ignites the fuel/air
mixture in a cylinder. Spark plugs transmit the short
impulses of high voltage current from the ignition
harness into the combustion chambers. The construction and operation of a spark plug is simple in
concept but the demands placed on this part of an
ignition system are high. To put the demands placed
on a spark plug in perspective, consider the following, in an engine operating at 2,100 rpm, approximately 17 separate ignition events occur per second
in each cylinder. Each ignition event begins with a
20,000 volt spark that jumps the air gap between a
spark plug's electrodes. Furthermore, a spark plug
must be able to operate in temperatures of 3,000
or higher with gas pressures as high as 2,000 psi.
CONSTRUCTION
Although most spark plugs are similar in appearance, differences do exist among different spark
plug types. Because of this, engine manufacturers
specify the type of spark plugs that must be used in
their engines. A typical spark plug consists of three
major parts: a durable metal shell, a ceramic insulator, and an electrode assembly. [Figure 8-141]
The metal shell provides support for the internal
components and provides an electrical path to
ground for the braided shield of the ignition lead.
All shielded spark plug shells are threaded at both
ends. The threads on one end allow an ignition lead
to be attached to the spark plug and are referred to
as terminal, or shield threads. The threads on the
opposite end permit the spark plug to be screwed
into a cylinder. To facilitate the installation and
removal of a spark plug, a hex, or six-sided nut is
cast as part of the metal shell.
A spark plug's ceramic insulator prevents the high
voltage current flowing through a plug from arcing
to ground. In most cases, the insulator consists of
two sections. One section extends from near the tip
of the center electrode up to the terminal contact.
The other section begins near the top of the spark
plug barrel and extends downward to overlap with
the first insulator section. Nickel gaskets between
the spark plug shell and insulator prevent the
escape of high-pressure gases from the cylinder.
The electrode assembly consists of a terminal contact, resistor, glass seal, a center electrode, and a
set of outer electrodes. The terminal contact is
where the terminal end of an ignition lead makes

Figure 8-141. The three basic components of every spark

plug include the metal shell, a ceramic insulator, and an
electrode assembly.

contact with the spark plug. At the opposite end of

the terminal contact is a small resistor. The purpose of a resistor is to prevent capacitance
afterfir-ing. Capacitance afterfiring describes the
process by which electrical energy is induced into
the ignition shielding when current flows through
an ignition lead. Once the electrical potential in
the shielding builds, the stored energy is released
as a surge of current across the air gap of the
spark plug. This lengthens the spark duration and
accelerates wear of the spark plug electrodes. By
inserting a resistor in a spark plug, the stored
voltage in

8-94
the shielding is dissipated so it can not jump the
spark plug's air gap. The resistor typically has a
value of 1,500 ohms.
The material used to construct the center and outer
electrodes varies depending on the type of electrodes used. For example, with a massive-electrode
spark plug, the outer, or ground electrodes are typically made of a nickel alloy while the center electrode is made of nickel-clad copper. On the other
hand, with a fine-wire electrode spark plug the
ground electrode is made of platinum or iridium and
the center electrode is made of silver. [Figure 8-142]
The ground and center electrodes on all spark plugs
are separated by an air gap of a specified width. The

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

size of the air gap determines the amount of resistance a spark must overcome before it can jump the
gap. Therefore, if the size of an air gap is not
adjusted properly, the intensity of the spark produced will also be incorrect.
SHELL THREAD CLASSIFICATION

Spark plugs are often classified according to the size

of the shell threads that screw into the cylinder. In
aviation, spark plug threads are either 14 millimeter
or 18 millimeter. With the exception of the Fanklin
engine, all modern aircraft engines use 18-mm spark
plugs.
The terminal threads also come in two sizes;
either 5/ 8 inch 24 thread or 3/ 4 inch 20 thread.
Both sizes are still used in aircraft; however, the 3/ 4
inch 20 thread is becoming the size of choice.
One of the reasons for this is because the 3/ 4 inch
20 thread is referred to as an all-weather spark
plug. An all-weather type spark plug differs from
other plugs in that the ceramic insulator inside the
spark plug does not extend to the top of the plug
shell. This leaves room for the silicone grommet on
an all-weather terminal to form a watertight seal.
[Figure 8-143]

Figure 8-142. (A) With a massive-electrode spark plug, 2,

3, or 4 ground electrodes surround a single center electrode. (B) A fine-wire electrode spark plug has two
square ground electrodes and one round center electrode.

Figure 8-143. (A) The / 8 inch 24 thread is often used

on older massive-electrode spark plugs. (B) On the other
3
hand, the / 4 inch 20 thread is most often used with
fine-wire electrode, all-weather spark plugs. With
all-weather spark plugs, the ceramic insulator does not
extend to the top of the shell so there is room for a
resilient grommet on the ignition lead to form a watertight
seal.

8-95

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition System

SPARK PLUG REACH

HEAT RANGE

A spark plug's reach is defined as the linear distance

from the shell gasket seat to the end of the shell
threads, or shell skirt. Spark plugs are available in
either long reach or short reach sizes to account for
differences in cylinder head construction from
engine to engine. On 14 millimeter plugs, the long
reach dimension is 12.7 millimeter, or x/ 2 inch,
while the short reach dimension is 9.53 millimeter,
or 3/ 8 inch. On 18 millimeter plugs, the long reach is
20.64 millimeter, or 13/ 16 inch while the short reach
dimension is 12.7 millimeter, or V 2 inch.

The heat range of a spark plug refers to the ability of

a spark plug to conduct heat away from its firing tip
to the cylinder head. Spark plugs are generally classified as "hot," "normal," or "cold" plugs depending how well they transfer heat. The primary factor
in determining a plug's heat range is the length of
the nose core. For example, cold plugs have a relatively short nose core that provides a rather large
contact area between the ceramic insulator and
plug shell. This large contact area allows heat to
conduct readily to the cylinder head. On the other
hand, hot plugs have a relatively long nose core that
provides little contact area for heat to dissipate.
[Figure 8-145]

When the recommended spark plug is installed in

an engine, the end of the threads should be flush
with the cylinder head's inside wall. Therefore, if
you install a spark plug with the wrong reach, the
spark plug will either extend beyond or be recessed
in the cylinder head. For example, if a long reach
spark plug is installed where a short reach plug is
required, the end threads of the plug will be directly
exposed to the heat of combustion. In addition, the
exposed threads will be susceptible to carbon
buildup which could make it difficult to remove the
plug for service. On the other hand, if a short reach
plug is used in place of a long reach plug, the
threads in the cylinder head will be exposed to combustion gases and possible damage. [Figure 8-144]

Figure 8-144. (A) If a long reach plug is installed in a cylinder head requiring a short reach plug, the plug will extend
into the cylinder head. This exposes the spark plug threads
to the heat and corrosive gases produced during the combustion process. (B) If a short reach plug is installed in
place of a long reach plug, the spark plug will be recessed in
the cylinder head. This can cause a decrease in combustion
efficiency and will expose the threads in the cylinder head
to carbon buildup.

Figure 8-145. (A) Hot spark plugs have long nose cores
that provide relatively little contact area between the insulator and shell. The small amount of contact area slows the
rate at which heat can be conducted away from the plug
tip. (B) Cold plugs, on the other hand, have a shorter nose
core that permits a large contact area for dissipating heat.

8-96

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

All aircraft engines are certified to use spark plugs

with a specific heat range. However, as a general
rule, a high-compression engine operates at rather
high temperatures and, therefore, uses cold spark
plugs. On the other hand, lower compression
engines typically operate at relatively low temperatures and use hot spark plugs. If a hot spark plug is
installed in an engine requiring a cold spark plug
the hotter operating temperature of the plug could
lead to preignition or engine run-on. On the other
hand, if a cold spark plug is installed in a cold-running engine, the plug could become fouled with
unburned carbon and lead deposits.
Some circumstances require you to use a spark plug
that may not be in the recommended heat range. For
example, on small horizontally opposed engines
that were originally designed to run on 80-octane
avgas, a hotter spark plug may have to be used when
100LL avgas is used. The reason for this is that
100LL contains four to eight times as much
tetraethyl lead as the 80-octane avgas and the higher
levels of lead could cause lead fouling in the cooler
spark plugs.
SERVICING
Manufacturers recommend the removal of spark
plugs for inspection and servicing at regular intervals. In addition, removal, inspection, and cleaning
of spark plugs is a 100-hour inspection item.
However, engine problems such as intermittent
missing at all engine speeds may indicate a defective or badly fouled spark plug requiring service.
Anytime a spark plug becomes badly fouled, the
spark flows through the electrodes directly to
ground and ignition does not occur.
REMOVAL

Figure 8-146. When removing an ignition lead from a spark

plug, pull the terminal end straight out of the plug. If this is
not done, the ceramic insulator in a spark plug could be
damaged.

Once a spark plug is removed, it should be placed in

a tray that holds each plug securely and prevents it
from rolling around or striking another plug. In
addition, the tray should provide a means of identifying where a plug came from in regard to cylinder
number and position (top or bottom). [Figure 8-147]

Before you can remove a set of spark plugs, you

must first remove the ignition leads. When removing an ignition lead it is best to hold the ignition
lead with one hand and loosen the terminal nut
with an open end wrench. Once the terminal nut is
completely backed off, pull the terminal end
straight out of the spark plug. Tilting a lead terminal
to one side while removing it can crack the plug's
core insulator. [Figure 8-146]
Once an ignition lead is removed, loosen the spark
plug from the cylinder with a six-point deep socket.
Be sure to place the socket squarely over the spark
plug hex and keep it square while applying pressure. Tilting the socket increases the possibility of
inflicting damage to the spark plug's ceramic insulator.

Figure 8-147. Spark plug trays hold plugs securely and provide an easy way of identifying what cylinder and position
a specific plug came from.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-97

Figure 8-148. A light deposit of dull brown material on a

spark plug insulator indicates a normal combustion
process.

Figure 8-150. Soft, black, sooty deposits indicate severe carbon fouling that can usually be traced to operating the
engine with an excessively rich mixture.

VISUAL INSPECTION

be investigated and corrected. Typical causes of lead

fouling include improper fuel vaporization, low
cylinder head temperatures, or the use of spark
plugs with an improper heat range. If all spark plugs
in an engine show signs of severe lead fouling, you
should consider installing spark plugs with a hotter
heat range. [Figure 8-149]

Visual inspection of spark plugs reveals a great deal

about the efficiency of an engine's combustion
process. For example, if a spark plug insulator is
covered with a dull brown deposit and there is little
buildup in the firing cavity, normal combustion is
occurring in the cylinder. [Figure 8-148]
When the firing cavity of a spark plug is filled with
hard, bead-like deposits, excessive lead fouling is
occurring. In this case, the cause of the fouling must

Spark plugs that are covered with a soft, black, sooty

deposit on all surfaces indicate a problem with carbon fouling. This condition has several causes
including operation with an excessively rich mixture or a leaking primer. Black, sooty deposits on the
engine's exhaust stack also confirm operation with
an excessively rich mixture. [Figure 8-150]
Oil fouling is another type of contamination sometimes found on spark plugs. Oil fouling typically
appears as a blackened, slippery coating on a spark
plug's electrodes. Causes of oil fouling include broken or worn piston rings and worn valve guides. If
oil fouling is severe enough an engine may have to
be removed from service until repairs are completed.

Figure 8-149. Excessive lead deposits show up as hard

bead-like deposits in the firing cavity of a spark plug.

The existence of a hard glaze on the insulator nose

of a spark plug typically indicates that sand was
ingested into the engine. Once in a combustion
chamber, some of the silicates in sand melt with the
heat of combustion. As the molten silicates cool,
they form a glass-like coating on the surfaces of the
spark plug. This silicon glaze is non-conductive at

8-98

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

This should remove oil, grease, and other soft

deposits from a plug's exterior and firing cavity.
Once degreased, a spark plug may be dried with
compressed air.
Lead and carbon deposits are typically removed
with a vibrating cleaning tool. When using this type
of tool, it is important that you use the proper cutting blade and hold the spark plug directly over the
blades. If this is not done, you could damage the
ceramic insulator and/or the electrodes. When
properly used, a slight back and forth motion over
the vibrating blades will chip away the lead
deposits. [Figure 8-152]

Figure 8-151. If either the center or ground electrodes are

worn to half their original size or severely distorted, the
spark plug should be replaced.

low temperatures; however, at high temperatures,

the glaze becomes conductive and can lead to spark
plug misfiring. Sand ingestion is typically the result
of an induction system leak or a worn air filter.
If the electrodes on a spark plug are worn to approximately half their original size, the spark plug
should be replaced. In some cases, excessive wear
can distort the shape of both the center and ground
electrodes. [Figure 8-151]
Abnormal wear on both electrodes of a spark plug
may be indicative of fuel metering problems. For
example, if an excessively lean mixture exists, combustion temperatures can increase to a point that
promotes electrode wear. An induction air leak can
cause a lean mixture in carbureted engines while a
partially clogged fuel nozzle can cause a lean mixture in fuel-injected engines.

After chipping away all lead deposits, an abrasive

grit blasting cleaner unit may be used to complete
the cleaning job. However, you must adhere to the
manufacturer's instructions concerning grit type
and air pressure settings. In most cases, a silica abrasive is not recommended because it can contribute
to silica fouling.
When using a grit blast cleaner, begin by installing
the proper size rubber adapter and then press the
firing end of the spark plug into the adapter hole. To
help prevent excessive erosion, move the plug in a
circular motion while blasting and limit the blast to
a few seconds. If this is not done, you could erode
the electrodes of a fine-wire spark plug and reduce
its operating life by as much as 200 to 300 hours.
After abrasive blasting, blow out all traces of the grit
with clean air. If you used a wet-blast method, dry
the plugs in an oven to avoid rusting. When the
spark plugs are clean and dry, inspect them with a
light and a magnifying glass. This should be done to
verify that the insulator and electrodes are within
serviceable limits and that all traces of the grit have
been removed.

In addition to inspecting a spark plug for excessive

wear, you should examine the ceramic insulator at
both ends for cracking. If any sign of cracking exists,
the spark plug must be discarded and replaced. In
addition, any spark plugs that have been dropped
on a hard surface should automatically be discarded
because the ceramic insulator may be cracked in an
area that is not visible.
CLEANING

The first step in cleaning a set of spark plugs is to

degrease them with an approved safety solvent.

Figure 8-152. To remove lead deposits, a hand-held or stationary vibrating tool is often used.

8-99

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

If needed, clean the terminal end of a spark plug

with an appropriate cleaning tool and approved
cleaning compound. In addition, remove any
remaining carbon or corrosion from the threads at
both ends of the spark plug with a steel brush or
wire wheel with soft bristles.
GAPPING

If a plug is determined to be in a serviceable condition, the gap between the center and ground electrodes must be checked and adjusted as necessary.
To check the gap in a spark plug, a round wire gauge
is used. In most cases, these gauges have two wires
to measure both the minimum and maximum gap.
For example, if a plug is supposed to have a gap
of .016, an appropriate wire gauge will have a .015
and a .019 inch wire. In this case, the smaller wire
must pass through the gap while the larger wire
should be too big to pass through the gap.
If a spark plug gap is too large, the ground electrode
may be forced inward to reduce the gap. However,
to do this, you must have the proper tools and the
manufacturer's instructions must be followed carefully. This is important because the use of improper
gapping procedures increases the chances of damaging the nose ceramic and/or electrodes.

Figure 8-153. A special gapping tool similar to this is

required for adjusting the gap of a massive-electrode
spark plug.

plug, gapping a fine-wire spark plug is easier.

However, the platinum and iridium electrodes are
extremely brittle and can be broken easily; therefore, all fine-wire spark plugs must be handled with
care. Using a special gapping tool, move the ground
electrodes toward the center electrode until the
specified gap exists. Again, avoid closing the gap
too much because attempts to widen the gap risk
damage to the ground electrodes. [Figure 8-154]
TESTING

When adjusting the gap on a massive-electrode

spark plug, the ground electrodes must remain
parallel to the center electrode. The only way you
can do this is if you use a special gapping tool.
With most massive-electrode gapping tools, the
spark plug must be clamped into the tool. Once
this is done, the ground electrode is moved inward
using a movable arm or threaded adjusting ram.
When closing a gap, slowly move the ground electrode, being careful to avoid inadvertently closing
the gap too much. This is important because any
attempt to enlarge a gap on a massive-electrode
plug usually results in electrode or insulator damage. [Figure 8-153]
When gapping a massive-electrode spark plug, it is
important that you do not leave the wire gauge
between the center and ground electrodes when the
ground electrode is being moved. The reason this is
not done is because if the wire gauge were left in
position, an excessive side load would be placed on
the center electrode that could crack the ceramic
insulator.
Since the ground electrodes on a fine-wire spark
plug are smaller than those on a massive-electrode

Once a spark plug has been cleaned and gapped, it

should be tested. To do this, you must have access
to special testing equipment. The testing equipment

Figure 8-154. The gapping tool used with fine-wire spark

plugs allows you the best possible chance of moving the
ground electrodes without breaking them. In some cases,
this type of tool may have a wire gauge that permits you to
measure the gap once a plug has been gapped.

8-100

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

spark plug do not change, one electrode looses

metal relative to the other electrode. When a plug
fires positively, the ground electrode looses more
than the center electrode. On the other hand, when
a plug fires negatively, the center electrode wears
more than the ground electrode
Spark plug rotation after servicing allows each plug
to fire with a polarity opposite to what it was previously firing. This balances electrode wear and
increases the service life of a spark plug.

Figure 8-155. This unit is a combination spark plug cleaner

and tester. It is widely used in maintenance shops to clean
and test spark plugs.

In addition to changing the firing polarity of a set of

spark plugs, it is a good idea to swap the plugs in a
cylinder from top to bottom. The reason for this is
that lead and other impurities produced during the
combustion process tend to precipitate to the lower
plugs, causing them to wear. Therefore, to help
equalize plug wear, the spark plugs for a given
cylinder shold be switched from top to bottom.
[Figure 8-156]
Before installing a spark plug, a small amount of
anti-seize compound should be applied to the shell
threads. Anti-seize compound of the correct type is

places the firing end of a spark plug under pressure

and provides the voltage necessary to fire the plug
in rapid succession. [Figure 8-155]
INSTALLATION

When reinstalling a set of spark plugs you should

rotate where the plugs were originally installed.
This promotes even spark plug wear and extends
plug service life. To understand why rotation provides this benefit, consider the fact that, every time
a spark occurs, metal is transferred from one electrode to another. This same process of metal transfer
can be seen when arc welding.
Polarity

If you recall, each time a rotating magnet in a magneto passes the neutral position, the polarity of the
current changes. As a result, the sparks produced by
a magneto alternate in polarity. This means that in
an engine with an even number of cylinders, each
spark plug fires with the same polarity every time.
For example, assume sparks jump from the center
electrode to the ground electrode on the spark plugs
in the number one cylinder. If the number four
cylinder is next in the firing order, sparks will jump
from the ground electrode to the center electrode of
those spark plugs. When the polarity of sparks on a

Figure 8-156. Spark plug rotation is an important practice

which extends the service life of a set of spark plugs. A general rule you should follow when rotating a set of plugs is
to rotate a plug to the cylinder next in the firing order and
switch it from top to bottom.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

8-101

usually supplied by spark plug manufacturers.

Apply the compound sparingly to the second thread
from the firing end of each spark plug. Never apply
the compound to the firing end where it could run
down over the electrodes. [Figure 8-157]
Most manufacturers recommend that the solid copper gasket used between a spark plug and cylinder
be replaced whenever you reinstall a spark plug.
The reason for this is that these gaskets tend to work
harden over time. Once hardened, the gasket loses
its ability to create a seal.
Some cylinder head temperature gauges use a gasket-type thermocouple pickup under one of the
spark plugs. When gasket-type thermocouple pickups are used, they should be installed on the hottest
operating cylinder. If a gasket-type pickup is used,
no additional gasket is needed between the spark
plug and cylinder head.
If a spark plug does not screw all the way down onto
the cylinder head with finger pressure, carbon
buildups may be present in the threads of the spark
plug boss. If this is the case, use the appropriate
spark plug thread cleaning tool or a suitable thread
chaser to clear the buildups. In addition, inspect the
threads with an inspection light to be certain they
are clear and serviceable before reinstalling the
spark plug.
Once all spark plugs have been installed and tightened by
hand,
a
calibrated
torque
wrench and

Figure 8-157. Apply anti-seize compound sparingly to the

second thread from the firing end of each spark plug before
installation.

socket are used for final tightening. Snug down the

spark plugs to the recommended torque value with
one smooth pull. Next, wipe each lead terminal
sleeve with a clean lint-free cloth moistened with
acetone or other approved solvent. Slip the terminal
sleeve straight into the spark plug barrel and tighten
the terminal retainer nut finger-tight. Once all lead
terminals are installed, tighten the terminal nuts
approximately one-eighth inch with an open-end
wrench.

TURBINE ENGINE IGNITION SYSTEMS

The primary function of a turbine engine ignition

system is to ignite the fuel in the combustion chamber during engine starts. Once ignited, combustion
becomes self-sustained and an ignition source is no
longer required. Therefore, most turbine engine
ignition systems are normally operated only for
brief periods.
A secondary function of the ignition system is to
provide standby protection against an in-flight
flameout. To do this, most turbine engine ignition
systems have continuous or automatic relight settings that can be selected in flight. Engines
equipped with a continuous setting incorporate a
separate low tension continuous duty circuit. With
this type of system, a pilot can select continuous
ignition with one or both igniter plugs. On engines
equipped with an automatic relight setting, the
ignition system monitors one or more parameters
and provides ignition only when a monitored
parameter falls below a specified operational
value. One popular method of activating this type
of system is to use pressure sensors installed at the
compressor discharge. When used this way, a drop
in discharge pressure automatically activates the
ignition system.

CAPACITOR-DISCHARGE
Almost
all
turbine
engines
utilize
a
capacitor-discharge ignition system. Unlike the
ignition systems used on reciprocating engines that
produce a high voltage, low amperage spark, a
capacitor-discharge ignition system delivers a high
voltage, high amperage spark that has a high heat
intensity. This high-energy spark is needed to ignite
the fuel/air mixture in low temperatures and at high
altitudes. To give you an idea as to the intensity of
the spark produced by a capacitor-discharge system
most turbine engine ignition systems are assigned a
joule rating based on the amount of power they
produce. One joule represents the number of watts
in a spark times the duration of the spark. A typical
spark lasts a few mil-lionths of a second and,
therefore, for one joule to be

Figure 8-158. A turbine engine ignition system typically

consists of two separate ignition circuits, each with a transformer, or exciter, ignition lead, and igniter unit.

produced, the number of watts in the spark must be

high. A typical capacitor-discharge ignition system
produces a spark that may be as high as 20 joules
and 2,000 amps.
The two common types of capacitor-discharge systems are the high-tension and low-tension systems.
Both systems consist of two identical independent
systems containing two transformers, or exciter
units, two high-tension leads, and two igniter units.
Each exciter unit, sometimes called an exciter box,
generates electrical energy for operating the igniters.
[Figure 8-158]
Most exciters are sealed units containing electronic
circuitry that is potted in an epoxy resin. In some
cases, both exciters are housed together as a single
unit. In this case, the two exciter circuits are often
considered to be one unit.

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

LOW-TENSION SYSTEM
In a low-tension system, 28 volts DC is supplied to
each exciter unit. Each unit then steps up the 28
volts DC to produce the high voltage pulses necessary to fire one igniter unit. In order for an exciter
unit to step up the input voltage, a coil must be
used. In addition, the DC input current must be
converted so it pulsates in the coil's primary
winding. To do this, many low-tension systems use
a vibrator type circuit. [Figure 8-159]
When a low-tension system is de-energized, a permanent magnet holds the points in the vibrator circuit closed. However, once the cockpit switch is
closed, current flows from ground, up through the
primary winding, across the points, and to the battery's positive terminal. As electromagnetic forces
in the primary winding build and become stronger
than the permanent magnet, the points are pulled
open, and current flow stops. This action is
repeated approximately 200 times per second and
produces pulsating DC voltage. To prevent arcing at
the points, a capacitor is installed in parallel with
the points.
When current initially flows through the primary
winding, a relatively small pulse is produced in the
secondary winding. This pulse attempts to flow
from the secondary winding to ground, up through
the storage capacitor, and to the top side of the secondary winding. To stop current flow in this direction, a diode rectifier is installed between the top
side of the secondary winding and the storage
capacitor. To prevent this initial pulse from flowing
to the igniter, a discharge tube is installed between
the capacitor and igniter.

8-103

When the points open, the electromagnetic field

surrounding the primary winding collapses, and a
strong pulse is induced into the secondary winding.
Secondary current now flows from the top of the
secondary winding, through the rectifier, and into
the storage capacitor. As electrons pile up on the top
plate of the storage capacitor a negative charge
accumulates and free electrons are repelled from the
bottom plate of the capacitor to ground.
After repeated cycles, the storage capacitor builds a
charge that is capable of jumping the gap in the discharge tube. The initial current surge ionizes the air
gap, which makes it conductive and allows the
capacitor to discharge fully to the igniter.
The igniter in a low-tension system is referred to as
a self-ionizing or shunted-gap-type igniter. The firing end of the igniter contains a semi-conductor
material which bridges the gap between the center
and ground electrodes. When current initially flows
to the igniter, it flows through the center electrode,
the semi-conductor, the outer casing, and back to the
capacitor. As soon as current flows through the semiconductor, the semi-conductor heats up and its resistance increases. At the same time, the air gap heats
up sufficiently to ionize and decrease resistance.
Once the resistance across the air gap becomes less
than the resistance across the semi-conductor, the
capacitor fully discharges across the air gap to create
a high energy capacitive discharge spark.
As a safety precaution, many ignition systems have
a bleed resistor. The purpose of the bleed resistor is
to allow the capacitor to slowly discharge when the
system is de-energized. It also protects the circuit
from overheating if the ignition system is energized
with no igniter plugs installed.

Figure 8-159. A low-tension DC system utilizes a 24 to 28 volt DC input and vibrator circuit to produce pulsating DC current that can
be stepped up.

8-104

HIGH-TENSION SYSTEM
In a high-tension ignition system, 115 volt, 400 Hz
alternating current is applied to the
transformer/exciter unit. The use of alternating current eliminates the need for a vibrator circuit which,
in turn, eliminates the problems associated with
vibrating contacts. [Figure 8-160]
When 115 volts AC is applied to a high-tension circuit, the primary winding of the power transformer
induces approximately 2,000 volts into the secondary winding during the first half cycle. Once
induced into the secondary, current flows from the
negative side of the winding and out to ground.
Current then flows up from ground at rectifier tube
A, through resistor R a and the doubler capacitor,
and back to the positive side of the secondary winding. This charges the left side of the doubler capacitor to 2,000 volts. Rectifier tube B blocks any other
current path during this half cycle.
During the second half cycle, the primary winding
induces another 2,000 volts into the secondary
winding. Once induced, the current flows from
the positive side of the coil and charges the right
side of the doubler capacitor to 2,000 volts. The
doubler capacitor now has a total charge of 4,000
volts and current flows through resistor R 2 , rectifier tube B, and the storage capacitor to ground.
The circuit is
completed when
current
passes

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

through ground and back to the negative side of

the secondary coil. During this half cycle, rectifier
tube A blocks current flow from the doubler
capacitor and R a to ground ensuring current flow
to the storage capacitor.
Repeated pulses charge the storage capacitor to a
point where the air gap in the discharge tube ionizes. When this occurs, current flows across the air
gap and to the trigger transformer. Once at the trigger transformer, current flows through the primary
winding and trigger capacitor to ground. The storage capacitor discharge through the primary winding of the trigger transformer induces a 20,000 volt
pulse in the secondary winding. This 20,000 volt
pulse ionizes the igniter plug air gap creating a low
resistance path that allows both the trigger capacitor
and storage capacitor to fully discharge at the igniter
plug. The high-tension spark vaporizes and ignites
fuel globules around the igniter electrodes.

IGNITERS
Igniters for gas turbine engines differ considerably
from the spark plugs used on reciprocating engines.
For example, the air gap on an igniter is much
wider than that of a conventional spark plug and
the electrode is designed to withstand a much more
intense spark. An igniter plug is also less susceptible
to
fouling because
the
high
energy spark

Figure 8-160. A high-tension AC input system utilizes 115 volt, 400 Hz alternating current.

8-105

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

removes carbon and other deposits each time the

igniter fires. In addition, igniters generally have a
long service life because they do not require continuous operation.
The construction of igniters is different from spark
plugs. For example, the outer shell of most turbine
engine igniters is made of a very high quality,
nickel-chromium alloy. The reason for this is that
nickel-chromium is corrosion resistant and has a
low coefficient of heat expansion.

TYPES OF IGNITERS
Many varieties of igniter plugs are available and,
therefore, procedures regarding the service and
maintenance of igniters varies. Because of this,
engine manufacturers specify the approved igniters
for a given engine as well as the servicing instructions. [Figure 8-161]
When installed in an engine, the igniter tip must
protrude the proper length into the combustor. In

Figure 8-161. There are a number of different types of igniters used in turbine engines. The two igniters on the left are typical of a
low voltage system while the two igniters on the right are typical of a high voltage system.

Ill

8-106

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

most cases, the igniter tip extends approximately

0.1 inch into the combustion chamber. However, in
the case of a constrained-gap igniter, the igniter
does not have to project into the combustion chamber. The reason for this is the center electrode of a
constrained-gap igniter plug is recessed in the body
of the plug. Therefore, in order for the high intensity
spark to get from the center electrode to ground, it
must jump out away from the plug's tip. This allows
the tip of a constrained-gap igniter to remain
partially recessed in the combustion chamber liner
which, in turn, allows it to operate at cooler temperatures.
GLOW PLUGS
Some small turbine and turboprop engines
incorporate a glow plug type igniter rather than a
spark igniter. Although glow plugs are not
considered to be an igniter in the strictest sense,
they do serve the same purpose. A glow plug
consists of a resistance coil that is very similar in
appearance to an automobile cigarette lighter.
However, with a glow plug, the coil generates a
very high heat value that is capable of igniting a
fuel/air mixture in extremely low temperatures.
In a typical glow plug ignition system, 24 to 28 volts
is supplied to each glow plug causing it to become
yellow hot. Once hot, air directed up through the
glow plug coil mixes with fuel dripping from the
main fuel nozzle. This is designed to occur when
the main nozzle is not completely atomizing its discharge during engine start. The influence of the airflow on the dripping fuel acts to create a hot streak
or torch-like ignition. After engine start, fuel flow
through the glow plug is terminated and the air
source keeps the igniter coil cool during normal
engine operation. [Figure 8-162]

IGNITION SYSTEM INSPECTION

AND MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of a typical turbine engine ignition
system consists primarily of inspecting, testing,
troubleshooting, and replacing various components.
However, when performing these operations, you
should bear in mind that most turbine engine ignition systems produce lethal amounts of electrical
current. Therefore, it is imperative that you follow
the manufacturers recommended safety procedures.
For example, before you perform any maintenance
on an ignition system ensure that the ignition
switch is off. As a safety precaution, manufacturers

Figure 8-162. Glow plugs are similar in appearance to an

automobile cigarette lighter.

typically recommend a waiting period after the ignition system is turned off before you begin disassembling any connections. To remove an igniter plug,
disconnect the transformer input lead and wait the
time prescribed by the manufacturer. Once the recommended time has passed, disconnect the igniter
lead and ground the center electrode to the engine.
Following these steps helps ensure that no lethal
electrical charges are discharged during the removal
process.
In situations where a transformer must be removed,
you should exercise caution. The reason for this is
that some older transformers contain amounts of
radioactive material. The radioactive material is
used to calibrate the discharge point to a preset
voltage.
CLEANING AND SERVICING IGNITERS
The outer case of high voltage igniter plugs may be
cleaned with a soft brush and approved solvent.
Typically, ceramic insulators and electrode tips are
cleaned with solvent and a felt swab. After cleaning, blow off the remaining solvent with dry compressed air.
The self-ionizing, or shunted-gap igniters used with
low-tension systems are generally cleaned only on
their outer casing. The semiconductor material at
the firing end is easily damaged and manufacturers
seldom permit any type of cleaning, regardless of
the amount of carbon buildup.
If glow plug heater coils have carbon buildup which
appears to fuse the coils together, the coil end can

8-107

Electrical, Starting, and Ignition Systems

be immersed in carbon remover to soften the

deposit. Once softened, a soft nylon or fiber brush is
used to remove any remaining carbon. Finally, the
coil is rinsed in warm water and blown dry with
compressed air.
Inspection of a high voltage igniter plug or glow
plug generally consists of a visual inspection and a
dimensional check. Use of a technician's scale or
suitable depth micrometer is recommended.
Visually inspect self-ionizing igniters used in
low-tension systems in the same manner but do
not make dimensional checks. The delicate nature
of the semiconductor material makes contact with
any tool risky. The semiconductor material often
consists of only a very thin coating over a ceramic
base material.
If an igniter is determined to be faulty, follow the
proper disposal procedures outlined by the manufacturer. The materials used in some igniters may
require special handling.
After you have completed a visual and dimensional
inspection, reinstall the serviceable igniters, or glow
plugs and prepare the engine for an operational
check. However, before an operational check is performed, ensure that no fuel is in any of the
combus-tors. A fuel-wetted combustor may erupt
in fire when the igniters are tested. The operational
check

should follow the guidelines established by the

engine manufacturer and the aircraft ground runup
checklist.
When operated, all igniters produce a snapping
sound when they are fired. The sound emanates
from the high intensity spark that jumps the air gap
between the igniter electrodes. As a general rule, the
more intense the spark, the louder the snapping
noise. Therefore, to conduct an operational test, one
person stands near the engine and listens for the
snapping noise produced by each igniter while
someone in the cockpit activates the ignition
switch.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Logical troubleshooting procedures should be used
when investigating an ignition system problem. To
aid in this process, many engine manufacturers produce troubleshooting charts to help in the diagnosis
and repair of commonly encountered problems.
[Figure 8-163]
As a safety precaution, you should never energize a
turbine engine ignition system for troubleshooting
with the igniter plugs removed. If this is done, serious overheating or damage to the exciter box may
result.

Figure 8-163. This chart outlines the procedures to use when an ignition system produces a weak spark, no spark, or improper
intervals between sparks.

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

ENGINE LUBRICATING OILS

Properties and characteristics of lubricating oils vary

with the oil type. An oil with the correct
specifications must always be used in each engine
because use of the wrong oil could lead to damaged
or failed engine components. With that caution in
mind, consider the following discussion on oil
properties and the various oil types. Typical
applications of the different oil types are discussed,
as well as the methods used to grade aircraft engine
oils.

Figure 9-1. Engine parts that appear smooth to the naked

eye reveal rough surfaces under a microscope. Lubricating
oil separates these surfaces and minimizes wear.

FUNCTIONS OF LUBRICATING OIL

Lubricating oil is often considered to be the life blood
of an engine. Without it, the friction and wear produced between moving parts would cause an engine
to wear at a very rapid rate. In addition to reducing
friction, lubricating oil is responsible for removing a
great deal of engine heat. If fact, without an ample
supply of oil, most reciprocating engines will
overheat. Additional functions of lubricating oils
include creating a seal between moving parts,
cushioning impact forces created by combustion,
cleaning the engine, and protecting against
corrosion.
REDUCE FRICTION
Many of the metal parts inside an aircraft engine
have surfaces which appear smooth to the naked
eye. However, if you were to microscopically
examine those same parts, you would see a rather
rough surface consisting of several peaks and
valleys. When those engine parts rub against one
another, the resulting friction soon wears away the
metal. In order to reduce this friction, a film of
lubrication oil is placed between the moving parts.
Oil wets the surfaces, fills in the valleys, and holds
the metal surfaces apart as long as the oil film
remains unbroken. The engine parts then slide over
each other on a film of oil rather than grind together.
Therefore, friction is reduced and part wear is
minimized. [Figure 9-1]
The amount of clearance between moving parts is a
determining factor "when choosing the proper type
and grade of oil. An oil must adhere to a part suffi-

ciently and be thick enough to provide an adequate

protective film that will not break down and allow
metal-to-metal contact.
ABSORBS HEAT
In addition to reducing friction and wear, oil
absorbs some of the heat produced by combustion
as it circulates through the engine. The pistons and
cylinder walls are especially dependent on
lubricating oil for cooling. However, once the oil
heats up, a means of cooling the oil must be
provided. Therefore, several engine lubrication
systems contain an oil cooler. An oil cooler is
basically a heat exchanger that transfers the heat
contained in the oil to the outside air.
SEALS
Oil also exhibits excellent wetting characteristics
because the oil film has an ability to evenly coat
metal surfaces. This characteristic of oil makes it a
good sealing agent between moving parts. For
example, the oil film on cylinder walls forms an
effective seal with the piston rings in a cylinder.
This helps prevent gas leakage during the
combustion process.

9-3

Lubrication Systems

CUSHIONS

VISCOSITY

The same characteristic of oil that makes it a good

sealing agent also provides a cushioning effect
between metal parts. For example, the thin film of
oil between a rocker arm and its bushing absorbs
some of the hammering shock from the valve action.
The cushioning action also helps reduce some of the
impact force between a crankshaft and its
connecting rods.

One of the most important properties of an oil is

viscosity, which is a measure of an oil's resistance
to flow. An oil that flows slowly is viscous, or has
a high viscosity. On the other hand, oil that flows
freely has a low viscosity.

CLEANS
The oil in a lubrication system also reduces engine
wear by serving as a cleaning agent. As the oil
circulates, it picks up foreign particles such as dirt,
dust, carbon, and small amounts of water. These
particles are held in suspension by the oil and
carried to a filter where they are trapped and
removed.
PROTECTS AGAINST CORROSION
Metal engine parts which are exposed to moist air
and various chemicals have a tendency to rust or
form other types of surface corrosion. This is
especially true for cylinder walls and crankshafts
which have been hardened by nitriding. The oil film
which coats internal engine parts acts as a barrier,
preventing oxygen and moisture from reaching the
metal surface and causing it to corrode.

OIL CONSUMPTION
In the performance of all the previously mentioned
functions, a portion of the lubrication oil is
consumed. The amount of oil consumed depends
on several factors such as engine rpm, engine
temperature, operating clearances, and lubricant
characteristics. Generally, higher rpm and
temperatures, larger clearances and less viscosity
correspond to higher consumption rates. Larger
clearances are one reason why reciprocating
engines typically consume more oil than turbine
engines.

OIL PROPERTIES
Theoretically, the perfect engine oil is thin enough
to circulate freely, yet heavy enough to stay in place
and maintain a reasonable film strength. However,
in practice, a compromise must be made and several
factors must be considered in determining the
proper grade of oil to use in a particular engine.
Some of these factors include engine operating
loads, rotational speeds of bearings, and operating
temperatures. When determining the proper grade
of oil to use there are several properties which must
be considered.

Oil viscosity is measured using an instrument

known as the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. To
measure an oil's viscosity, a specific quantity of oil
must be heated to an exact temperature. Then, the
number of seconds required for 60 cubic
centimeters of the heated oil to flow through a
calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the
oil's viscosity. The recorded time is known as the
Saybolt Seconds Universal viscosity or S.S.U.
Typical aviation oils have an S.S.U. of 80, 100, or
120 when heated to 210.
Of all the factors that impact the viscosity of
lubricating oil, temperature has the greatest effect.
In fact, it is not uncommon for some high viscosity
oils to become almost semi-solid in cold weather.
When this happens, engine component drag
increases and oil circulation dramatically decreases.
On the other hand, low viscosity oils can become so
thin at high temperatures that the oil can no longer
maintain a solid film. When this happens, rapid
wear and lower than normal oil pressure results.
For these reasons, lower viscosity oils are
typically used in cold climates and higher viscosity
oils are usesd in warm climates.
Oils used in reciprocating engines usually have a
relatively high viscosity for several reasons. One
reason is that most reciprocating engines have large
operational clearances and high operating
temperatures. Therefore, a high viscosity oil is
required to ensure an adequate oil film between the
moving parts. In addition, most reciprocating
engines operate at relatively high temperatures and,
therefore, a high viscosity oil is needed to keep the
oil from getting too thin at operating temperatures.
Furthermore,
high
bearing
pressures
in
reciprocating engines require the cushion that
higher viscosity oils provide.
VISCOSITY INDEX

In addition to having a viscosity rating, many oils

are assigned a viscosity index, or VI number. The
viscosity index is a standard used to identify an oil's
rate of change in viscosity for a given change in temperature. The index itself is based on a comparative
analysis
of
the
temperature-induced
viscosity

9-4

changes of two reference oils, arbitrarily chosen by

the American Society of Testing and Materials, or
ASTM. One oil is assigned a viscosity index rating
of 100, and the other is rated at zero. The smaller the
change in the viscosity for a given temperature
change, the higher the viscosity index.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
An oil's specific gravity is a comparison of the
weight of an oil to the weight of an equal volume of
distilled water at a specified temperature. For
example, water weighs approximately 8 pounds per
gallon. Therefore, an oil with a specific gravity of
0.9 weighs 7.2 pounds per gallon (0.9 x 8 = 7.2).
The American Petroleum Institute or API has
formulated a measurement for the specific gravity
of oils which is an expansion of the regular specific
gravity scale. The API scale is considered to be a
more accurate measure of an oil's gravity because it
provides more detail on that portion of the specific
gravity where lubricating oils fall. However, in most
cases, an oil's API number can be converted to a
specific gravity number using a conversion chart.

Lubrication Systems

POUR POINT
An oil's pour point represents the lowest temperature at which the oil can flow or be poured. Pour
point is an oil property which determines a given
oil's ability to lubricate at low operating temperatures. As a general rule, the pour point of an oil
should be within five degrees Fahrenheit of the
average ambient starting temperature to ensure oil
circulation.
FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT
An oil's flash point is the temperature at which it
begins to emit ignitable vapors. As temperature
increases beyond the flash point, the oil's fire point
is reached and sufficient vapors are emitted to support a flame. A typical lubricating oil has a fire
point approximately 50 to 60 higher than the flash
point. An oil must be able to withstand the high
temperatures encountered in an operating engine
without creating a fire hazard. Therefore, these two
temperature ratings are important when selecting
the proper oil for an engine.
CARBON RESIDUE TEST

COLOR
Oil color is determined by the amount of light that
passes through an oil sample in a glass container
when placed in front of a light of known intensity.
The color test is conducted with a device known as
an ASTM union colorimeter. The color is then
compared to an ASTM color chart. A color
reference number of 1.00 on the chart is pure white,
and a reference number of 8.00 is darker than claret
red.

In the carbon residue test, a given amount of oil is

placed in a stainless steel receptacle and heated to a
controlled temperature until it evaporates. The container is weighed before and after the test. The difference in weight is then divided by the weight of
the original oil sample to obtain the percertage of
carbon, by weight, in the oil.
ASH TEST

With oils that are darker than number 8.00, the oil is
diluted with kerosene to form a mixture which is 85
percent kerosene and 15 percent oil by volume. The
mixture is then given a color rating in the same
manner as other oils. If indirect, or reflected light is
used to perform a color test, the oil color is referred
to as a bloom and can be used to determine the origin of the oil.

An ash test is an extension of a carbon residue test

in that it requires the carbon residue to be burned
until only ash remains. The amount of ash remaining is then expressed as a percentage by weight of
the carbon residue. New oil which leaves almost no
ash is considered to be pure. On the other hand, the
ash left by used oil can be analyzed for iron and lead
content. The amount of iron and lead found provide
clues to the amount of internal engine wear.

CLOUD POINT

ENGINE OIL GRADING SYSTEM

Another property of lubricating oil is known as

cloud point. A particular oil's cloud point is the
temperature at which paraffin wax and other
solids normally held in a solution of oil begin to
solidify and separate into tiny crystals. At this
temperature, the oil begins to lose clarity and
appears cloudy or hazy.

Most commercial aviation oils are assigned

numerical designations such as 80,100, or 120 that
approximate an oil's viscosity. This practice has
proven to be much more workable than using actual
Saybolt values to designate viscosity. The reason
for this is that oil viscosity varies enough among
commonly

9-5

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-2. This chart illustrates how a similar oil can have
an SAE rating, a commercial aviation rating, and a Military
rating.

used oils to produce several hundred grades when

using Say bolt values.
To further simplify the oil grading process, a system
designed by the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) was designed. The SAE system scale divides
all oils into seven groups, ranging from SAE 10 to
SAE 70. The groupings are based on an oil's
viscosity at either 130 or 210. In addition, an
SAE rating with the letter "W," such as 20W
indicates the oil is acceptable for use in cold, or
winter, climates.
Although SAE ratings are used with most oils, there
are still some oils that carry commercial aviation or
military designations. It is important to note that
SAE ratings are purely arbitrary and bear no direct
relationship to other ratings. [Figure 9-2]
Use of the SAE system scale has eliminated much of
the confusion in the designation of lubricating oils.
However, it must not be assumed that an SAE designation covers all the important viscosity require-

ments. An SAE number indicates only the relative

viscosity of an oil and does not indicate quality or
other essential characteristics. There are good oils
and inferior oils which have the same viscosities at
a given temperature and, therefore, are classified as
the same grade. Always bear in mind that an SAE
rating on an oil container is not an endorsement or
recommendation of that particular oil by the Society
of Automotive Engineers. The only way to be sure
that an oil meets the requirements of a particular
engine is to be familiar with the individual characteristics of a given oil. [Figure 9-3]

TYPES OF OIL
Oils from a variety of sources have been used in
aircraft. For example, the earliest aircraft engines
used castor oil as a lubricant, which is a pure
vegetable oil derived from castor beans. However,
vegetable based lubricants have poor chemical
stability and tend to oxidize when used in
reciprocating engines. Because of this, vegetable
based oils were soon replaced with mineral based
oils. Mineral based oils tend to be much more
chemically stable than vegetable based lubricants
and are still the most widely used oils in
reciprocating engines. A final type of oil that is used
in aircraft engines is synthetic oil. Although
synthetic oils are mostly used in turbine engines, a
few synthetic lubricants are approved for use in
reciprocating engines.
STRAIGHT MINERAL OIL()
MIL-L-6082E is a straight mineral oil that has no
additives and, for many years, the principle type of

Figure 9-3. This chart illustrates the characteristics of various oils. However, it is important to note that a given SAE rating only
indicates a specific viscosity and does not guarantee any other characteristic.

Lubrication Systems

9-6

oil used in aircraft. Although straight mineral oil is

an effective lubricant, it does have some limitations.
For example, when exposed to elevated temperatures in an aerated condition, straight mineral oil has
a tendency to oxidize. In addition, if straight mineral
oil becomes overly contaminated, a sludge can form
that may clog filters and passages as well as score
engine components. Because of this, the use of
straight mineral oil has been limited to new or newly
overhauled engines during their break-in period.
ASHLESS-DISPERSANT OILS()
The most commonly used oil in reciprocating
engines is ashless-dispersant, or AD oil that
conforms to MIL-L-22851D. It does not have the
carbon forming restrictions of straight mineral oil
nor does it form ash deposits like detergent oils. In
addition, all ashless-dispersant oils contain a
dispersant that causes sludge-forming materials to
repel each other and stay in suspension until they
can be trapped by the oil filter. This provides
several advantages in that oil passages and ring
grooves remain free of harmful deposits.
In
addition
to
a
dispersant,
several
ashless-dispersant oils contain an anti-wear,
anti-foam additive. However, these additives are
unique in that they do not leave metallic ash
deposits in an engine. Ash deposits are bad
because they can lead to preigni-tion and spark
plug fouling.
Since ashless-dispersant oils are such an effective
lubricant, most engine manufacturers do not
recommend their use during an engine's break-in
period. The reason for this is that, when an engine
is first broken-in, some component wear must occur.
For example, before a set of piston rings can
effectively seal against a cylinder wall, the two
surfaces must wear against each other to produce a
sealable junction. If sufficient wear does not occur,
the engine will consume excessive amounts of oil
throughout its operating life. Therefore, to promote
some degree of wear, most manufacturers
recommend that new and newly overhauled
engines be operated on straight mineral oil for the
first 10 to 50 hours of operation or until oil
consumption stabilizes. After this, the straight
mineral oil should be drained and replaced by a
quality ashless-dispersant oil for the remaining
engine life.
MULTI-VISCOSITY OILS
Multi-viscosity oils were developed to help address
some of the drawbacks of single viscosity oils. For

example, if an SAE 10 oil is used in a warm climate,

it will get too hot and lose its ability to maintain an
adequate film on moving parts. On the other hand,
if an SAE 30 oil is used in a cold climate, the oil will
not circulate properly, especially when an engine is
first started.
Multi-viscosity oils differ from single viscosity oils
in that they provide adequate lubrication over a
wider temperature range. This allows multi-viscosity oils to flow more quickly in cold weather and
keep from thinning in hot weather. A typical
multi-viscosity oil, such as SAE 15W50, can
generally be safely used over the combined
temperature range of an SAE 15 and SAE 50 oil.
SYNTHETIC OILS
Synthetic oils have multi-viscosity properties due
to their chemical composition and are similar to
automotive grades SAE-5 to SAE-20. They are a
blend of chemical additives and certain diesters,
which are synthesized extracts of mineral, vegetable, and animal oils. Stated in another way, synthetic oils are made by synthesizing raw materials to
form a base stock rather than refining base stock
from crude oil.
Because of their chemical make up, synthetic oils
have an extremely low internal friction. In addition,
they have a high resistance to thermal breakdown
and oxidation. Because of this, synthetic oils are
ideal for use in turbine engines and can typically go
longer between oil changes. In addition, the wear
characteristics of synthetic oil appears to be about
the same as ashless-dispersant oil and superior to
straight mineral oil.
One problem with synthetic oils is that they do not
disperse and suspend contaminants as well as ashless-dispersant oils. Therefore, synthetic oils have a
tendency to cause sludge build-up in reciprocating
engines, especially in engines that are not operated
frequently. Another problem with synthetic oil is
that, in some cases, it can soften rubber products and
resins. In fact, because of this, one manufacturer
requires more frequent replacement of the
inter-cylinder drain lines when synthetic oil is used.
In addition, pleated paper oil filters must be
examined more closely to be sure that the oil does
not dissolve the resins and allow the filter to
collapse.
As a general rule, synthetic oils are not compatible
with, and cannot be mixed with, mineral based oils.
In addition, most manufacturers recommend against

Lubrication Systems

mixing different brands or types of synthetic oils. If

any mixing is allowed, it should follow strict guidelines of same-type and certain compatible brands.
Another negative characteristic of synthetic oil is its
tendency to blister or remove paint wherever it is
spilled. If a spill occurs, wipe it up immediately
with a petroleum solvent. When servicing an engine
filled with synthetic oil, you must avoid excessive
or prolonged exposure to your skin. Synthetic lubricants contain additives which are readily absorbed
through the skin and are considered highly toxic.
Synthetic oils are given a Kinematic Viscosity
Rating in centistokes (cSt))()
rather than an SAE rating. Some synthetic lubricant
container labels are marked with the centistoke
value, or metric viscosity measurement. For
example, a synthetic oil with a 3 centistoke rating
is roughly equivalent to an SAE-5 oil rating. On
the other hand, synthetic oil

9-7

with a 5 centistoke rating has a viscosity approximately equal to an SAE 5W10 multi-viscosity mineral-based oil. Likewise, a 7 centistoke oil has a viscosity approximately equal to an SAE 5W20
multi-viscosity oil rating.

EXTREME PRESSURE LUBRICANTS

Extreme pressure (EP) lubricants, also known as
hypoid lubricants, are specially formulated to provide protection under high loads. A hypoid lubricant contains additives that bond to metal surfaces
to reduce friction under high pressures or high rubbing velocities. A typical hypoid lubricant consists
of a mineral-based oil containing loosely held molecules of sulfur or chlorine. A propeller reduction
case is one example where a hypoid lubricant is
needed. The spur-type gears in propeller reduction
cases operate under high tooth pressures and often
require EP lubricants to prevent gear failure.

RECIPROCATING ENGINES
SPRAY LUBRICATION

OIL DISTRIBUTION
As discussed in the previous section, the primary
purpose of a lubrication system is to lubricate the
internal engine components. To do this, lubricating
oil must be distributed throughout an engine.
Common ways of distributing oil include using
pressure, splash, and spray lubrication techniques.

Some large reciprocating engines are physically too

big for splash lubrication to be effective. In this case,
some form of spray lubrication is typically used.
Spray lubrication uses the same pressurized oil in a
pressure lubrication system; however, instead of
routing the oil to a component through an oil passage, the oil is sprayed on to a component through a
nozzle. Engine components that are lubricated by
sprayed engine oil include some cylinder walls and
camshaft lobes.

COMBINATION SYSTEM
PRESSURE LUBRICATION
Pressure lubrication is the primary type of lubrication used in reciprocating engines. All pressure
lubrication systems rely on a pump to supply pressurized oil to critical engine parts. In most cases, the
pump used in a pressure system is a positive displacement, engine driven pump. The term positive
displacement indicates that the pump moves a specific amount of fluid for each revolution of the
pump. Once oil passes through an oil pump, it
passes through several passages within the
crankcase where it is distributed to various engine
components. Typical components within an engine
that are lubricated by pressurized oil include all
plain bearings, crankshaft and camshaft main bearings, lower connecting rod bearings, and valve
assemblies.

SPLASH LUBRICATION
In addition to pressure lubrication, many reciprocating engines depend on some splash lubrication.
Splash lubrication is produced by the movement of
internal components which splash oil around. This
method of lubrication is very effective in engines
where oil is stored in the crankcase. In this configuration, as a piston reaches the bottom of a stroke, its
associated crank throw partially submerges in oil
and splashes it onto other components.
Components that are often lubricated by splashed
oil include cylinder walls, camshaft lobes, upper
bearings of connecting rods, piston pins, and accessory gears.

In order to ensure adequate lubrication, all reciprocating engines rely on a combination of pressure
and splash lubrication. However, on larger engines,
adequate oil circulation can only be accomplished
through the use of pressure, splash, and spray lubrication. [Figure 9-4]

SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
Reciprocating engine lubrication systems are generally classified as either a wet-sump or dry-sump system. With a wet-sump system, all the oil is carried
in the engine crankcase, much the way it is in a car.
With this type of system, the oil is picked up by a
pump and distributed throughout the engine. Once
the oil has circulated, it drains down into the sump
where it is picked up and recirculated. Some advantages of wet-sump systems include their relative
simplicity and light weight. However, wet-sump
systems do have some disadvantages in that their oil
capacity is limited by the sump size and it is more
difficult to cool the oil since it is contained within
the engine which is a source of heat. Dry-sump
systems differ from wet-sump systems in that the oil
is stored in a separate oil tank. This typically allows
a larger quantity of oil to be carried. This makes
dry-sump systems well suited to large radial
engines. In this type of system, an oil pump

9-9

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-4. As you can see in the diagram above, a combination of lubrication methods are used in a typical wet-sump system.

pulls the oil from the oil tank and circulates it

throughout the engine. Once circulated, the oil
accumulates in the bottom of the crankcase where a
scavenge pump picks up the oil and pumps it back
to the tank. If the oil tank is installed so that it is
higher than the engine oil inlet, check valves must
be installed to prevent oil from draining back into
the engine crankcase.

LUBRICATING SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
A typical pressure lubrication system consists of an
oil reservoir, oil pump, oil pressure relief valve, oil
filter, oil cooler, vent lines, and all the necessary
piping and connections. In addition, on engines
that incorporate a dry-sump
system,
a
scavenge

9-70

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-5. This figure illustrates the relationship of the various components in a typical horizontally opposed aircraft engine with a
dry-sump lubrication system.

pump is required to move the oil back to the oil

reservoir. To allow an operator to monitor the operation of a given lubrication system, most systems
also include an oil temperature and oil pressure
gauge. [Figure 9-5]
OIL RESERVOIR

maximum acceptable oil consumption rate plus a

margin to ensure adequate circulation, lubrication,
and cooling. In the absence of a valid determination
of aircraft range, several ratios of fuel-to-oil quantity
may be used, for example, an aircraft without an oil
reserve or transfer system must have a fuel-to-oil
ratio of at least 30:1. However, if an aircraft has a
transfer system, the ratio is reduced to 40:1.

An oil reservoir must be large enough to hold an

adequate supply of oil to lubricate an engine. The
amount of oil that is considered adequate is based
on the maximum endurance of the airplane and the

As discussed earlier, the oil reservoir on a wet-sump

engine is part of the engine crankcase. Therefore, a
wet-sump oil reservoir is typically constructed of

Lubrication Systems

9-11

basically a drain that is built into the filler cap well

that catches overflow oil and drains it overboard
when servicing the tank.
Most aircraft oil systems are equipped with a dipstick-type quantity gauge, sometimes referred to as a
bayonet gauge. However, some large aircraft may be
equipped with an oil quantity indicating system
that shows the quantity of oil during flight. One
such system consists of a float mechanism that rides
on the surface of the oil and actuates an electric
transmitter on top of the tank. The transmitter sends
a signal to a cockpit gauge, which indicates oil
quantity in gallons.
To prevent pressure buildup and ensure proper ventilation in all flight attitudes, an oil reservoir must
be vented to the atmosphere. With a wet-sump system, the vent consists of a crankcase breather.
However, on a dry-sump system, a vent line is typically run from the reservoir to the engine crankcase
to prevent oil loss through the vent. This way, the
vent line indirectly vents the reservoir to the atmosphere through the crankcase breather.

Figure 9-6. The hopper in an oil reservoir separates circulating oil from the surrounding oil in the tank. This cuts down
on the amount of oil that is circulated and hastens the
engine's warm-up time.

cast aluminum alloy. On the other hand, oil reservoirs used in dry-sump systems are typically constructed of an aluminum alloy. In addition, the
reservoir in a dry-sump system is typically placed
close enough to the engine and high enough above
the oil pump inlet to ensure reliable gravity feed.
According to FAR Part 23, all oil reservoirs must
have an expansion space at least 10 percent greater
than the tank capacity, or 0.5 gallon, whichever is
greater. The expansion space provides sufficient
room for oil to expand as it heats and allows room
for the collection of foam. Another FAR requirement
is that all oil filler caps or covers must be marked
with the word "OIL" and the permissible oil designations, or reference to the Airplane Flight Manual
for permissible oil designations. As an added feature, the oil reservoirs installed in some dry-sump
systems include a scupper drain. A scupper drain is

Some oil reservoirs, primarily those used with large

radial engines, have a built-in hopper, or temperature accelerating well. The purpose of a hopper is
to partially isolate a portion of the oil within the
reservoir during start-up. By doing this, a smaller
portion of the oil is circulated through the engine
during start-up allowing the engine to warm up
faster. A typical hopper extends from the oil return
fitting on top of the oil reservoir to the outlet fitting
in the bottom of the reservoir. To allow oil into the
hopper from the main oil supply, the hopper tank is
open at the lower end in some systems. However, in
other systems, a series of flapper-type valves are
used that allow oil into the hopper as oil is consumed. [Figure 9-6]
The oil within an oil reservoir in a wet-sump system
is typically drawn up to an oil pump through a pipe
that sticks down into the reservoir. However, in
many dry-sump systems, an oil outlet is typically
located at the lowest point of the reservoir. An
exception to this is aircraft that are equipped with
Hamilton-Standard Hydromatic feathering propellers. In this case, the oil reservoir feeds the pressure pump through a standpipe which extends into
the oil tank while the supply line for propeller
feathering is installed at the bottom of the reservoir.
This arrangement ensures that enough oil will
remain in the reservoir to feather the propeller if an

9-72

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-8. With a gear-type oil pump, two spur gears rotate
inside a housing to pump oil to an engine.

GEROTORPUMP

Figure 9-7. The oil reservoir used with a Hamilton-Standard

Hydromatic feathering propeller utilizes two oil outlets.
Engine oil is supplied through a standpipe while propeller
leathering oil is drawn from the bottom of the tank. This
way, there is always a reserve of oil available for propeller
feathering.
,,
.

oil line breaks and all of the engine oil is pumped

overboard. [Figure 9-7]
OIL PUMPS
As mentioned earlier, all lubrication systems utilize
constant displacement pumps. If you recall, a constant displacement pump moves a fixed volume of
fluid per pump revolution. The two types of constant displacement pumps that are used in reciprocating engine lubrication systems include the gear
and gerotor pump.

Another type of constant-displacement pump used

to move oil through an engine is the gerotor-type
pump. A typical gerotor-type pump consists of an
engine driven spur gear that rotates within a free
spinning rotor housing. The rotor and drive gear
ride inside a housing that has two oblong openings.
One opening is the oil inlet while the other is the oil
outlet. [Figure 9-9]
SCAVENGE PUMP
In addition to a pressure pump, most dry-sump systems must utilize a scavenge pump to return oil to
the oil reservoir. A scavenge pump may be either a
gear- or gerotor-type pump that is driven by the
engine. As a rule, scavenge pumps have a capacity
that is greater than the pressure pump. The reason
for this is that, after oil flows through an engine it
typically has a greater volume due to foaming and
thermal expansion. Therefore, in order to ensure
that oil does not collect in the engine sump, the
scavenge pump must be capable of pumping a
greater volume of oil than the pressure pump.

GEAR PUMP

The gear-type oil pump is the most common type of

oil pump used in reciprocating engines. A typical
gear-type pump consists of two meshed gears that
rotate inside a housing. The gears and housing are
precisely machined to keep clearances between
them as small as possible. Oil is picked up by the
gears at the pump inlet and then becomes trapped
between the teeth and the housing. As the gears
rotate, the trapped oil is released at the pump outlet.
[Figure 9-8]

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

In order to ensure adequate engine lubrication, an
appropriate oil pressure must be maintained at all
times. Therefore, in order for an engine driven oil
pump to maintain system pressure at low engine
speeds, it must produce excessive pressure at high
engine speeds. To prevent excessive pressure from
damaging an engine, a pressure relief valve must be
installed in the oil system. A typical pressure relief
valve consists of a spring loaded valve that is held

Lubrication Systems

9-13

Figure 9-9. As a gerotor-type pump rotates, the space between the drive gear teeth and rotor housing alternately increase then
decrease. As the space between the two increases at the oil inlet (A, B, and C), oil is drawn into the pump. However, as the space
closes up at the outlet (D and E), oil is forced out of the pump.

in the closed position. With this type of valve, when

oil pressure rises above a preset value, the valve off
seats and returns excess oil to the reservoir or oil
pump inlet. In a typical system, the relief valve is
installed between the main supply pump and the
internal oil system. [Figure 9-10]
Relief valves are typically set at a pressure that is
lower than the output pressure of the pressure
pump. Therefore, a small amount of oil constantly
flows through the relief valve at cruise rpm. The
exact amount of oil that is bypassed depends, in
part, on the clearances between an engine's moving

Figure 9-10. On all pressure lubrication systems, a pressure relief valve is needed to maintain the proper system
pressure.

parts. For example, as the clearances between

engine parts increase through normal wear, the
pump continues to supply a constant volume of oil
but the relief valve bypasses less oil back to the
sump.
Most relief valves can be adjusted by turning a screw
that increases or decreases spring pressure. The
greater the spring pressure, the higher the resulting
oil pressure. On some simple relief valves, spring
tension is adjusted by either changing the spring or
inserting one or more washers behind the spring.
However, it is important to note that, if an oil pressure reading is low, you should not immediately
increase the spring tension on the relief valve.
Instead, it is best to determine why the pressure is
low in the first place. For example, if too light an oil
is used or if a piece of foreign material gets stuck
between the relief valve and its seat, the oil pressure
will indicate lower then normal. If this is the case,
the reason for the low pressure reading should be
corrected instead of making adjustments to the relief
valve.
To help ensure adequate circulation during start up
when the oil is cold, some engines utilize a compensated oil pressure relief valve. A compensated oil

9-74

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-11. In a compensated oil pressure relief valve, when the oil is cold, a high- and low-pressure spring hold the relief valve
closed to maintain an elevated system pressure. However, once the oil has warmed, the thermostatic valve allows pressurized oil
to enter the relief valve and remove the high-pressure spring pressure from the relief valve.

pressure relief valve maintains a higher system

pressure when the oil is cold then, once the oil
warms up, it automatically lowers pressure to the
normal operating range. This is accomplished
through the use of two springs and a thermostatic
valve. When the oil is cold, both springs hold the
valve on its seat which, in turn, permits a higher
oil pressure. However, once the oil warms up, the
thermostatic valve opens a passage and allows oil
to flow beneath a piston in the pressure relief
valve. As the piston is forced upward, it removes
the spring pressure exerted by the high-pressure
spring. Normal operating pressure is then maintained by the force of the low-pressure spring
alone. [Figure 9-11]
OIL FILTERS

Once oil is discharged from an oil pressure pump, it

flows to an oil filter. The purpose of the filter is to

remove solid particles that are suspended in the oil.

This filtration is required to protect the engine's
moving parts from solid contaminants.
At the present time, the two types of filtration systems that may be installed in aircraft engines are the
full-flow system and the bypass system. In a
full-flow filter system, all of the engine oil
passes through a filter each time it circulates
through an engine. To accomplish this, the filter is
installed in series with the oil pump between the
pump and the engine bearings. [Figure 9-12]
Although not as common, some older engines may
still use a bypass filtration system. With a bypass, or
partial flow system, the filter is installed in parallel
with the engine bearings. In this type of system, only
about 10 percent of the oil is filtered each time the
oil circulates through the system. Howevei, over

Lubrication Systems

9-15

incorporate filter elements that are designed to collapse if pressure become excessive.
FILTER ELEMENTS

There are several different types of filters used in

aircraft engines. However, there are only four methods of filtration that are approved for aviation use.
The approved filtration methods include depth filtration, semi-depth filtration, surface filtration, and
edge filtration.
Depth Filtration

Figure 9-12. In a full-flow filtration system, all of the engine

oil is filtered each time it circulates in an engine.

time, the entire oil supply will pass through the filter. [Figure 9-13]
FAR requirements dictate that all oil filters be constructed and installed in a way that permits full oil
flow even if the filter becomes completely blocked.
On a bypass oil filter system this is not a big deal
since most of the oil bypasses the filter anyway.
However, on a full-flow filter system some means of
bypassing the filter must be provided. One way to
meet this requirement is to incorporate an oil bypass
valve that automatically lets oil bypass the filter
entirely once it becomes plugged. Another way this
is accomplished is to use a filter that is constructed
with a spring loaded bypass valve inside the filter, or

Figure 9-13. With a bypass filtration system, only about 10

percent of the oil passes through the filter each time the oil
circulates through the engine. This type of system is primarily installed on older engines.

Depth filters consist of a matrix of fibers that are

closely packed to a depth of about one inch. Oil
flows through this mat and contaminants are
trapped in the fibers. Depth-type filters are very
effective because the large number of filters used
have the capacity to trap a large quantity of contaminants. However, one disadvantage of depth filters is
that high pressure oil may occasionally form a channel through the filter element. If this ever occurs,
the filter will lose a great deal of its effectiveness.
[Figure 9-14]
Semi-Depth Filtration

The type of filter used most often in today's general

aviation aircraft is a disposable, semi-depth filter
made of resin-impregnated fibers. These fibers are
formed into a long sheet, folded into pleats, and
assembled around a perforated sheet steel core. The
pleats increase the surface area of the filter element
and allow greater filtering capacity in a smaller unit.
Furthermore, the uniformity of the filter surface
greatly reduces the ability of the oil to form a channel through the
element.
The filter
element is

Figure 9-14. A depth filter consists of a closely-packed fiber

matrix-type element.

3-76

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-15. A typical spin-on type semi-depth filter consists

of a pleated sheet of resin impregnated fibers that are
assembled around a perforated sheet steel core. The entire
element is contained in a thin metal housing.

mounted in a cylindrical steel casing which forms

an integral part of the filter. A typical semi-depth filter mounts to the engine with a threaded fitting and,
therefore, is often referred to as a spin-on filter.
[Figure 9-15]
On some engines, the semi-depth filter element is
installed in a removable can. In this case, the disposable center element is removed and replaced as needed
while the can is used indefinitely. [Figure 9-16]

Figure 9-16. On some engines, the filter housing is reused

indefinitely while a disposable filter element is replaced as
necessary.

Surface Filtration

Several aircraft engines are equipped with a standard woven wire-mesh oil screen, or strainer. This
screen filter is useful for trapping some of the larger
contaminants that flow through the engine; however, it does little to catch the small contaminants.
Because of this, some engines that use an oil screen
also rely on a second, fine filter to catch any remaining contaminants. Decreasing the size of the wire
mesh for better filtration is not a reasonable option
because cleaning would be required too often to be
practical. [Figure 9-17]

Figure 9-17. Many aircraft engines are provided with a

screen-type surface filtration oil strainer. An oil strainer fil
ters out large particles and helps prevent other filtering ele
ments from becoming clogged.
:

Lubrication Systems

Edge Filtration

Edge filters may be either the spiral-wound or Cuno

type. A spiral-wound element consists of a long
strip of wedge-shaped metal that is wound into a
tight spiral. Ridges along the entire length of the
strip separate the turns of the spiral a uniform
amount. With this type of filter, the size of the particles filtered out of the oil depends on the thickness
of the ridges. The thick side of the wedge is on the
outside circumference of the spiral and contaminants collect on this edge as oil flows from the outside of the element to the inside. [Figure 9-18]
The Cuno filter consists of a large number of thin
metal disks that are stacked on a center shaft. Thin
spacers, which are attached to the filter housing,
separate the disks so oil can pass between the disks.
As with the spiral-wound edge filter, oil flows from
the outside of the filter to the inside, leaving contaminants on the outside edge. The spacer thickness
determines the size of the particle contaminants
which are filtered out of the oil. Periodically, contaminants must be scraped from the outside edge of
the disks. To do this, a handle is attached to the center shaft and used to rotate the disks. Since the spacers are fixed rigidly to the filter housing, they
remain stationary and act as scrapers. Contaminants
scraped from the disks accumulate in the bottom of
the filter housing and are cleaned out during maintenance inspections. Cuno filters were commonly
used on many large radial reciprocating engines but
are seldom found on operational aircraft today.

Figure 9-18. With a spiral-wound edge filter, a long piece of

wedge-shaped metal is wound into a spiral. To permit oil
to pass through the spiral, spacers are installed on every
turn of the element. In this configuration, contaminants
collect on the outside of the spiral as oil passes through
the element.

9-17

OIL COOLER
If you recall, one of the functions of oil is to cool the
engine; however, to do this, the heat absorbed by the
oil must be removed. In most cases, excess heat is
removed by an oil cooler, or oil temperature regulator. An oil cooler is an oil-to-air heat exchanger.
When installed in a dry-sump system, the oil cooler
is typically located between the scavenge pump outlet and storage reservoir. However, in a wet-sump
system, the oil cooler may be located wherever the
manufacturer deems it appropriate.
One type of oil cooler consists of a core with several
copper or aluminum tubes enclosed in a
double-walled annular shell, or bypass jacket.
When the oil is cold, it flows through the bypass
jacket and bypasses the core. However, once the oil
heats up, it is routed through the core for cooling.
The exact amount of oil that flows through the core
is controlled by a thermostatic control valve, also
referred to as a bypass valve or a flow control valve.
When the oil is cold, the bypass valve is fully open
and oil flows through the bypass jacket. However, as
the oil warms up, the bypass valve slowly closes
thereby forcing oil through the cooler core. [Figure
9-19]

Figure 9-19. (A) When the engine oil is cold, the bypass
valve opens and allows the oil to bypass the oil cooler core.
(B) However, once the oil warms up, the bypass valve
closes which, in turn, forces the oil to pass through the core
where it transfers its heat to the passing airstream.

9-18

Lubrication Systems

In the example just discussed, the bypass valve is

part of the oil cooler. This is typical of oil coolers
installed on radial engines. However, on horizontally opposed engines, the cooler and bypass valve
are typically two separate units that are installed in
parallel with each other. This eliminates the need
for a bypass jacket around the oil cooler. With this
type of system, when the oil is cold, it remains in
the engine's lubrication passages and bypasses the
cooler completely. On the other hand, once the oil
heats up, the bypass valve forces some of the oil to
flow through the cooler.
It is important to note that, if the bypass valve fails
in either the open or closed position, oil will continue to circulate in the engine. However, if the oil
cooler passages become partially clogged, oil flow
could be reduced. For example, if an oil cooler passage becomes partially clogged, less oil will flow
through the core and oil temperatures will rise.
However, as the oil temperature rises, the bypass
valve closes even further to direct more oil through
the partially restricted core. This, in turn, can limit
the amount of oil that circulates through the engine.
SURGE PROTECTION VALVE

When cold oil becomes congealed in a dry-sump

system, the scavenge pump can build up a very high
pressure in the oil return line. To prevent this high
pressure from damaging the oil cooler or hose connections, some oil coolers incorporate a surge protection valve. A typical surge protection valve is
installed at the oil cooler inlet and is normally held
in the closed position by spring pressure. However,
if the oil within the cooler is severely congealed, oil
pressure will build at the cooler inlet and overcome
the spring pressure acting on the surge valve. Once
the surge valve is forced open, oil bypasses the oil
cooler completely and continues circulating in the
engine. [Figure 9-20]

Figure 9-20. If the oil within an oil cooler becomes congealed and excessive oil pressure builds at the oil cooler
inlet, the surge valve will open and allow the oil to bypass
the oil cooler.

requirements. For example, the engine oil will reach

its operating temperature more quickly if airflow to
the oil cooler is cut off during engine warm-up.
Airflow control to a radial engine oil cooler can be
accomplished through the use of shutters installed
on the rear of an oil cooler, or by a controllable flap
on the air-exit duct.
An oil cooler air exit may be opened and closed
manually by a control in the cockpit or automatically. To provide automatic control, a floating control thermostat that operates an electrical actuator is
typically used. With this type of system, a thermostat inserted in the oil line leading from the cooler
to the oil supply reservoir senses the oil temperature and sends electrical impulses that automatically control the actuator.

As the congealed oil in the engine and oil cooler

heats up, the oil pressure will decrease enough to
allow the surge valve to seat. This, in turn, will
allow oil to flow through the bypass jacket of the oil
cooler. As the engine reaches its operating temperature, the bypass valve closes and oil begins to flow
through the oil cooler core.

On horizontally opposed engines, the oil cooler

bypass valve is generally sufficient to control oil
temperatures. However, in instances where an aircraft flies in extremely cold climates, an airflow
restrictor may be installed to limit the amount of airflow into an oil cooler. In this case, the airflow
restrictor typically consists of a metal plate that is
either installed directly over the face of an oil cooler
or in front of a blast tube hole in the rear engine baffling.

AIRFLOW CONTROLS

OIL SEPARATOR

By regulating airflow through the oil cooler, oil temperature can be controlled to meet various operating

On engines that use a wet-type vacuum

pump, engine oil is used to lubricate and seal the
vacuum

Lubrication Systems

pump. However, as oil circulates through this type

of pump, air bubbles become trapped in the oil. To
eliminate this trapped air, an oil separator is
installed on the outlet side of the vacuum pump. A
typical oil separator consists of several baffle plates
which cause the vacuum pump outlet air to swirl.
As the air swirls, centrifugal force pulls the oil out
of the air and deposits it on the baffle plates. From
the baffles, the oil drains back to the engine through
an oil outlet in the separator. By separating the air
and oil, two things are accomplished. First, oil is
prevented from flowing into the air system and
damaging any rubber components such as de-icing
boots; and second, excess air is not introduced into
the oil system.
OIL DILUTION
On some large reciprocating engines that are operated in extremely cold temperatures, an oil dilution
system may be installed. The purpose of such a system is to dilute the oil with fuel within the engine
to help prevent the oil from congealing when it is
cold. With a typical oil dilution system, fuel is
injected into the oil pump before the engine is shut
down. This distributes diluted oil throughout the
lubrication system. This way, when the engine is
started later, the diluted oil flows freely through the
engine, ensuring adequate lubrication. Once the
engine and oil warm up, the gasoline evaporates out
of the oil and leaves the engine through the
crankcase breather.
A typical oil dilution system consists of an oil dilution solenoid that is controlled from the cockpit, an
oil dilution valve, and the necessary plumbing. As a
general rule, the fuel line that injects fuel into the
oil is never installed between the pressure pump
and engine pressure system. The reason for this is
that pressurized oil could flow into the fuel supply
and contaminate the fuel.
On aircraft with an oil dilution system, engine oil
pressure is an indirect indication of how the system
is operating. For example, when starting an engine
that has diluted oil, the oil pressure will be lower
than normal. By the same token, if too much fuel is
introduced into the oil or if the oil dilution valve is
leaking, the oil pressure will be excessively low
while oil temperature will be high.
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE
The engine lubrication system supplies oil under
pressure to the moving parts of the engine. To allow

9-19

a pilot to monitor the effectiveness of a given lubrication system, all aircraft engines are equipped with
an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in pounds
per square inch. Since inadequate oil pressure can
lead to oil starvation in engine bearings and excessive pressure can rupture gaskets and seals, the oil
pressure in most reciprocating engines is typically
regulated over a fairly narrow operating range.
Many oil pressure gauges utilize a Bourdon tube,
because its design enables the gauge to measure relatively high fluid pressures. The gauge is connected
by a metal tube directly to a point immediately
downstream from the engine oil pump. Therefore,
an oil pressure gauge measures the oil pressure
being delivered to the engine. To protect the gauge
from occasional pressure surges, most gauges have a
small restriction at their inlet. In addition, most fittings that attach the oil line to the engine also have
a small restriction to limit oil lost in the event the
oil line breaks.
One disadvantage of this type of oil pressure indicating system is that it does not work well in cold
weather because the oil in the line between the
engine and cockpit gauge tends to congeal. The congealed oil then causes false readings of either low or
no oil pressure. This error can be minimized by filling the oil line with a very light oil.
The trend in larger more modern aircraft is to
replace Bourdon tube pressure instruments with
electrical transmitters. This allows long oil filled
lines between engines and instruments to be
replaced with lightweight wire. In addition to saving weight, electrical transmitters also provide
greater accuracy. With a typical electric transmitter, pressurized oil enters the inlet port of a transmitter and is then routed to a diaphragm assembly.
As oil pressure increases or decreases, the
diaphragm expands and contracts appropriately.
The motion produced by the diaphragm's movement is amplified through a lever and gear arrangement that varies the electrical value of an indicating circuit by positioning a potentiometer. The
position of the potentiometer is then reflected on
the cockpit indicator.
Oil pressure instrument readings are a critical indicator of engine operation and should be monitored frequently, especially during engine starts. For example,
some aircraft manuals caution you to shut down an
engine after 30 seconds in warm weather or one
minute in extremely cold weather if no sign of oil
pressure is present. Engine shutdown in this case is a

9-20
precaution taken to prevent possible damage to an
engine until the reason for lack of oil pressure can be
determined. On the other hand, excessive pointer
oscillation typically indicates that air is trapped in the
oil line leading to the instrument or that some unit in
the oil system is functioning improperly, hi addition,
low oil pressure or fluctuations from zero to normal
are often signs of low oil quantity.
OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE
The oil temperature gauge allows you to monitor the
temperature of the oil entering the engine. This is
important because oil circulation cools the engine
as it lubricates the moving parts. Most oil temperature gauges are calibrated in degrees Fahrenheit and
sense oil temperature at the engine's oil inlet.
Most modern oil temperature systems are electrically operated and use either a Wheatstone bridge
circuit or a ratiometer circuit. A Wheatstone bridge
circuit consists of three fixed resistors and one variable resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. [Figure 9-21]
When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and all four resistances are equal, no difference
in potential exists between the bridge junctions.
However, when the variable resistor is exposed to
heat, its resistance increases, causing more current
to flow through the fixed resistor R3 than the variable resistor. The disproportionate current flow produces a voltage differential between the bridge junctions, causing current to flow through the galvanometer indicator. The greater the voltage differ-

Figure 9-21. A typical Wheatstone bridge has three fixed

resistors and one variable resistor. The temperature probe
contains the variable resistor, whose resistance varies with
the temperature of the oil flowing past the probe. The
bridge in the circuit consists of a galvanometer that is calibrated in degrees to indicate temperature.

Lubrication Systems

ential, the greater the current flow through the indicator and the greater the needle deflection. Since
indicator current flow is directly proportional to the
oil temperature, an indicator calibrated in degrees
provides an accurate means of registering oil temperature.
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is
more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge, especially
when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple
ratiometer circuit consists of two parallel branches
powered by the aircraft electrical system. One
branch consists of a fixed resistor and coil, and the
other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil.
The two coils are wound on a rotor that pivots
between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a
meter movement in the gauge. [Figure 9-22]
The shape of the permanent magnet provides a
larger air gap between the magnet and coils at the
bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density,
or magnetic field, is progressively stronger from the
bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow
through each coil creates an electromagnet that
reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet,
creating torque that repositions the rotor until the
magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of
the temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal,
current flow through each coil is the same and the
indicator pointer remains in the center position.
However, if the probe temperature increases, its
resistance also increases, causing a decrease in current through the temperature sensing branch.
Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the temperature
sensing
branch
decreases,
creating an

Figure 9-22. A ratiometer temperature measuring system

operates with two circuit branches that balance electromagnetic forces. One branch contains a coil and fixed resistor while the other contains a coil and variable resistor,
located in the temperature sensing probe. The coils are
wound on a rotor which pivots in the center of a permanent
magnet air gap.

Lubrication Systems

imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each

coil reaches a null, or balance. The pointer attached
to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature.
Ratiorneter temperature measuring systems are
especially useful in applications where accuracy is
critical or large variations of supply voltages are
encountered. Therefore, a ratiometer circuit type oil
temperature sensing system is generally preferred
over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and
engine manufacturers.
Some older oil temperature gauges used a vapor
pressure, or Bourdon tube type instrument. With
this type of instrument, a Bourdon tube is connected
by a capillary tube to a liquid filled temperature
sensing bulb. The bulb is installed in the engine's oil
inlet line where the volatile liquid in the bulb is

9-21

heated by the oil. As the liquid in the sensing bulb

heats up, the capillary and Bourdon tubes also heat
up. This causes the vapor pressure within the capillary and Bourdon tubes to increase, which, in turn,
causes the Bourdon tube to straighten. The motion of
the Bourdon tube is then transmitted to an indicator
through a mechanical linkage.

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
The maintenance practices discussed in this section
are typical of those used on a horizontally opposed
aircraft engine. However, the maintenance procedures discussed here are by no means all inclusive.
Therefore, before conducting any maintenance on
an aircraft's lubrication system you should consult
the appropriate manufacturer's maintenance manuals and service bulletins. [Figure 9-23]

Figure 9-23. This figure illustrates the location of typical service items on a dry-sump system installed on a horizontally opposed
engine.

9-22

Lubrication Systems

OIL CHANGE AND SERVICING

In routine service, oil is constantly exposed to
many substances that reduce its ability to protect
moving parts. The primary source of oil contamination in a reciprocating engine is combustion byproducts that escape past the piston rings and oil
carbonizing that occurs when oil becomes trapped
in the pores of the cylinder walls and is burned.
Additional contaminants that can become trapped
in lubricating oils include gasoline, moisture,
acids, dirt, carbon, and metal particles. If allowed
to accumulate over a period of time, these contaminants can cause excessive wear on internal engine
components. Certain clues that indicate internal
engine wear include excessive oil consumption
without evidence of any oil leaks. In this case,
excessive oil consumption is typically caused by
oil leaking past worn piston rings and being consumed in the combustion chambers. To prevent this
type of engine damage, the entire lubrication system is drained at regular intervals and refilled with
clean, fresh, oil. The recommended time interval
between oil changes is typically based on the manufacturer's recommendations.
Prior to draining the engine oil, an engine should be
run-up. In addition to warming the engine oil, a
pre-inspection run-up allows you to verify that the
oil temperature and pressure are within acceptable
limits. Furthermore, a run-up agitates the oil supply
so it holds the maximum amount of contaminants
in suspension. This way, when the oil is drained,
most of the contaminants will drain out of the
engine with the oil.
Whenever possible, you should drain the engine oil
into a clean container and place a large metal drip
pan under the engine to catch any spills.
Horizontally opposed wet-sump engines typically
have oil drains located at the lowest point of the
engine case. In many cases, the only way to gain
access to an oil drain is to remove the lower cowling. However, with the large variety of
aircraft-engine combinations, it is always best to
consult the applicable aircraft maintenance manual
for details. [Figure 9-24]
Before opening an oil drain, check the maintenance
manual for instructions regarding aircraft position.
This step is important because the normal ground
attitude of some aircraft may prevent the tank from
draining completely. On engines that use a
dry-sump engine, if it is not possible to position the
aircraft as recommended and the amount of
undrained oil is excessive, the oil reservoir can
usually be suf-

Figure 9-24. Most of the engine oil in a typical horizontally

opposed engine is drained by removing one or more oil
drain plugs or opening a drain valve.

ficiently loosened and tilted to complete the oil

drainage.
The presence of an excessive number of metal particles in the oil itself generally indicates an internal
failure. However, due to the construction of aircraft
oil systems, it is possible for metal particles to collect in the oil system sludge at the time of a previous engine failure. Furthermore, carbon buildup
can break loose from an engine's interior and may be
mistaken for metal particles. In any case, the source
of any foreign particles in an engine's oil must be
identified and corrected before the aircraft is
released for flight.
One way to determine if a particle is metal or carbon
is to place the material on a flat metal object and
strike it with a hammer. If the particle is carbon, it
will disintegrate, however, if it is metal, it will
remain intact or change shape, depending upon its
malleability. If you find some particles that are
metal, use a magnet to determine whether the particles are ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous particles are
typically produced by wearing piston rings,
whereas nonferrous particles are typically produced
by main bearings.
Another way to correctly identify the type and
quantity of foreign particles in an engine's oil is
through regular participation in a spectrometric oil
analysis program, or S.O.A.P., which requires an oil

Lubrication Systems

9-23

Figure 9-25. When replacing a disposable oil filter, it is a good practice to cut the filter open and inspect the filter element for metal
particles. To do this, a special filter cutter is used.

sample to be sent to a laboratory for analysis. When

this done, you are provided with a list of the type of
particles found along with possible sources of the
particles. In addition, if a laboratory observes a sudden increase in the amounts of metal that the test is
designed to detect, they immediately contact the
operator by telephone. When using spectrometric oil
analysis, testing must occur on a regular basis to provide a baseline for comparison so accurate information can be obtained. A closely followed oil analysis
program can detect problems before they become
serious and prevent catastrophic engine failure.
OIL FILTER REPLACEMENT

Oil filter replacement and inspection is normally

accomplished whenever the oil is changed. As discussed earlier, the two most common types of filter
elements used in aircraft engines are disposable
paper elements and a wire-mesh oil screen. When
replacing a disposable filter, it is common practice
to cut open the filter and inspect the element for the
presence of any metal particles which might indicate an impending engine failure. Sealed, spin-on

type filters are opened with a special roller-type can

cutter. The cutter removes the top of the container
without introducing metal particles that could provide false indications of impending engine problems. [Figure 9-25]
When servicing an engine equipped with an oil
screen, the screen must be removed, inspected, and
cleaned. When removing an oil screen, place a suitable container under the screen housing to collect
the oil that will drain from the filter housing or cavity. The container must be clean to avoid contaminating the collected oil. Otherwise, contaminants
already present in the container could falsely indicate imminent engine failure, possibly resulting in a
premature engine removal.
Once an oil screen has been removed, inspect it for
contamination and the presence of metal particles.
Metal particles large enough to be trapped by the
screen could indicate impending internal engine failure. After you have completed your inspection, the
screen must be cleaned with an approved solvent
prior to reinstallation in the engine. [Figure 9-26]

Figure 9-26. Some reciprocating engines employ reusable metal screens to trap sludge and large contaminants. If this is the case,
there is usually a screen installed in the pressure system and the scavenge system.

9-24

Lubrication Systems

Once the screens or filters have been inspected and

the oil has been completely drained, replace the
drain plug or secure the drain valve. On aircraft that
utilize a disposable filter, a new filter must be
installed and secured. On the other hand, on aircraft
that use an oil screen, the screen must be cleaned,
re-installed, and secured. Once all filters and/or
screens are secured, the oil reservoir should be
refilled with the recommended grade of oil.
Once the reservoir is filled, run up the engine long
enough to warm the oil. After engine shutdown,
allow a few minutes for the oil to settle, then check
the oil level. If necessary, add oil to bring the level
up to the prescribed quantity. In addition, inspect
the areas around the oil drain plug, oil filter, and oil
screen fitting for leaks.
OIL RESERVOIR
In some instances, the oil reservoir installed in a
dry-sump system must be removed for cleaning or
repair. To do this, begin by draining all the oil and
disconnecting the oil inlet and vent lines. Once this
is done, remove the scupper drain hose and bonding
wire. Next, remove the safety wire and loosen the
clamps of the securing straps which are fitted
around the tank. While supporting the tank, remove
the securing straps and lift the tank out of the aircraft. The tank is reinstalled by reversing the step
sequence used in the tank removal.
OIL COOLER
Oil coolers are normally removed and cleaned during
an engine overhaul. However, if an oil cooler loses a
portion of its cooling effectiveness, there maybe accumulations of sludge blocking portions of the cooler. If
this is the case, the cooler must be removed and
cleaned. Once the cooler is removed from the engine
and cleaned, visually inspect it for cracks and other
damage. Pay particular attention to all welded or soldered seams since they are subject to damage from
excessive oil pressures. Once cleaning and repairs are
complete, the cooler should be pressure tested as per
the manufacturer's instructions. [Figure 9-27]
RELIEF VALVE ADJUSTMENT
During routine maintenance, you may be required
to adjust the oil pressure relief valve. Oil pressure
specifications typically vary from 35 to 90 psi
depending on the engine model. The oil pressure
must be high enough to ensure adequate lubrication
of the engine and accessories at high speeds and
powers. On the other hand, the pressure must not be
excessive, since leakage and damage to the oil system may result.

Figure 9-27. When inspecting an oil cooler, any sign of oil

leakage may indicate a crack in the cooler's core. If this is
the case, or if an oil cooler loses its effectiveness, the cooler
should be removed, inspected, and pressure tested.

Initial adjustment of an oil pressure relief valve is

made by the overhaul shop on a newly overhauled
engine prior to the initial test run. However, once an
engine is installed on an aircraft and run, the relief
valve pressure setting may require a slight readjustment, hi addition, over time, the spring in a relief valve
may weaken enough to require some adjustment.
To adjust an oil pressure relief valve, remove the
cover nut, loosen the locknut, and turn the adjusting
screw clockwise to increase the pressure, and counterclockwise to decrease the pressure. After each
pressure adjustment, tighten the adjustment screw
locknut and run-up the engine to check the oil pressure while the engine is running at an rpm specified
by the manufacturer. [Figure 9-28]

Figure 9-28. Oil pressure relief valves occasionally require

readjustment. On a typical relief valve, turning the adjusting screw clockwise increases the maximum system pressure while turning the adjusting screw counterclockwise
decreases system pressure.

TURBINE ENGINES
The lubrication system on a turbine engine
supplies oil to moving parts within the engine
which are subjected to friction and heating. In most
cases, pressure lubrication is used to lubricate all
the necessary components within a turbine engine.
The reason for this is that, unlike reciprocating
engines that have several moving parts that
splash oil around the engine, a turbine engine has
one or two rotating shafts that ride on bearings and
an accessory gear box. Another difference is that
turbine engines operate at much higher
temperatures than reciprocating engines; therefore,
the lubrication system must carry a greater amount
of heat away from the components it lubricates. To
do this, oil typically circulates through a turbine
engine at a very high flow rate.
One of the most notable differences between
reciprocating and turbine engine lubrication
systems is that the oil in a turbine engine is
completely sealed from combustion gases. As a
result, very little oil is consumed by the engine.
This allows a turbine engine oil reservoir to be
smaller than that of a comparable size reciprocating
engine. For example, the oil reservoir on a small
turbine engine installed on a business jet typically
holds only three to five quarts of oil. Another
benefit of being sealed from the combustion gases
is that the oil remains cleaner and can generally go
longer between oil changes.

LUBRICATING OILS
The large operating tolerances and high bearing
pressures in reciprocating engines require the use of
a high viscosity oil. Turbine engines, on the other
hand, are built with extremely tight tolerances and
the ball and roller bearings used are subjected to relatively low pressures. Because of this, low viscosity
oils are used in turbine engines.
In addition to having a low viscosity, the oil used in
turbine engines must provide adequate lubrication
over a wide temperature range, typically from -60
to +400. Given these temperature extremes, a conventional mineral-based oil would congeal at the
low temperature extremes and break down at the

upper extremes. In addition, mineral-based oils

tend to leave lacquer and carbon, or coke deposits
when exposed to excessive temperatures. Because
of this, synthetic oils are used almost exclusively in
turbine engines.
In addition to its ability to lubricate over a wide
temperature range, synthetic oils have a low volatility which helps prevent evaporation at high altitudes. In addition, most synthetic oils contain an
anti-foaming additive which helps reduce foaming
and ensures positive lubrication. Additional characteristics possessed by synthetic oils include having
a high viscosity index, high flash point, low pour
point, and excellent cohesion and adhesion properties. Cohesion is a characteristic of oil molecules
that causes them to stick together under compression loads, while adhesion allows oil to adhere to
surfaces under centrifugal loads.
Currently, there are two types of synthetic oils used
in turbine engines: Type I, or MIL-L-7808 and Type
II, or MIL-L-23699. Type I synthetic oil is an alkyl
diester oil with a 3 centistoke rating. This type of
synthetic oil has a very low viscosity and was used
primarily in early turbine engines. On the other
hand, Type II synthetic oil is a polyester lubricant
that has a 5 centistoke rating and is used in most
modern turbine engines.
As discussed in Section A, different types of synthetic oil should not be mixed. In addition, since
some proprietary additives many not mix with others, some manufacturers recommend that different
brands of synthetic oil not be mixed.

SYSTEM CLASSIFICATION
Like reciprocating engines, turbine engines may
have either a wet-sump or dry-sump lubrication system. Currently, wet-sump lubrication systems are
primarily used on some auxiliary power units;
however, they were used extensively on early turbine engines. In a typical wet-sump system, oil is
stored in an engine sump or accessory gearbox.
From here, oil is pressurized and routed through

Lubrication Systems

9-26

Figure 9-29. In this wet-sump lubrication system, pressurized oil flows from the oil pump through several filters before reaching
the main rotor bearings and coupling. Once circulated through the bearings, one or more scavenge pumps return the oil to the
accessory case.

multiple filters before reaching the main rotor bearings and couplings. Once the oil has lubricated the
main bearings, it drains to low lying areas where
scavenge pumps route the oil back to the sump or
gearbox. Since the oil in a wet-sump system is generally stored in the accessory gearbox, the bearings
and drive gears within the accessory gearbox
receive oil through splash lubrication. [Figure 9-29]
Today, the majority of turbine engines utilize a
dry-sump lubrication system consisting of pressure,
scavenge, and breather subsystems. Dry-sump systems differ from wet-sump systems in that the oil is
stored in a separate oil reservoir mounted either
internally within the engine or externally on the
engine or in the aircraft. In this type of system, an
oil pump pulls oil from the oil tank and provides
pressure and spray lubrication throughout the
engine. Once circulated, the oil accumulates in low
lying areas where scavenge pumps pick up the oil
and pump it back to the reservoir.
A typical pressure lubrication system consists of an
oil reservoir, pressure and scavenge pumps, pressure relief valve, several oil filters, oil jets, an oil
cooler, and vent lines. In addition, to allow an operator to monitor the operation of a given lubrication
system, most systems include an oil temperature
and oil pressure gauge.

OIL RESERVOIR
The oil reservoir in a dry-sump system is usually
constructed of sheet aluminum or stainless steel
and is designed to furnish a constant supply of oil
to the engine during all approved flight maneuvers.
As mentioned earlier, in a dry-sump system, the oil
reservoir may be mounted externally or internally.
When mounted externally, the reservoir may be
attached to the engine case or mounted inside the
aircraft structure. On the other hand, when
mounted internally, the oil reservoir is formed by an
internal space, or cavity, within the engine
structure. Common locations for internal oil
reservoirs include cavities between major case
sections and propeller reduction gear boxes.
The oil supply for a wet-sump system is typically
located in the main gearbox at the lowest point
within the engine. This position permits splash
lubrication to be used on accessory gears and
bearings.
To ensure a positive flow of oil to the oil pump inlet,
most oil reservoirs are pressurized. Pressurizing the
reservoir also helps to suppress oil foaming which,
in turn, prevents pump cavitation. In most cases,
pressurization is accomplished by installing an
adjustable relief valve in the oil reservoir, vent line.
This way, reservoir pressure builds until the relief

Lubrication Systems

valve opens to relieve excess pressure. A typical

relief valve is adjusted to maintain a reservoir pressure of approximately three to six psig.
If you recall from the previous section, FAR Part 23
requires that all oil reservoirs have an expansion
space of at least 10 percent of the tank capacity, or
0.5 gallon, whichever is greater. The expansion
space provides sufficient room for oil to expand as
it heats and allows room for the collection of foam.
In addition, all oil filler caps or covers must be
marked with the word "OIL" and the permissible oil
designations. As an added feature, most of the oil
reservoirs installed in some dry-sump systems
include a scupper drain.

9-27

layer, entrapped air separates from the oil. In oil

reservoirs that are equipped with a dwell chamber,
the oil/air mixture enters the dwell chamber at the
bottom of the oil tank. Scavenge pump pressure
then forces the oil upward through the dwell chamber and spreads it into a thin film facilitating the
release of entrained air. [Figure 9-30]
The most common method of checking the oil level
in the tank is with a dipstick. In lieu of a dipstick,
some oil tanks incorporate a sight gauge to satisfy
the FAR requirements for a visual means of checking oil level. However, these glass indicators tend to
cloud over after prolonged use and, therefore, many
operators rely on the dipstick method. [Figure 9-31]

As lubricating oil is agitated by an engine's moving

parts, air typically becomes entrained in the oil. To
remedy this problem, many oil tanks contain a some
form of deaerator, or air-oil separator. In some

engines, a separator may be installed in the

accessory gearbox while other systems rely on a
separator in the oil reservoir. One type of deaerator
that may be installed in an oil reservoir swirls the
air/oil mixture allowing centrifugal force to pull the
oil from the air. Once separated, the oil drains into
the reservoir while the air is vented overboard.
Another type of deaerator consists of a tray in the
top of the reservoir that the oil spreads out on
when it is returned to the reservoir. As the oil
spreads out into a thin

Figure 9-30. In oil reservoirs that are equipped with a dwell

chamber, oil enters the bottom of the oil tank and passes
through a dwell chamber. As this happens, the oil is spread
into a thin film to facilitate the release of entrained air.

Figure 9-31. (A) Many turbine engines utilize a conventional dipstick such as this to indicate the oil level in the
main tank. (B) Some tanks are equipped with a sight
gauge on the side of the oil tank to provide a visual means
of checking oil level.

9-28
OIL PUMPS
Like reciprocating engines, all turbine engine
pressure lubrication systems utilize a constant
displacement pump. If you recall, a constant
displacement pump moves a fixed volume of fluid
per revolution. The three types of constant
displacement pumps that are used in turbine
engines include the gear, vane, and gerotor.

L ubrication Systems

vanes decreases. This pressurizes the oil so that

when the vanes reach the pump outlet, the oil is
forced out of the pump. Of the pumps used in an oil
system, the vane pump is considered to be more
tolerant of debris. This makes the sliding vane
pumps ideal for use in a scavenge system. [Figure
9-32]
GEROTOR PUMP

GEAR PUMP

The gear-type pump is the most common type of oil

pump used in turbine engines. A typical gear-type
pump consists of two meshed gears that rotate
inside a housing. The gears and housing are
precisely machined to keep clearances between
them as small as possible. Oil is picked up by the
gears at the pump inlet and then becomes trapped
between the teeth and the housing. As the gears
rotate, the trapped oil is released at the pump
outlet.
VANE PUMP

A vane-type pump consists of a housing that contains a steel sleeve with an off-center bore, four
vanes, a hollow steel rotor, and a coupling that turns
the rotor. In this type of pump, the rotor turns on its
center axis while the vanes are free to slide in and
out of the rotor. As each pair of vanes passes the
pump inlet, the space between the vanes increases
and oil floods between the vanes. However, as the
vanes rotate toward the outlet, the space between the

Another type of constant-displacement pump used

to move oil through a turbine engine is the
gerotor-type pump. As discussed in the previous
section, a typical gerotor-type pump consists of an
engine-driven spur gear that rotates within a free
spinning rotor housing. The rotor and drive gear
ride inside a housing that has two oblong openings.
One opening is the oil inlet while the other is the
oil outlet.
SCAVENGE PUMP
In addition to a pressure pump, almost all turbine
engine lubrication systems must utilize a scavenge
pump to return oil to the oil reservoir. A scavenge
pump may be a gear- vane-, or gerotor-type pump
that is driven by the engine. As a rule, scavenge
pumps have a capacity that is greater than a pressure
pump. The reason for this is that after oil flows
through an engine it typically has a greater volume
due to foaming and thermal expansion. Therefore, to
ensure that oil does not collect in the engine sump,
the scavenge pump must be capable of pumping a
greater volume of oil than the pressure pump. One
unique feature of many turbine engine oil pumps is
that the pressure pump and scavenge pump are often
enclosed in a single housing. [Figure 9-33]
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
Some turbine engine lubrication systems rely on a
pressure relief valve to regulate the oil pressure
within the system. On the other hand, some systems
do not use a pressure relief valve and allow full
pump pressure to circulate within the system.
Lubrication systems that have a relief valve are
often referred to as pressure relief valve systems,
while systems that do not incorporate a relief valve
are called full-flow systems.
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM

Figure 9-32. In a vane-type pump, a set of vanes slide in and

out of the rotor as it rotates in the pump housing. Since the
rotor is offset in the housing, the volume between each set of
vanes alternatly increases and decreases allowing the pump
to pull fluid in one side and force it out the other.

In a pressure relief valve system, oil flow to the

bearing chambers is regulated by a spring-loaded
relief valve that is held in the closed position. With
this type of valve, when the oil pressure rises above
a preset value, the valve off seats and returns excess

Lubrication Systems

9-29

Figure 9-33. To help eliminate the added size and weight of a separate scavenge pump, many turbine engines utilize a single pump
unit that houses both the pressure and scavenge pumps.

oil to the reservoir or oil pump inlet. The pressure

required to open the valve typically corresponds to
the oil pump's output capability when the engine is
running at idle speed. This guarantees adequate oil
pressure throughout the engine's operating range.

bearings is directly related to how fast the engine

and oil pump are run. In this case, the size of the oil
pump is determined by the oil flow required at the
engine's maximum operating speed.

In a turbine engine, the pressure within the bearing

chambers increases dramatically with increases in
engine speed. As the pressure within the bearing
chambers increases, the pressure differential
between the bearing chambers and the lubrication
system decreases. Therefore, as the pressure within
the bearing chambers increases, less oil flows to the
bearings. To prevent this from happening, some of
the pressurized air within the bearing chambers is
typically routed to the back side of the pressure
relief valve to augment the spring pressure. This
way, as the engine speed increases, the pressure
within the lubrication system also increases.

OIL FILTERS
Once oil is discharged from an oil pressure pump, it
flows to an oil filter. The purpose of the filter is to
remove solid particles that are suspended in the oil.
The contaminants typically found in a turbine
engine oil system include products of oil
decomposition, metallic particles produced by
engine wear, and corrosion. In addition, since
large amounts of air move through a turbine engine,
airborne contaminants can enter the oil system
through the main bearing seals. Occasionally, dirt
and other foreign matter may also be
inadvertently introduced into the oil supply during
servicing.

FULL-FLOW SYSTEM

In a full-flow system, no pressure relief valve is

used; therefore, the amount of oil that flows to the

All turbine engines include an oil filter downstream

from the oil pump. In addition, most engines force
the oil to pass through another filter just prior to

9-30

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-34. (A) With a bowl-type filter, a screen-type filter element is inserted inside a removable filter bowl. (B) In another
installation, the filter element is inserted into the gearbox and then covered with a simple cover plate.

entering the bearing chambers. This filter is

commonly referred to as a last chance filter
because it represents the last opportunity to filter the
oil before it enters the bearing chamber. Since last
chance filters are placed deep within an engine,
they are cleaned only when an engine is
disassembled for overhaul.
On some engines, filtration is also provided in the
scavenge subsystem. With this type of system, the
oil is filtered prior to reaching the reservoir. This
way, any contaminants that are flushed out of the
bearing chambers do not make it back to the clean
oil in the reservoir.
The effectiveness of a turbine engine oil filter is
measured in microns. One micron represents a size
or distance equal to one millionth of a meter, or
approximately .000039 inch. To put micron
measurements in perspective, consider that
objects must be approximately 40 microns or larger
to be distinguishable by the human eye.
Turbine engines utilize three types of filters; a
wire-mesh oil screen, a screen disk, or a
pleated-fiber filter. A typical wire-mesh filter is
rated at 20 to 40 microns. In other words, particles
larger than 40 microns in size are filtered from the
oil supply. To create a larger surface area for
filtration, many oil screens are pleated. Typically,
installations that uti-

lize screen-type filters include bowl-type in-line filters and gearbox filters. [Figure 9-34]
The screen-disk type filter is more common to Pratt
& Whitney engines and consists of a series of
wafer-thin screens that are separated by spacers.
The screens are stacked on a perforated metal core
and oil is filtered as it passes from the outer edge to
the core. A typical rating on a screen disk filter is
approximately 20 microns. In addition, its
construction permits the filter to be disassembled
and cleaned. This type of filter is often used in the
pressurized portion of an oil system and fits into
an annulus provided in the main accessory gearbox.
[Figure 9-35]
Pleated-fiber filters are typically rated at about 15
microns and are similar to the filters used in
reciprocating engines. A typical pleated-fiber filter
element
consists
of
millions
of
resin-impregnated fibers that are formed into a
long sheet, folded into pleats, and assembled
around a perforated steel core. Because of their
construction, pleated-fiber filters are generally
intended to be replaced at specific time intervals.
FAR requirements dictate that all oil filters be
constructed and installed in a way that permits full
oil flow even if the filter becomes completely
blocked. Therefore, some means of bypassing the
filter must

9-31

Lubrication Systems

Figure 9-35. (A) A typical screen-disk filter consists of several wafer-thin screens that are separated by spacers. (B) This configuration allows the filter to be easily disassembled and cleaned.

be provided. The most common way of meeting this

requirement is to incorporate an oil bypass valve
that automatically lets oil bypass the filter entirely
once it becomes plugged. Since the use of unfiltered
oil to lubricate main bearings can cause extensive
damage, most turbine powered aircraft incorporate
a warning light in the cockpit to warn the operator
when the filter is being bypassed.
OIL JETS
An oil jet is basically a fixed nozzle that provides a
relatively constant oil flow to the main bearings at
all engine speeds. Oil jets are located in the pressure
lines adjacent to, or within, the bearing
compartments and rotor shaft couplings. Due to
the high rpm and high loading placed on main
rotor bearings, constant oil flow to the bearings is
vital. This is especially true for the turbine bearings
since they are subjected to the most heat.
Oil jets can deliver lubrication oil in the form of a
solid oil spray or an air-oil mist. While an air-oil
mist is considered adequate for some types of
bearings, a solid oil spray typically provides better
lubrication. In fact, a solid oil spray is required in

engines that utilize oil dampened bearings. This

type of bearing relies on an oil film between the
outer race and bearing housing to reduce rotor
vibrations and compensate for slight rotor
misalignments.
The small nozzle orifices in the tips of oil jets
become clogged easily and, because they are located
deep within an engine, they are not accessible for
cleaning except during engine overhaul. Therefore,
the oil must be free of particle contaminants. As discussed earlier, last chance filters are placed in the
oil line upstream from the oil jets to help prevent
nozzle clogs. However, bearing failure will
inevitably result if the last chance filter becomes
clogged.
VENT SYSTEM
In many turbine engines, the bearing chambers and
accessory gearbox are vented to the oil reservoir.
The primary purpose of a vent system is to vent
excessive pressure in the bearing chambers so the
pressure differential between the bearing chambers
and the lubrication system is maintained and the oil
jets maintain the proper spray pattern. In addition,
(maintain proper spray)

9-32

Lubrication Systems

the pressurized air within the bearing chambers and

accessory gearbox provides a source of
pressuriza-tion for the oil reservoir. If you recall,
turbine engine oil reservoirs are pressurized to help
ensure a positive flow of oil to the pump and
minimize oil foaming. To control the amount of
pressurization, the oil reservoir is vented to the
atmosphere through a check relief valve that
maintains a reservoir pressure of three to six psig.
CHECK VALVES
A check valve is sometimes installed in the oil
supply line of dry-sump oil systems. The check
valve prevents supply oil from seeping through the
oil pump elements and high-pressure lines after
shutdown. Without the check valve, oil could
accumulate in the accessory gearbox, compressor
rear housing, and combustion chamber. Such
accumulations could cause excessive loading on
the accessory drive gears during an engine start,
contamination of the cabin pressurization air, or an
internal oil fire. Check valves are usually
spring-loaded, ball-and-socket valves constructed to
allow the free flow of pressurized oil. The oil
pressure required to open a check valve varies, but
typically ranges from two to five psi.
:
OIL COOLER
As you know, one of the functions of oil is to cool
the engine; however, to do this, the heat absorbed by
the oil must be removed. In most cases, the excess
heat is removed by an oil cooler. The oil cooler in a
turbine engine may be located in either the pressure
subsystem or the scavenge subsystem. When
installed in the pressure subsystem, the lubrication
system is sometimes referred to as a hot tank system
because the scavenge oil is not cooled before it
enters the reservoir. On the other hand, when the oil
cooler is placed in the scavenge subsystem, the
lubrication system is often referred to as a cold tank
system because the oil is cooled just before it enters
the reservoir.
The oil coolers used on some early turbine engines
were simple oil-to-air heat exchangers similar to the
oil coolers used on reciprocating engines. Although
this type of oil cooler is effective, the cooler must be
installed near the front of the engine so it is exposed
to ram air. Modern oil coolers use fuel to cool the oil
and, therefore, are termed oil-to-fuel heat exchangers. Using fuel to cool the oil is considered to be
much more efficient than using air because two
important functions are accomplished simultane-

Figure 9-36. An oil-to-fuel heat exchanger transfers heat

from the engine oil to the fuel. This cools the hot oil before
it re-enters the engine and warms the fuel to prevent the
formation of ice crystals.

ously. First, the oil is cooled to an acceptable operating temperature and second, the fuel is preheated
which improves combustion. In addition, an
oil-to-fuel oil cooler is typically easier to install
since it does not have to be exposed to ram air.
A typical oil-to-fuel heat exchanger consists of a
series of joined tubes with an inlet and outlet port.
In a typical oil cooler, fuel flows through the cooler
continuously while a thermostatic bypass valve
controls the amount of oil that flows to the oil
cooler. When the oil is cold, the bypass valve allows
the oil to bypass the cooler. However, once the oil
heats up, the bypass valve forces the oil to flow
through the cooler. [Figure 9-36]
CHIP DETECTORS
Many scavenge subsystems contain permanent
magnet chip detectors that attract and hold
ferrous metal particles. These chip detectors are
utilized for several reasons. First, any metal
particles that are attracted to the detector are
prevented from circulating in the engine and
causing additional wear. Second, the collection of
metal particles on a chip detector provide valuable
information
when
troubleshooting
engine
problems.
As a general rule, the presence of small fuzzy particles or grey metallic paste is the result of normal

Lubrication Systems

9-33

Figure 9-38. With a chip detector that incorporates a warning light, the indicating circuit is completed when a sufficient amount of ferrous debris collects on the magnet and
bridges the gap between the positive and ground electrodes.

Figure 9-37. A magnetic chip detector is typically located in

the oil return line where it collects ferrous particles suspended in the engine oil. During scheduled engine maintenance, the chip detector is removed and visually inspected.

engine wear and, therefore, is not a cause for concern. However, metallic chips or flakes are an indication of serious internal wear which must be
investigated further. [Figure 9-37]
As an added feature, some chip detectors
incorporate an electric circuit that operates an
indicator light in the cockpit. With this type chip
detector, sometimes called an indicating chip
detector, a positive electrode is placed in the
center of the detector while a negative, or ground
electrode is placed on the detector shell. In this
configuration, when metallic debris bridges the
gap between the positive and ground electrodes,
the indicator circuit is completed and the warning
light illuminates. The flight crew must then
respond to the warning and take the necessary
precautions to prevent engine damage and ensure
flight safety. Decisions on the proper response are
usually based, in part, on the readings obtained
from other engine instrument readings and whether
or not the warning can be reset. [Figure 9-38]
A more modern type of chip detector is the electric
pulsed chip detector. This type of detector is unique

because it can discriminate between small wear-particles, which are considered non-failure related, and
larger particles, which can be an indication of
impending failure.
Pulsed detectors are designed to operate in a manual mode, or in a combination manual/automatic
mode. In the manual mode, the warning light illuminates each time the gap is sufficiently bridged,
regardless of the particle size. The engine operator
may then fire an electrical pulse which discharges
energy across the detector gap in an attempt to burn
off insignificant debris. After doing this, if the warning light extinguishes and does not re-illuminate,
the warning indication may be interpreted as a
non-failure related cause. However, if the warning
light remains illuminated, or repeatedly comes on
after being cleared, maintenance should be
scheduled to troubleshoot the cause.
In the automatic mode, a time delay relay is
activated in the warning circuit. This relay prevents
the warning light from illuminating immediately
after the electrode gap is bridged. This way, if the
gap is bridged by small debris, a pulse of electrical
energy has time to automatically discharge across
the gap before the warning light illuminates. If the
resulting burn-off opens the gap the light remains
extinguished. However, if the debris is large
enough, it will remain in place after the burn-off
cycle is completed and the warning light will
illuminate when the time-delay relay closes. [Figure
9-39]

Lubrication Systems

9-34

option is possible because turbine engine lubrication systems have a flow rate of two to five times the
oil tank capacity per minute. As a result, temperatures stabilize throughout the entire lubrication system very rapidly.
Some engine manufacturers prefer the temperature
sensor to be installed in the scavenge subsystem.
Their reason for this is it provides a slightly quicker
indication of high friction buildup caused by failing
parts, such as bearings and gears. However, of the
two locations, it is more common to place the sensor in the pressure subsystem to sense the oil temperature at the engine's oil inlet.

SYSTEM MAINTENANCE

Figure 9-39. With an electric pulse chip detector, the engine

operator can fire an electrical pulse across the gap of the
detector to burn off insignificant debris. In addition, by
incorporating a timer, the number of false warnings is
greatly reduced.

OIL PRESSURE GAUGE

To allow you to monitor the effectiveness of a given
lubrication system, all aircraft engines are equipped
with an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in
pounds per square inch. A turbine engine pressure
gauge is typically connected to the oil system
downstream of the main oil filter. This location
ensures an indication of the actual pressure being
delivered to the engine. As an additional feature,
some oil pressure systems incorporate a low-pressure warning light. When aircraft electrical power is
turned on and the engine is not running, each
engine's low oil pressure light illuminates.
However, when starting the engine, the warning
light should extinguish once oil pressure increases
above the low limit marked on the oil pressure
gauge.
OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE
The oil temperature gauge allows you to monitor the
temperature of the oil. This is important because oil
circulation cools the engine as it lubricates the moving parts. The oil temperature sensor location in a
turbine engine lubrication system is less critical
than in a reciprocating engine. Therefore, engine
manufacturers place the sensor in either the pressure subsystem or the scavenge subsystem. This

The maintenance practices discussed in this section

are typical of those used on a turbine engine.
However, the maintenance procedures discussed
here are by no means all inclusive. Therefore, before
conducting any maintenance on an aircraft's lubrication system you should consult the appropriate
manufacturer's maintenance manuals and service
bulletins.
Maintenance of turbine engine lubrication systems
usually consists of adjusting, removing, cleaning,
and replacing various components. For example,
oil filters must be periodically cleaned or replaced
and pressure relief valves may require occasional
adjustments.
OIL CHANGE
In routine service, oil is constantly exposed to
many substances that reduce its ability to protect
moving parts. The primary source of oil
contamination in turbine engines include gasoline,
moisture, acids, dirt, carbon, and metal particles.
If allowed to accumulate over a period of time,
these contaminants can cause excessive wear on
internal engine components.
The recommended time interval between oil
changes is typically based on the manufacturer's
recommendations. However, since the oil in turbine
engines is sealed from the combustion gases, the
time interval between oil changes is typically quite
long. For example, a typical oil change interval on
many business jets is 300 to 400 hours or 6 months,
whichever comes first. On larger turbine engines
that consume more than 0.2 quarts per hour, some
operators rely on oil replenishment as an effective
method of changing oil. The logic behind this is that

Lubrication Systems

normal replenishment will automatically change

the oil at regular 50 to 100 hour intervals.
Whenever possible, you should drain the engine oil
as soon as possible after the engine has been shut
down. This helps ensure that the oil reservoir is as
full as possible and that the maximum amount of
contaminants are held in suspension. This way,
when the oil is drained, most of the contaminants
will drain out of the engine with the oil.
The oil in turbine engines is typically drained from
the oil reservoir, the accessory gearbox sump, the
main oil filter, and other low points in the system.
In some cases, manufacturers recommend that the
lubrication system be periodically flushed. Flushing
procedures usually consist of filling the engine with
the proper oil or cleaning agent and motoring the
engine with the starter. Once this is done, the oil or
cleaning agent is drained from the engine.
When draining the oil, inspect the oil closely for
signs of contamination. For example, if the engine
oil is observed to be dark brown or even blackish,
but little or no contaminants are present, overheating is a likely cause. The discoloration is a chemical
reaction that occurs when excessive heat causes oil
decomposition. The cause of overheating could
range from low oil quantity to engine malfunctions
such as clogged oil jets or disintegrating bearings.
Consult the engine logs for excessive oil consumption and thoroughly analyze other clues in accordance with the appropriate troubleshooting guides
in the maintenance manual.
Given the high costs associated with turbine engine
operation, the value of a spectrometric oil analysis
program (S.O.A.P.) is unquestioned. As with
reciprocating engines, a series of samples must be
analyzed before an accurate trend forecast can be
developed. On engines that do not receive regular
oil changes, regular oil analysis is still
recommended. To do this, samples must be drawn
from the oil reservoir. In this case, oil samples
should be drawn from the center of the oil tank
within 15 minutes after engine shutdown to ensure
that the sample retains wear materials and
contaminants in suspension.

9-35

should be disassembled, inspected, cleaned, and

reinstalled. A disposable type filter must be
inspected for metallic particles and replaced.
Contaminants which are large enough and heavy
enough to be seen in filter bowls or on filter screens
are always a matter of concern. In such cases, follow
the manufacturer's recommended course of action
to determine the source of the contaminants. If a
spectrometric oil analysis program has been followed, a read-out of the various metals present in
the latest oil sample can be compared to earlier test
results. The results may affect the decision-making
process of whether or not there is sufficient cause to
dismantle the engine for closer inspection.
Traditional methods of hand cleaning reusuable filters in solvent are still commonly used and acceptable. However, several cleaning devices such as
ultrasonic cleaners or vibrator cleaners are also
available for filter and parts cleaning. With these
types of cleaners, the filter is placed in a solvent
bath and ultrasonic sound waves are pulsed through
the solvent. The high frequency energy dislodges
foreign materials and removes contaminants from a
filter element. These units do a very thorough job of
removing all contaminants from filtering elements.
[Figure 9-40]
Once the screens or filters have been inspected and
the oil has been completely drained, replace and
secure the drain plug. On aircraft that utilize a disposable filter, a new filter must be installed and
secured. On the other hand, on aircraft that use an
oil screen, the screen must be cleaned, re-installed,
and secured. Once all filters and/or screens are

OIL FILTER REPLACEMENT

The oil filter should be removed at every regular

inspection. The inspection, cleaning, and possible
replacement is dictated by the type of filter element
used. If the filter is the reusable type, the element

Figure 9-40. If approved by the engine manufacturer,

reusable oil filter elements can be thoroughly cleaned by
immersing them in a cleaning solution that is part of an
ultrasonic cleaning device.

Lubrication Systems

9-36

secured, the oil reservoir should be refilled with the

recommended grade of oil. A sample list of typical
synthetic lubricants you are likely to see include:
Type-1 (MIL-L-7808)

Aeroshell 300
Mobil Jet I
Staufferl Castrol
3 c Enco 15
Exxon 15 Exxon
2389 Caltexl5
Shell 307 Exxon
274

Type-2 (MIL-L-23699)

Aeroshell 500 or 700 Mobel Jet

II Stauffer II Castrol 205 Enco
2380 Exxon 25 Exxon 2380
Caltex2380 Texaco 7388,
Starjet-5 Caltex Starjet-5
Chevron Jet-5 Sinclair Type-2

As the sample list illustrates,

no standard identification
system is currently in use. In
fact, you cannot depend on every oil product to
include the type number or MIL Specification on
the label. In some cases, you must refer to oil
company literature for these specifications.
Synthetic oils for turbine engines are usually supplied in one quart containers to minimize the opportunities for contaminants to enter the lubrication
system. However, many oil reservoirs are equipped
with pressure remote filling capability. To utilize
this feature, an oil pumping cart must be attached to
the reservoir so you can manually pump oil into the
reservoir. The oil filler cap is normally removed during this operation to prevent overservicing. Filling
the oil tank by hand, however, is still practiced by
many servicing facilities.
Ground servicing personnel should ensure cleanliness during servicing to avoid inadvertently contaminating the oil supply. When adding oil that is
supplied in cans with metal tops, use a clean oil
spout which penetrates the metal can top. Avoid
using a regular can opener tool since doing so could
deposit metal slivers in the oil. If bulk oil is used
rather than quart containers, the oil should be filtered with a 10-micron, or smaller, filter as the oil is
poured in the reservoir.
If incompatible lubricants are accidently mixed
when filling an engine, many manufacturers require
the oil system to be drained and flushed.
Furthermore, when changing from one approved oil
to another, the system typically must be drained and

flushed if the oils are not compatible. Whenever an

engine is filled with a new approved brand or type
of oil, check the oil placard near the filler opening.
If the new oil is not identified, change the placard or
stencil accordingly.
Once the reservoir is filled, run up the engine long
enough to warm the oil. After engine shutdown,
allow a few minutes for the oil to settle, then check
the oil level. If necessary, add oil to bring the level
up to the prescribed quantity. In addition, inspect
the areas around the oil drain plug, oil filter, and oil
screen fitting for leaks.
OIL SERVICING
Turbine engines do use some oil; therefore, periodic
oil servicing is required. When servicing the oil system, ensure that servicing is accomplished within a
short time after shutdown. Manufacturers normally
require this in order to prevent overservicing.
Overservicing refers to filling the engine with too
much oil. This can occur on engines when some of
the oil in the storage tank seeps into lower portions
of the engine after periods of inactivity. After engine
runup, the oil supply is thoroughly agitated and
areas of pooled oil are circulated in the system. This
way, once the new oil is added, it is easier to establish the proper oil level in the oil reservoir.
Whenever you add oil to a turbine engine, you
should make a note in the aircraft logbook as to the
amount of oil added. A record of oil consumption
provides a valuable trend analysis of engine wear at
main bearing and seal locations.
When servicing the lubrication system, exercise care
to avoid accidental oil contamination caused by
sil-icone-based grease. Greases may be used at
some point in the servicing process to hold
O-rings in place during assembly; however,
unapproved greases or excess grease can cause
silicone contamination within a lubrication system.
Silicone contamination can cause engine oil to
foam, resulting in oil loss through oil tank vents. If
severe enough, oil loss can cause oil pump
cavitation and eventual engine damage.
OIL RESERVOIR
In some instances, the oil reservoir installed in a
dry-sump must be removed for cleaning or repair,
As you would expect, any repairs made to an oil
reservoir must restore it to its original specifications. Therefore, after a repair is made, the reservoir

Lubrication Systems

9-37

must be pressure tested to its maximum operating

pressure plus five psi. Only after a lubrication system component has successfully been tested can it
be reinstalled on an engine.
OIL PRESSURE ADJUSTMENTS
Oil pressure is normally adjusted with a screwdriver at the oil pressure relief valve. The first step
in adjusting a pressure relief valve is to remove the
valve's adjusting screw acorn cap. Then, loosen the
locknut and turn the adjusting screw clockwise to
increase pressure, or counterclockwise to decrease
pressure. Oil pressure adjustments must adhere to
the specifications which are supplied by the engine
manufacturer. The adjustment is usually made
while the engine is idling, and the setting is then
confirmed with the engine operating at approximately 75 percent of normal rated thrust. Several
adjustments are typically required before the oil
pressure stabilizes at the desired pressure. Once the
correct pressure setting is achieved, the adjusting
screw locknut is tightened and the acorn cap is
installed and secured. [Figure 9-41]

Figure 9-41. The oil pressure relief valve occasionally

requires adjustment. With the engine operating at idle
speed, turn the adjusting screw clockwise to increase oil
pressure and counterclockwise to decrease oil pressure.

COOLING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Aircraft engines are designed to convert heat energy into mechanical energy. However, in doing this, only about
one-third of the heat produced is converted. The remaining two-thirds of the heat energy is wasted and must be
removed from an engine. Therefore, cooling systems are designed to remove the unused heat energy produced by
combustion and allow an engine to operate at its peak efficiency.

RECIPROCATING ENGINES
COWLINGS

Of the heat that is generated by an internal combustion engine, approximately 30 percent is converted to useful work while 40 to 45 percent is
expelled through the exhaust. The remaining 25 to
30 percent is absorbed by the oil and metal mass of
the engine. It is this heat that is removed by an aircraft's cooling system. If not removed, engine performance suffers due to a decrease in volumetric
efficiency and the adverse effect heat has on the
fuel/air mixture. In addition, excessive heat shortens the life of engine parts and reduces the ability
of the oil to lubricate. The two most commonly
used methods of cooling an engine include direct
air cooling and liquid cooling.

AIR COOLING
Almost all modern aircraft engines are air cooled.
However, to be effective, an engine must have a
great deal of surface area that readily gives up heat.
To accomplish this, all air cooled engines utilize
cooling fins that are either cast or machined into the
exterior surfaces of the cylinder barrels and heads.
The fins provide a very large surface area for transferring heat to the surrounding airflow. Additional
cooling is sometimes provided by fins that are cast
into the underside of pistons. When this is done, the
additional surface area permits a greater amount of
heat to be transferred to the engine oil.
The cylinder fins on early engines were relatively
thick and shallow and provided little surface area
for cooling. However, as engine design progressed
and techniques of casting and machining improved,
fin design evolved to produce deeper and thinner
fins. Today, aircraft engines use steel cylinder barrels that have fins machined directly onto their surface. These barrels are screwed into aluminum
cylinder heads with fins that are cast with the head.
Since the exhaust valve region is typically the
hottest part of a cylinder, more fin area is provided
around the exhaust port. On the other hand, the
intake portion of a cylinder head typically has few
cooling fins because the fuel/air mixture cools this
area sufficiently.

An undesired side effect of air cooling is the

penalty imposed by increased drag. Although early
aircraft cruised at speeds where drag was of little
concern, the drag problem became unacceptable
once aircraft development achieved airspeeds over
120 miles per hour.
RADIAL ENGINE COWLING

To help reduce drag on aircraft equipped with radial

engines, the Townend ring, or speed ring was developed. A Townend ring is an airfoil shaped ring that
is installed around the circumference of a radial
engine. The airfoil shape produces an aerodynamic
force that smooths the airflow around the engine
and improves the uniformity of air flowing around
each cylinder. When installed properly, a Townend
ring can reduce drag by as much as 11 percent on
some aircraft. [Figure 10-1]
As new aircraft and engine designs produced higher
cruising speeds, the need for a more efficient cooling system that provided less drag increased. In the
early 1930's an engine cowling known as the NACA
cowling was developed. This streamlined cowling
completely covers all portions of a radial engine and
extends all the way back to the fuselage. In addition,

Figure 10-1. To help reduce the drag caused by air flowing

over the cylinders of radial engines, the Townend ring, or
speed ring, is installed. In some cases, this ring reduces
drag by as much as 11 percent.

10-3

Cooling Systems

Figure 10-2. Radial engines enclosed in NACA cowlings produce less drag and have improved engine cooling.

all NACA cowlings have an airfoil shape that actually produces thrust by converting the incoming
air into a solid jet blast as it leaves the cowling.
[Figure 10-2]
OPPOSED ENGINE COWLING

The cylinders on early horizontally opposed

engines stuck out into the airstream to receive cooling air. However, since the cylinders were directly
behind each other, a thin sheet metal hood had to be
installed on each side of the engine to force air
down between the cylinder fins. [Figure 10-3]
The cowling surrounding a modern reciprocating
engine encloses the entire engine. With this type of
cowling, cooling air enters through two forward facing openings and exits out one or more openings in
the bottom rear of the cowl. The rest of the cowling

Figure 10-3. The cowling on early horizontally opposed

engines consisted of a thin sheet metal hood that forced
cooling air down through the cylinder fins.

Figure 10-4. The flared portion of a lower cowl helps produce a low pressure area at the bottom of the cowling that
draws inlet air down through the cylinders.

is sealed with rubberized strips to prevent excessive

air leakage. Because of the ram effect produced by
forward motion and propwash, cooling air enters a
cowling at a pressure above ambient. This produces
what is know as pressure cooling.
To facilitate the pressure cooling process, the outlet
on most lower cowls is flared so that when outside
air flows past the opening, an area of low pressure
is created in the bottom of the cowling. This low
pressure area draws inlet air down through the
cylinders and into the lower cowl where it can exit
the cowling. [Figure 10-4]
BAFFLES AND DEFLECTORS
Only 15 to 30 percent of the total ram airflow
approaching an airborne engine cowling actually
enters the cowling to provide engine cooling.
Therefore, additional baffles and deflectors must
be installed to maximize the effectiveness of the
airflow. Baffles and deflectors are basically sheet
metal panels which block and redirect airflow to
provide effective cooling. Baffles and deflectors
are installed between the cowling and engine, as
well as between the engine cylinders. The baffles
installed between the engine and cowling effectively divide the cowling into two separate compartments. This way, when air enters the upper
cowl, it has no choice but to flow around the
cylinders and into the lower cowl. On the other
hand, the primary purpose of the baffles installed
between the cylinders is to force cooling air into
contact with all parts of a cylinder. These baffles
are sometimes referred to as inter-cylinder baffles
or pressure baffles. [Figure 10-5]

Cooling Systems

70-4

Figure 10-5. Cooling air is directed between the cylinders of a horizontally opposed aircraft engine by a series of baffles and seals.

COWL FLAPS

AUGMENTOR SYSTEMS

On some aircraft, the amount of cooling air that

flows into the cowling is controlled through the use
of cowl flaps. Cowl flaps are hinged doors that are
installed at the bottom rear of the cowling where the
cooling air exits. When the cowl flaps are open, a
stronger low pressure area is created in the lower
cowl and more air is pulled through the cylinders.
On the other hand, when the cowl flaps are closed,
the low pressure area becomes weaker and less cooling air is drawn between the cylinders. The position
of the cowl flaps is controlled from the cockpit and
are typically operated manually, electrically, or
hydraulically. [Figure 10-6]

Augmenter tubes may be used on some aircraft to

augment, or increase, the airflow through the cylinders. Like cowl flaps, augmenter tubes create a low
pressure area at the lower rear of the cowling in
order to increase the airflow through the cylinder
cooling fins. [Figure 10-7]

Cowl flaps are typically in the full open position

during all ground operations. The reason for this is
that, while operating on the ground, airflow through
the cowling is greatly reduced. However, once an
aircraft is established in level flight, more air is
forced into the cowling. This allows the cowl flaps
to be closed so that the drag produced by the cowl
flaps can be eliminated.

Figure 10-6. By installing cowl flaps on an aircraft, the

operator can control the amount of air that flows into the
cowling.

Cooling Systems

10-5

Figure 10-7. Some reciprocating engines use augmenter tubes to improve engine cooling. As exhaust gases flow from each
exhaust collector into an augmenter tube, an area of low pressure is created which draws additional cooling air over the engine
cylinders.

In an augmenter system, the exhaust gases from the

engine are routed into a collector and discharged
into the inlet of a stainless steel augmenter tube.
The flow of high-velocity exhaust gases creates an
area of low pressure at the inlet of the augmenter
tube and draws air from above the engine through
the cylinder fins. The combination of exhaust
gases and cooling air exits at the rear of the augmenter tube.
BLAST TUBES
Many engine installations use blast tubes to direct
cooling air into inaccessible areas of an engine
compartment. A blast tube is basically a small
pipe or duct that channels air from the main cooling airstream onto heat-sensitive components.
Engine accessories such as magnetos, alternators,
and generators are often cooled using blast tubes.
Blast tubes, where used, are typically built into

the baffles and are an integral part of the baffle

structure.
HELICOPTER COOLING SYSTEMS
Helicopters present unique problems when it comes
to cooling an engine. For example, helicopter
engines generally operate at a high rpm for prolonged periods of time and, therefore, produce more
heat. Furthermore, helicopters typically fly at much
slower airspeeds than fixed-wing aircraft and do not
benefit from ram airflow. Since the downwash from
the main rotor is insufficient to cool an engine an
alternate method of engine cooling is required. The
most commonly used auxiliary engine cooling system in helicopters is a large belt-driven cooling fan.
As an example of a helicopter cooling fan assembly,
consider the Bell 47 helicopter. The cooling fan is
mounted on the front side of the engine and is dri-

70-6

Cooling Systems

In spite of the disadvantages, liquid-cooled engines

were used with great success in some American and
British-built WWII fighter aircraft. Two such aircraft
were the P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang which
flew with liquid-cooled V-12 engines. A recently
produced
liquid-cooled
engine,
the
Teledyne-Continental Voyager, uses a mixture of
60 percent ethylene glycol and 40 percent water as a
coolant. The coolant is circulated at a high velocity
and the small radiator is located in an area which
produces the least amount of drag.

TEMPERATURE INDICATING
SYSTEMS
The engine temperature can have a dramatic impact
on engine performance. Therefore, most reciprocating engine powered aircraft are equipped with a
cylinder head temperature (CHT) gauge that allows
you to monitor engine temperatures.
Figure 10-8. The cooling fan assembly on a Bell 47 helicopter is rotated by two V-belts that are driven by the
engine transmission.

ven by the transmission fan quill assembly through

two matched V-belts. The 1.2:1 quill gear ratio turns
the fan at a higher speed than the engine in order to
distribute an adequate supply of cooling air to the
engine. [Figure 10-8]

LIQUID-COOLING
Liquid-cooled aircraft engines are constructed with
a metal water jacket that surrounds the cylinders.
As coolant circulates in the water jacket, heat passes
from the cylinder walls and heads to the coolant. A
coolant pump circulates the coolant in a pressurized loop from the water jacket to a radiator, where
heat is transferred from the coolant to the air. To
allow for higher engine temperatures and a smaller
radiator, many liquid-cooled systems are pressurized.
Although liquid-cooled engines have been the standard for automotive and industrial engines for
years, they have had limited success in aircraft.
Early aircraft engine designs used liquid cooling;
however, new air-cooled engine designs became the
standard for several reasons. The primary reason for
this is that the need for a radiator, water jacket,
coolant, and other associated hoses and lines added
a substantial amount of weight. In addition,
air-cooled engines are not hampered by
cold-weather
operations
as
severely
as
liquid-cooled engines.

Most cylinder head temperature gauges are galvanometer-type meters that display temperatures in
degrees Fahrenheit. If you recall from your study of
electricity, a galvanometer measures the amount of
electrical current produced by a thermocouple. A
thermocouple is a circuit consisting of two dissimilar metal wires connected together at two junctions
to form a loop. Anytime a temperature difference
exists between the two junctions, a small electrical
current is generated that is proportional to the temperature difference and measurable by the galvanometer.
The two junctions of a thermocouple circuit are
commonly referred to as a hot junction and a cold
junction. The hot junction is installed in the cylinder head in one of two ways; the two dissimilar
wires may be joined inside a bayonet probe which is
then inserted into a special well in the top or rear of
the hottest cylinder, or the wires may be imbedded
in a special copper spark plug gasket. The cold junction, or reference junction, on the other hand, is
typically located in the instrument case.
Thermocouple instrument systems are polarized
and extremely sensitive to resistance changes
within their electrical circuits. Therefore, several
precautions must be observed when replacing or
repairing them. First, be sure to observe all
color-coding and polarity markings because
accidentally reversing the wires causes the meter to
move off-scale on the zero side. In addition, ensure
that all electrical connections are clean and torqued
to the correct value.

10-7

Cooling Systems

Thermocouple wiring leads are typically supplied

in matched pairs and secured together by a common
braid. Furthermore, the leads are a specified length,
matched to the system to provide accurate temperature indications. The length of the leads cannot be
altered because doing so changes their resistance. In
some cases, the wiring leads are permanently
attached to a thermocouple, necessitating the
replacement of the entire wiring harness and thermocouple if a wire breaks or becomes damaged.
Simple CHT systems use a single indicator that
monitors the hottest cylinder. With this type of system, overall engine temperature must be interpreted
in a general way. There are, however, more complex
systems which monitor each cylinder and can be set
to warn you when a cylinder approaches its maximum temperature limit.

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

All cooling system components should be inspected
during a 100-hour or annual inspection. In addition,
once a thorough visual inspection is complete, it
should be followed up with all necessary repairs or
replacements. Some of the components that are typically inspected include the cowling, cylinder fins,
baffling, and cowl flaps.
COWLING
As you recall, only 15 to 30 percent of the total ram
airflow enters the cowling. Therefore, the aerodynamic shape of a cowling must be clean and smooth
to reduce drag and energy loss. This smoothness
must be considered when accomplishing any
repairs to a cowling or adjusting alignment of cowl
panels and access doors.
Cowl panels must be visually inspected for dents,
tears, and cracks. Such damage causes weakness in
the panel structure and increases drag by disrupting the airflow. Furthermore, accumulations of
dents and tears can lead to cracking and contribute
to corrosion. Internal construction of cowl panels
should be examined closely to ensure that the reinforcing ribs are not cracked and that the air seal is
not damaged.
The cowl panel latches should be inspected for
missing rivets and loose or damaged handles. In
addition, you should check the safety locks for damaged rivets and the condition of the safety spring.
Examine all support brackets carefully to verify the
security of mounting and repair any cracks found in

accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.

Early detection of breaks and cracks provide an
opportunity to limit the damage and extend the service life of a cowling.
CYLINDER COOLING FINS
The condition of the cooling fins plays a large role
in their effectiveness and ability to provide adequate cylinder cooling. Therefore, cylinder cooling fins must be checked during each regular
inspection.
The cooling fins on an engine are designed with a
precise surface area to dissipate a certain amount of
heat. Therefore, when cooling fins are broken off a
cylinder, less fin area is available for cooling. An
engine's fin area is the total area (both sides of the
fin) exposed to die air. Anytime an excessive
amount of fin area is missing, the formation of hot
spots can occur on the cylinder.
The amount of fin damage permitted on a given
cylinder is based on a percentage of the total fin area
and is established by the manufacturer. Therefore,
when performing repairs to a cylinder's cooling fins,
the engine manufacturer's service or overhaul manual should be consulted to ensure the repair is
within limits.
Generally, cracks in cooling fins which do not
extend into the cylinder head may be repaired. A
typical repair requires you to remove the damaged
portion of the fin with a die grinder and rotary file.
After removing the damage, finish file the sharp
edges to a smooth contour. The percentage of total
fin area that is removed must not exceed the limits
established by the manufacturer. [Figure 10-9]
Cracks at the edge of a fin may be filed or stop
drilled to prevent the crack from lengthening. In

Figure 10-9. When repairing a damaged fin on a cylinder,

you must not remove any of the primary cylinder casting. In
addition, fin loss near spark plug openings or exhaust ports
can cause dangerous local hot spots.

10-8

addition, any rough or sharp edges produced by broken fins may be filed to a smooth contour if damage
and/or repair limits are not exceeded.
If a cooling fin is inadvertently bent on an aluminum cylinder head and no crack forms, the fin
should be left alone. The reason for this is that aluminum cooling fins are very brittle and any
attempt to straighten them could cause them to
crack or break.
BAFFLES AND DEFLECTORS

Inspections which reveal defects in cylinder baffles

and deflectors must be followed up with repairs to
prevent loss of cooling efficiency. Since baffles are
subject to constant vibration, work-hardening of the
metal occurs considerably faster than on other components. Work-hardening can make engine baffles
extremely brittle which increases the likelihood of
fatigue cracking.
Using an inspection mirror and light, examine the
baffles, deflectors, and shrouds for cracks, bent sections, dents, and loose attachment hardware. Small
cracks that are just beginning can be stop-drilled
and small dents can be straightened. These types of
repairs extend the service life of baffles by slowing
their deterioration.

Cooling Systems

When installing the cowling, take care to avoid

damaging the air seals on the inter-cylinder baffles
and the aft vertical baffle. These air seals are typically made from plastic, rubber, or leather strips and
must be oriented to point in the direction shown in
the manufacturer's service manual. Damaged air
seals and improperly installed or loose baffles can
cause cylinder hot spots to develop. If burned paint
is found on a cylinder during the inspection, it
could be evidence of a local hot spot.
COWL FLAPS
Inspect the cowl flaps visually for security of
mounting and for signs of cracking. In addition,
operate the cowl flaps to verify the condition of the
hinges and operating mechanism.
If the cowl flaps were removed for maintenance,
you must adjust them properly during
reinstalla-tion. Proper adjustment helps ensure the
correct tolerances for the "open" and "closed"
positions. Establishing the correct tolerance in both
positions is of the utmost importance for
maintaining correct cylinder head temperatures.
For example, cowl flaps which open too far will
allow too much cooling air to be drawn through the
engine
resulting
in insufficient
engine
temperatures. On the other hand, cowl flaps
which do not open far enough can cause cylinder
head temperatures to exceed the specified limits for
a given operating condition.

TURBINE ENGINES
Turbine engines, like reciprocating engines, are
designed to convert heat energy into mechanical
energy. However, like a turbine engine, the combustion process is continuous and, therefore, more heat
is produced. Another difference is that, on turbine
engines, most of the cooling air must pass through
the inside of the engine. If only enough air were
admitted into a turbine engine to support combustion, internal engine temperatures would rise to
more than 4,000 degrees Fahrenheit. In practice, a
typical turbine engine uses approximately 25 percent of the total inlet air flow to support combustion. This airflow is often referred to as the engine's
primary airflow. The remaining 75 percent is used
for cooling, and is referred to as secondary airflow.
When the proper amount of air flows through a
turbine engine, the outer case will remain at a
temperature between ambient and 1,000
degrees Fahrenheit depending on the section of
the engine. For example, at the compressor inlet,
the outer case temperature will remain at, or slightly
above, the ambient air temperature. However, at
the front of the turbine section where internal
temperatures are greatest, outer case temperatures
can easily reach 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. [Figure
10-10]

COOLING REQUIREMENTS
To properly cool each section of an engine, all turbine engines must be constructed with a fairly
intricate internal air system. This system must take
ram and/or bleed air and route it to several internal
components deep within the core of the engine. In
most engines, the compressor, combustion, and
turbine sections all utilize cooling air to some
degree.
NACELLE AND COMPRESSOR
For the most part, an engine's nacelle and
compressor are cooled by ram air as it enters the
engine. To do this, cooling air is typically directed
between the engine case and nacelle. To properly
direct the cooling air, a typical engine compartment
is divided into two sections; forward and aft. The
forward section is constructed around the engine
inlet duct while the aft section encircles the engine.
A seal separates the two sections and forms a
barrier that prevents combustible fumes that may
be in the front section from passing into the aft
section and igniting on the engine case.
In flight, ram air provides ample cooling for the two
compartments. However, on the ground, airflow is

Figure 10-10. A properly cooled two-spool turbojet engine has outer-case temperatures which range from 70to 1000. Effective
cooling airflow maintains these temperatures far below the internal engine temperatures.

Cooling Systems

70-70

Figure 10-11. Nacelle cooling is typically accomplished by ram air that enters the nacelle at the inlet duct.

provided by the reduced pressure at the rear of the

nacelle. The low pressure area is created by the
exhaust gases as they exit the exhaust nozzle. The
lower the pressure at the rear of the nozzle, the
more air is drawn in through the forward section.
[Figure 10-11]
As inlet air is compressed, its temperature
increases. The heat produced by compression is, in
turn, transferred to the components within the compressor section. This heat, along with the heat produced by mechanical friction, typically requires
some cooling for the compressor main bearings. The
cooling provided typically comes from bleed air
that is taken from an early compressor stage and
directed over, or through the bearing compartment.

combustion air, is directed inside the liner in the

front end of a combustor. As this air enters the combustor, it passes through a set of swirl vanes which
give the air a radial motion and slow down its axial
velocity to about five or six feet per second.
For the most part, an engine's nacelle and
compressor are cooled by ram air as it enters the
engine. To do this, cooling air is typically directed
between the engine case and nacelle. To properly
direct the cooling air, a typical engine compartment
is divided into two sections; forward and aft. The
forward section is constructed around the engine
inlet duct while the aft section encircles the engine.
A seal separates the two sections and forms a
barrier that prevents combustible fumes that may be
in the front section from passing into the aft section
and igniting on the engine case.

COMBUSTION SECTION
The combustion section in a turbine engine is where
the fuel and air are mixed and burned. A typical
combustor consists of an outer casing with a
perforated inner liner. The perforations are various
sizes and shapes, all having a specific effect on
flame propagation and cooling.
In order to allow the combustion section to mix the
incoming fuel and air, and cool the combustion
gases, airflow through a combustor is divided into
primary and secondary paths. Approximately 25
percent of the incoming air is designated as primary
while 75 percent becomes secondary. Primary, or

TURBINE SECTION
When a turbine section is designed, temperature is
an important consideration. In fact, the most limiting factor in running a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. However, the higher
an engine raises the temperature of the incoming air,
the more thrust an engine can produce. Therefore,
the effectiveness of a turbine engine's cooling system plays a big role in engine performance. In fact,
many cooling systems allow the turbine vane and
blade components to operate in a thermal environ-

Cooling Systems

10-11

Figure 10-12. High pressure bleed air flows across the face of the turbine disks to remove heat. Low pressure bleed air flowing
around the turbine bearings provides additional cooling.

ment 600 to 800 degrees Fahrenheit above the temperature limits of their metal alloys.
One of the most common ways of cooling the components in the turbine section is to use engine bleed
air. For example, turbine disks absorb heat from hot

gases passing near their rim and from the blades

through conduction. Because of this, disk rim temperatures are normally well above the temperature
of the disk portion nearest the shaft. To limit the
effect of these temperature variations, cooling air is
directed over each side of the disk. [Figure 10-12]

70-72

Cooling Systems

Figure 10-13. An internally cooled blade receives cooling air at the root and expels the air at the tip or through holes in the leading and trailing edges.

To sufficiently cool turbine nozzle vanes and turbine blades, compressor bleed air is typically
directed in through the hollow blades and out
through holes in the tip, leading edge, and trailing
edge. This type of cooling is known as convection
cooling or film cooling. [Figure 10-13]
In addition to drilling holes in a turbine vane or
blade, some nozzle vanes are constructed of a
porous, high-temperature material. In this case,
bleed air is ducted into the vanes and exits through
the porous material. This type of cooling is known
as transpiration cooling and is only used on stationary nozzle vanes.
Modern engine designs incorporate many combinations of air cooling methods that use low and high
pressure air for both internal and surface cooling of

turbine vanes and blades. However, to provide additional cooling, the turbine vane shrouds may also be
perforated with cooling holes.
Some high-bypass turbofan engines have electronic
engine controls which feature active tip clearance
control or ACC. ACC controls the thermal expansion rate of the turbine case by regulating the flow
of cooling air around the turbine case. This provides
optimum turbine blade tip clearance which
increases an engine's efficiency.

ENGINE INSULATION BLANKETS

Engine insulation blankets are used to shield
portions of an aircraft's structure from the intense
heat radiated by the exhaust duct. In addition, the
use of blankets reduce the possibility of leaking fuel
or oil

Cooling Systems

coining in contact with hot engine parts and accidentally igniting. Common places where insulation
blankets may be used include the combustion, turbine, and exhaust sections.
Aluminum, glass fiber, and stainless steel are
among the materials used in the manufacture of
engine insulation blankets. Several layers of fiberglass, aluminum foil, and silver foil are covered

10-13
with a stainless steel shroud to form a typical blanket. The fiberglass is a low-conductance material
and the layers of metal foil act as radiation shields.
Each blanket is manufactured with a suitable covering that prevents it from becoming oil-soaked.
Although insulation blankets were used
extensively on early engine installations, they are
typically not required with modern turbofan
engine installations. [Figure 10-14]

Figure 10-14. A blanket composed of metal foil, fiberglass, and a stainless steel shroud insulates the exterior of a turbine engine
exhaust duct to reduce fire hazards and eliminate heat damage to adjacent structures.

ENGINE FIRE PROTECTION

INTRODUCTION
An aircraft powerplant and its related systems constitute a natural fire hazard. For example, flammable materials
such as fuel and oil are present in large quantities and are frequently pressurized. In addition, an engine's exhaust
system encloses high-temperature gases and, in some cases, flames, that if allowed to escape through a defective
component, could ignite fuel vapors. Because of these hazards, many aircraft are equipped with a fire protection
system that can detect and extinguish fires in the engine compartment. Therefore, as an aircraft maintenance technician, you must be familiar with the operating principles, maintenance practices, and repair of fire protection
systems.

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Fire protection systems perform two separate functions: fire detection and fire extinguishing. The primary purpose of a fire detection system is to activate a warning device in the event of a fire. An ideal
fire detection system should:
1. not cause false warning.
2. provide a rapid indication and accurate loca
tion of a fire.
3. provide a continuous indication when a fire
exists.
4. provide an accurate indication that a fire is
out.
5. provide an accurate indication that a fire has
re-ignited.
6. provide a means for testing the system from
the aircraft cockpit.
7. have detectors that resist exposure to oil, fuel,
hydraulic fluid, water, vibration, extreme tem
peratures, and maintenance handling.
8. have detectors that are lightweight and easily
mounted.
9. utilize detector circuitry that is powered by an
aircraft's electrical system and does not require
an inverter.
10. require minimal electrical current when
armed.
11. allow each detector to activate both a cockpit
light and an audible alarm.
12. have a seperate detection system for each
engine.
There are a number of fire detection systems used in
aviation today. Most of the systems used consist of
one or more detectors that activate an alarm once
the air surrounding the detector reaches a predetermined temperature. Because of this, fire detectors
are sometimes referred to as overheat detectors.

ENGINE FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Engine fire detection systems generally fall into two
categories: spot-detection type systems and continuous-loop type systems. With a spot-detection type
system individual fire detectors, or switches are
used to detect a fire. However, with this type of sys-

tem, a fire warning sounds only when a fire exists in

the same location as the detector. Therefore, with a
spot-detection system, fire detectors are placed in
locations where a fire is likely to occur. The continuous-loop type system works on the same basic
principle as the spot-type fire detectors except that
a single switch in the form of a long tube is used
instead of several individual switches. The small
diameter tube is run completely around an engine
nacelle or tail cone allowing for more complete coverage than any spot-type detection system.
The following paragraphs provide information on
the most common types of fire detection systems
found in modern aircraft. These systems include,
the thermal switch, the thermocouple, the Fenwal,
the Kidde, the Lindberg, and the Systron-Donner.
THERMOSWITCH DETECTOR
A thermoswitch fire detection system is a spot-type
detection system that uses a number of thermally
activated switches. Each switch, or sensor, consists of
a bimetallic thermoswitch that closes when heated to
a predetermined temperature. [Figure 11-1]
There are two basic types of thermoswitch systems,
the single loop and the double loop. With a Fenwal

Figure 11-1. With a thermoswitch detector, the actual

switch, or detector, is mounted inside a stainless steel
housing. If a fire starts, the housing heats up and elongates
causing the contact points to close. To adjust a thermoswitch, you must heat the housing to the required temperature and then turn the tension adjustment in or out
until the contacts just close.

Engine Fire Protection

11-3

Figure 11-2. Fire detection systems using multiple thermal switches are wired so that the switches are in parallel with each other
and the entire group of switches is in series with the indicator light. When one switch closes, a ground is provided for the circuit
and the warning light illuminates.

single loop system, all of the thermoswitches are

wired in parallel with each other, and the entire
group of switches is connected in series with an
indicator light. In this arrangement, once a
ther-moswitch closes, the circuit is completed
and power flows to the warning light. [Figure 11-2]
To provide for circuit testing, a test switch is
installed in the cockpit. Once the test switch is
depressed, power flows to a relay that provides a
ground to the warning light, simulating a closed
thermoswitch. Once grounded, the warning light
illuminates only if there is no break in the warning
circuit. In addition to the test feature, most fire
detection circuits include a dimming relay for night
operations that, when activated, alters the warning
circuit by increasing resistance. The increased resistance reduces the amount of current flowing to the

light. In most airplanes, several circuits are wired

through the dimming relay so all the warning lights
may be dimmed at the same time.
In a double loop system all of the detectors are connected in parallel between two complete loops of
wiring. The system is wired so that one leg of the circuit supplies current to the detectors while the other
leg serves as a path to ground. With this double loop
arrangement the detection circuit can withstand one
fault, either an open or short circuit, without causing
a false fire warning. For example, if the ground loop
should develop a short, a false fire warning will not
occur because the loop is already grounded. On the
other hand, if the powered loop shorts, the rapid
increase in current flow would trip a relay that
causes the powered loop to become the ground and
the grounded loop to become powered. [Figure 11-3]

Figure 11-3. With the double loop thermoswitch system above, loop A is positive while loop B is negative. However, if an open or
short develops in loop A, the sudden rush of current will activate a relay that causes the positive loop to become negative and
the negative loop to become positive.

7 7-4

THERMOCOUPLE DETECTOR
A thermocouple-type, Edison fire detector system is
similar to a thermoswitch system in that they are
both spot-type detection systems. However, in a
thermocouple system the detectors are triggered by
the rate of temperature rise rather than a preset temperature. In other words, when the temperature of
the surrounding air rises too rapidly, a thermocouple detector initiates a fire warning.
If you recall from your earlier studies, a thermocouple consists of a loop of two dissimilar metal wires
such as chromel and constantan that are joined at
each end to form two junctions. When a temperature difference exists between the two junctions,
electrical current flows and a warning light is activated. In a typical thermocouple system, one or
more thermocouples, called active thermocouples
are placed in fire zones around an engine while a
separate thermocouple, called the reference thermocouple, is placed in a dead air space between two
insulated blocks. Under normal operations, the temperature of the air surrounding the reference thermocouple and the active thermocouples are relatively even and no current is produced to activate a
warning light. However, when a fire occurs, the air
temperature around the active thermocouples rises
much faster than the air temperature around the reference thermocouple. The difference in temperature
produces a current in the thermocouple circuit and
activates a warning light and horn. [Figure 11-4]

Engine Fire Protection

In most thermocouple systems, the sensitive relay,

slave relay, and a thermal test unit are contained in
a relay box. A typical relay box can contain from
one to eight identical circuits, depending on the
number of potential fire zones. The thermocouples
control the operation of the relays, while the relays
control the warning lights. The test circuit includes
a special test thermocouple that is wired into the
detector circuit and a small electric heater. The test
thermocouple and heater are mounted inside the
relay housing and, when the test switch in the cockpit is closed, current flows through the heater which
heats the test thermocouple. The temperature difference between the test thermocouple and the reference thermocouple produces a current flow that
closes the sensitive relay and slave relay so the
warning light can light. Approximately 4
mil-liamperes of current is all that is needed to close
the sensitive relay and activate the alarm.
The total number of thermocouples used in a particular detector circuit depends on the size of the
fire zone and the total circuit resistance. Typically,
circuit resistance is less than five ohms. In addition, most thermocouple circuits contain a resistor
connected across the slave relay terminals. This
resistor absorbs the coil's self induced voltage
when current ceases to flow through the coil and
the magnetic field collapses. If this self induced
voltage were not absorbed, arcing would occur
across the sensitive relay contacts causing them to
burn or weld.

Figure 11-4. In a thermocouple fire detection circuit, the wiring system is typically divided into a detector circuit, an alarm circuit,
and a test circuit. When a temperature difference exists between an active thermocouple and the reference thermocouple, current
flows through the sensitive relay coil. When the sensitive relay closes it trips the slave relay which, in turn, allows current to flow
to the warning light.

11-5

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-5. A Fenwal continuous loop sensing element

consists of a sealed inconel tube containing a eutectic salt
and a single, center conductor.

FENWAL SYSTEM
In addition to a thermoswitch detection system,
Fenwal also produces a continuous-loop type system that consists of a single fire, or overheat sensing
element that varies in length depending on the size
of the fire zone. A typical sensing element can be
anywhere from 1-foot to 15 feet long. As mentioned
earlier, the sensing element used in a
continuous-loop fire detection system consists of
a flexible, small diameter inconel tube with a single
wire electrode. The pure nickel electrode is
surrounded by ceramic beads to prevent the
electrode and conductor from touching each other.
The beads in this system are wetted with a eutectic
salt which has an electrical resistance that varies
with temperature. [Figure 11-5]
The center conductor protrudes out each end of the
inconel tube where an electric terminal is affixed to
the electrode. Current is then applied to the conductor while the outer tube is grounded to the aircraft structure. At normal temperatures, the eutectic
salt core material prevents electrical current from
flowing between the center conductor and the tube.
However, when a fire or overheat condition occurs,
the core resistance drops and current flows between
the center conductor and ground, energizing the
alarm system.
The Fenwal system uses a magnetic amplifier control unit. This unit is a non-averaging controller that
supplies power to the sensing element and sounds
an alarm when the circuit to ground is completed
through the inconel tube. [Figure 11-6]

Figure 11-6. With a Fenwal continuous loop fire detection

system, AC voltage is applied to the sensing element
through the control unit. Once the air surrounding the
sensing element reaches a predetermined temperature,
the resistance of the eutectic salt within the element
decreases enough to allow current to flow to ground. The
control unit then senses the flow of AC current and closes
a relay which grounds the warning circuit and illuminates
the warning light.

KIDDE SYSTEM
The Kidde system is also a continuous-loop type
system that consists of a single overheat sensing element that varies in length. The sensing element consists of a rigid, preshaped inconel tube with two
wire conductors. The conductors are embedded in a
thermistor, or thermal resistor material to prevent

the two electrodes from touching each other and the

exterior casing. Like the eutectic salt used in the
Fenwal system, the thermistor material has an electrical resistance that decreases as the temperature
increases. [Figure 11-7]

Figure 11-7. A Kidde sensing element consists of a sealed

inconel tube containing two conductors that are embedded
in a thermistor material.

Engine Fire Protection

7 7-6

PNEUMATIC CONTINUOUS-LOOP
DETECTORS
Pneumatic continuous-loop detectors consist of a
sealed tube that can warn of either overheat conditions or of specific spot fires. There are three primary systems presently found on todayis aircraft:
Lindberg System, Systron-Donner System, and the
Meggitt Safety System.
LINDBERG SYSTEM
Figure 11-8. The sensing element used with a Lindberg continuous-loop system consists of a stainless steel tube that
is filled with an inert gas and a gas absorbing material. One
end of the tube is sealed while the other end is connected
to a diaphragm switch.

One of the wires is electrically grounded to the

outer tube at each end and acts as an internal
ground, while the second wire is a positive lead.
When a fire or overheat occurs, the resistance of the
thermistor material drops, allowing current to flow
between the two wires to activate an alarm.
Each conductor is connected to an electronic control unit mounted on separate circuit cards. In addition to constantly measuring the total resistance of
the full sensing loop, the dual control unit provides
for redundancy even if one side fails. In fact, both
the Fenwal and Kidde systems will detect a fire
when one sensing element is inoperative, even
though the press-to-test circuit does not function.

The Lindberg fire detection system is a pneumatic

continuous-loop type system consisting of a stainless steel tube filled with an inert gas and a discrete
material that is capable of absorbing a portion of the
gas. The amount of gas the material can absorb
varies with temperature. One end of the tube is connected to a pneumatic pressure switch called a
responder which consists of a diaphragm and a set
of contacts. [Figure 11-8]
When the temperature surrounding the sensing element rises because of a fire or overheat condition,
the discrete material within the tube also heats up
and releases the absorbed gas. As the gas is released,
the gas pressure within the tube increases and
mechanically actuates the diaphragm switch in the
responder unit. Once the diaphragm switch closes,
the warning light illuminates and the alarm bell
sounds. Because the Lindberg system works on the
principle of gas pressure, it is sometimes referred to
as a pneumatic system. [Figure 11-9]

Figure 11-9. With a Lindberg fire detection system, power is supplied to both the control unit and test unit by the AC bus. When
a fire or overheat condition exists, the diaphragm switch closes, completing the circuit for both the warning light and the bell.

Engine Fire Protection

To test a Lindberg system, low-voltage alternating

current is sent through the element's outer casing.
This current heats the casing until the discrete
material releases enough gas to close the contacts in
the diaphragm switch and initiate a fire warning.
When the test switch is released, the sensing element cools allowing the discrete material to
reab-sorb the gas. Once absorbed, the contacts in
the diaphragm switch open and the fire warning
stops.
SYSTRON-DONNER SYSTEM
The Systron-Donner system is another pneumatic
continuous-loop system that utilizes a gas filled
tube with a titanium wire running through its center as a sensing element. The tube itself is made of
stainless steel and is filled with helium gas. The
titanium wire, on the other hand, acts as a gas
absorption material that contains a quantity of
hydrogen. For protection, the wire is either
wrapped with an inert metal tape or inserted in an
inert metal tube. One end of the sensor tube is connected to a responder assembly containing a
diaphragm switch that provides a warning for both
an overheat condition and a fire.
Like the Lindberg system, the Systron-Donner system's principle of operation is based on the gas
laws. In other words, if the volume of a gas is held
constant and the temperature increases, gas pressure also increases. The helium gas surrounding the

11-7

titanium wire provides the systems averaging or

overheat function. At normal temperatures, the
helium pressure in the tube exerts an insufficient
amount of force to close the overheat switch.
However, when the average temperature along the
length of the tube reaches an overheat level, the gas
pressure increases enough to close the diaphragm
switch which activates the alarm. Once the source
of an overheat is removed, the helium gas pressure
drops and the diaphragm switch opens.
The systems fire detection, or discrete, function is
provided by the gas-charged titanium wire. When
exposed to a localized high temperature, such as a
fire or bleed air leak, the titanium wire releases
hydrogen gas. This increases the sensor's total gas
pressure which closes the diaphragm switch and
trips the fire alarm. A typical Systron-Donner system sensor activates a fire alarm when exposed to a
2,000 flame for five seconds. After a fire is extinguished, the sensor core material reabsorbs the
hydrogen gas and the responder automatically
resets the system. [Figure 11-10]
To check system integrity, the responder unit of a
Systron-Donner system contains an integrity switch
that is held closed by the normal gas pressure
exerted by the helium. When the integrity switch is
closed, depressing the test switch results in a fire
warning. However, if the sensing element should
become cut or severely chafed, the helium gas will

Figure 11-10. The Systron-Donner fire detection and overheat system consists of a helium-filled sensor tube surrounding a hydrogen-charged core. With this system, excessive temperatures increase the gas pressure which forces a diaphragm switch closed.
Once closed, power flows to the warning light and bell.

Engine Fire Protection

11-8

logic will isolate the defective loop and reconfigure

to a single loop operation using the good loop.
[Figure 11-11]
MEGGITT SAFETY SYSTEM
The Meggitt Safety System is the result of the
merger of the Lindberg Company with the
Systron-Donner Company. The present Meggitt
pneumatic continuous-loop detector is very similar
to the Systron-Donner System covered above. The
primary difference is in the test circuit. The Meggitt
system uses an integrity switch that is normally
closed, but held open by the helium gas in the
system. If the system is breached, the loss of gas
allows the switch to close and illuminate a fault
indication that the system is no longer functional.
FLAME DETECTORS
Another type of fire detection system you are likely
to see on an aircraft is a flame detector system. Most
flame detectors consist of a photoelectric sensor that
measures the amount of visible light or infrared
radiation in an enclosed area. The sensor is placed
so it can see the surrounding area, and anytime
there is an increase in the amount of light that
strikes the cell, an electrical current is produced.
Once enough current is produced and channeled
through an amplifier, a fire warning is initiated.

SMOKE AND TOXIC GAS

DETECTION SYSTEMS

Figure 11-11. A typical installation of a Systron-Donner

system consists of two independent loops attached to a
support tube. The support tube establishes the routing
of the detector element and provides attach points to
the airplane.

escape and the integrity switch remains open. In

this situation, depressing the test switch provides a
"no test" indication.

In addition to the engine fire detection systems just

discussed, there are a number of airframe detection
systems you should be familiar with. The most common types of detectors used in aircraft cabin areas
and cargo pits are flame detectors, smoke detectors,
and carbon monoxide detectors. Each of these are
discussed in detail in the A&-P Technician Airframe
Textbook. However, it is important to note that
smoke detectors and carbon monoxide detectors are
not used to detect fires in powerplant areas. The reason for this is because the air turbulence around an
engine dissipates smoke and carbon monoxide gas
too rapidly for the detector to recognize a fire.

INSPECTION AND TESTING

Systron-Donner sensor elements are quite durable
and can be flattened, twisted, kinked, and dented
without losing their overheat and fire detection abilities. A typical sensing system consists of two separate sensing loops for redundancy. Both loops are
required to sense a fire or overheat before an alarm
will sound. However, if one loop fails, the system

Although the engine cowl provides some protection

for the sensing elements of a fire detection system,
damage can still result from engine vibration and
the removal and re-installation of cowl panels. This,
combined with the relatively small size of the sensing elements, dictates the need for a regular inspec-

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-12. A loose clamp can result in interference

between a cowl brace and a sensing element. This interference can cause the sensing element to wear which could
create a short.

tion program. The following procedures are

provided as examples of some general inspection
practices that should be periodically accomplished
on a typical fire detection system. However, these
procedures should not be used in lieu of the manufacturer's approved maintenance directives or
applicable instructions.
One of the first items that must be periodically
checked is the routing and security of the sensing
elements. Long, unsupported sections can vibrate
excessively and cause damage to the element. The
distance between clamps on straight runs is usually
between 8 and 10 inches and is specified by each
manufacturer. In addition, to ensure adequate sup-

Figure 11-13. Grommets should be installed on the sensing

element so both ends are centered on its clamp. The split
end of the grommet should face the outside of the nearest
bend. Clamps and grommets should fit the element snugly.

11-9

Figure 11-14. Fire sensing elements are located in exposed

areas and, therefore, are subject to impact and abrasion.
When inspecting fire elements, be alert for sharp bends,
kinks, and crushed sections.

port when a sensing element ends at a connector, a

support clamp should be located about four to six
inches from the connector fitting. On elements that
are routed around certain components, a straight
run of one inch is typically maintained from all connectors before a bend is started. Furthermore, the
optimum bend radius for most continuous-loop
type sensing elements is three inches. Common
locations of cracked or broken elements are near
inspection plates, cowl panels, engine components,
or cowl supports. [Figure 11-12]
The clamps used to support most continuous-loop
sensing elements consists of a small hinged piece of
aluminum that is bolted or screwed to the aircraft
structure. To help absorb some of the vibration produced by the engine, most support clamps use a
rubber grommet that is wrapped around the sensing
element. These grommets often become softened
from exposure to oils and hydraulic fluid, or hardened from excessive heat. Therefore, the grommets
should be inspected on a regular basis and replaced
as necessary. [Figure 11-13]
In addition to checking for security, a
continuous-loop sensing element should be
checked for dents, kinks, or crushed areas. Each
manufacturer establishes the limits for acceptable
dents or kinks as well as the minimum acceptable
diameter for a sensing element. It is important to
note that if a dent or kink exists that is within the
manufacturer's limits, no attempt should be made
to straighten it. The reason for this is that by
attempting to straighten a sensing element, stresses
may be set up that could cause the tubing to fail.
[Figure 11-14]

Engine Fire Protection

77-70

Figure 11-15. When inspecting an electrical connector joint

such as this one, you should verify that the retaining nut is
properly torqued and the safety wire is secure.

If shielded flexible leads are used, they should be

inspected for fraying. The braided sheath is made
up of many fine metal strands woven into a protective covering surrounding the inner insulated wire.
Continuous bending or rough treatment can break
the wire strands, especially those near the connectors, and cause a short circuit.
Nuts at the end of a sensing element should be
inspected for tightness and proper safetying. Loose
nuts should be retorqued to the value specified by
the manufacturer. Some connection joints require
the use of copper crush gaskets. If this type of gasket is present on a joint, it should be replaced anytime the connection is separated. Additional items
to look for include pieces of safety wire or other
metal particles that could short the sensing element.
[Figure 11-15]
Thermocouple detector mounting brackets should
be repaired or replaced when cracked, corroded, or
damaged. When replacing a thermocouple detector,
note which wire is connected to the plus (+) terminal of the defective unit and connect the replacement detector in the same way.
After the components of a fire detection system
have been inspected, the system must be tested. To
test a typical fire detection system, power is turned
on in the cockpit and the fire detection test switch
is placed in the "TEST" position. Once this is done,
the red warning light should illuminate within the
time period established for the system. On some aircraft an audible alarm will also sound.
On some continuous-loop fire detection systems a
Jetcal Analyzer unit may be used to physically test
the sensing element. A Jetcal Analyzer consists of a

Figure 11-16. A Jetcal Analyzer heats the continuous-loop

fire sensing element to test the fire warning system.

heating element that is used to apply a known heat

value to a sensing element. The heat value displays
on the potentiometer of the Jetcal control panel.
When the alarm temperature is reached, the cockpit
warning light will illuminate. If the light illuminates before the prescribed temperature setting, the
entire loop should be inspected for dents, kinks, or
other damage that could reduce the normal spacing
between the power lead and ground potential of the
loop. [Figure 11-16]
TROUBLESHOOTING
Intermittent alarms or false alarms are probably the
most common problems associated with a fire
detection system. Most intermittent alarms are
caused by an intermittent short circuit in the detector system wiring. Electrical shorts are often caused
by a loose wire that occasionally touches a nearby
terminal, a frayed wire brushing against a structure,
or a sensing element that has rubbed against a structural member long enough to wear through the insulation. Intermittent faults can often be located by
applying power to the system and moving wires to
recreate the short.

Engine Fire Protection

False alarms can typically be located by disconnecting the engine sensing loop from the aircraft wiring.
If the false alarm continues, a short must exist
between the loop connections and the control unit.
However, if the false alarm ceases when the
engine sensing loop is disconnected, the fault is
in the disconnected sensing loop. The loop
should be examined to verify that no portion of
the sensing element is touching the hot engine. If
there is no contact, the shorted section can be
located by isolating and disconnecting elements
consecutively around the entire loop. Kinks and
sharp bends in the sensing element can cause an
internal wire to short intermittently to the outer
tubing. The fault can be located by checking the
sensing element with a megohm meter, or megger,
while tapping the element in the suspected area
to produce the short.
Moisture in the detection system seldom causes a
false fire alarm. However, if moisture does cause an

77-77

alarm, the warning will persist until the contamination is removed or boils away and the resistance of
the loop returns to its normal value.

Another problem you could encounter is the failure

to obtain an alarm signal when the test switch is
actuated. If this occurs, the problem could be
caused by a defective test switch or control unit, the
lack of electrical power, an inoperative indicator
light, or an opening in the sensing element or connecting wiring. Kidde and Fenwal continuous-loop
detectors will not test if a sensing element is shorted
or broken; however, they will provide a fire warning
if a real fire exists. When the test switch fails to provide an alarm, the continuity of a two-wire sensing
loop can be determined by opening the loop and
measuring the resistance of each wire. In a
single-wire continuous-loop system, the center
conductor should be grounded.

FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

ENGINE FIRE ZONES

Before you can fully understand how fires are

extinguished, you must know what makes a fire
burn. A fire is simply a chemical reaction that
occurs when oxygen combines with a fuel to produce heat and, in most cases, light. Three elements
must be present for a fire to occur, including: a
combustible fuel, a supply of oxygen, and heat. If
you remove any one of these three elements, combustion can not be sustained.
The easiest elements for a fire extinguishing agent to
remove are the oxygen supply and the heat required
to start combustion. Therefore, fire extinguishing
systems are designed to dilute oxygen levels to a
point that does not support combustion or to reduce
the temperature below the ignition point.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
All fires are classified by the National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) according to the type
of combustible fuel involved. For example, a Class
A fire is one in which solid combustible materials
such as wood, paper, or cloth burn. An aircraft cabin
fire is a good example of a Class A fire.
Class B fires, on the other hand, involve combustible liquids such as gasoline, oil, turbine fuel,
hydraulic fluid, and many of the solvents used in
aviation maintenance. Class B fires are the most
common type of fire encountered in an engine
nacelle.
Class C fires are those which involve energized
electrical equipment. Special care must be exercised when trying to extinguish a Class C fire
because of the dangers presented by both the electricity and the fire itself.
Class D fires involve a burning metal, such as magnesium, and burn extremely hot. Because Class D
fires burn so hot, the use of water or other liquids on
Class D fires causes the fire to burn more violently
or explode.

The powerplant area is divided into fire zones based

on the volume and smoothness of the airflow
through the engine compartment. These classifications allow manufacturers to match the type of
detection and extinguishing system to the fire conditions. Do not confuse these classifications with
the NFPA fire classifications discussed earlier.
Class A fire zones have large quantities of air flowing past regular arrangements of similarly shaped
obstructions. The power section of a reciprocating
engine where the air flows over the cylinders is an
example of a Class A fire zone.
Class B fire zones have large quantities of air flowing past aero dynamically clean obstructions. Heat
exchanger ducts and exhaust manifold shrouds constitute Class B fire zones. Additional Class B fire
zones include cowlings or tight enclosures that are
smooth, free of pockets, and adequately drained so
leaking flammables cannot puddle. Turbine engine
surfaces sometimes fall within this class if the
engine's surfaces are aerodynamically clean and all
airframe structural formers are covered by a fireproof liner to produce a smooth enclosure.
Class C fire zones have relatively small quantities of
air flowing through them. The compartment behind
the firewall is considered to be a Class C fire zone.
Class D fire zones are areas that have little or no airflow. Wheel wells and the inside of a wing structure
are typical Class D fire zones.
Class X fires zones have large volumes of air flowing through them at an irregular rate. Because of the
sporadic airflow, Class X fire zones are the most difficult to protect from fire. In fact, the amount of
extinguishing agent required to adequately protect a
Class X fire zone is normally twice that required for
other zones. Class X fire zones are common in
engine nacelles.

Engine Fire Protection

11-13

FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

As mentioned previously, the three elements that
are needed to support combustion are a combustible fuel, oxygen, and heat. If any one of these
elements is removed, a fire will not burn. The fixed
fire extinguisher systems used in most engine fire
protection systems are designed to displace the
oxygen with an inert agent that does not support
combustion. The most common types of extinguishing agents used include carbon dioxide and
halogenated hydrocarbons.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) is a colorless, odorless gas
that is about one and one-half times heavier than air.
To be used as an extinguishing agent, carbon dioxide must be compressed and cooled until it becomes
a liquid that can be stored in steel cylinders. When
released into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide
expands and cools to a temperature of about 110.
Once cooled, it becomes a white solid that resembles snow and smothers a fire. After a fire is extinguished, the remaining carbon dioxide slowly
changes from its solid state directly into a gas, leaving almost no residue.
Carbon dioxide is effective on both Class B and
Class C fires. In addition, since carbon dioxide
leaves almost no residue, it is well-suited for engine
intake and carburetor fires. Furthermore, carbon
dioxide is nontoxic and does not promote corrosion.
However, if used improperly, carbon dioxide can
cause physiological problems such as mental confusion and suffocation. Because of its variation in
vapor pressure with temperature, it is necessary to
store CO 2 in stronger containers than are required
for most other extinguishing agents.

HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
A halogen element is one of the group that contains
chlorine, fluorine, bromine, or iodine. Some hydrocarbons combine with halogens to produce very
effective fire extinguishing agents that extinguish
fires by excluding oxygen from the fire source and
by chemically interfering with the combustion
process. Halogenated hydrocarbon fire extinguishing agents are most effective on Class B and C fires,
but can be used on Class A and D fires as well.
However, their effectiveness on Class A and D fires
is somewhat limited.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are numbered according
to their chemical formulas with five-digit Halon

Figure 11-17. Halogenated hydrocarbon fire extinguishing

agents provide effective fire suppression in aircraft engine
compartments.

numbers which identify the chemical makeup of

the agent. The first digit represents the number of
carbon atoms in the compound molecule; the second digit, the number of fluorine atoms; the third
digit, the number of chlorine atoms; the fourth
digit, the number of bromine atoms; and the fifth
digit, the number of iodine atoms, if any. If there is
no iodine present the fifth digit does not appear.
For example, bromotrifluoromethane CF 3 Br is
referred to as Halon 1301, or sometimes by the
trade name Freon 13 .
Halon 1301 is extremely effective for extinguishing
fires in engine compartments of both piston and turbine powered aircraft. In engine compartment
installations, the Halon 1301 container is pressurized by compressed nitrogen and is discharged
through spray nozzles. [Figure 11-17]
A number of halogenated hydrocarbon agents have
been used in the past, but are no longer in production. The reason for this is that some early Halon
extinguishing agents produced toxic or corrosive
gases when exposed to fire. For example, carbon
tetrachloride (Halon 104) was the first generally
accepted Halon extinguishing agent, and was very
popular for electrical hazards. However, when
exposed to heat, its vapors formed a deadly phosgene gas. Another once popular agent was methyl
bromide (Halon 1001). However, methyl bromide is
toxic to personnel and corrosive to aluminum
alloys, magnesium, and zinc. Of all the halogenated
hydrocarbon extinguishing agents, Halon 1301 is
the safest to use from the standpoint of toxicity and
corrosion hazards.
Because of changing regulations, and developing
environmental impact data, you should keep
abreast of current developments pertaining to the

7 7-74

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-18. If a CO 2 cylinder is mounted vertically, a straight-siphon tube is used, however, if the cylinder is mounted horizontally, a short-flexible siphon tube must be used. The type of siphon tube installed is typically indicated by stamping a code on the
body bushing. If an "SF" appears, a short-flexible siphon is installed. However, if an "S" appears, a straight siphon tube is
installed. Other manufacturers stamp or stencil the type of siphon used on the cylinder body.

use of halogenated hydrocarbons as fire extinguishing agents. For example, several studies suggest that
chloroflourocarbons (CFCs) such as Halon damage
the ozone layer in the stratosphere, allowing higher
levels of ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth. To
reduce damage to the ozone layer, the
Environmental Protection Agency banned the production of CFCs after December 31, 1995. However,
existing stocks of CFCs were allowed to be used
after this date. Several alternatives to CFCs have
recently been developed and will most likely find
applications as aviation fire extinguishing agents.
For example, DuPont FE-25 has proven to be an
acceptable substitute for Halon 1301 as an extinguishing agent and has no harmful affect on the
earth's ozone layer.
It is important for you, as an aviation maintenance
technician, to be aware of EPA and FAA regulations
governing the use and disposal of CFCs. Improper
handling or disposal of halogenated hydrocarbons
can lead to civil and criminal penalties.

FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

hi an aircraft, it is important that the type of fire
extinguishing system available be appropriate for
the class of fire that is likely to occur. There are two

basic categories of fire extinguishing systems: conventional systems, and high-rate-of-discharge

(HRD) systems. Both systems utilize one or more
containers of extinguishing agent and a distribution
system that releases the extinguishing agent through
perforated tubing or discharge nozzles. As a general
rule, the type of system installed can be identified
by the type of extinguishing agent used. For example, conventional systems usually employ carbon
dioxide as the extinguishing agent while HRD systems typically utilize halogenated hydrocarbons.
CONVENTIONAL SYSTEMS
The fire extinguishing installations used in most
older aircraft are referred to as conventional systems. Many of these systems are still used in some
aircraft, and are satisfactory for their intended use.
A conventional fire extinguisher system consists of
a cylinder that stores carbon dioxide under pressure
and a remotely controlled valve assembly that distributes the extinguishing agent to the engines.
Carbon dioxide cylinders come in various sizes, are
made of stainless steel, and are typically wrapped
with steel wire to make them shatterproof. In addition, the normal gas storage pressure ranges from

Engine Fire Protection

11-15

700 to 1,000 psi. Since the freezing point of carbon

dioxide is so low, a storage cylinder does not have
to be protected against cold weather; however,
cylinders can discharge prematurely in hot climates. To prevent this, manufacturers sometimes
charge a cylinder with about 200 psi of dry nitrogen
before they fill the cylinder with carbon dioxide.
When treated in this manner, most CO 2 cylinders
are protected against premature discharge up to
160. The nitrogen also provides additional pressure during normal release of the agent.
Carbon dioxide cylinders are equipped internally
with one of three types of siphon tubes. The cylinders used in aircraft typically utilize either a
straight-rigid, or a short-flexible siphon tube. The
type of siphon tube installed in the cylinder is
determined by the cylinder's mounting position.
[Figure 11-18]
The CO 2 within a cylinder is distributed through
tubing from the CO 2 cylinder valve to the control
valve assembly in the cockpit. Once past the control
valve, the CO 2 proceeds to the engines via solid tubing installed in the fuselage and wing. Inside the
engine compartment, the tubing is perforated so the
carbon dioxide can be discharged. [Figure 11-19]
To operate a conventional fire extinguisher system,
a selector valve in the cockpit must be manually set
for the engine compartment that is on fire. Once this
is done, a T-shaped control handle located next to
the selector valve is pulled upward to actuate the
release lever in the CO 2 cylinder valve. Once
released, the compressed carbon dioxide flows in
one rapid burst to the outlets in the distribution line
of the affected engine compartment. Contact with
the air converts the liquid CO 2 into a solid which
smother the flames.
Some CO 2 systems have multiple bottles giving the
system the capability of delivering extinguishing
agent twice to any of the engine compartments.
Each bank of CO 2 bottles is equipped with a red
thermo discharge indicator disk and a yellow system discharge indicator disk. The red thermo discharge disc is set to rupture and discharge the carbon dioxide overboard if the cylinder pressure
becomes excessively high (about 2,650 psi). On the
other hand, the yellow system discharge disk ruptures whenever a bank of bottles has been emptied
by a normal discharge. These disks are mounted so
they are visible on the outside of the fuselage. This
way, during a preflight inspection, the flight crew
can identify the condition of the system.

Figure 11-19. In a fire extinguishing system that utilizes carbon dioxide as an extinguishing agent, a sturdy cylinder
assembly is mounted to the airframe and connected to a
distribution line. In addition, an operating valve that is controlled from the cockpit is installed to hold the carbon dioxide in the cylinder until it's needed.

HIGH-RATE DISCHARGE SYSTEMS

High-rate-of-discharge (HRD) is the term applied to
the fire extinguishing systems found in most modern turbine engine aircraft. A typical HRD system
consists of a container to hold the extinguishing
agent, at least one bonnet assembly, and a series of
high-pressure feed lines.
The containers used in an HRD system are typically
made of steel and spherically shaped. There are four
sizes in common use today, ranging from 224 cubic
inches to 945 cubic inches. The smaller containers
generally have two openings, one for the bonnet
assembly or operating head, and the other for a
fusible safety plug. The larger containers are usually
equipped with two bonnet assemblies.
Each container is partially filled with an extinguishing agent, such as Halon 1301, and sealed with
a frangible disk. Once sealed, the container is pressurized with dry nitrogen. A container pressure
gauge is provided so you can quickly reference the
container pressure. The bonnet assembly contains

7 7-76

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-21. A typical extinguishing agent container on a

multi-engine aircraft has two firing bonnets.

Figure 11-20. In a typical HRD container, the extinguishing

agent is released within one to two seconds by an electrically actuated explosive that ruptures a frangible disk. Once
broken, the disk fragments collect in a strainer while the
extinguishing agent is directed to the engine nacelle.

an electrically ignited discharge cartridge, or squib,

which fires a projectile into the frangible disk. Once
the disk breaks, the pressurized nitrogen forces the
extinguishing agent out of the sphere. To prevent
the broken disk fragments from getting into the distribution lines, a strainer is also installed in the bonnet assembly. [Figure 11-20]
As a safety feature, each extinguishing container is
equipped with a thermal fuse that melts and
releases the extinguishing agent if the bottle is subjected to high temperatures. If a bottle is emptied in
this way, the extinguishing agent will blowout a red
indicator disk as it vents to the atmosphere. On the
other hand, if the bottle is discharged normally, a
yellow indicator disk blowns out. Like a conventional system, the indicator disks are visible from
the outside of the fuselage for easy reference.
When installed on a multi-engine aircraft, the fire
extinguishing agent containers are typically
equipped with two firing bonnets. The two discharge ports allow one container to serve both
engines. [Figure 11-21]
On large multi-engine aircraft, two extinguishing
agent containers are generally installed, each with
two firing bonnets. This allows twin-engine aircraft

to have a dedicated container for each engine. In

addition, the two discharge ports on each bottle provide a means of discharging both containers into
one engine compartment. [Figure 11-22]

INSPECTION AND SERVICING

Regular maintenance of fire extinguishing systems
includes inspecting and servicing the fire extinguisher bottles, removing and re-installing discharge
cartridges, testing the discharge tubing for leaks, and
testing electrical wiring for continuity. The following discussion looks at some of these common maintenance procedures to provide an understanding of
the operations involved. However, as an aviation
maintenance technician, you must understand that
fire extinguishing system maintenance procedures
vary substantially, depending on the design and construction of the particular unit being serviced.
Therefore, the detailed procedures outlined by the
airframe or system manufacturer should always be
followed when performing maintenance.
CONTAINER PRESSURE CHECK
A pressure check of fire extinguisher containers is
made periodically to determine that the pressure is
between the minimum and maximum limits prescribed by the manufacturer. Aircraft service manuals contain pressure/temperature curves or charts
that provide the permissible gauge readings corrected for temperature. If the pressure does not fall
within the appropriate limits, the container must be
removed and replaced with a properly charged container. [Figure 11-23]

Engine Fire Protection

11-17

Figure 11-22. A typical high-rate-of-discharge extinguishing system installed on a large multi-engine aircraft utilizes two agent
containers, each with two discharge ports. This permits two applications of extinguishing agent to any one engine.

Figure 11-23. This pressure/temperature chart allows you to determine if a specific fire extinguishing bottle is properly charged.
As an example, assume the ambient temperature is 70 and you must check to see if a fire extinguishing container is properly
charged. To do this, find 70 degrees at the bottom of the chart and follow the line up vertically until it intersects the minimum
gauge reading curve. From here, move left horizontally to find a minimum pressure of about 540 psig. Next, go back to the 70
line and follow it up vertically until it intersects the maximum gauge reading curve. From this point, follow the horizontal line to
the left to determine a maximum pressure of approximately 690 psig. As long as the pressure gauge on the container indicates
between 540 psig and 690 psig, the container is properly charged.

11-18

Engine Fire Protection

Once you have determined that a bottle is properly

charged, check to make certain that the glass on the
pressure gauge is not broken. In addition, verify that
the bottle is securely mounted to the airframe.

replacing cartridges and bonnet assemblies. Before

installation on an aircraft, the cartridge must be
properly assembled into the bonnet and the entire
assembly connected to the container. [Figure 11-24]

The only way to determine if the appropriate

amount of extinguishing agent is in a given container is to weigh the container. Therefore, most fire
extinguishing containers require re-weighing at frequent intervals. In addition to the weight check, fire
extinguisher containers must be hydrostatically
tested at five-year intervals.

If a discharge cartridge is removed from a bonnet

assembly, it should not be used in another bonnet
assembly. In addition, since discharge cartridges are
fired electrically, they should be properly grounded
or shorted to prevent accidental firing.

DISCHARGE CARTRIDGES
The discharge cartridges used with HRD containers
are life-limited and the service life is calculated from
the manufacturer's date stamped on the cartridge.
The manufacturer's service life is usually expressed
in terms of hours and is valid as long as the cartridge
has not exceeded a predetermined temperature
limit. Many cartridges are available with a service
life of up to 5,000 hours. To determine a cartridge's
service life, it is necessary to remove the electrical
leads and discharge hose from the bonnet assembly.
Once this is done, the bonnet assembly can be
removed from the extinguisher container so you can
see the date stamped on the cartridge.
Most new extinguisher containers are supplied with
their cartridge and bonnet assembly disassembled.
Therefore,
care
must be taken in
assembling or

727 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

The following discussion is intended to give you an
overview of a typical fire extinguishing system
installed on a transport category aircraft. The fire
protection system used on a Boeing 727 is typical of
those found on several aircraft in service today.
ha the Boeing 727 powerplant fire extinguishing system, all three powerplant areas are protected by two
high-rate-of-discharge bottles. Each of the two agent
bottles has a gauge to indicate its pressure, and an electrical pressure switch is mounted on each bottle to activate a bottle discharge light on the instrument panel
when the pressure on the agent bottle is below limits.
Once the extinguishing agent leaves a bottle, it proceeds to a two-way shuttle valve that channels the
extinguishing agent into the distribution system.
Once in the distribution system, the extinguishing
agent passes through the appropriate engine selec-

Figure 11-24. When assembling a discharge cartridge into a bonnet assembly, it is best to use an exploded view drawing like the
one above. Once assembled, the entire bonnet assembly is attached to the container by means of a swivel nut that tightens
against a packing ring gasket.

Engine Fire Protection

11-19

Figure 11-25. The Boeing 727 aircraft utilizes two fire bottles and three selector valves to provide fire suppression to all three
engines. With this arrangement, the cockpit crew can discharge both bottles to a single engine.

tor valve to a series of discharge nozzles within the

engine compartment. If the fire is not extinguished
after discharging one bottle, the second bottle can be
discharged and the extinguishing agent routed to
the same engine. [Figure 11-25]
The controls for the 727 fire protection system consist of three engine fire warning lights, one wheel
well fire warning light, a bottle transfer switch, a
fire bell cutout switch, a fire detection system test
switch, and a detector inoperative test switch. The
fire warning lights are part of the fire detection system and illuminate whenever one of the fire detectors detects a fire. On the other hand, the bottle
transfer switch allows the pilot to select which bottle of extinguishing agent is discharged. The fire bell
disable switch silences the fire bell after it has been
activated by a fire indication. The fire detection system test switch checks the continuity of the detectors and operation of the warning system. The
detector inoperative test switch tests the circuits

that activate the "Detector mop" lights and, if the

systems are functioning properly, momentarily illuminate the "Detector Inop" lights. [Figure 11-26]
When a fire is sensed, a red warning light inside the
engine fire switch illuminates and the fire bell rings.
When the warning light comes on, the pilot pulls
the appropriate engine fire handle. This arms the
fire extinguisher bottle discharge switch, disconnects the generator field relay, stops the flow of fuel
and hydraulic fluid to the engine, and shuts off the
engine bleed air. It also deactivates the engine-driven hydraulic pump low-pressure lights and uncovers the bottle discharge switch. If the pilot determines that a fire actually exists in the engine compartment, the extinguishing agent is released by
depressing and holding the bottle discharge switch.
When the discharge switch is depressed, electrical
current causes the discharge cartridge to explode
and shatter the frangible disk. With the frangible
disk broken, the extinguishing agent is released into

11-20

Engine Fire Protection

Figure 11-26. A typical Boeing 727 fire control panel provides an indication of wheel well or engine compartment fires, controls fire
bottle discharge, and permits testing of the fire detector system.

the appropriate engine compartment. Once the

extinguishing agent is discharged, the fire warning
light should go out within thirty seconds. If the
warning light does not go out, the pilot can move
the bottle transfer switch to its opposite position to
select the second bottle of extinguishing agent, and
again push the bottle discharge switch. Once the fire
extinguisher bottle has been discharged, or when its
pressure is low, the appropriate bottle discharge
light illuminates.
GROUND FIRE PROTECTION

Since the introduction of large turbine engine aircraft, the problem of ground fires has increased in
seriousness. For this reason, a central ground connection to the aircraft's fire extinguishing system is
incorporated on some aircraft. Such systems provide a more effective means of extinguishing ground
fires and eliminate the necessity of removing and
recharging the aircraft-installed fire extinguisher
cylinders. These systems typically include a means
for operating the entire system from one place on

the ground, such as the cockpit or at the location of

the fire extinguishing agent supply.
On aircraft not equipped with a central ground connection to the aircraft fire extinguishing system,
means are usually provided for rapid access to the
compressor, tailpipe, or burner compartments. The
rapid access is typically by means of a
spring-loaded or pop-out access door in the skin
surrounding these compartments.
Internal engine tailpipe fires that take place during
engine shutdown or false starts can be blown out by
motoring the engine with the starter. If the engine is
running, it can be accelerated to its rated speed to
achieve the same result. However, if a tailpipe fire
persists, a fire extinguishing agent can be directed
into the tailpipe. However, keep in mind that excessive use of CO 2 or other agents that have a chilling
effect can shrink the turbine housing onto the turbine and cause the engine to disintegrate. Therefore,
exercise prudent judgment when directing fire
extinguishing agents into a hot engine tailpipe.

PROPELLERS

INTRODUCTION
Since the first powered flight, propellers have been used to convert aircraft engine power into thrust. Although
many modern transport category aircraft are powered by turbojet or turbofan engines, most of the aircraft in use
today are propelled by one or more propellers that are driven by either a turbine or reciprocating engine.
Regardless of the engine type, the primary purpose of a propeller is to convert engine power to thrust. Therefore,
as an aircraft maintenance technician, you must have a thorough understanding of the basic principles, maintenance, and repair of propeller systems.

PROPELLER PRINCIPLES

With few exceptions, nearly all early aircraft

designs used propellers to create thrust. During the
latter part of the 19th century, many unusual and
innovative propeller designs were tried on early flying machines. These early propeller designs ranged
from simple fabric covered wooden paddles to elaborate multi-bladed wire-braced designs. As the science of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs
evolved from flat boards which merely pushed air
backward, to airfoils that produce lift to pull an aircraft forward. At the time the Wright brothers began
their first powered flights, propeller design had
evolved into the standard two-bladed style.
Development of propeller design with new materials has produced thinner airfoil sections and greater
strength. Because of their structural strength, aluminum alloys are predominantly used as the structural material in modern aircraft propellers.
However, you can still find several propellers that
are constructed of wood.
Today, propeller designs continue to be improved
through the use of new airfoil shapes, composite
materials, and multi-blade configurations. Recent
improvements include the use of composite materials to produce laminar flow symmetrical airfoils
and gull wing propeller designs.

All modern propellers consist of at least two blades

that are connected to a central hub. The portion of a
propeller blade that is nearest the hub is referred to
as the blade shank whereas the portion furthest
from the hub is called the blade tip. The propeller
hub, or hub assembly, is bored out to create a hub
bore which permits a propeller to be mounted on
the engine crankshaft or to a reduction gear assembly. [Figure 12-1]
Each blade on a propeller acts as a rotating wing to
produce lift and pull an aircraft through the air.
Therefore, in addition to the basic nomenclature
just discussed, propeller blades share much of the
same nomenclature as aircraft wings. For example,
all propeller blades have a leading edge, a trailing
edge, and a chord line. If you recall from your study
of airfoils, a chord line is an imaginary line drawn
through an airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge. The curved, or cambered side of a propeller blade is called the blade back and the flat
side is called the blade face. A propeller's blade
angle is the acute angle formed by a propeller's
plane of rotation and the blade's chord line. A propeller's plane of rotation is always perpendicular to
the engine crankshaft. [Figure 12-2]
Propellers which allow changes in blade angle have
removable blades that are secured to a hub assembly
by a set of clamping rings. Each blade root has a

flanged butt, or shoulder, which mates with grooves

in the hub assembly. The blade shank on this type
of blade is typically round and extends out to at
least the end of the hub assembly; however, in some

NOMENCLATURE
Before you can fully understand the principles of
how a propeller produces thrust, you must be familiar with some basic terms and component names.

Figure 12-1. The blades of a single-piece propeller extend from the hub assembly. Blades have a shank and a tip, while the hub
assembly has a hub bore and bolt holes that facilitate propeller mounting.

12-3

Propellers

increase the flow of cooling air to the engine

nacelle. Mechanical clamping devices and bonding
agents such as a rubber-base adhesive or epoxy
adhesive are utilized to attach the cuffs to the
blades. [Figure 12-3]
To aid in identifying specific points along the length
of a propeller blade, most blades have several
defined blade stations. A blade station is simply a
reference position on a propeller blade that is a
specified distance from the center of the hub.

PROPELLER THEORY
Figure 12-2. All propeller blades have a leading edge, a
trailing edge, and a chord line. In addition, all propeller
blades are set at a specific angle that is defined by the
acute angle formed by the propeller's plane of rotation and
the chord line.

cases, the shank may extend beyond the hub assembly and into the airstream. When this is the case,
blade cuffs may be installed to improve air flow
around the blade shank. A blade cuff is an
airfoil-shaped attachment made of thin sheets of
metal, plastic, or composite material. Blade cuffs
mount on the blade
shanks
and are
primarily used to

Figure 12-3. Some large turboprop propeller blades are fitted with blade cuffs to improve the airflow around the
blade shanks.

When the propeller rotates through the air, a low

pressure area is created in front of the blade, much
like the wing's curvature creates a low pressure area
above the wing. This low pressure area, combined
with the constant, or high pressure area behind the
blade allow a propeller to produce thrust. The
amount of thrust produced depends on several factors including, the angle of attack of the propeller
blades, the speed the blades move through the air,
and the shape of the airfoil. The angle of attack of a
propeller blade is the angle formed by the chord line
of the blade and the relative wind. The direction of
the relative wind is determined by the speed an aircraft moves through the air and the rotational
motion of the propeller. For example, when a propeller rotates on a stationary aircraft, the direction
of the relative wind is exactly opposite to the rotational movement of the propeller. Therefore, the
propeller blade's angle of attack is the same as the
propeller blade angle. [Figure 12-4]

Figure 12-4. With no forward velocity, the relative wind is

directly opposite the movement of the propeller blade. In
this case, a propeller's angle of attack is the same as its
blade angle.

Propellers

72-4

Figure 12-5. In forward flight, the airplane moves from point

A to point B while the propeller moves from point C to
point D. In this case, the propeller's trailing edge follows the
path from C to D which represents the resultant relative
wind. This results in an angle of attack that is less than the
blade angle.

Figure 12-6. If the forward velocity of the aircraft remains

constant, but a propeller's rotational speed increases, the
propeller's trailing edge will move a greater distance for a
given amount of forward movement. This increases the
angle at which the relative wind strikes the propeller blade
which, in turn, increases the angle of attack.

When the same aircraft begins moving forward, the

relative wind changes direction. The reason for this
is that, in addition to rotating, the propeller is also
moving forward. The combination of the rotating and
forward motion produce a resultant relative wind
that is not directly opposite the movement of the propeller blade. In this case, the angle of attack will
always be less than the blade angle. [Figure 12-5]

Unlike a wing which moves through the air at a uniform rate, the propeller sections near the tip rotate
at a much greater speed than those near the hub.
The difference in rotational velocity along a propeller blade segment can be found by first calculating the circumference of the arc traveled by a point
on that segment. If you recall from your general
studies, the circumference of a circle is calculated
with the formula:

Based on how forward motion affects the relative

wind acting on a propeller blade, it can be determined that for a given propeller speed, the faster an
aircraft moves through the air, the smaller the angle
of attack on the propeller blade. However, if propeller speed is increased, the trailing edge of the
propeller blade travels a greater distance for a given
amount of forward movement. Therefore, as propeller speed increases, the relative wind strikes the
propeller blade at a greater angle and the angle of
attack increases. [Figure 12-6]

2irr
The circumference is then multiplied by engine rpm
to find rotational velocity. For example, to determine the blade velocity at a point 18 inches from
the hub that is rotating at 1,800 rpm use the following formula:
Velocity = 2TTr x rpm
= 2 XTT x 18 x 1,800 =

The most effective angle of attack for a propeller

blade is between 2 and 4 degrees. Any angle of
attack exceeding 15 degrees is ineffective because of
the possibility of a propeller blade stall. Typically,
propellers with a fixed blade angle are designed to
produce an angle of attack between 2 and 4 degrees
at either a climb or cruise airspeed with a specific
rpm setting.

203,575
At a point 18 inches from the hub the blade travels
203,575 inches per minute. To convert this to miles
per hour, divide 203,575 by 63,360, the number of
inches in one mile, and multiply the product by 60,
the number of minutes in one hour.

12-5

Propellers

Figure 12-7. As a propeller blade rotates at a fixed rpm, each

blade segment moves through the air at a different velocity.

Figure 12-8. The variation in airfoil shape and blade angle

along the length of a propeller blade compensates for differences in rotational speed and allows for a more even distribution of thrust along the blade.

allows the propeller to provide a fairly constant

angle of attack along most of the length of the blade.
The speed of the propeller at station 18 is 192.7
miles per hour. You can now compare this to the
speed of the propeller at station 48. By applying the
formulas just discussed, you can determine that, at
station 48, the propeller is moving at a speed of 514
miles per hour. [Figure 12-7]

In addition to blade twist, most propellers are built

with a thicker, low speed airfoil near the blade hub
and a thinner, high speed airfoil near the tip. This,
combined with blade twist, permits a propeller to
produce a relatively constant amount of thrust along
a propeller blade's entire length. [Figure 12-8]

To compensate for the difference in velocity along a

propeller blade, each small section of the propeller
blade is set at a different angle. The gradual
decrease in blade angle from the hub to the tip is
called pitch distribution. This is what gives a propeller blade its twisted appearance.
Blade
twist

FORCES ACTING ON A PROPELLER

A rotating propeller is subjected to many forces that
cause tension, twisting, and bending stresses within
the propeller. Of the forces that act on a propeller,
centrifugal force causes the greatest stress.
Centrifugal force can best be described as the force

72-6

Propellers

Figure 12-9. When a propeller is rotating, centrifugal force

tries to pull propeller blades away from the hub.

Figure 12-11. Torque bending forces exert a pressure that

tends to bend the blades opposite the direction of rotation.

which tries to pull the blades out of the hub. The

amount of stress created by centrifugal force can be
greater than 7,500 times the weight of the propeller
blade, [Figure 12-9]

Torque bending forces occur as air resistance

opposes the rotational motion of the propeller
blades. This force tends to bend the blades opposite
the direction of rotation. [Figure 12-11]

Thrust bending force, on the other hand, attempts to

bend the propeller blades forward at the tips. This
occurs because propeller blades are typically thinner near the tip and this allows the thrust produced
at the tip to flex the blade forward. Thrust bending
force opposes centrifugal force to some degree.
[Figure 12-10]

Aerodynamic twisting force results from the fact

that, when a propeller blade produces thrust, the
majority of the thrust produced is exerted ahead of
the blade's axis of rotation. Therefore, aerodynamic
twisting force tends to increase a propeller's blade
angle. In some cases, aerodynamic twisting force is
used to help change the blade angle on a propeller.
[Figure 12-12]

Figure 12-10. Thrust bending forces exert a pressure that

tends to bend the propeller blade tips forward.

Figure 12-12. The majority of thrust produced by a propeller

To t^vrted a'nead ot tne'blade's axis o'r rotation.This produces an aerodynamic twisting force that attempts to
increase a propeller's blade angle.

Propellers

12-7

blade, the most critical location is about six inches

from the blade tips.
Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations
have eliminated the detrimental effects of vibrational stresses by careful design. Nevertheless,
some engine/propeller combinations do have a
critical range where severe propeller vibration
can occur. In this case, the critical range is indicated on the tachometer by a red arc. Engine operation in the critical range should be limited to a
brief passage from one rpm setting to another.
Engine operation in the critical range for extended
periods can lead to structural failure of the propeller or aircraft.
Figure 12-13. Centrifugal twisting force attempts to
decrease blade angle by aligning a propeller's center of
mass with its center of rotation.

Centrifugal twisting force opposes aerodynamic

twisting force in that it attempts to decrease a propeller's blade angle. When a propeller rotates, centrifugal force tries to align the propeller's center of
mass with its center of rotation. A propeller's center
of mass is typically ahead of its center of rotation;
therefore, when a propeller rotates, centrifugal force
tries to decrease its blade angle. At operational
speeds, centrifugal twisting force is greater than
aerodynamic twisting force and is used in some
propeller designs to decrease the blade angle.
[Figure 12-13]
The final force that is exerted on a spinning propeller is blade vibration. When a propeller produces thrust, blade vibration occurs due to the aerodynamic and mechanical forces that are present. For
example, aerodynamic forces tend to bend the propeller blades forward at the tips producing buffeting
and vibration. On the other hand, mechanical vibrations are caused by the power pulses in a piston
engine. Of the two, mechanical vibrations are considered to be more destructive than aerodynamic
vibrations. The reason for this is that engine power
pulses tend to create standing wave patterns in a
propeller blade that can lead to metal fatigue and
structural failure.
The location and number of stress points in a blade
depend on the characteristics of the individual propeller/engine combination. While concentrations of
vibrational stress are detrimental at any point on a

Propeller design typically allows for some degree of

vibrational stress. However, in situations where a
propeller has been improperly altered, vibration
may cause excessive flexing and work hardening of
the metal to the extent that sections of the propeller
blade could break off in flight.

PROPELLER PITCH

In the strictest sense, propeller pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller advances longitudinally in
one revolution. Pitch and blade angle describe two
different concepts, however, they are closely
related and the two terms are often used interchangeably. For example, when a propeller is said
to have a fixed pitch, what is actually meant is that
the blades on the propeller are set at a fixed blade
angle.
A propeller's geometric pitch is defined as the distance, in inches, that a propeller will move forward
in one revolution if it were moving through a solid
medium and did not encounter any loss of efficiency. Measurement of geometric pitch is based on
the propeller blade angle at a point out from the propeller hub that is equal to 75 percent of the blade
length.
When traveling through air, inefficiencies prevent a
propeller from moving forward at a rate equal to its
geometric pitch. Therefore, effective pitch is the
actual amount a propeller moves forward in one
revolution. Effective pitch varies from zero when
the aircraft is stationary on the ground, to about 90
percent of the geometric pitch during the most efficient flight conditions. The difference between geometric
pitch
and effective pitch is
called slip.

12-8

Propellers

Figure 12-14. Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller would move forward if it were 100% efficient. Effective pitch,
on the other hand, is the actual distance a propeller moves forward in one revolution. Slip is the difference between geometric
and effective pitch.

Propeller slip represents the total losses caused by

inefficiencies. [Figure 12-14]
If a propeller has a geometric pitch of 50 inches, in
theory it should move forward 50 inches in one revolution. However, if the aircraft actually moves forward only 35 inches in one revolution, the effective
pitch is 35 inches and the propeller is 70 percent
efficient. In this case, slip represents 15 inches or a
30 percent loss of efficiency. In practice, most propellers are 75 to 85 percent efficient.

PROPELLER CLASSIFICATIONS
Propellers are typically classified according to
their position on the aircraft. For example, tractor
propellers are mounted on the front of an engine
and pull an aircraft through the air. On the other
hand, pusher-type propellers are mounted on the
aft end of an aircraft and push an airplane through
the air. Most aircraft are equipped with tractor-type
propellers; however, there are several seaplanes
and amphibious aircraft that are equipped with
pusher propellers. A major advantage of the tractor-type propeller is that lower stresses are
induced in the propeller as it rotates in relatively
undisturbed air.
Both tractor- and pusher-type propellers effectively
propel an aircraft through the air. However, in some
instances one type of propeller may be better suited
for a given airplane. For example, on land planes
that have little propeller-to-ground clearance,
pusher-type propellers are subject to more damage

than tractor-type propellers. The reason for this is

that rocks, gravel, and small objects that are dislodged by wheels are frequently thrown or drawn
into a pusher-type propeller. On the other hand, it
would be very difficult to install a tractor-type
propeller on some amphibious aircraft.
Propellers also are classified by the method used to
establish pitch. Typical classifications that are used
here include fixed pitch, ground adjustable, controllable pitch, constant speed, reversible, and
feathering.
The simplest type of propeller is a fixed-pitch propeller. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for a particular aircraft to produce optimum efficiency at a
specific rotational and forward speed. A fixed-pitch
propeller with a low blade angle, often called a
climb propeller, provides the best performance for
takeoff and climb. On the other hand, a fixed-pitch
propeller with a high blade angle, often called a
cruise propeller, is more adapted to high speed
cruise and high altitude flight. It is important to
note that with this type of propeller, any change
from the optimum rpm or airspeed reduces the efficiency of the propeller.
Ground-adjustable propellers are similar to
fixed-pitch propellers in that their blade angles
cannot be changed in flight. However, the propeller
is constructed in a way that allows the blade angle
to be changed on the ground. This type of
propeller is found mostly on aircraft built between
the 1920s and 1940s.

Propellers

Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage

over ground adjustable propellers in that the blade
angle may be changed while the propeller is rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a blade
angle that provides the best performance for a particular flight condition. The number of pitch positions may be limited, as with a two-position controllable propeller; or the pitch may be adjusted to
any angle between a minimum and maximum
pitch setting.
Constant-speed propellers, sometimes referred to as
automatic propellers, are unique in that once a pilot
selects an operating rpm, the propeller blades automatically adjust to maintain the selected rpm. With
this type of propeller, pitch control is provided by a
controlling device known as a governor. A typical
governor utilizes oil pressure to control blade pitch.
Constant speed propeller systems provide maximum efficiency by allowing the pilot to control the
propeller blade angle for most conditions encountered in flight.
Reversible-pitch propellers are a refinement of the
constant-speed propeller. On aircraft equipped with
a reversible propeller, the propeller blades can be
rotated to a negative angle to produce reverse thrust.
This forces air forward instead of backward and permits a shorter landing roll and improved ground
maneuvering.
Most multi-engine aircraft are equipped with a
featherable propeller. A feathering propeller is a
type of constant-speed propeller that has the ability
to rotate the propeller blades so that the leading
edge of each blade is pointed straight forward into
the wind. The only time a pilot selects the feather
position is if an engine fails. Placing the blades in
the feather position eliminates a great deal of the
drag associated with a windmilling propeller.

12-9

rial used in the construction of both fixed- and

adjustable-pitch propellers. In addition, some composite materials are now being utilized because of
their light weight and flexibility.
WOOD
Wood was the most reliable material for fabrication
of propellers for many years. Hardwoods such as
birch, maple, and several others possess the flexibility and strength required for a propeller used on
low horsepower engines of small aircraft. The molecular structure of wood allows it to absorb engine
vibration to a large degree and does not support resonant vibrations. However, unless wood materials
are coated with a tough protective layer of resin or
other material, they are susceptible to damage from
gravel and debris during ground operations.
ALUMINUM ALLOY
Today, the vast majority of propellers used are constructed of an aluminum alloy. Aluminum is more
desirable than wood because it allows thinner, more
efficient airfoils to be constructed without sacrificing structural strength. In addition, the airfoil sections on an aluminum propeller typically extend
close to the hub providing better airflow for engine
cooling. Furthermore, aluminum propellers require
much less maintenance than wood propellers,
thereby reducing the operating cost.
STEEL
Steel propellers and blades are found primarily on
antique and older generation transport aircraft.
Because steel is a heavy metal, steel blades are normally hollow consisting of steel sheets attached to a
rib structure. The hollow area is then filled wida a
foam material to help absorb vibration and maintain
a rigid structure.

PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Almost all propellers produced are made of wood,
steel, aluminum, or some type of composite material. In the early years of aircraft development all
propellers were made of wood. However, since
wood is fairly susceptible to damage, steel propellers quickly found their way into aviation.
Today, aluminum alloys are the predominant mate-

COMPOSITE
Composite propeller blades are slowly gaining in
popularity. Some advantages of composite propellers include the fact that they are lightweight and
extremely durable. In addition, composites absorb
vibration and are resilient, making them resistant to
damage and corrosion.

FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS
quently operates from short runways, or high field
elevations generally perform better with a climb
propeller. On the other hand, aircraft which are normally operated at sea level from airports with long
runways may be equipped with a cruise propeller.
The simplest type of propeller is a fixed-pitch propeller. As its name implies, the blade angle on a
fixed-pitch propeller is fixed and cannot easily be
changed. Because of this, fixed-pitch propellers
achieve their optimum efficiency at a specific rotational and forward speed.

FIXED-PITCH CLASSIFICATIONS
A typical fixed-pitch propeller installed on a light
aircraft has a diameter between 67 and 76 inches
and a pitch between 53 and 68 inches. The exact
diameter and pitch required for a specific airplane
is specified by the aircraft manufacturer. In some
cases, a manufacturer may authorize multiple propellers, each with a different pitch. In this case, a
propeller with the lower blade angle provides the
best performance for takeoff and climb and, therefore, is often called a climb propeller. The low blade
angle allows the engine to develop its maximum
rpm at the slower airspeeds associated with
climbout. However, once the aircraft reaches its
cruising altitude and begins to accelerate, the low
blade angle becomes inefficient.
A fixed-pitch propeller with a slightly higher blade
angle is called a cruise propeller. A cruise propeller
is designed to be efficient at cruising speed and high
altitude flight. However, because of the higher
pitch, cruise propellers are very inefficient during
takeoff and climbout.
A standard propeller is often referred to as a compromise between a climb propeller and cruise propeller. Each aircraft manufacturer usually designates a standard propeller which is designed to provide the best all-around performance under normal
circumstances.
When an aircraft-engine combination is type certificated with a specified standard, climb, and cruise
propeller, the aircraft operator may choose the type
of fixed-pitch propeller which provides the best
performance for the flight operations most often
conducted.
For example,
an
aircraft
which fre-

PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Almost all fixed-pitch propellers produced are
made of either wood or aluminum. Of the two, aluminum is the most common, especially on production aircraft. However, there are still several classic
and experimental aircraft that utilize wood propellers.
WOODEN PROPELLERS
A majority of fixed-pitch propellers were made from
wood until World War II and wooden propellers are
still in limited use on small utility aircraft.
Hardwoods such as ash and birch are typically used
to build a wooden propeller. However, other hardwoods that have been used include mahogany,
maple, cherry, oak, and black walnut. Whatever
type of wood is used, it must be free of grain irregularities, knots, pitch pockets, and insect damage.
A wooden propeller is constructed of a minimum of
five layers of wood that are kiln-dried and laminated together with a waterproof resin glue. Each
layer is normally the same thickness and type of
wood; however, alternate layers of different wood
types may be used. The reason laminated wood is
used instead of a solid block of wood is that a laminated structure is less likely to warp. Once the layers of wood are laminated together, they form what
is called a propeller blank.
During fabrication, the blank is rough-cut to shape
and then allowed to season for a period of time. The
waiting period allows the moisture in the wood to
disperse equally through all of the layers. The
rough-shaped blank, referred to as a white, is then
finished to the exact airfoil and pitch dimensions
required. In addition, the center bore and bolt holes

Propellers

12-11

Figure 12-15. (A) The first step in the manufacture of a wood propeller is to laminate planks together to form a propeller blank.
(B) he propeller blank is shaped and its hub is drilled to produce a "white." (C) Once sanded smooth, a fabric sheathing and
varnish coating are applied for reinforcement and protection.

are drilled and a metal hub assembly is inserted

through the hub bore to accommodate the mounting
bolts and face plate.

holes are then drilled 3/16 inch deep into the tip of
each blade. These holes allow moisture to drain
from behind the metal tipping and allow the wood
to breathe. [Figure 12-16]

Once a propeller white is finished and sanded

smooth, a cotton fabric is sometimes glued to the
last 12 to 15 inches of the propeller blade. The fabric acts to reinforce the thin tip sections. Once
applied, the fabric is doped to prevent deterioration
caused by weather and the sun's rays. The entire
propeller is then finished with clear varnish to protect the wood surface. In some cases, wood propellers may be finished with a black or gray plastic
coating that provides additional protection against
chipping. In this case, the propeller is said to be
armor coated. [Figure 12-15]
Monel, brass, or stainless steel tipping is applied to
the leading edge and tip of most wooden propellers
to prevent damage from small stones. In order to
permit the metal edging to conform to the contour of
the leading edge, the metal must be notched. To
attach the edging to the blade, countersunk screws
are used in the thick blade sections while copper
rivets are used in the thin sections near the tip.
Once in place, the screws and rivets are secured
with solder. Using a number 60 drill, three small

Figure 12-16. Metal tipping is applied to propeller blade tips

and leading edges to help prevent erosion damage. Three
small holes drilled in the tip of each blade release moisture
and allow the wood to breathe.

Propellers

72-72

ALUMINUM ALLOY PROPELLERS

Wood has given way to aluminum as the most
often used material for fixed-pitch propeller
fabrication. As mentioned earlier, propeller
blades can be made thinner and more efficient
without sacrificing structural strength when
using aluminum instead of wood. In addition,
aluminum has the strength and flexibility to
accommodate the high horsepower engines
available in today's small aircraft.
One of the biggest advantages of using aluminum
is that aluminum alloy blades are less susceptible
to damage from gravel and debris normally
incurred during ground operations. Another
advantage is that infrequent damage such as
small nicks and upsets are easily dressed out
with special files, making aluminum blades easier to repair than wooden blades. In addition,
fixed-pitch aluminum propellers may be
re-pitched to an approved blade angle by
certified propeller repair stations when desired by
the aircraft operator.
Although aluminum propellers offer several advantages over wood propellers, there are areas where
aluminum propellers do not perform as well. For
example, aluminum propellers are much more susceptible to damage caused by resonant vibrations.
Because of this, aluminum propellers must be
vibrationally tested during the certification
process. In addition, aluminum propellers generally weigh more than a comparable wood propeller.
On a light aircraft the difference can equate to several pounds.
Almost all propellers begin as a high strength aluminum forging. Once forged, the propeller is ground
to the desired airfoil shape by machine and manual
grinding. The final pitch is then set by twisting the
blades to their desired angle. Once the blade angle
is set, the propeller is heat treated to relieve internal
stresses.

Fi gur e 12-17. O n M cC aul e y fixed-pi tch pr opell er s, the

builders name, model designation, serial number, type certifi cate number, and producti on certificate number ar e
stamped around the propeller hub.

tical balance is obtained by attaching balance

weights to the side of the propeller hub. Once the
propeller is balanced, the surfaces are finished by
anodizing and painting.

PROPELLER DESIGNATION
To help prevent excessive vibration, all new propellers are balanced both horizontally and vertically. Horizontal balance is typically achieved by
removing metal from the blade tip while vertical
balance is achieved by removing metal from a
blade's leading and trailing edges. Some propeller
models may be horizontally balanced by placing
lead wool in balance holes near the boss while ver-

The Federal Aviation Regulations require that all

propellers be identified with the builders name,
model designation, serial number, type certificate
number, and production certificate number if
there is one. To comply with the FARs, most manufacturers of fixed-pitch propellers stamp all the
required information on the propeller hub.
[Figure 12-17]

Propellers

12-13

Of the information presented on a propeller, the

manufacturers model number provides the majority
of the information you will need to be familiar with
as a maintenance technician. For example, a
McCauley propeller designated as 1A90/DM 7651
has a basic design designation of 1A90. The "DM"
component of the designation indicates the type of
crankshaft the propeller will fit, the blade tip contour, and other information pertaining to a specific
aircraft installation. The "7651" indicates the propeller diameter is 76 inches, and the pitch of the
propeller at the 75 percent station is 51 inches.
As another example, a Sensenich propeller designated as M74DM-61 has a designated diameter of 74
inches. The "D" component of the designation identifies the blade design, while the "M" identifies a
specific hub design along with mounting information. The "61" designates the blade pitch in inches
at the 75 percent station. [Figure 12-18

Figure 12-18. A Sensenich aluminum propeller has information stamped on the hub which identifies its hub design,
blade design, blade length, and pitch. In addition, the number 1 stamped on one of the blade roots identifies that
blade as blade number one.

ADJUSTABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS

The design and construction of adjustable pitch propellers permit the aircraft operator to change the
propeller blade angle. This offers the advantage of
being able to set the propeller blade angle to obtain
the maximum possible efficiency from a particular
propeller/engine combination. While a few of the
older adjustable pitch propellers could only be
adjusted on the ground by a maintenance technician, most modern adjustable pitch propellers permit a pilot to change the propeller pitch in flight.
The first adjustable pitch propeller systems developed offered two pitch settings; a low pitch setting
and a high pitch setting. Today, however, nearly all
adjustable pitch propeller systems are capable of a
range of pitch settings.

Figure 12-19. To help ensure that the propeller blades are

not pulled out of the hub on a ground-adjustable propeller,
shoulders are machined into the base of each blade shank.
These shoulders fit into grooves that are machined into
each hub half.

GROUND-ADJUSTABLE
PROPELLERS
As mentioned in Section A, ground-adjustable propellers are constructed in a way that allows the
blade angle to be changed when the aircraft is on the
ground and the engine is shut down. This type of
propeller is seldom used today and is usually found
on older aircraft equipped with radial engines.
The hub of a ground adjustable propeller consists of
two aluminum or steel halves that are machined to
form a matched pair. The interior of each hub half is
machined out so that the shank of two propeller
blades can be held between the two hub halves. To
prevent centrifugal force from pulling the blades out
of the hub, the base, or butt, of each metal blade is
machined with shoulders which fit into grooves
that are machined into each hub half. If wooden
blades are used, the shoulders are cast or machined
into a metal sleeve that is fastened to the blade
shank by lag screws. [Figure 12-19]
Once the blades are inserted between the two hub
halves, bolts are normally used to secure the hub
halves when steel blades are used. However, when
wood or aluminum alloy blades are used, either
bolts or clamp rings may be used to hold the hub
halves together. [Figure 12-20]

Figure 12-20. Ground adjustable propellers utilize either

clamp rings or bolts to secure the hub halves and hold the
blades tightly.

CONTROLLABLE-PITCH
PROPELLERS
Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage
over ground adjustable propellers in that the
blade angle may be changed while the propeller is
rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a
blade angle that provides the best performance for

Propellers

12-15

a particular flight condition. The number of pitch

positions may be limited, as with a two-position
controllable propeller; or the pitch may be
adjusted to any angle between a minimum and
maximum pitch setting.
TWO-POSITION PROPELLERS
One of the first controllable-pitch propellers that
became popular was the Hamilton-Standard counterweight propeller. This propeller was developed
in the 1930's and permitted the pilot to select one of
two positions; low pitch or high pitch. The low
pitch setting was used during takeoff and climb so
the engine would turn at its maximum rpm and
develop its full rated horsepower. On the other
hand, the high pitch setting was used during the
cruise phase of flight to permit more efficient highspeed flight while increasing fuel economy.
The primary components of a two-position propeller include the propeller hub, propeller blades,
and a piston assembly. At the center of the
Hamilton-Standard two-position propeller hub is
the spider. A typical spider consists of two or three
arms on which the blades are attached. The blades
are made from an aluminum alloy and have hollow
ends which fit over the arms of the spider. Once the
blades are inserted on the hub, counterweight
brackets are attached to the base of each blade.
Like the ground-adjustable propeller, the
Hamilton-Standard propeller consists of a two piece
hub that encloses the spider and holds the propeller
blades in place. To allow the propeller blades to
rotate between the low and high pitch stops, each
blade rides on a set of roller bearings. In addition, a
counterweight bracket is installed at the base of each
propeller blade.
The blade angle on the Hamilton-Standard propeller is changed by using a combination of
hydraulic and centrifugal forces. Hydraulic force is
used to decrease blade angle while centrifugal force
acting on a set of counterweights is used to increase
blade angle. The hydraulic force used to decrease
blade angle is derived from engine oil that flows out
of the crankshaft and acts on a piston assembly that
is mounted on the front of the propeller hub. The
flow of engine oil into the piston assembly is controlled by a three-way selector valve that is mounted
in the engine and controlled from the cockpit. When
this valve is moved forward to decrease propeller
blade angle, engine oil is routed into the piston
assembly to force the piston outward. The piston
assembly is linked to each counterweight bracket so
that, as the piston moves out, it pulls the counter-

Figure 12-21. When low pitch is selected, engine oil pressure forces the cylinder forward. This motion moves the
counterweights and blades to the low pitch position.

weights in and decreases the blade angle. Once the

blades reach their low pitch stop in the counterweight assembly, oil pressure holds the blades in
this position. [Figure 12-21]
To move the blades to a high pitch position, the propeller control lever is moved aft, rotating the selector valve to release oil pressure in the propeller hub.
With the oil pressure removed, the centrifugal force
acting on the counterweights causes them to move
outward, rotating the blades to their high pitch position. As the blades rotate, oil is forced out of the
propeller cylinder and returned to the engine sump.
The blades stop rotating when they contact their
high pitch stops located in the counterweight
assembly. [Figure 12-22]
In most cases, the pitch stops on a two-position propeller can be adjusted. To do this, a pitch stop
adjusting nut is rotated until the desired blade angle
is obtained.

Figure 12-22. When high pitch is selected, engine oil pressure is removed from the piston assembly allowing centrifugal force to move the counterweights outward. This
rotates the blades to the high pitch position.

Propellers

72-76

Although the operation of a two-position propeller

is fairly straight forward, there are some operational
things you need to know. For example, prior to
engine shutdown, the propeller should be placed in
the high pitch position. If you recall, this retracts
the piston assembly, which, in turn, helps protect it
from corrosion and accumulations of dirt.
Furthermore, most of the oil is forced from the piston where it could congeal in cold weather.
MULTIPLE-POSITION PROPELLERS
As technology advanced, the two-position propeller was improved to allow the operator to select
any blade angle between the high and low pitch
stops. This way, optimum engine/propeller efficiency can be maintained over a wider range of
power settings and airspeeds. For example, during
takeoff, the propeller blade angle is set at its lowest
blade angle so the engine can generate its maximum power output. Then, once the aircraft is established in a climb, the blade angle can be increased
slightly to provide the best climb performance. In
cruise flight, the blade angle is further increased to
obtain the best cruise performance.

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
A constant-speed propeller, often called a
variable-pitch or controllable-pitch propeller, is
the most common type of adjustable-pitch propeller
used on aircraft today. The main advantage of a
constant-speed propeller is that it converts a high
percentage of the engine's power into thrust over a
wide range of rpm and airspeed combinations. The
primary reason why a constant-speed propeller is
more efficient than other propellers is because it
allows the operator to select the most efficient
engine rpm for the given conditions. Once a
specific rpm is selected, a device called a
governor automatically adjusts the propeller blade
angle as necessary to maintain the selected rpm.
For example, after selecting a desired rpm during
cruising flight, an increase in airspeed or decrease
in propeller load will cause the propeller blade
angle to increase as necessary to maintain the
selected rpm. On the other hand, a reduction in
airspeed or increase in propeller load will cause
the propeller blade angle to decrease.
- .
i
The range of possible blade angles for a
constant-speed propeller is called the propeller's
constant-speed range and is defined by the high
and low pitch stops. As long as the propeller blade
angle is within the constant-speed range and not
against

either pitch stop, a constant engine rpm will be

maintained. However, once the propeller blades
contact a pitch stop, the engine rpm will increase or
decrease as appropriate with changes in airspeed
and propeller load. For example, once a specific
rpm has been selected, and if aircraft speed
decreases enough to rotate the propeller blades until
they contact the low pitch stop, any further decrease
in airspeed will cause engine rpm to decrease the
same way as if a fixed pitch propeller were
installed. The same holds true when an aircraft
equipped with a constant-speed propeller accelerates to a faster airspeed. As the aircraft accelerates,
the propeller blade angle increases to maintain the
selected rpm until the high pitch stop is reached.
Once this occurs, the blade angle cannot increase
any further and engine rpm to increases.
On aircraft that are equipped with a constant-speed
propeller, engine power output is controlled by the
throttle and indicated by a manifold pressure gauge.
The propeller blade angle, on the other hand, is controlled by a propeller control lever and the resulting
change in engine rpm caused by a change in blade
angle is indicated on the tachometer. By providing
the operator a means of controlling both engine
power output and propeller angle, the most efficient
combination of blade angle and engine power output
can be maintained for a variety of flight conditions.
For example, during takeoff you want the engine to
develop its maximum power; therefore, the throttle
and the propeller control are advanced full forward
so the engine can turn at its maximum rpm on takeoff. On the other hand, after the aircraft is established in cruise flight, the throttle can be retarded so
the engine runs at a more economical speed and the
propeller blade angle can be increased to increase
propeller efficiency for higher speed flight.
One thing you must keep in mind when operating a
constant-speed propeller is that, for a given rpm setting, there is a maximum allowable manifold pressure. Operating above this level may cause internal
engine stress. Therefore, as a general rule, you should
avoid high manifold pressures with low rpm settings.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Most constant-speed, non-feathering propellers rely
on a combination of hydraulic and centrifugal
forces to change the propeller blade angle. They use
high-pressure oil to increase the propeller blade
angle and the centrifugal twisting force inherent in
all spinning propellers is utilized to decrease the
blade angle. On the other hand, most feathering pro-

Propellers

pellers utilize counterweights and centrifugal force

to pull the blades to high pitch and oil pressure to
force the blades to low pitch. To help prevent confusion between the operation of feathering and
non-feathering propellers, the following discussion
will focus on a typical non-feathering,
non-counter-weighted propeller assembly.
The device that is responsible for regulating the flow
of high-pressure oil to the propeller is called the governor. A typical governor does three things; it boosts
the engine oil pressure before it enters the propeller
hub, it controls the amount of oil that flows to the propeller, and it senses the rotational speed of the engine.
A propeller governor is typically mounted either on
the front of an engine near the propeller shaft or on
the engine accessory case. In addition, all governors
consist of three basic components; a gear-type boost
pump, a pilot valve, and a speed sensitive flyweight
assembly. [Figure 12-23]
A typical governor boost pump is installed in the base
of a governor and boosts the oil pressure to between
180 and 300 psi depending on the system requirements. The force needed to drive the boost pump is
provided by a drive shaft that extends into the engine
where it mates with an engine drive gear. In some
cases, the drive shaft may be hollow to provide a passage for return oil to flow back to the engine. Since

Figure 12-23. A typical propeller governor consists of a

gear-type boost pump that increases the pressure of the oil
before it enters the propeller hub, a pilot valve that
controls the amount of oil flowing into and out of the
propeller hub, and a flyweight assembly that senses engine
speed and positions the pilot valve as needed to maintain a
constant rpm.

12-17

most boost pumps are constant displacement pumps,

excessive oil pressure is produced at high engine
speeds; therefore, a spring-loaded relief valve is provided to prevent damage to seals and other components. This way, when the oil pressure increases
enough to overcome the spring pressure acting on the
relief valve, the valve opens and routes the excess oil
back to the inlet side of the boost pump.
The valve that is responsible for routing oil into and
out of the propeller hub is called a pilot valve.
Although the design of a pilot valve varies between
manufacturers, they all perform the same basic
function; they direct oil into and out of the propeller
hub. A typical pilot valve is a shuttle-type valve that
alternately covers and uncovers oil passages allowing oil to flow into or out of the propeller hub.
In order for a governor to adjust the propeller blade angle
to maintain a constant rpm, it must be able to sense
engine speed. The portion of a governor that senses
engine speed is referred to as the flyweight assembly. A
typical flyweight assembly consists of a set of flyweights
mounted on a flyweight head that is driven by the same
drive shaft that drives the boost pump. The pilot valve is
located inside the drive shaft and extends into the flyweight assembly where it rests on the toe of each flyweight. This way, as the flyweights tilt in and out, the
pilot valve is moved up or down. To allow the operator
to select, or set, a desired blade angle, a speeder spring is
provided to adjust the amount of pressure acting on the
flyweights and pilot valve. [Figure 12-24]

Figure 12-24. The flyweight assembly in a typical governor

consists of a set of flyweights that are mounted to a flyweight
head that is driven by the governor drive shaft. The pilot valve
extends up through the drive shaft and rests on the toe of
each flyweight so that, as the flyweights move, the pilot valve
also moves. In addition, to allow the operator to select a blade
angle, a speeder spring is provided so the amount of force acting on the flyweights and pilot valve can be adjusted.

12-18

Propellers

When the engine is operating, the governor boost

pump and flyweight assembly are driven by the governor drive shaft. When the propeller control in the
cockpit is in the full forward, low pitch position, the
speeder spring is fully compressed so that it holds the
pilot valve down and allows no oil into the propeller
hub. With no oil pressure acting on the pitch change
mechanism in the propeller hub, centrifugal twisting
force holds the blades in their low pitch position.
This propeller setting is typically used during takeoff
when the engine's maximum power output is needed.
When the propeller control in the cockpit is moved
aft, speeder spring pressure is decreased and centrifugal force begins to tilt the flyweights outward. As the
flyweights move outward, the pilot valve is pulled up
and governor oil is directed to the propeller hub to
increase the propeller blade angle. As the blade angle
increases, engine rpm decreases causing a reduction
in the amount of centrifugal force acting on the flyweights. This allows the flyweights to tilt inward and
lower the pilot valve until the flow of oil to the propeller hub is cut off. At this point, speeder spring pressure and the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights
are in balance and the governor is said to be on-speed.
Once a given rpm is selected, the governor automatically adjusts the propeller pitch to maintain the
selected rpm. Therefore, any change in airspeed or
load on the propeller results in a change in blade
pitch. For example, if a climb is initiated from level
flight, aircraft speed decreases and load on the propeller blades increases. As this occurs, engine speed
begins to decrease which, in turn, reduces the
amount of centrifugal force acting on the flyweights.
With less centrifugal force acting on the flyweights,
speeder spring pressure forces the flyweight to tilt
inward. When this happens, the governor is said to
be in an under-speed condition. [Figure 12-25]

Figure 12-25. When a governor is in an under-speed condition, speeder spring pressure is greater than the centrifugal
force and the flyweights tilt inward.

weights tilt outward creating an over-speed condition. [Figure 12-26]

As the flyweights move outward, the pilot valve
moves up and boost pump oil is directed to the propeller hub to increase blade pitch. The increased
pitch increases the load on the propeller and slows
the engine. As the engine rpm decreases, the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights also decreases
and causes them to tilt in ward and return the governor to an on-speed condition.

As the flyweights move inward, the pilot valve

moves downward and oil is ported out of the propeller hub and back to the engine. As oil is ported
from the propeller hub, centrifugal twisting force
moves the blades to a lower pitch. The lower pitch
reduces the load on the propeller and allows the
engine to accelerate. As the engine rpm increases,
the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights also
increases and causes the flyweights to tilt outward
and return the governor to an on-speed condition.
This same process can be applied when airspeed
increases or the load on the propeller decreases.
However, in either of these situations, engine rpm
increases causing the centrifugal force acting on the
flyweights to increase. When this occurs, the fly-

Figure 12-26. When a governor is in an over-speed condition, the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights overcomes the force of the speeder spring to tilt the flyweights
outward.

12-19

Propellers

Changes in throttle settings have the same effect on

the governor as changes in airspeed and/or changes
in propeller load. For example, advancing the throttle increases power output which, in turn, increases
engine rpm. Therefore, to maintain the selected
rpm, the governor must increase the propeller
blade. By the same token, pulling the throttle back
decreases power output and causes engine rpm to
decrease. Therefore, in an attempt to maintain the
original rpm setting, the governor must decrease the
blade angle to unload the engine and propeller. One
thing to keep in mind though is that, once the propeller blades reach the low pitch stop, the engine
rpm will decrease with further power decreases.
As a safety feature to help protect the engine from
over-speeding, all governors incorporate an
adjustable stop screw that limits how low the blade
pitch on a given constant-speed propeller can go. In
addition, some governors incorporate a balance
spring above the speeder spring that automatically
sets the governor to produce a cruise rpm should the
propeller control cable break.

McCAULEY CONSTANT-SPEED
PROPELLERS
The McCauley constant-speed propeller system is
one of the more popular systems used on light and
medium size general aviation aircraft. For example,
most Cessna aircraft that use a constant-speed propeller utilize a McCauley propeller system.
Currently, there are two types of constant-speed
propellers that are installed on aircraft; the threaded
series and the threadless series. Both use the same
pitch change mechanism in the propeller hub; however, the method used to attach the propeller blades
to the hub does differ. For example, a threaded
series propeller uses a retention nut which screws
into the propeller hub and holds the blades in the
hub. This differs from the threadless-type blades
which employ a split retainer ring to hold each
blade in the hub. [Figure 12-27]
Both series of McCauley propellers are non-feathering
and non-counterweighted.
Therefore,
oil

Figure 12-27. (A) McCauley threaded blades use retention nuts and threaded ferrules to secure the propeller blades to the hub.
(B) The threadless design is the more modern of the two types of propeller blades and incorporates a split retainer ring to hold
each propeller blade in place.

72-20

pressure is used to increase the propeller's blade

angle while centrifugal twisting force and an internal spring are used to rotate the blades to low pitch.
With this type of system, when a higher blade pitch
is selected, high pressure oil is routed to the propeller hub where it pushes against a piston. Once
the pressure builds enough to oppose the spring
inside the hub and the centrifugal force exerted on
the blades, the piston slides back toward the hub.
This movement is transmitted to the propeller
blades through blade actuating links to actuating
pins located on each blade butt. [Figure 12-28]

Propellers

Like other constant-speed propellers, the model

designation codes of McCauley constant-speed propellers are longer to provide additional information.
Important parts of the designation that you should
be familiar with include the dowel pin location, the
C-number, and the modification, or change letter,
after the C-number. The modification or change designation indicates that a propeller complies with a
required or recommended alteration. [Figure 12-29]

The propeller blades, hub, and piston are made

from an aluminum alloy. On the other hand, the
propeller cylinder, blade actuating pins, piston rod,
and spring are manufactured from either chrome or
cadmium plated steel. To help prevent metal particles from wearing off the blade actuating links and
becoming trapped inside the propeller hub, most
actuating links are made of a phenolic material.
To prevent pitch change oil from leaking into the center of the propeller hub and down the propeller blade,
O-ring seals are installed between the piston and the
cylinder, the piston and the piston rod, and the piston
rod and the hub. This way, the components making
up the propeller's pitch-change mechanism can be
lubricated with a grease and not depend on engine oil
for lubrication during operation.
Some models of McCauley propellers use dyed oil
permanently sealed in the hub. If red appears on the
hub or blades, it is an indication that the hub may
have a crack. In such case the propeller should be
removed for repair.

Figure 12-28. McCauley constant-speed propellers use oil

pressure to increase the blade angle and a combination of
centrifugal twisting force and spring pressure to decrease
the blade angle.

Figure 12-29. The McCauley designation system provides

important information that must be known when determining which propeller will fit a specific aircraft.

Propellers

12-21

Figure 12-30. A McCauley non-feathering governor ports high pressure oil to the propeller hub to increase blade angle and releases oil
pressure to decrease blade angle.

In addition to the designation code found on the

propeller blades, several McCauley propeller hubs
have a designation code of their own. In most cases,
the code consists of two groupings of numhers that
indicate the year the huh was manufactured and the
number of hubs that were made in any one year. For
example, a designation code of 72 1126 indicates
that the hub was manufactured in 1972 and there
were a total of 1,126 hubs made in that year.

McCAULEY GOVERNORS

McCauley governors use the same basic operating

principles as the generic governors discussed earlier. That is, the governor directs high pressure oil to
the propeller hub to increase the propeller blade
angle. If you recall, this is directly opposite from the
way the Hamilton-Standard system works. Another
difference
between
the
McCauley
and
Hamilton-Standard systems is that the McCauley
governor produces an oil pressure of
approximately 290 psi

instead of the 180 to 200 psi Hamilton-Standard.

[Figure 12-30]
Most McCauley governors use a control arm instead
of a pulley to adjust the speeder spring pressure acting on the flyweights and pilot valve. The end of the
control arm typically has between one and four
holes that permit either a rigid control shaft, a flexible control cable, or a combination of the two to be
connected to the arm.
For safety purposes, the governor control lever
is spring-loaded to the high rpm setting. This
way, if the propeller control cable breaks, the
propeller blades will automatically go to low
pitch allowing the engine to develop its maximum power output. As another safety feature,
all McCauley governors incorporate a high rpm
stop to prevent the engine and propeller from
over-speeding. In some cases, a McCauley may
also have an adjustable low rpm stop. Both the

Propellers

72-22

Figure 12-31. Some McCauley governors incorporate both a

high and a low rpm stop. The high rpm stop screw is
adjusted to set a minimum blade pitch that allows the
engine to turn at its rated takeoff rpm at sea level when the
throttle is opened to allowable takeoff manifold pressure.

high and low rpm stops can be adjusted by a set

screw on the governor head. Depending on the
engine and governor combination, one turn of
the screw changes the rpm by 17, 20, or 25 rpm.
[Figure 12-31]
Like other governors, McCauley governors utilize
their own unique designation system. Some of the
information provided in the designation code
includes the specific features of a given model, any
modifications that have been done, and ability to
interchange the governor with another. For a full
explanation of a given designation, it is best to consult a McCauley propeller maintenance manual.
[Figure 12-32]
HAMILTON-STANDARD CONSTANT-SPEED
PROPELLERS
As propeller technology advanced, the two-position
Hamilton-Standard counterweight propeller system
was transformed into a constant-speed propeller
system. To do this, a flyweight governor was developed and installed in place of a selector valve.
The propeller used with the Hamilton-Standard
constant-speed system is essentially the same counterweight propeller used as the two-position propeller discussed earlier. However, since a counterweight propeller is used, oil pressure provides the
force required to decrease blade angle while centrifugal force acting on the counterweights is used to
increase the blade angle.
The governor used with a Hamilton-Standard constant-speed propeller is divided into three parts; the

Figure 12-32. The model, modifications, interchangeability,

and specific features of a McCauley governor are identified
in the McCauley designation code.

head, the body, and the base. The head contains the
flyweights and flyweight assembly while the body
and base house the pilot valve and boost pump.
In most cases, a Hamilton-Standard governor has a
designation code that is stamped on the governor
body. The designation system indicates the design
of the head, body, and base. For example, a governor
with a designation code of 1A3-B2H identifies a "1"
head design, an "A" body design, and a "3" base. In
addition, the "B2H" indicates the modifications
made to the head, body, and base respectively.
HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED
PROPELLERS
Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems are
widely used in modern general aviation airplanes
and share the market with McCauley. Currently,
Hartzell produces two types of constant-speed propellers, a steel hub propeller and a Compact model.
The Hartzell steel hub propeller is similar to the
Hamilton-Standard constant-speed propeller in that
the pitch change mechanism is exposed. On the

Propellers

STEEL HUB PROPELLER

12-23

COMPACT PROPELLER

Figure 12-33. (A) A Hartzell steel hub propeller has an

exposed pitch-changing mechanism. (B) On the other
hand, the pitch changing mechanism on a Hartzell compact
propeller is contained entirely within the hub.

other hand, the pitch change mechanism on a

Hartzell compact propeller is housed inside the propeller head. [Figure 12-33]
Regardless of the type of hub used, Hartzell typically stamps a model designation code on both the
propeller hub and the propeller blades. A typical
designation system identifies the specific hub or
blade model, any modifications that have been
made, mounting type, and any specific features.
[Figure 12-34]
STEEL HUB PROPELLERS

Hartzell steel hub propellers may or may not be

counterweighed. If the propeller has counterweights, oil pressure is used to decrease blade angle
while centrifugal force acting on the counterweights
is used to increase blade angle. On the other hand,
steel hub propellers that have no counterweights
use oil pressure to increase blade angle and centrifugal twisting force to decrease the blade angle.
The central component of a Hartzell steel hub propeller is a steel spider. A typical spider consists of
central hub and two arms. The two arms provide
an attachment point for each propeller blade and
house a bearing assembly that allows the blades to
rotate. Once the blades are placed on the spider
arms they are secured by two-piece steel clamps,
to provide a means of changing pitch, a steel cylinder is threaded onto the front of the spider and an
aluminum piston is placed over the cylinder. The
piston is connected to the blade clamps on each

Figure 12-34. Hartzell constant-speed propellers carry two

model designations numbers; one for the propeller hub and
the other for the propeller blades.

Propellers

12-24

Figure 12-35. In a Hartzell constant-speed, counterweighted

steel hub propeller, oil pressure forces an aluminum piston
forward. This motion is then transmitted to the propeller
blades through a sliding rod and fork system.

hlade hy a sliding rod and fork system. This way,

as oil is directed into and out of the propeller huh,
the piston moves in and out and the propeller
blades rotate as appropriate. [Figure 12-35]
COMPACT PROPELLERS

Hartzell compact propellers are more modern than

steel hub propellers and incorporate several features that make the compact propeller hub smaller,
lighter, and more dependable. A typical compact
propeller hub is forged out of an aluminum alloy as
two separate halves. Each half is machined out so
that the shank of each propeller blade can be held
between the two hub halves and so the entire pitch
change mechanism can be contained. Once the
blades and pitch changing mechanism are installed
between the two hub halves, bolts are used to secure
the halves together. [Figure 12-36]
Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems typically
utilize either a Woodward governor or a modified
Hamilton-Standard governor. Woodward governors
are usually adjusted to produce approximately 275
psi of oil pressure when installed on an engine with
a normal engine oil pressure of 60 psi. On the other
hand, if a modified Hartzell governor is used, the
output pressure does vary between different models.
Therefore, to determine the pressure setting for a
given Hartzell governor, you must refer to the
appropriate Hartzell maintenance manual.

Figure 12-36. The aluminum hub of a compact propeller

houses the entire pitch-change mechanism. Depending on
the model, governor oil pressure may be used to increase
or decrease blade angle.

Like other governors, Hartzell propeller governors

utilize their own unique designation systems. For
example, a typical Hartzell designation code consists of a three-character code that designates the
governors basic body style and major modifications,
any major adjustments that were made to make it
compatible with a specific system, and any minor
adjustments that were made that do not affect eligibility. [Figure 12-37]

FEATHERING PROPELLERS
When an engine fails in flight, the propeller continues to windmill, or turn, slowly as air flows over the
blades. This creates a considerable amount of drag
that can adversely effect an aircraft's flight characteristics. To help eliminate the drag created by a
windmilling propeller, design engineers developed
a way to rotate the propeller blades to a 90 degree
angle. This is known as feathering a propeller and
eliminates the drag created by a windmilling propeller because it presents the smallest blade profile
to the oncoming airstream. Today, all modern
multi-engine, propeller-driven aircraft are equipped
with feathering propellers. [Figure 12-38]
The operating principles discussed previously for
constant-speed propellers also apply to feathering
propeller systems. However, the propeller control

Propellers

12-25

Figure 12-38. When a propeller is feathered, the blades are

rotated beyond their normal high angle to an angle that is
approximately 90 degrees to the plane of propeller rotation.
This presents the smallest possible blade profile to the
airstream and decreases aerodynamic drag.

Figure 12-37. In the sample designation above, an F-6-3A

propeller governor consists of a 4G8 governor with a major
adjustment to obtain compatibility and a minor adjustment
not effecting eligibility.

lever in the cockpit typically incorporates an additional position that, when selected, rotates the propeller blades to their feathered position. In most
cases, the propeller control is pulled all the way aft
to feather the blades. If a propeller is feathered from
a low blade angle, the blades will move from a low
angle through a high angle before they reach their
feathered position. On the other hand, if a propeller
is feathered from a high blade angle, the blades will
move from their high pitch setting directly into the
feathered position.

HARTZELL COMPACT FEATHERING PROPELLERS

On most aircraft, feathering functions are independent of constant-speed operation. In other words,
the operator can override a constant-speed system
to feather the propeller at any time. In fact, in some
systems the propeller can be feathered without
engine rotation.

The constant-speed operation of a Hartzell compact feathering propeller is the same as the constant-speed model with one difference; the feathering propeller uses both governor oil pressure
and centrifugal twisting force to rotate the blades
to low pitch while some combination of a
high-pressure nitrogen charge, an internal spring,
or counterweights are used to increase blade
angle. For example, one type of Hartzell compact
feathering propeller utilizes a high-pressure
nitrogen charge and a mechanical spring to
increase blade angle and to feather the blades.
The nitrogen charge is stored in the cylinder head
and works in conjunction with a spring that is
also contained within the propeller hub.

Most manufacturers of constant-speed propellers

also build feathering propellers. However, to help
simplify this discussion only the Hartzell compact
feathering
propeller
and
the
Hamilton-Standard hydromatic propeller will be
discussed in detail.

Another model of Hartzell compact propeller uses

a combination of air pressure and centrifugal force
acting on counterweights to feather and increase
the angle of the propeller blades. With this type of
propeller, the high-pressure nitrogen charge is
again stored in the propeller hub while a counter-

12-26

Propellers

Figure 12-39. The Hartzell compact feathering propeller depicted above relies on governor oil pressure to decrease blade angle and a
combination of blade mounted counterweights and compressed nitrogen in the propeller cylinder to increase blade angle.

weight is mounted to the base of each propeller

blade. [Figure 12-39]
A safety feature inherent to both of these designs is
that, if governor oil pressure drops to zero for any
reason, the propeller automatically begins to move to
the feathered position. This feature helps prevent further damage to the engine from a windmilling propeller and lowers aerodynamic drag on the aircraft.
To prevent the propeller from feathering when the
engine is shut down on the ground, most Hartzell
compact propellers utilize a latch stop called an
automatic high pitch stop. The latch mechanism is
comprised of spring-loaded latches fastened to the
stationary hub which engage high-pitch stop-plates
bolted to the movable blade clamps. As long as the
propeller rotates faster than 800 rpm, centrifugal
force allows the pins to overcome spring pressure
and disengage the latches from the high-pitch
stop-plates so that the propeller pitch may be
increased to the feathering position. However,
when the propeller is rotating below 800 rpm, the
latch springs engage the latches with the high-pitch
stops and prevent the propeller blade angle from
increasing.
To feather a Hartzell compact feathering propeller,
the propeller control is placed in the feather position. This action dumps all the oil pressure from

the hub so the nitrogen charge and either spring

pressure or centrifugal force can rotate the blades
to the feather position. The speed at which the
blades rotate to the feather position depends on
how fast the oil drains from the propeller hub and
the amount of force exerted by the nitrogen charge
and either spring pressure or centrifugal force.
Based on this, a typical Hartzell propeller takes
between 3 and 10 seconds to feather.
Unfeathering is accomplished by repositioning the
propeller control to the normal flight range and
restarting the engine. As soon as the engine begins
to turn over, the governor starts to unfeather the
blades. Once partially unfeathered, the propeller
will start windmilling and accelerate the unfeathering process. In order to facilitate engine cranking
with the blades feathered, the feathering blade
angle is set at 80 to 85 degrees at the 3/4 point on
the blade. This allows the oncoming air to assist
the engine starter. In general, restarting and
unfeathering can be accomplished within a few
seconds.
On aircraft where engine starting may be difficult,
the propeller system may incorporate an accumulator in the governor to speed up the unfeathering
process. The accumulator stores a quantity of oil
under pressure until it is needed to unfeather the

Propellers

72-27

oil side of the accumulator is open to the flow of

pressurized oil and, therefore, the chamber fills
with pressurized oil. When the propeller control is
moved to the feather position, an accumulator valve
closes and traps oil in the accumulator. This way,
when the propeller control is moved out of the
feather position, the accumulator valve is opened so
the pressurized oil within the accumulator can flow
to the propeller hub. Once the oil reaches the hub,
it pushes on the piston enough to begin moving the
propeller blades out of the feathered position.

Figure 12-40. Some Hartzell and McCauley propellers use a

hydraulic accumulator to unfeather the propeller in flight.
The accumulator enables the governor to provide pressurized oil for unfeathering the propeller blades enough so the
propeller can windmill.

propeller. In some cases, an accumulator allows the

operator to unfeather the propeller prior to propeller rotation. [Figure 12-40]
A typical accumulator consists of a spherical container that is separated into two chambers by a
diaphragm. One side of the accumulator is charged
with nitrogen while the other is filled with oil.
During normal engine and propeller operation, the

HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC
PROPELLER
The second type of feathering propeller that will be
discussed in detail is the Hamilton-Standard hydromatic propeller. This type of propeller is commonly
found on medium and large radial engine transport
aircraft built during the WWII era and, although
they are not used much today, you should be familiar with its operating principles.
A
typical
non-reversing,
full-feathering,
Hamilton-Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up
of three major assemblies, the hub, or barrel,
assembly; the dome assembly; and the distributor
valve. All three of these assemblies work as a single
unit to permit constant-speed operation of the
propeller. [Figure 12-41]

Figure 12-41. A Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up of three major assemblies; the hub assembly, the dome
assembly, and the distributor valve.

12-28

Propellers

The hub assembly consists of two halves that house

a spider and the propeller blades. The propeller
blades used with a hydromatic propeller differ from
those used in other constant-speed propellers in
that the butt of each blade consists of a sector gear
that meshes with pitch changing gear in the dome
assembly. Each blade slips onto an arm on the spider and then the spider/blade assembly is placed
between the two hub halves. To allow each blade to
rotate freely within the hub, as well as hold the
blades in place, a combination of bearings and spacers are installed between the blade butt and the hub.
The dome assembly houses the primary components of the pitch-change mechanism including a
piston, a rotating cam, and a fixed cam. When the
dome assembly is threaded into the propeller hub,
oil pressure acts on the piston to move it fore and aft
within the dome. As the piston moves, a set of cam
rollers mounted to the piston engage the rotating
cam causing it to turn within the fixed cam.
Attached to the rear of the rotating cam is a beveled
gear that engages each of the propeller blades so
that, as the cam rotates, the blade angle of each propeller blade also changes.
The distributor valve acts as an extension to the
engine's crankshaft and is installed in the center of
the dome assembly. The purpose of the distributor
valve is to direct both governor oil and engine oil
into and out of the dome assembly.
GOVERNORS

A Hydromatic governor includes all of the basic

governor components of the Hamilton-Standard
constant-speed governor previously described.
However, Hydromatic governors also contain a high
pressure transfer valve that disables the governor
constant-speed functions when the propeller is
feathered or unfeathered. In addition, an electric
pressure cutout switch is located on the side of the
governor. The cutout switch automatically stops oil
pressure delivery once the blades have reached
their full-feathered position.
~vi-. .' K,

."

OPERATING PRINCIPLES

The hydromatic propeller differs from other constant-speed propellers in that no springs or counterweights are used to change blade angle.
Instead, engine oil pressure acts on one side of the
piston while governor oil pressure acts on the
opposite side. Depending on the propeller model,
governor oil pressure can be directed to either the

inboard or outboard side of the piston. For the

purposes of this discussion, assume that governor
oil pressure is applied to the inboard side of the
piston while engine oil pressure is applied to the
outboard side. In this configuration, governor oil
pressure is used to increase propeller blade angle
while engine oil pressure in combination with
centrifugal twisting force decrease blade angle. A
typical engine oil pressure is between 60 and 90
psi while governor boosted oil pressure ranges
from 200 to 300 psi.
During constant-speed operations, the routing of
governor oil pressure is controlled by the pilot
valve in the governor. For example, if the load on
the propeller or aircraft speed increases, the propeller will begin to rotate faster creating an
over-speed condition. When this occurs,
centrifugal force tilts the flyweights outward,
raising the pilot valve. With the pilot valve
raised, governor boosted oil pressure is routed to
the backside of the piston. At the same time, the oil
in front of the piston is routed through the
distributor valve and back to the inlet side of the
governor. The difference in oil pressure between
the front and back sides of the piston cause the
piston to move forward. As the piston moves, it
causes the cam rollers to move forward. Since
the cam rollers engage a set of slots in the rotating
cam, movement of the cam rollers causes the
rotating cam to turn. As the rotating cam turns, the
beveled gear on the back of the cam engage the
gears affixed to the blades and rotate the blades
to a higher pitch. [Figure 12-42]
As the blade angle increases, system rpm decreases
and the flyweights begin to tilt back inward to lower
the pilot valve. As this happens, the piston stops moving and the system returns to an on-speed condition.
When an underspeed condition exists, the amount
of centrifugal force acting on the flyweights
decreases and allows the flyweights to tilt inward.
When this occurs, the pilot valve lowers and governor oil pressure from the back side of the piston is
ported back to the governor were it is then routed
back to the engine. At the same time, engine oil
pressure continues to be exerted on the front side of
the piston. Once the oil pressure on the back side of
the piston decreases below that of the engine oil
pressure and the centrifugal twisting force acting on
the blades, the piston and cam rollers move aft. As
the cam rollers move aft, the rotating cam is turned
the opposite direction causing the propeller blade
angle to decrease. [Figure 12-43]

Propellers

12-29

Figure 12-42. In an overspeed condition, governor oil pressure forces the piston in the dome assembly forward. When this happens, the cam rollers also move forward causing the rotating cam to turn. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear attached
to the back of the cam engages the sector gears on the propeller blades and rotates the blades to a higher angle.

Figure 12-43. In an underspeed condition, governor oil pressure is ported back to the engine through the governor. Once the pressure behind the piston decreases below the engine oil pressure, the piston moves aft. As the piston moves aft, the rotating cam
turns and drives the propeller blades to a lower blade angle.

72-30

As the blade angle decreases, system rpm increases

and the flyweights begin to tilt back outward to
raise the pilot valve. As this happens, the piston
stops moving and the system returns to an on-speed
condition.
FEATHERING

Unlike most other feathering propellers that rely on

counterweights, springs, and/or compressed nitrogen, the hydromatic propeller requires high pressure oil to feather the blades. Therefore, in order to
help ensure there is a supply of oil and a means of
pressurizing it, a reserve of oil is maintained in the
oil reservoir and a separate electric oil pump is
installed in the propeller system.
To begin the feathering sequence, a feathering button is depressed in the cockpit. When this is done,
a holding coil holds the button in until the feathering sequence is complete. At the same time, a solenoid relay is energized to complete the circuit from
the aircraft battery to the feathering motor. The
feathering pump draws the reserve oil from the oil
reservoir and boosts its pressure to approximately
600 psi. From the pump, the oil is routed to the governor where it shifts a high-pressure transfer valve.
Once the valve shifts, the governor is effectively disconnected from the system and auxiliary oil passes
through the governor and governor oil passage to
the inboard side of the piston. As the pressure
builds behind the piston, the piston and cam rings
move outward causing the rotating cam to turn until
the propeller blades reach the feathered position.
When the rotating cam contacts the high pitch stop,
the blades are fully feathered and the piston stops
moving. At this point, the oil pressure behind the

Propellers

piston starts to build rapidly. The increasing pressure is sensed by the oil pressure cutout switch on
the governor and, when the pressure builds to
approximately 650 psi, the circuit to the feather button holding coil is opened. This de-energizes the
feather relay and shuts off the electric oil pump.
With the engine stopped and the propeller feathered, the oil pressure drops to zero.
To unfeather the propeller, the feather button is
pressed and manually held in to prevent it from
popping back out when the pressure cutout switch
opens. With the feather button depressed, the electric oil pump starts pumping more oil to the inboard
side of the piston causing the pressure to increase.
Once the pressure becomes greater than the combined spring pressure and oil pressure holding the
distributor valve in place, the distributor valve will
shift and allow high pressure oil to flow to the outboard side of the piston. At the same time, a passage
is provided for oil to drain from the inboard side of
the piston to the governor inlet and back to the
engine. The pressure differential between the front
and back side of the piston moves the piston and
cam rollers inboard causing the blades to rotate to a
lower blade angle. [Figure 12-44]
Once the blade angle is decreased, the propeller
starts to windmill, allowing the engine to be
restarted. At this point, the feather button is
released and the system returns to constant-speed
operation. If the feather button is not released,
excess oil pressure actuates a dome relief valve in
the distributor valve. The relief valve off-seats and
releases oil pressure over 750 psi from the outboard
side of the piston when the rotating cam contacts
the low blade angle stop.

Propellers

72-31

Figure 12-44. To unfeather a Hydromatic propeller, high pressure oil bypasses the governor and forces the distributor valve over
so the oil is directed to the outboard side of the piston. At the same time, a passage is provided for oil to drain from the inboard
side of the piston.

TURBOPROP PROPELLERS
POWER SECTIONS

OPERATING PRINCIPLES
Since the advent of the turboprop, propeller and
engine manufacturer's have worked together to create new designs and manufacturing techniques to
improve the reliability and efficiency in which propellers operate with turbine engines. Today, this
effort has led to the creation of a wide assortment of
turboprop propeller designs that are used on many
aircraft ranging from relatively small, single-engine
utility airplanes, to large multi-engine transport category airplanes. In this section, basic design and
operational characteristics that are common to all
turboprop engines will be discussed. Furthermore, a
detailed description of a common turboprop propeller system as it is used on two different turboprop engines will be looked at in detail. By realizing
the methods in which this propeller system operates, you will be able to understand the basic operating principles of most types of turboprop propeller systems.

PROPELLER SPEED REDUCTION

Although reciprocating and turboprop engine
propeller systems share many similarities, there
are distinct differences between the two. Most of
these differences are the result of the operational differences between reciprocating and
turboprop engines. For example, since turboprop engines operate at high rotational speeds,
all turboprop designs must incorporate a reduction gear assembly that can convert the engine's
high speed, low torque rotational speed to a
more usable low speed and high torque.
Although there are reduction gear assemblies
used on some reciprocating engines, a turboprop
reduction gear system must perform under more
extreme operational conditions. For example, it
is not uncommon for a turboprop to operate at
rotational speeds in excess of 40,000 rpm. These
speeds are far in excess of the 2,200 rpm that
most turboprop propellers operate and, therefore, all turboprop engines must incorporate a
reduction gear assembly.

The combination of a turboprop engine's reduction

gear assembly and propeller is often referred to as
the power section. Currently, there are two methods
used to drive a turboprop's power section. In one
design, the power section is driven directly by an
integral turbine through a fixed shaft. In the other
application, the power section is driven by a separate free, or power turbine that is not mechanically
connected to the gas generator portion of the engine.
In this case, the term power section generally refers
to the power turbine, reduction gearbox, and the
propeller. [Figure 12-45]

PROPELLER GOVERNING
All turboprop engines utilize constant-speed, feathering propellers. In addition, the propellers used are
all controlled by one or more governors. As a general rule, turboprop engines use the same governing
principles to control propeller pitch and maintain a
constant rpm. However, propeller pitch changes are
used more extensively with turboprop engines to
produce changes in thrust. One reason this is necessary is because, unlike a reciprocating engine, a turboprop engine takes more time to react to fuel flow
and power changes. With this delayed reaction
time, turboprop aircraft cannot use varying engine
rpm to effectively control the aircraft on the ground.
Therefore, to facilitate ground handling characteristics, the gas generator speed is held relatively constant while propeller pitch is varied as necessary to
produce the desired amount of thrust.

REVERSIBLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
In addition to providing constant-speed and feathering operations, most turboprop propellers are
reversible. A reversing propeller is essentially a variable pitch, constant-speed propeller that is capable
of operating with the propeller blades rotated
beyond the normal low pitch limits. By allowing the
propeller blades to rotate to a negative blade angle,
the propeller's thrust is directed forward instead of

Propellers

12-33

Figure 12-45. One of the most popular turboprop engines in use today is a free turbine design that houses the reduction gear
assembly in the front section of the engine.

aft. This greatly reduces an aircraft's landing distance by producing reverse thrust similar to that of a
thrust reverser installed on a turbojet or turbofan
engine. As an added benefit, a reversing propeller
also allows the aircraft operator to better control taxi
speeds and back the aircraft up. These benefits ultimately improve an aircraft's landing performance as
well as its maneuverability on the ground.
When a reversible propeller is operated in the standard, constant-speed mode, it is said to be operated
in its Alpha range. On the other hand, when the
blades are rotated so they produce zero or negative
thrust, the propeller is being operated in its Beta
range. On some aircraft, the Beta range may be
divided into two ranges: a Beta for taxi range and a
Beta plus power range. The Beta for taxi range
includes the blade angles that fall between the bottom of the Alpha range to a blade angle that produces zero thrust. This range of blade angles is used
primarily for taxiing and allows the gas generator to
operate at a high rpm while limiting the amount of
thrust being produced by the propellers. This allows
the aircraft operator to better control the aircraft's
speed on the ground without causing excessive wear
to the braking system. On most engines with a Beta
for taxi range, the power lever must be moved back
past a detent below the flight idle position.
The Beta plus power range represents the range of
blade angles that produce negative thrust. This
range is primarily used when an aircraft must be
landed in a short distance. When in the Beta plus
power range, power lever movement also controls

the amount of fuel that flows to the engine. In other

words, the farther back you move the power lever,
the greater the engine power output and the more
reverse thrust produced. On most aircraft, the Beta
plus power range is obtained by pulling the power
lever back beyond the Beta for taxi range until the
reversing range is reached. To help you identify the
reversing range, the power lever quadrant is generally either striped or a placard is provided.
When operating an aircraft with reversible propellers, some cautions must be observed. For example, since a reversible propeller tends to stir up
debris in front of the aircraft, it is possible for rocks
or other foreign objects to be ingested into the engine
or damage the propeller blades. Therefore, as a general rule, propeller reversing should only be accomplished on smooth, clean surfaces. In fact, some aircraft manufacturers may limit propeller reversing to
a minimum forward speed. Another thing you
should be aware of is that when reverse thrust is
used to back an aircraft up, it is difficult to see
what's behind the aircraft. In addition, if an aircraft
is moving backward rapidly when the brakes are
applied, it is possible for the aircraft's nose to rise off
the ground, causing the tail to strike the ground.
From a mechanical standpoint, a reversible propeller is very similar to a typical constant-speed
propeller. For example, depending on the make and
model of propeller, oil pressure may be used to
either increase or decrease blade angle. Opposing
the oil pressure can be a combination of spring pressure, centrifugal force acting on counterweights,

Propellers

72-34

and/or compressed nitrogen. About the only difference between a reversing and non-reversing propeller is the absence of permanently fixed low pitch
stops. The reason there are no low pitch stops is
because the blades of a reversible propeller must be
able to rotate through the low pitch limits to produce reverse thrust. Based on this, the appropriate
blade angle must be maintained by creating a
hydraulic lock with the propeller governor that can
be changed as necessary. In other words, once a
desired blade angle is achieved, the amount of oil
pressure within the hub balances the sum of the
other forces acting on the propeller blades.
Therefore, if the quantity of oil in the hub is not
changed, or locked, at this point, the propeller blade
angle will remain set.
As a backup to the primary pitch lock mechanism,
some reversible propellers incorporate a secondary
method of locking the blade pitch. This way, if the
primary pitch lock should fail, the secondary pitch
lock will prevent the blades from rotating to
reverse pitch.

TURBOPROP FUEL CONTROL

In most cases, the fuel control on a turboprop engine
works in conjunction with the propeller governor to
control the propeller blade angle. For example, at
speeds above flight idle, both the fuel flow and propeller blade angle are controlled by the power lever
position according to a predetermined schedule. This
way, as more fuel is metered into the engine, the blade
angle is automatically increased to maintain the most
optimum efficiency. On the other hand, at speeds
below flight idle, propeller blade angle is controlled
almost exclusively by the power lever. The reason for
this is that, when a turboprop engine is running below
flight idle speed, governor control over propeller blade
angle is incapable of handling the engine efficiently.

HARTZELL REVERSING PROPELLER

SYSTEMS
The following discussion focuses on the Hartzell
reversing propellers used with Allied-Signal
TPE-331 and Pratt & Whitney PT6 engines. Many
of the operational characteristics of Hartzell
propellers are typical of propellers produced by
other manufacturers for turboprop engines; therefore,
a study of these propeller systems serves well as an
overview of how most turboprop propeller systems
operate.
ALLIED-SIGNAL TPE-331
Hartzell propeller systems are used on many aircraft
equipped with TPE-331 model engines including

the Mitsubishi MU-2, the Fairchild Merlin, and the

Aero Commander 690 aircraft. The TPE-331 is a
fixed shaft turbine that, depending on the model,
produces between 665 and 1,100 shaft horsepower
when the gas generator is operating at approximately 41,700 rpm. The TPE-331 is sometimes
referred to as a constant-speed engine. This means
that the engine operates at or near 100 percent rpm
throughout its operational cycle.
REDUCTION GEARING

The TPE-331 engine's propeller reduction gearing is

housed on the front of the engine with a fixed shaft
coupled directly to the gas generator's third stage
turbine. The reduction gearing produces a propeller
shaft rotational speed of approximately 2,200 rpm
which equates to a reduction ratio of about 14:1. To
provide a degree of flexibility, the reduction gearing
can be situated either above or below the engine's
centerline to accommodate various airframe manufacturer's requirements. [Figure 12-46]
To prevent the propeller from driving the turbine
and compressor sections of a fixed shaft turbine
engine, the reduction gear portion of the engine
incorporates a negative-torque-sense (NTS) system
that automatically increases propeller pitch when
negative torque exists. This condition can occur
when the engine's power is rapidly decelerated and
the propeller's pitch configuration causes the prop to
windmill due to slipstreaming. In this situation, the
NTS changes the propeller's pitch enough to prevent
the propeller from driving the engine. Another benefit of the NTS is that, if the engine fails, the NTS
will sense that loss of engine torque and automatically rotate the blades to their high-pitch position.
Some engines may incorporate a separate thrust sensitive signal (TSS) that automatically feathers the
propeller in the event of an engine failure.
PROPELLER

The propeller commonly used on a TPE-331 engine

is a flange-mounted three- or four-bladed Hartzell
steel hub, feathering and reversing propeller. With
this type of propeller, the blades are moved to low
pitch and reverse pitch with governor oil pressure.
On the other hand, the blades are moved to high
pitch and the feather position by a combination of
spring pressure and centrifugal force acting on blade
counterweights. However, to prevent the blades from
rotating into the feather position during shutdown, a
set of retractable pitch stops are incorporated. This is
typical on fixed shaft turboprop engines so the air
load on the propeller is minimized during subsequent engine starts. [Figure 12-47]

Propellers

12-35

Figure 12-46. The Allied-Signal TPE-331 is a fixed shaft turbine engine with a two-stage centrifugal compressor and a three-stage
axial turbine. Depending on the airframe/engine combination, the propeller reduction gearing may be installed either above or
below the engine drive shaft.

The Hartzell propeller's construction is similar to

that of the feathering steel hub design installed on
reciprocating engines. However, installed in place
of the low pitch stops is a spacer or Beta tube,
which acts as a reverse pitch stop. The Beta tube
also serves as an oil transfer tube between the propeller pitch control unit and propeller dome.

PROPELLER CONTROL

In flight, engine power output is controlled by the

fuel control unit while propeller blade angle is controlled by a propeller governor similar to the governors used with other constant-speed propellers. The
governor permits the operator to set a desired
engine rpm and then directs oil into and out of the
propeller hub to change the blade angle as engine
load or power output changes.
During ground operations (Beta mode), a conventional fuel control and governor cannot properly
regulate engine power output and propeller blade
angle. Therefore, a separate underspeed governor
controls fuel flow to the engine while a propeller
pitch control mechanism is used to meter oil in and
out of the propeller hub to control the blade angle.
As a speed sensing device, the underspeed governor controls fuel flow to the engine to maintain a
set power output. On the other hand, the propeller
pitch control is needed because the governor does
not have the ability to select a reverse blade angle.

Figure 12-47. A Hartzell HC-B3TN-5 three-bladed propeller is

often used on TPE-331 engines. This particular propeller
relies on high pressure oil to move the blades to low and
reverse pitch, while spring pressure and centrifugal force
acting on counterweights increase propeller blade angle.

COCKPIT CONTROLS

The controls for a typical TPE-331 turboprop installation are similar regardless of the aircraft. A typical

72-36

Propellers

installation consists of two engine controls; a power

lever and a speed, or condition, lever. [Figure 12-48]
The power lever is mechanically connected to both
the propeller pitch control and the fuel control so
that fuel flow and propeller pitch can be coordinated
for fuel scheduling. In most cases, the power lever
has four positions: REVERSE, GROUND IDLE,
FLIGHT IDLE, and MAXIMUM. During flight, the
power lever functions to directly adjust the fuel control unit. On the other hand, during ground operations, the power lever bypasses the propeller governor and directly controls propeller blade angle
through the propeller pitch control unit.
The condition lever is connected to the primary and
underspeed governor through a mechanical linkage.
The primary function of the condition lever is to
control rpm and, in some installations, to manually
shut off the fuel and feather the propeller. In most
cases, the condition lever has three positions: CUT
OFF, LOW RPM, and HIGH RPM. On installations
where the feather valve is connected to the condition
lever, propeller feathering is accomplished by moving the condition lever fully aft. However, if the condition lever is not mechanically linked to the feather
valve, a separate feather handle is incorporated.

Figure 12-48. TPE-331 turboprop controls include a power

lever and a speed, or condition, lever.

During flight operations, the condition lever sets the

rpm on the propeller governor allowing the governor
to vary the blade angle so engine rpm remains constant. Furthermore, during ground operation in the
Beta range, the condition lever adjusts the underspeed
governor on the fuel control unit. This action varies
the fuel flow to maintain a fixed rpm in spite of blade
angle changes caused by power lever adjustments.
In addition to the engine controls, most TPE-331
installations include an unfeathering switch, or button. As its name implies, this switch is used to

Figure 12-49. The schematic in this figure shows how each of the components in a TPE-331 turboprop propeller system operate to
control the propeller.

Propellers

unfeather the propeller when attempting to restart an

engine. When the unfeathering switch is activated,
current energizes an electric unfeathering pump that
forces oil into the propeller dome to rotate the blades
out of the feathered position. [Figure 12-49]
SYSTEM OPERATION

The two basic operating modes of the TPE-331 are

the Beta mode and Alpha mode. If you recall, the
Beta mode includes all ground operations including
engine starting, taxi, and reverse thrust. In most
cases, the Beta range includes all power settings
from 65 to 95 percent N a . On the other hand, the
Alpha mode includes all operations from flight idle
to full power or from 95 to 100 percent Na . To better
understand how each of the components within the
TPE-331
operate
to
change
the
propeller blade

12-37

angle, the following discussion will examine each

component as an engine is started and operated in
both the Beta and Alpha ranges.
To begin, assume that a TPE-331 is sitting idle on an
aircraft with the propeller blades resting against the
pitch stops. To start the engine, the power lever is
placed in the GROUND IDLE position while the
condition lever is placed in the LOW RPM position.
Once the engine starts, the propeller latches are
retracted by easing the power lever toward the
reverse position. When this is done, the mechanical
linkage connecting the power lever to the propeller
pitch control (PPC) slides the follower sleeve in the
PPC forward. This opens a port in the oil transfer, or
Beta, tube allowing high pressure governor oil to be
ported to the propeller hub. [Figure 12-50]

Figure 12-50. When the power lever is moved toward the REVERSE position, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control
moves forward exposing an oil port in the oil transfer (Beta) tube. This allows high pressure governor oil to flow to the propeller
hub and decrease the propeller blade angle.

12-38

Propellers

Figure 12-51. When the propeller blades reach the Beta angle selected by the power lever, the port in the Beta tube becomes
blocked by the follower sleeve. This traps high pressure oil in the propeller hub and holds the blades in a set position.

Once the governor oil reaches the propeller hub,

the oil pressure overcomes both spring pressure
and the centrifugal force acting on the counterweights to force the propeller piston outward. As
the piston moves out, the propeller blades begin to
move to a shallower pitch which, in turn, removes
the weight of the blades from the pitch stops. With
the weight removed, centrifugal force retracts the
pitch stops.

The Beta tube is attached to the propeller piston; therefore, when the propeller piston moves, the Beta tube
also moves. Based on this, the propeller blade angle will
stop changing when the port in the Beta tube moves forward enough to be blocked by the follower sleeve. This
is referred to as the neutral position and represents the
point where the oil pressure within the propeller hub
balances both spring pressure and centrifugal force acting on the counterweights. [Figure 12-51]

Propellers

12-39

Figure 12-52. When the power lever is moved forward in the Beta mode, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control unports
the Beta tube allowing oil to flow out of the propeller hub. This allows the combination of spring tension and centrifugal force
acting on the counterweights to rotate the blades to a higher pitch.

Once the propeller moves to a lower pitch and the

pitch stops retract, the power lever is moved forward to increase blade pitch. As the power lever
moves, a mechanical linkage pulls the follower
sleeve in the propeller pitch control aft, importing
the Beta tube. With the Beta tube oil port open, oil
is free to flow into the gear reduction case. This
allows the combination of spring tension and cen-

trifugal force acting on the counterweights to force

oil out of the propeller hub to increase the blade
angle. As the blade angle increases, the propeller
piston and Beta tube move aft until the Beta tube
returns to its neutral position in the propeller pitch
control unit. The result is a change in blade angle
proportional to the degree of power lever movement. [Figure 12-52]

72-40

Propellers

Figure 12-53. To feather a propeller on a TPE-331 engine, the feathering valve must be shifted so the oil within the propeller hub
can drain back to the engine case. Once the oil pressure is relieved, spring tension and centrifugal force acting on the blade
counterweights can rotate the blades to the feathered position.

Once the aircraft is in position for takeoff, the condition lever is moved to a high rpm setting and the
power lever is moved to the FLIGHT IDLE position.
With the condition lever in a high rpm position, the
underspeed governor is fully opened and no longer
controls fuel flow. In addition, when the power
lever is moved forward to the FLIGHT IDLE position, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control is slid far enough forward that it can no longer
cover the port in the Beta tube. This effectively
eliminates the ability of the propeller pitch control
to change the propeller pitch giving the propeller
governor full control over the propeller blade angle.
In this mode, the power lever is used to control fuel
flow through the engine's fuel control unit and has
no effect on propeller pitch changes.
In the Alpha, or flight, mode, the propeller governor
is adjusted by the condition lever to set the system
rpm in much the same manner as that used with a
conventional constant-speed propeller system.
When the condition lever setting is fixed, the power
lever operates the fuel control unit to control the
amount of fuel delivered to the engine. Moving the
power lever forward increases fuel flow which, in

turn, increases engine power. With the governor

attempting to maintain a constant rpm, an increase
in engine power causes the propeller governor to
increase the propeller blade angle. On the other
hand, a decrease in engine power causes the propeller governor to decrease the propeller angle.
To feather the propeller on a TPE-331 engine, the
condition lever is moved full aft or the feather handle is pulled. This action causes the feather valve to
shift and allow the oil in the propeller hub to return
to the engine. With no oil pressure in the propeller
hub, spring tension and centrifugal force acting on
the counterweights can rotate the propeller blades
to the feather position. [Figure 12-53]
To unfeather a propeller installed on a TPE-331
engine, an electric unfeathering pump is used. The
pump is typically activated by a toggle switch that
is located in the cockpit. Once the pump is turned
on, it pumps oil to the propeller hub where it forces
the propeller piston forward. As the piston moves
outward, the blades rotate out of their feathered
position and into high pitch. As soon as the blades
unfeather, the propeller will begin to windmill and

Propellers

12-41

Figure 12-54. A propeller commonly used with the PT6 is a Hartzell three-bladed, steel hub, feathering and reversing propeller. Oil
pressure moves the propeller's blades to low pitch, while the combined forces of a feathering spring and blade counterweights
move the blades to high pitch and the feather position.

aid in an air start attempt. In some cases, the

unfeathering pump can be used on the ground in the
event the engine was shut down with a feathered
propeller.
PRATT & WHITNEY PT6
The PT6 engine is a free-, or power, turbine engine
that produces more than 600 horsepower at a gas
generator speed of about 38,000 rpm. If you recall,
in a free-turbine engine, there is no mechanical connection between the power turbine and the gas generator portion of the engine. Instead, the hot gasses
produced by the gas generator section of the engine
flow through the power turbine causing the power
turbine to rotate. The rotational force of the power
turbine is then transmitted by a shaft to a reduction
gear assembly that rotates a propeller. In a typical
PT6 turboprop engine, the reduction gear assembly
produces a propeller rpm of 2,200 when the gas generator portion of the engine is operating at 100 percent output.

A key difference between a free-turbine engine and

a fixed shaft engine is that, when a free-turbine
engine is shut down, the propeller blades are placed
in the feathered position. This can be done on a
free-turbine engine because, during a normal engine
start only, the compressor and its turbine are rotated
by the starter while the power turbine initially
remains motionless. This design greatly reduces the
load on the starter motor and eliminates the need for
a set of pitch stops.
PROPELLER

One type of propeller that is commonly used with

the PT6 engine is the Hartzell HC-B3TN-3. This particular type of propeller is flange-mounted, has
three-blades and a steel hub, and is reversible. With
this type of propeller, governor oil pressure is used
to rotate the propeller blades to a low or reverse
pitch, while a feathering spring and counterweights
attached to the blades are used to rotate the blades
to high pitch and the feather position. [Figure 12-54]

12-42

The Hartzell propeller used on the PT6 engine is

similar in construction to the Hartzell steel hub propeller used on the TPE-331 engine. However, to provide blade angle information to the propeller governor and fuel control when operating in the Beta
range, a feedback ring, or Beta slip ring, is installed
on the rear of the propeller assembly.
GOVERNOR

The PT6 engine utilizes a primary and an overspeed

governor. In addition, some engines utilize a fuel
topping governor. The primary governor is generally
mounted in the 12 o'clock position on top of the
gear reduction case and works essentially the same
as a conventional propeller governor. The primary
components contained within the primary
governor-include a gear-type oil pump, rotating
flyweights, a speeder spring, and a pilot valve. In
addition, depending on engine model, these
governors incorporate either a Beta valve or a Beta
lift rod that controls the blade angle when the
propeller is operated in the Beta range. [Figure
12-55]

Figure 12-55. The primary governor used on a PT6 engine is

similar to most governors in that a set of flyweights are
used to sense engine speed and move a pilot valve as necessary to maintain a preset engine speed. However, to permit the governor to control the blade angle in the Beta
range, a separate Beta valve is also incorporated.

Propellers

As a precaution in the event the primary propeller

governor fails to limit the propeller's speed to its
normal maximum rpm, many PT6 engines include a
second overspeed governor. This governor functions in a similar manner as a conventional governor in that it uses a speeder spring and flyweight
arrangement to prevent the propeller from
over-speeding. The one major exception is that
the speeder spring tension cannot be controlled
from the cockpit nor is it field adjustable.
Adjustments can only be made by the
manufacturer or an approved repair facility.
[Figure 12-56]
The operation of the overspeed governor is fairly
straightforward; a speeder spring applies a predetermined amount of pressure to a set of flyweights. As
the engine accelerates, centrifugal force pulls the
flyweights outward which, in turn, raises a pilot
valve. If the engine exceeds its maximum rated
speed, the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights
pulls the flyweights out far enough to raise the pilot
valve so oil can escape from the propeller hub. This
allows spring tension and centrifugal force acting

Figure 12-56. As a backup to the primary governor, many

PT6 engines incorporate an overspeed governor that prevents the propeller and engine from exceeding their maximum rpm.

Propellers

on the propeller blade counterweights to increase

the blade angle and slow the engine.
To check the overspeed governor's operation, an
electrical test solenoid is typically incorporated in
the governor. This solenoid is activated by momentarily closing a toggle switch located in the cockpit.
During a ground runup, this switch is depressed
while the engine is run at a high rpm. If the
over-speed governor is functioning properly, the
propeller's maximum rpm will be somewhat less
than the normal amount. Care should be taken,
however, to make certain that this test switch is not
released while the power lever is advanced or a
real over-speed situation may occur.
As an additional safeguard to prevent propeller
overspeed conditions, a fuel topping governor may
also be installed on some PT6 engines. This governor also senses propeller rpm and, in the event the
propeller rpm exceeds the maximum limits of the
overspeed governor, the fuel topping governor
dumps a portion of the bleed air that is used in the
fuel control unit. In doing this, the fuel control is
tricked into thinking that the gas generator is not
developing as much power as it really is and the
fuel control meters less fuel to the engine.
Ultimately, the gas generator's rpm reduces which,
in turn, reduces the propeller's rpm.
FUEL CONTROL UNIT

The fuel control unit is installed on the rear of the

engine and is linked through a cam assembly to the
Beta valve on the primary propeller governor and to
the Beta slip ring on the propeller. The purpose for
interconnecting the fuel control unit with the Beta
valve and Beta slip ring is to provide input to the
fuel control unit when operating in the Beta mode.
COCKPIT CONTROLS

The cockpit controls for the PT6 turboprop consist

of a power lever, a propeller control lever, and, in
most installations, a fuel cutoff, or condition, lever.
The power lever is connected to a cam assembly on
the side of the engine. From the cam assembly,
mechanical linkages go to the fuel control unit, and
the Beta valve on the primary governor. In the Alpha
mode, the power lever controls engine power output by adjusting the fuel control to schedule the
proper fuel flow for the desired gas generator performance. However, in the Beta range, the power
lever controls both the fuel control unit and the propeller blade angle.

12-43

The propeller control lever is connected to the primary propeller governor and adjusts the tension
applied to the governor's speeder spring in the same
manner as a conventional constant speed governor
arrangement. Full aft movement of the propeller
control lever causes the oil pressure to be dumped
from the propeller piston, thereby allowing the propeller to feather.
The fuel cutoff, or condition, lever is typically utilized only on reversing propeller installations and
has two functions. First, it provides a positive fuel
shutoff at the fuel control unit allowing the engine
to be shut down. Secondly, the condition lever sets
the gas generator's low and high idle rpm. The two
positions for the condition lever are: LOW IDLE,
which provides approximately 50 percent gas generator rpm, and HIGH IDLE, which allows the
engine to obtain approximately 70 percent gas generator rpm. The low idle is used during ground
operations, while the high idle is used during flight.
[Figure 12-57 on page 12-44]

SYSTEM OPERATION

Like most turboprop engines, the PT6 engine operates in either an Alpha mode or a Beta mode. In
most cases, the Beta range on a PT6 includes all
power settings between 50 and 85 percent. On the
other hand, the Alpha mode includes all operations from 95 to 100 percent. To better understand
how each of the components within the PT6 operate to change the propeller blade angle, the following discussion will examine each component as an
engine is started and operated in both the Beta and
Alpha ranges.
To begin, assume that a PT6 engine is sitting idle on
an aircraft with the propeller blades in the feathered
position. To start the engine, the power lever is
placed in the IDLE position while the propeller control lever and condition lever is placed in the
FEATHER and FUEL CUTOFF positions respectively. Once the starter is engaged and the N a turbine reaches a specified speed, the condition lever
is moved to the LOW IDLE position.
When the engine starts and you are ready to taxi, the
propeller control lever is moved to a HIGH RPM setting and the power lever is adjusted as necessary to
achieve a taxi speed. In situations where excessive
taxi speeds result when the power lever is in the idle
position, the lever can be moved past the detent into
the Beta mode. When in the Beta mode, the primary

Figure 12-57. The figure above illustrates the location of the components on a PT6 engine that are used to control the engine speed and propeller pitch.

Propellers

governor is in a underspeed condition with the pilot

valve in its lowered position. This allows the power
lever to control fuel flow and propeller blade angle.
As the power lever is moved aft into the Beta range,
the Beta valve is pushed into the governor so that
governor oil is ported to the propeller. As the pressurized oil flows into the propeller hub, the propeller piston moves outward to reduce the propeller
blade angle. As the propeller piston moves outward,
the feedback ring moves forward and the Beta valve
is returned to the neutral position. [Figure 12- 58]
Once the propeller enters the reverse thrust portion
of the Beta range, further movement of the power
lever aft increases the fuel flow to the engine. This
provides a means of varying the amount of reverse
thrust produced during ground operations.
When the power lever is moved forward in the Beta
range, the Beta valve is pulled out of the governor

12-45

allowing oil to be released from the propeller piston. As oil leaves the hub, the propeller piston
moves aft to increase the blade angle. At the same
time, the feedback ring moves aft until the Beta
valve is returned to the neutral position.
In the Alpha mode, the system rpm is high enough
for the primary propeller governor to operate in its
constant-speed mode. In other words, when the
power lever is moved forward to increase engine
output, the propeller governor increases the propeller blade angle to absorb the power increase and
maintain the selected rpm. On the other hand, when
the power lever is moved aft, the propeller blade
angle is decreased by the governor to maintain the
selected rpm.
To feather the propeller on a PT6 engine, the propeller control lever is moved full aft. This action
causes the pilot valve in the primary governor to

Figure 12-58. When the power lever is moved aft into the Beta range, the Beta valve is forced inward so that governor oil is
directed to the propeller. As the propeller piston moves outward to decrease the propeller blade angle, the feedback ring moves
forward and returns the Beta valve to its neutral position.

72-46 ___________________________________________________________________________________ Propellers

rise and allow the oil pressure in the propeller hub

to return to the engine. With no oil pressure in the
propeller hub, spring tension and centrifugal force
acting on the counterweights attached to the base of
each blade can rotate the propeller blades to the
feather position.

To unfeather the propeller, the engine must first be

started. Once the engine starts and the propeller is
rotating, the propeller control lever is moved out of
the feather position so pressurized oil can rotate the
blades out of the feathered position to the selected
blade angle or governor rpm setting.

AUXILIARY PROPELLER SYSTEMS

Several auxiliary systems are installed in aircraft

to improve propeller performance and enhance
the aircraft's all-weather capabilities. For example, some aircraft incorporate an auxiliary system
that is designed to reduce propeller noise and
vibration. Other auxiliary systems may be utilized
to remove ice from propeller blades, thereby
improving performance during flight in freezing
precipitation.

SYNCHRONIZATION SYSTEMS
Anytime multiple engines and propellers are
installed on an aircraft, the potential for excessive
vibration and noise exists. A contributing factor to
this problem is dissimilar rpm settings between the
propellers. Based on this, one way to reduce the
amount of noise and vibration produced is to match,
or synchronize, the rpm settings on the engines.
Currently, there are several synchronization systems
used on multi-engine aircraft including the master
motor synchronization system, the one engine master control system, and the synchrophasing system.
Synchronizing systems control engine rpm and
reduce vibration by setting all propellers at exactly
the same rpm. Such a system can be used for all
flight operations except takeoff and landing.

MASTER MOTOR SYNCHRONIZATION

An early type of synchronization system used on
WWII four-engine aircraft consisted of a synchronizer master unit, four alternators, a master tachometer, a tachometer generator and contactor unit for
each engine, an rpm master control lever, switches,
and wiring. When activated, these components automatically control the speed of each engine and synchronize all engines at a selected rpm.

The synchronizer master unit incorporates a master

motor which mechanically drives four contactor
units that are electrically connected to an alternator.
The alternator is a small three-phase, alternating
current generator driven by an accessory drive of
the engine. Therefore, the frequency of the voltage
produced by the generator is directly proportional
to the speed of the engine. When the system is activated, the desired engine rpm is selected by manually adjusting the rpm control lever until the master
tachometer on the instrument panel indicates the
desired rpm. Once set, any difference in rpm
between an engine and the master motor will cause
the corresponding contactor unit to operate the
pitch-change mechanism of the propeller until the
engine speeds match.

ONE ENGINE MASTER CONTROL SYSTEM

Today, many twin engine aircraft are equipped with
a more modern propeller synchronizer system.
These newer synchronizer systems typically consist of a control box that includes a comparative circuit, a special master governor on the left engine, a
slave governor on the right engine, and an activator
in the right engine nacelle. Both governors incorporate a frequency generator that produces a frequency proportional to the engine's rotational
speed. [Figure 12-59]
With this type of system, the frequency generators
built into the propeller governors generate a signal
that is sent to the control box. A comparison circuit
in the control box compares the rpm signal from the
slave engine to the rpm signal from the master
engine. If a difference in engine speed exists, the
control box sends a correcting signal to the actuator
to adjust the slave governor until the engine speeds
match. In most installations, the comparator circuit
has a limited range of operation. Therefore, the

Propellers

12-48

Figure 12-59. The basic units of a light twin propeller synchronization system are a control box, master governor, slave governor,
and actuator.

slave engine must be within approximately 100 rpm

of the master engine for synchronization to occur.
[Figure 12-60]

SYNCHROPHASING
Synchrophasing systems are a refinement of propeller synchronization systems in that they
allow a pilot to control the angular difference in
the plane of rotation between the propeller
blades. This angular difference is known as the
phase angle and can be adjusted by the pilot to
achieve minimum noise and vibration levels.
[Figure 12-61]

Figure 12-60. This view of a propeller synchronizer system

shows the location of the various components when
installed in a light twin-engine aircraft.

A typical synchrophasing system equips each

engine with a magnetic pickup device known as
a pulse generator. The pulse generator on each
engine is keyed to the same blade of its respective propeller for comparison purposes. As the
designated blade of each propeller passes the
pulse generator, an electrical signal is sent to the
phasing control unit. For example, consider a
twin engine aircraft with pulse generators keyed
to blade number one. Based on the electrical
pulses from each pulse generator, the phasing
control unit determines the relative position of

12-49

Propellers

Figure 12-61. Synchrophasing allows a pilot to adjust the phase angle between the propellers for minimum noise and vibration levels.

each propeller's number one blade. A propeller

manual phase control in the cockpit allows the
pilot to manually select the phase angle which
produces the minimum vibration and noise. The
pulses from each engine are then compared and,
if a difference exists, the phasing control unit
electrically drives the slave governor to establish
the selected phase angle between propellers.
[Figure 12-62]

PROPELLER ICE CONTROL

SYSTEMS
As aircraft use became more vital in the movement
of cargo and passengers, the necessity to fly in
nearly all weather conditions became more important. However, before flight in bad weather could be
considered safe, auxiliary systems had to be devised
that could either prevent or remove ice formations
from an aircraft. Like the aircraft structure, propellers are susceptible to ice buildups and must be
equipped with a system to remove ice accumulations. If allowed to accumulate, ice formations can
distort a propeller blade's airfoil shape causing a
loss in propeller efficiency and thrust. Furthermore,
ice usually forms unevenly on a propeller blade and
produces propeller unbalance and destructive
vibration.
Currently, aircraft propellers may use either an
anti-icing or a de-icing system. The difference
between the two is that an anti-icing system
prevents the

Figure 12-62. The synchrophasing control panel is mounted

in the cockpit so cockpit crew members can adjust propeller blade phase angles in flight.

formation of ice whereas a de-icing system removes

ice after it has accumulated.
FLUID ANTI-ICING
A typical fluid anti-icing system consists of a control unit, a tank that holds a quantity of anti-icing
fluid, a pump to deliver the fluid to the propeller,
and nozzles. The control unit contains a rheostat
which is adjusted to control the pump output. Fluid
is pumped from the tank to a stationary nozzle

Propellers

72-50

Figure 12-63. A typical propeller anti-icing system consists of a fluid tank, a rheostat control, a slinger ring for each propeller, and a
fluid pump.

installed just behind the propeller on the engine

nose case. As fluid passes through the nozzle, it
enters a circular U-shaped channel called a slinger
ring. A typical slinger ring is designed with a delivery tube for each propeller blade and is mounted on
the rear of the propeller assembly. Once the fluid is
in the slinger ring, centrifugal force sends the
anti-icing fluid out through the delivery tubes to
each blade shank. [Figure 12-63]
In order to disperse the fluid to areas which are more
prone to ice buildups, feed shoes are typically
installed on the leading edge of each propeller blade.
Each feed shoe consists of a narrow strip of rubber
that extends from the blade shank out to a blade station that is approximately 75 percent of the propeller
radius. Feed shoes are molded with several parallel
open channels that allow centrifugal force to direct
fluid from the blade shank toward the blade tip. As
anti-icing fluid flows along the channels, the relative
wind also carries the fluid laterally from the channels over the leading edge of each blade.
The most commonly used anti-icing fluid is
iso-propyl alcohol because of its availability and
low

cost. Some other anti-icing fluids are made from

phosphate compounds and are comparable to
iso-propyl alcohol in anti-icing performance.
Anti-icing fluids made from phosphate compounds
also have the advantage of reduced flammability,
however, they are comparatively expensive.
ELECTRIC DE-ICE
A typical propeller de-icing system is electrically
operated. An electrical propeller de-icing system
consists of a power source, power relay, resistance
heating elements, system controls, and a timer or
cycling unit. The resistance heating elements may be
mounted either internally or externally on each propeller blade. Externally mounted heating elements
are known as de-icing boots and are attached to each
blade with an approved bonding agent. System controls include an on/off switch, loadmeter, and protective devices such as current limiters or circuit
breakers. The loadmeter is an ammeter which permits monitoring of individual circuit currents and
visual verification of proper timer operation.
A typical electric propeller de-ice system supplies
aircraft electrical system power to the propeller hub

Propellers

12-51

Figure 12-64. Aircraft electrical power is used to operate this propeller de-icing system. When the timer closes the relay, electrical
current flows to the carbon brushes which, in turn, pass the current to the rotating slip rings on the propeller hub. Flexible connectors carry the current from the slip rings to each heating element.

through a set of brush blocks and slip rings. The

brush blocks are mounted on the engine case just
behind the propeller while the slip rings are
mounted on the back of the propeller hub assembly.
Flexible connectors on the propeller hub transfer
power from the slip rings to each heating element.
[Figure 12-64]
Electrical de-icing systems are usually designed for
intermittent application of power to the heating elements for removal of small ice accumulations.
De-icing effectiveness
diminishes
if
ice
accumulations are allowed to become excessive.
Furthermore, proper control of heating intervals is
critical in the prevention of runback. Runback
refers to a condition where melted ice reforms
behind a blade's leading edge. Heat should be
applied just long enough to melt the ice face in
contact with the blade. If the applied heat is more
than that required to loosen the ice, but insufficient
to evaporate all the resulting water, water can run
back over the unheated blade surface and freeze
again. Runback may result in a

dangerous build-up of ice on blade areas which

have no de-icing protection.
hi addition to preventing runback, heating intervals
are also carefully controlled to avoid excessive propeller vibrations. Ice accumulations must be removed
from propeller blades evenly and in a balanced fashion from opposite blades to prevent excessive vibration. This is accomplished through the use of timing
circuits that cycle power in a predetermined sequence
to the blade heating elements. Cycling timers energize
the heating elements for periods of 15 to 30 seconds
with a complete cycle time of two minutes.
The de-icing boots may be checked for proper
warming sequences during pre-flight inspections by
turning the system on and feeling the boots.
However, exercise caution and limit ground testing
to prevent element overheating. Electric propeller
de-icing systems are designed for use when the propellers are rotating, and for short periods of time
during ground runup.

PROPELLER INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE,

AND INSTALLATION
considered to be a major repair. Major repairs to alu
minum propellers include shortening or straighten
ing of blades and repairs to deep dents, cuts, scars,
and nicks.
r
As an aviation maintenance technician, you will be
required to inspect and perform routine maintenance on various types of propellers. Therefore, in
addition to being familiar with propeller maintenance procedures, you must have a basic knowledge
of maintenance regulations that relate to propellers.
It is important to note that as a certified mechanic
with a powerplant rating, you are authorized to perform only minor repairs and minor alternations to
propellers.

MAINTENANCE REGULATIONS
FAR Part 43, Maintenance, Preventative
Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration, defines
the different classes of maintenance for propeller
systems. Appendix D lists the minimum requirements for 100-hour and annual inspections of propellers and their controls. For example, as a minimum during an annual or 100-hour inspection, propeller assemblies must be checked for cracks, nicks,
and oil leakage. In addition, bolts must be inspected
for proper torque and appropriate safetying. When
equipped with anti-icing devices, those devices
must be inspected for improper operations and
obvious defects. Also, you are required to inspect
propeller control mechanisms for improper operation, insecure mounting, and restricted travel.
Appendix A of FAR 43 lists propeller major alterations and repairs which must be performed by the
manufacturer or a certified repair station. Propeller
major alterations include changes in blade design,
hub design, and governor or control design. Also
included are installations of a propeller governors,
feathering systems, de-icing systems, and parts not
approved for the propeller. On the other hand, propeller major repairs include items such as retipping,
replacement of fabric covering, and inlay work on
wood propellers. Also included in fixed-pitch wood
propeller major repairs are replacement of outer
laminations and repair of elongated bolt holes in the
hub. Any repairs to, or straightening of, steel propeller blades is considered to be a major repair. In
addition, repairs to, or machining of, steel hubs is

Other major repairs listed in Appendix A of Part 43

include the repair or replacement of internal blade
elements such as internal de-icer heating elements.
Also listed are controllable pitch propeller overhauls and repair of propeller governors. Given the
number of items that are considered to be either
major repairs or alterations to propellers, it may be
difficult to differentiate whether a specific repair or
alteration is minor or major. Therefore, if you are in
doubt about the status of a contemplated alteration
or repair, you should contact your local Flight
Standards Office of the FAA.

AUTHORIZED MAINTENANCE
PERSONNEL
Although you are restricted from performing major
propeller alterations or repairs, you are responsible
for minor repairs and alterations. In addition, you
may install, adjust, and perform a 100-hour inspection of a propeller and its related components.
Furthermore, an aviation maintenance technician
holding an Inspection Authorization may perform
an annual inspection on a propeller. However, that
person may not approve for return to service major
repairs and alterations to propellers or their related
parts and appliances. Only an appropriately rated
facility, such as a propeller repair station or the propeller manufacturer, may return a propeller or
accessory to service after a major repair or alteration.

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

Specific inspection items and minor maintenance
tasks for which you are responsible depend on the
type of propeller and its accessories. The following
discussion provides generic information on typical
inspection and maintenance procedures. However,
the information provided here is only general in

12-53

Propellers

nature and, therefore, you should always consult

the appropriate aircraft or propeller maintenance
manuals and service bulletins for specific instructions and service limits.
WOOD PROPELLERS
A fixed-pitch wood propeller is simple in concept
and operation; however, the fine details of its construction require close visual inspection. For example, both annual and 100-hour inspections require
you to check for cracks, nicks, and properly torqued
or safetied bolts. While required visual inspections
are mostly conducted with the propeller mounted
on the engine, there may be occasions when
removal is necessary. For example, if excessive
vibration exists, you may have to remove the propeller to check for elongated mounting bolt holes or
proper balance.
To facilitate an inspection, a propeller should be
cleaned. Wood propellers may be cleaned with
warm water and a mild soap, using brushes or a
cloth. If the aircraft operates near salt water, the propeller should be flushed with fresh water often. If a
visual inspection after cleaning reveals defects
which must be further examined or repaired, propeller removal may be necessary. Removal of a wood
propeller is usually a simple matter of removing a
spinner, safety devices such as cotter pins or wire,
and the mounting bolts. In all instances, follow the
recommended removal procedures outlined in the
maintenance instructions for the aircraft and engine.
Common defects found in wood propellers include
separation of the laminations and dents or bruises
on the surface. Other possible damage includes
cracks or scars across the blade back or face, broken
sections, warping, and worn or oversize center bore
and bolt holes. If a dent, bruise, or scar is found on
a blade surface, inspect the damage with a magnifying glass while flexing the blade to help expose any
cracks.
When inspecting metal tipping, look for looseness
or slipping, loose screws or rivets, and cracks in the
solder joints. If a crack is found in a solder joint near
the blade tip, it may be an indication of wood deterioration. Therefore, the area near the crack should
be inspected closely while flexing the blade tip. If
no defects are found, the joint may be resoldered;
however, the blade tip should be inspected at closer
intervals for a recurrence of cracking. [Figure 12-65]
When inspecting the wooden blades installed on a
ground-adjustable
propeller,
special
attention

Figure 12-65. The metal tipping on a wood propeller should

be inspected for cracks in the leading edge and in the solder covering the retaining screws. If a crack is found, a close
inspection should be made of the entire area near the crack.

should be given to the metal sleeve and shank area.

The presence of cracks in these areas may indicate
broken or loose lag screws.
REPAIRS

Typically, small cracks parallel to the grain or small

cuts on a wood propeller may be repaired by working resin glue into the crack. Once the glue is dry,
the area is sanded with fine sandpaper and
refin-ished with an approved varnish or other
coating. Repairable tip fabric defects include
cracks, bubbles, paint chipping, and wrinkles that
appear when the tip is twisted or flexed. If the tip
fabric has surface defects of 3/4 inch or less, and a
breakdown in the wood structure is not suspected,
the defect may be filled with several coats of lacquer.
Once the lacquer has dried, the defect should blend
in with the fabric surface. Defects larger than 3/4
inch should be referred to a repair station.
Typically, separated laminations are repairable
when they occur in the outside lamination.
However, the repair must be done by a certified propeller repair station or the manufacturer. Additional
repairs that can be made by a propeller repair station
and a propeller manufacturer include large cracks
that require an inlay and restoration of elongated
bolt holes with metal inserts. In addition, broken
sections may be repairable, depending on the location and severity of the break. However, the determination of repairability and actual repairs must be
done by a repair station or the manufacturer.
When repair work is done to a wooden propeller
blade, a protective coating must be reapplied to the
wood. However, restoration of the protective coating

Propellers

72-54

could change the propeller blade's balance. Therefore,

the propeller's balance must be checked after the blade
has been reflnished. If an out-of-balance condition
exists, it may be necessary to apply more protective
coating on one blade than the other to achieve final
balancing. More information on propeller balancing
procedures is provided later in this section.

Removal procedures for a fixed-pitch aluminum

propeller are the same as for a fixed-pitch wood propeller. However, the aluminum propeller may be
heavier than a comparable sized wood propeller. If
so, obtain help when necessary to support the propeller during removal and prevent damage to the
propeller or personal injury.

As with all propellers, there are some defects that

cannot be repaired. For wooden propellers these
include:

Prior to an inspection, an aluminum propeller

should be cleaned with a solution of mild soap and
water using a soft brush or cloth to remove all dirt
and grease. Acid or caustic cleaning materials
should never be used on aluminum propellers
because their use could lead to corrosion.
Furthermore, avoid the use of power buffers, steel
wool, steel brushes, or any other abrasive that may
scratch or mar the blades. If a propeller has been
subjected to salt water, it should be flushed with
fresh water until all traces of salt have been
removed. This should be accomplished as soon as
possible after exposure to salt spray.

1. crack or deep cut across the grain

2. A split blade
3. Separated laminations, except for the outside
laminations of a fixed-pitch propeller
4. Empty screw or rivet holes
5. Any appreciable warp
6. An appreciable portion of wood missing
7. An oversized crankshaft bore in a fixed-pitch
propeller
8. Cracks between the crankshaft bore hole and
bolt holes
9. Cracked internal laminations
10. Oversize or excessively elongated bolt holes
STORAGE

When a wood propeller is stored, it should be

placed in a horizontal position to keep the moisture
evenly distributed throughout the wood. In addition, the storage area should be cool, dark, dry, and
well ventilated. Do not wrap the propeller in any
material that seals it from the surrounding airflow.
The reason for this is an airtight wrapping around
wood propellers promotes wood decay.
ALUMINUM PROPELLERS
The properties of aluminum alloys make aluminum
propellers durable and relatively inexpensive to
maintain. However, some types of damage can be
severe enough to cause blade failure. Therefore, aluminum propellers must be carefully inspected at
regular intervals. In addition, if any damage is discovered that jeopardizes the integrity of a propeller,
it must be repaired before further flight.

Once clean, aluminum blades are inspected for pitting, nicks, dents, cracks, and corrosion. Areas that
are especially susceptible to damage include the
leading edges and the blade face. To aid in the
inspection process, you should inspect the entire
propeller with a four-power magnifying glass. In
addition, if a crack is suspected, a dye penetrant
inspection should be performed. In many cases, a
dye penetrant inspection will show whether visible
lines and other marks are actually cracks or only
scratches, saving the time and expense of unnecessary repairs.
Inspect the hub boss for damage and corrosion
inside the center bore and on the surfaces which
mount on the crankshaft. Also, inspect the bolt
holes for cracks, excessive wear, and proper dimensions. Light corrosion can be cleaned from the hub
boss with sandpaper. The affected area may then be
painted or treated to help prevent further corrosion.
Propellers with damage, dimensional wear, or
heavy corrosion in the boss area should be referred
to a repair station for appropriate repairs.
REPAIRS

BLADE INSPECTION

A requirement for both annual and 100-hour inspections includes checking for cracks, nicks, and properly torqued or safetied bolts. As with a wood propeller, most inspections of a fixed-pitch aluminum
propeller are conducted without removal. However,
if operational problems such as vibrations occur, it
may be necessary to remove the propeller for a
detailed inspection of the hub area.

When an inspection reveals surface damage such as

nicks, scratches, or gouges on an aluminum alloy
propeller blade, repairs should be made as soon as
possible. By making prompt repairs, you help eliminate stress concentration points which, in turn,
helps to prevent cracks and fatigue failure. Defects
on a bladeis leading and trailing edges may be
dressed out by using a combination of round and
half round files.
When
a repair is
complete, it

Propellers

12-55

should blend in smoothly with the edge and should

not leave any sharp edges or angles. In all cases, the
repair of surface defects on aluminum propeller
blades must be made parallel to the length of the
blade. In addition, the approximate maximum
allowable size of a typical repair on a propeller edge
is 1/8 inch deep by no more than 1 1/2 inches in
length. [Figure 12-66]
Repairs to the face and back of a blade are performed with a spoon-like riffle file which is used to
dish out the damaged area. The maximum allowable
repair size of a typical surface defect on a blade face
or back is 1/16 inch deep by 3/8 inch wide by 1 inch
long. In addition, all repairs must be finished by
polishing with very fine sandpaper, moving the
paper in a direction parallel to the length of the
blade. Once sanded, the surface should be treated
with Alodine, paint, or other approved protective
coating. [Figure 12-67]
Damage in the shank area of a propeller blade cannot be repaired in the field and should be referred to
an overhaul facility for corrective action. Since all
forces acting on the propeller are concentrated at
the shank, any damage in this area is critical.
Furthermore, transverse cracks of any size render an
aluminum alloy blade unrepairable.

Figure 12-67. Repairs on the blade face and leading edge

should blend into the blade profile to maintain smooth airflow over the propeller.

bend is located. Once this is done, determine the

blade station of the bend by measuring from the center of the hub to the center of the bend. With the
center of the bend located, mark the blade one inch
on each side of the bend and place a protractor tangent to the one inch marks to determine the bend
angle. [Figure 12-68]

Contrary to popular belief, bent blades can often be

repaired. To determine if a blade is repairable, begin
by measuring the thickness of the blade where the

Figure 12-66. When making a repair to either the leading or

trailing edge of a propeller, ensure that the repair will not
exceed the propeller blade's minimum dimensions or
change the profile of its leading edge.

Figure 12-68. A protractor is used to determine the amount

of bend in a propeller blade. Place the hinge over the center
of the bend, set the protractor legs tangent to the blade one
inch on each side of the bend centerline, and read the
amount of bend in degrees on the protractor.

Propellers

12-56

Figure 12-70. Cracks in the blade retention area of the hub

of a ground-adjustable propeller are critical defects.
Dye-penetrant inspection methods are used to detect
such cracks.

GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLERS
Figure 12-69. This chart shows the amount of bend damage
at a given blade station that can be repaired by cold bending. Values that fall beneath the curve are repairable. For
example, a 10 degree bend at blade station 22 can be
repaired by cold bending. However, a 15 degree bend at station 22 cannot be repaired.

Many propeller manufacturers furnish charts that

help a technician determine if a bend is
repairable. In most cases, the chart consists of a
graph with the blade station on one axis and the
degree of bend on the opposite axis. When reading
this type of chart, any bend below the graph line is
repairable while any bend above the line is unrepairable. [Figure 12-69]
If the proper chart is not available, take the measurements and contact a propeller repair station
for a decision before sending the propeller to them
for straightening. Cold straightening repairs to a
bent aluminum propeller must be accomplished
by an appropriately rated repair station or the
manufacturer.
Once a repair has been made to an aluminum propeller, the propeller should be cleaned with an
approved solvent. This helps remove all traces of
dye penetrant materials used during an inspection
and subsequent repair. If the propeller was painted,
repaint the face of each blade with one coat of zinc
chromate primer and two coats of flat black lacquer
from the six inch station to the tip. The back of each
blade should have the last four inches of the tip
painted with one coat of zinc chromate primer and
two coats of a high visibility color.
If a high polish is desired, a number of good grades
of commercial metal polish are available. However,
after completing the polishing operation, all traces
of polish should be removed.

When inspecting a ground-adjustable propeller,

inspect the blades in the same manner as discussed
earlier paying particular attention to the areas
around the retention shoulders at the base of the
blades. The corresponding blade retention areas of
the hubs should also be closely inspected. A
dye-penetrant inspection is recommended on the
external surfaces in these areas during routine,
100-hour, and annual inspections. Unless complete
disassembly of the propeller is necessary for other
reasons, disassembly is not recommended at these
inspection intervals. The reason for this is to reduce
the wear and tear on the hub associated with
disassembly and reassembly. [Figure 12-70]
McCAULEY CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS

Constant-speed propellers require a more detailed

inspection and, in general, more maintenance than
fixed-pitch propellers. For example, oil leaking
from the propeller hub may indicate a defective piston-to-cylinder O-ring. On some models, the O-ring
can be replaced in the field by a technician following the procedures outlined in the propeller or aircraft service manual. On other models, the propeller
must be returned to a propeller repair facility. Any
seals, other than the piston-to-cylinder O-ring,
which are found to be leaking require replacement
by a propeller repair facility.
Certain models of McCauley propellers have been
modified to allow for a continuous dye penetrant
type of inspection. In this case, the hub breather
holes are sealed and the hub is partially filled with
oil that is dyed red. The red dye in the oil makes the
location of developing cracks readily apparent,
indicating that the propeller should be removed
from service.

12-57

Propellers

HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS

Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems require

the same types of inspection, maintenance, and
repair as other constant-speed systems. However, an
additional inspection is recommended to check a
steel hub for cracks. Magnetic particle inspection is
the preferred method of inspection when checking
steel propeller hubs for cracks.
If grease leakage is detected on a Hartzell propeller,
determine the cause and correct it as soon as possible. The most common causes of grease leakage are
loose, missing, or defective grease fittings, or zerks.
Other causes could be loose blade clamps, defective
blade clamp seals, and overlubrication of the
blade-to-hub joints.
If a zerk fitting is loose, missing or defective, it
should be tightened or replaced as appropriate.
Loose blade clamps should be torqued to the specified value for the particular model of propeller and
resafetied. Check the blade angle to be certain that it
does not change during retorquing.
When servicing a Hartzell constant-speed propeller,
special care should be taken when lubricating the
blade-to-hub joints to prevent damage to the blade
seals. First, remove one of the two zerk fittings from
the hub. Next, grease the blade-to-hub joint through
the remaining zerk. Some propeller models should
be serviced until grease comes out of the hole from
which the zerk was removed. In contrast, other
models require less grease. By following the recommended procedures, you prevent pressure from
building up in the blade grease chamber and damaging the blade seals. After lubrication, reinstall the
zerk fittings, replace the protective cap, and safety
the cap to the zerk fitting.
HARTZELL FEATHERING COMPACT PROPELLERS

Inspection, maintenance, and repair procedures

for a Hartzell feathering propeller system is the
same as those for other Hartzell constant-speed
systems. However, one additional check which
should be accomplished at each 100-hour and
annual inspection is the nitrogen charge within
the propeller hub. If the charge is too low, it may
not feather or respond properly to constant-speed
operation and it may have a tendency to overspeed
or surge. On the other hand, the propeller system
may not reach full rpm and may feather upon
engine shutdown if the nitrogen pressure is too
high. When checking the nitrogen charge, ensure

that the blades are latched in the low pitch position. If insufficient pressure exists, follow the
manufacturer's instructions for servicing with
nitrogen.
HAMILTON- STANDARD HYDROMATIC
PROPELLERS

Hydromatic propellers are inspected, maintained,

and repaired in accordance with the same procedures as other constant-speed systems. Inspections
primarily involve a check for proper operation,
looking for oil leaks, and inspecting external oil
lines for signs of deterioration or abrasion.
Oil leaks in the propeller are normally caused by a
defective gasket or loose hardware. If oil covers all
of the propeller, the likely cause is a leaking dome
plug. Oil leakage around the rear cone usually indicates a defective spider-shaft oil seal. If oil appears
on the barrel immediately behind the dome, the
dome gasket is leaking or the dome nut is loose. The
dome plug seal and the dome-to-barrel gasket can be
replaced in the field.
Signs of leaking oil around the blade shank area or
between the barrel halves could indicate loose hub
bolts or defective gaskets. Loose hub bolts can be
retorqued, but leaking gaskets must be replaced by
an overhaul facility. The propeller is lubricated by
engine operating oil, therefore it needs no other
lubrication.
PROPELLER LUBRICATION

All the adjustable pitch propeller systems just discussed require inspections and servicing at regular
intervals. Lubrication is, in many cases, one of the
required servicing procedures. The grease used to
lubricate a propeller must have the proper anti-friction and plasticity characteristics. In other words,
an approved grease reduces the frictional resistance
of moving parts and molds easily into any form
under pressure.
Propeller lubrication procedures are usually published in the manufactureris instructions along with
oil and grease specifications. Experience indicates
that water sometimes seeps into the propeller blade
bearing assemblies of some propeller models. For
this reason the propeller manufacturer's greasing
schedule and recommended oil and grease specifications must be followed to ensure proper lubrication of moving parts.

Propellers

12-58
STEEL AND COMPOSITE PROPELLERS
Propellers made from steel or composite material
may be cleaned and inspected in the same manner
as wood or aluminum propellers. However, manufacturers of composite propellers may also include
cleaning techniques and inspection items that are
unique to composite materials. Manufacturer's
instructions take precedence over general cleaning
and inspection techniques.
With these propellers, you are restricted to inspections and cleaning. As you recall, any repairs made
to correct defects in steel or composition propellers
must be accomplished by an appropriately rated
repair station or the manufacturer.
BLADE CUFF INSPECTION
If you recall, some propeller blades are fitted with
blade cuffs to improve airflow over the blade
shank and cooling airflow through the engine.
When this is the case, the blade cuffs must also be
inspected and checked for proper clearance.
Longitudinal clearance of constant-speed pro
peller blades or cuffs must be at least 1/2 inch
between propeller parts and stationary parts of the
aircraft. This clearance must be measured with the
propeller blades feathered or in the most critical
pitch configuration.
-

example, a metal blade that is shortened because of

tip damage requires shortening of the opposite
blade to maintain balance.
Propellers are balanced both statically or dynamically. A propeller is statically balanced when the
propeller's center of gravity coincides with its axis
of rotation. On the other hand, a propeller is dynamically balanced when the centers of gravity of the
blades rotate in the same plane of rotation.

STATIC BALANCE

Static balancing is accomplished by using either the

knife-edge method or the suspension method. Of
the two static balancing methods, the knife-edge
method is simpler and more accurate.
To balance a propeller using the knife-edge method,
a test stand consisting of two hardened steel edges
must be used. In addition, the test stand must be
located in a room or area that is free from any air
motion or heavy vibration.
Before you check a propeller's balance, you should
first verify that the blade angles are all the same. If
the blade angles are correct you can check a pro
peller's balance by following the listed sequence of
operations:
.
:

GOVERNORS
As mentioned earlier, you, as an aviation maintenance technician, are somewhat limited as to
what you can do with propeller systems. Nowhere
is this more evident than with propeller governors. Inspection of governors is limited to checking for oil leaks and security of mounting.
Maintenance consists of properly rigging the governor controls and verifying freedom of motion.
Although you may remove and install propeller
governors on an engine, inspections and repairs
which require governor disassembly must be
accomplished by a properly equipped and certified repair station.
BALANCING
Exact propeller balance is critical to proper engine
and propeller performance. Any time maintenance
is conducted or a repair is made that adds or
removes weight from a propeller, you must check
the propeller's balance. For example, if a wood propeller is refinished, the new varnish can create an
imbalance if it is unevenly applied.
In
another

1. Insert a bushing in the propeller hub bore hole.

2. Insert a mandrel or arbor through the bushing to
support the propeller on the balance knives.
3. Place the propeller assembly so that the ends of
the arbor are supported on the test stand. The
propeller must be free to rotate.
V Once in the test stand, the propeller should be
i checked for horizontal and vertical balance. To
check a two-bladed propeller assembly for vertical
balance, position one blade in the vertical position.
Next, repeat the vertical position check with the
blade positions reversed from the first vertical
check. If the propeller is balanced vertically, it will
remain in a vertical position regardless of which
blade is pointing up. On the other hand, if a vertical
imbalance exists, the propeller will have a tendency
to come to rest in a horizontal position. [Figure
12-71]
To check a two-bladed propeller assembly for horizontal balance, position the propeller in a horizontal position with both blades sticking straight out. If

12-59

Propellers

Figure 12-72. To check horizontal balance, the propeller is

positioned horizontally. Any rotation from this position
indicates a heavy blade.

Figure 12-71. In a vertical balance check, the propeller

blades are aligned vertically and an imbalance condition
causes them to move to a horizontal position.

the propeller is horizontally balanced, it will

remain in a horizontal position. On the other hand,
if a horizontal imbalance exists, one blade will tend
to move downward causing the propeller to come to
rest in a vertical position. [Figure 12-72]
A two-bladed propeller that is properly balanced
will have no tendency to rotate in any of the test
positions. If the propeller balances perfectly in all
described positions, it should also balance perfectly
in all intermediate positions. When necessary,
check for balance in intermediate positions to verify
the check in the originally described positions.
Static balancing of a three-bladed propeller requires
placing the propeller in three basic test positions.
First, rotate the propeller until blade number one is
pointing downward. Similarly, place blade number

two in the downward position, then blade number

three. A properly balanced three-bladed propeller
has no tendency to rotate from any of the three positions. [Figure 12-73]
In the suspension method for checking static balance, the propeller is hung by a cord. A disk is
firmly attached to the cord and a cylinder is
attached to the propeller. Any imbalance is determined by the eccentricity between the disk and the
cylinder.
Out-of-Balance Repairs

When a propeller assembly exhibits a definite tendency to rotate, certain corrections to remove the
imbalance are allowed. The addition of permanent
fixed weights is permitted at acceptable locations
when the total weight of the propeller assembly is
under allowable limits. Likewise, the removal of
weight is permitted from acceptable locations when
the total weight of the propeller assembly is equal to
the allowable limit.
The location for removal or addition of weight on a
propeller is determined by the propeller manufac-

Figure 12-73. A three-bladed propeller is properly balanced when each blade can be placed in the six o'clock position with no tendency
to rotate.

Propellers

12-60

turer. The method and point of application of balance corrections must be in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions. Typically, vertical
imbalance is corrected by adding a metal weight on
the light side of the hub 90 degrees from the propeller's horizontal centerline. On a wooden propeller, horizontal imbalance is corrected by adding
or removing solder at the propeller blade tips.
Horizontal balance correction on an aluminum propeller often involves the removal of small amounts
of metal by filing.
DYNAMIC BALANCE

A propeller exhibits dynamic balance when the centers of gravity of similar propeller elements, such as
the propeller blades, rotate in the same plane of
rotation. A dynamic imbalance resulting from
improper mass distribution is usually negligible if
the blades on a propeller track within limits. One
reason for this is that the length of the propeller
assembly along the engine crankshaft is very short
compared to its diameter. Another reason is the fact
that the blades track the same plane perpendicular
to the axis of the crankshaft.

Modern methods of checking dynamic balance

require the propeller, spinner, and related equipment to be installed on the aircraft. With the engine
running, electronic equipment senses and pinpoints
the location of an imbalance. In addition, the test
equipment typically determines the amount of
weight required to correct the condition.
CHECKING BLADE ANGLE
At times, you may be required to check the blade
angle at a specific blade station. To do this, a universal propeller protractor is typically used.
[Figure 12-74]
The frame of a typical protractor is made of aluminum alloy with three square sides at 90 degree
angles. A bubble spirit level mounted on one corner of the front of the frame swings out to indicate
when the protractor is level. A movable ring is
located inside the frame and is used to set the
zero reference angle for blade angle measurements. The ring is engraved with vernier index
marks, which allow readings as small as one tenth

Figure 12-74. A universal propeller protractor such as this one is used to check propeller blade angle.

Propellers

12-61

of a degree. A center disk is engraved with a

degree scale from zero to 180 degrees, both positive and negative. In addition, the center disk
contains a spirit level to indicate when the center
disk is level.
Before measuring a propeller blade angle, determine the reference blade station from the aircraft
manufacturer's maintenance manual. Mark this
reference station on the blade with chalk or with
a grease pencil. Next, establish the reference
plane from the engine crankshaft centerline. Do
not reference the airframe attitude because some
engines are installed at an angle to help counter
the effects of torque. To zero the protractor, loosen
the ring-to-frame lock, align the zeros on the disk
and the ring, and engage the disk-to-ring lock.
Place the edge of the protractor on a flat surface of
the propeller hub that is either parallel to, or perpendicular to, the crankshaft centerline. Now,
turn the ring adjuster until the spirit level in the
center of the disk is level. The corner level should
also be leveled. Now, tighten the ring-to-frame
Figure 12-76. To measure the blade angle, the protractor is
held against the blade face and the disk adjuster is rotated
until the spirit level centers.

lock, and release the disk-to-ring lock. The protractor is now aligned with the engine crankshaft.
[Figure 12-75]
Once the protractor is zeroed, rotate the propeller until one blade is horizontal and place the
protractor on the blade face at the reference station mark. Stand on the same side of the propeller facing in the same direction you were
when zeroing the protractor. If you desire to
measure from the other direction, you must zero
the protractor from that side. With the protractor
resting on the face of the blade, turn the disk
adjuster until the spirit level centers. Now read
the blade angle using the zero line on the ring as
the index. Accuracy in tenths of degrees can be
read from the vernier scale. To measure the angle
of another blade, rotate the desired blade to the
same horizontal position and repeat the process.
[Figure 12-76]
Figure 12-75. Before measuring propeller blade angle, the
protractor must be "zeroed" or adjusted to a reference. A
common reference is the propeller hub.

If the face of the propeller blade is curved, use

masking tape to attach a piece of 1/8 inch drill rod
1/2 inch from the leading and trailing edges. Once

Propellers

72-62

In most cases, a blade angle adjustment to a

ground-adjustable propeller can be made with the
propeller on the aircraft or on a propeller bench. To
make the actual adjustment, begin by placing a
grease pencil mark across the hub and blade to
mark their relative positions. The mark provides
visual identification of the original blade angle
setting and a reference mark for adjustment to the
new blade angle. Once the blades are marked,
loosen the hub bolts or clamps and rotate the
propeller to a horizontal position.

Figure 12-77. To compensate for blade curvature, small

pieces of 1/4 inch drill rod are attached to the propeller
blade to provide a level surface for the protractor.

To change the blade angle, the hub halves must be

separated slightly once the clamps or bolts are
loosened. The blades may then be rotated in the
hub until the desired blade angle is set. To help
you rotate a given propeller blade, a propeller
blade paddle is typically used. If a blade binds, jiggle the blade as it is being rotated to the new angle.
[Figure 12-78]

If dissimilar blade angles exist on an aluminum

fixed-pitch propeller, the blades can be repitched by
a propeller repair station or the manufacturer.
Consult the propeller repair facility and provide
details on the amount of allowable pitch variation
between blades.

Using the universal propeller protractor, check the

blade angle after tightening the hub clamps or bolts.
While loose in the hub, the blades droop slightly
and will move a small amount as the hub is tightened. Because of this, you may be required to
repeat the procedure a few times until the blades
are set properly. Typically, an acceptable blade
angle tolerance between the desired angle and the
actual angle is 0.1 degrees. Once the tolerance is
met, the propeller hardware can be properly
torqued and safetied.

BLADE ANGLE ADJUSTMENTS

COUNTERWEIGHT PROPELLER

All propeller systems other than fixed-pitch propellers require occasional blade angle adjustments.
For example, ground-adjustable propellers are set to
one blade angle while controllable pitch propellers
require the setting of low and high blade angle limits. The method used to make blade angle adjustments depends on the propeller type. The following
examples represent the more commonly used methods for adjusting blade angle.

On a counterweighted propeller, the

propeller blade angles are adjusted by means of a
set of stop

the rods are secure, measure the angle with the protractor resting on the rods. [Figure 12-77]

GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER

To adjust the propeller blade angle on a

ground-adjustable propeller, you must first
determine the reference blade station that must be
used. This information is typically contained in the
propeller or aircraft maintenance manual. Once the
reference station is known, check the specifications
for the blade angle range approved for the aircraft.
A typical range for a ground-adjustable propeller is
from 7 to 15 degrees.

Figure 12-78. A propeller blade paddle makes the task of

changing blade angles much easier.

Propellers

nuts on an index pin located under each counterweight cap. To gain access to the index pin, remove
the clevis pin which safeties the counterweight cap
and remove the cap. Pull the index pin out of its
recess in the counterweight or push it out from
behind the counterweight bracket with a small
tool. [Figure 12-79]
Alongside the recess which holds the index pin is a
scale calibrated with half degree marks and a
numerical scale from zero to ten. This scale is used
to adjust and set the stop nuts on the index pin.

12-63

replaced. With everything secured, the blades

should be moved through their full range of travel.
Once this is done, position the blades in their high
blade angle and measure the blade angle at the specified reference station. A common reference station
for a counterweighted propeller is the 42-inch station. Next, move the blades to their low blade angle
stop and check these angles. Make small adjustments to the stop nut positions as necessary to bring
the angles within acceptable limits.
HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS

The propeller blade index number, also known as

the base setting, should be stamped in a lead plug
located near the index pin recess. This number indicates the maximum blade angle for which the propeller was adjusted during its last overhaul. The
maximum blade angle is typically 25 degrees and is
used to calculate where the stop nuts on the index
pin should be positioned. For example, if the blade
index is 25 degrees and the aircraft specifications
specify a low blade angle of 17 and a high angle of
22 degrees, the stop nut positions are determined by
subtracting the appropriate blade angle from the
blade index. Therefore, to set the 17 degree low
blade angle, the stop nut is positioned on the index
pin so that the edge toward the center of the pin will
align with the 8 degree (25 -17 = 8) mark on the
scale. On the other hand, to set the 22 degree high
blade angle, the stop nut is positioned to line up its
edge with the 3 degree (25 -22 = 3) mark.

Hartzell steel hub propellers can be adjusted for the

desired low blade angle by loosening the hub
clamps and rotating the blades. However, you
should realize that, anytime the low blade angle is
changed, the high blade angle will also change. The
reason for this is because the piston within the propeller hub can only travel a fixed amount. Once the
desired blade angle is obtained, the clamps are
retorqued and safetied.

Once the stop nuts are set, the index pins are
installed in the counterweights and the caps are

The low pitch setting on a Hartzell compact propeller is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the
hub cylinder. To make a blade adjustment, begin by
loosening the jam nut on the adjusting screw and
rotating the screw clockwise to increase the low
blade angle, or counterclockwise to decrease the
angle. When the desired angle is set, retighten the
jam nut. When changing the blade angles, always
refer to the aircraft specifications and the propeller
manufacturer's manual for instructions about specific propeller models. [Figure 12-80]

Figure 12-79. The propeller blade angle of a counterweight

propeller is adjusted by positioning the stop nuts located
on the index pins inside each of the counterweights.

Figure 12-80. The low pitch setting for Hartzell compact

propellers is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the hub
cylinder.

12-64

Propellers

BLADE TRACKING
Propeller blade tracking is a procedure which
allows you to check the track of each propeller
blade tip as it travels through its arc of rotation. In
other words, by checking the tracking of a propeller, you compare the positions of the propeller
blade tips relative to each other. This procedure is
normally accomplished when troubleshooting a
vibration problem or as a final check after balancing and reinstallating a propeller. Metal propellers
up to six feet in diameter on light aircraft must
track within 1/16 inch of each other. On the other
hand, the track of a wood propeller should not be
out more than 1/8 inch.
Before a propeller can be tracked, the aircraft
must be locked in a stationary position. This is
typically accomplished by chocking the wheels to
prevent aircraft movement. Once this is done,
place a fixed reference point on the ground that is
within 1/4 inch of the propeller arc. This may be
done by placing a board on blocks under the propeller arc and taping a piece of paper to the board.
With the reference point in place, rotate the propeller blade and mark the track of each blade. The
maximum difference in track for all of the blades
should not exceed the limits mentioned above.
[Figure 12-81]
If the propeller track is off more than is allowed, the
reason should be determined and the condition corrected. The easiest item to check is the torque of the
propeller retaining bolts. If all bolts are properly
torqued, the propeller should be removed to allow
an inspection for the presence of debris or damage.
In addition, it may be necessary to check the crankshaft for alignment. If no problems are found, the
excessive out-of-track condition may be corrected
by placing shims between the inner flange and the
propeller.

Figure 12-81. A propeller can be tracked by placing a board

within 1/4 inch of the propeller arc. Rotate the propeller
and mark the path each blade tip follows as it passes the
board.

TROUBLESHOOTING

If excessive powerplant vibration is traced to the

propeller, the problem could be one of several
things. For example, dissimilar blade angle settings
can lead to an uneven thrust distribution between
propeller blades which, in turn, can lead to vibration. Additional causes of propeller vibration
include propeller blade imbalance, improper blade
tracking, a loose retaining nut, loose hub hardware,
or excessive crankshaft spline wear.

The origins of powerplant vibrations are sometimes

difficult to pinpoint. To determine whether the
vibrations are emanating from the engine or propeller, observe the propeller hub, dome, or spinner.
With the engine running between 1,200 to 1,500
rpm, observe the hub or spinner for rotation on an
absolutely horizontal plane. If the propeller hub
appears to swing in a slight orbit, or if the vibration
becomes more apparent at higher rpms, the vibration is normally caused by the propeller. If the propeller hub oscillates, the difficulty is probably
caused by engine vibration.

In addition to vibration problems, a malfunctioning

pitch-changing mechanism may require troubleshooting. For example, sludge in oil passages or
the pitch selector valve of a two-position propeller
may cause slow or erratic responses to pitch-change
commands. Furthermore, erratic or jerky blade
movement during pitch changes may be caused by
trapped air in the cylinder. Cycling the propeller
through its pitch-change operation several times
usually purges air from the system. In addition, the
linkage from the cockpit pitch control lever to the
selector valve may become loose and fail to activate

12-65

Propellers

the selector valve. Operations in a marine environment can cause salt-water corrosion around the propeller cylinder and piston, leading to sporadic and
unreliable pitch changes.
HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC

Troubleshooting procedures and solutions discussed for other systems are generally applicable to
the feathering hydromatic system. If the propeller
fails to respond to the cockpit propeller control
lever, but can be feathered and unfeathered, the
cause is most likely a failure of the governor or governor control system. If the propeller fails to feather,
check the system for electrical faults or for open
wiring to the electrical components.
If the propeller fails to unfeather after feathering
normally, the distributor valve is not shifting. On
the other hand, if the propeller feathers and immediately unfeathers, the problem may be a short circuit in the holding coil wiring or an open circuit in
the pressure cutout switch or its associated wiring.
The same problem occurs if the feather button is
short-circuited internally.

bolt holes and dowel pin holes are machined into

the flange. Some flanges have threaded inserts
pressed into the bolt holes. [Figure 12-82]
Before installing a propeller on a flanged shaft,
inspect the flange for corrosion, nicks, burrs, and
other surface defects. In addition, the bolt holes and
threaded inserts should be clean and in good condition. Any defects found should be repaired in accordance with the engine manufacturer's recommendations. Light corrosion can typically be removed with
very fine sandpaper; however, if a bent flange is suspected, a run out inspection should be performed. If
you do have to remove corrosion, clean the flange
after sanding and check for smoothness. Once this is
done, apply a light coat of engine oil or antiseize
compound to the flange for corrosion prevention
and ease of future propeller removal.
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS

Before installing a fixed-pitch propeller on a flanged

shaft, inspect the mounting surface of the propeller
to verify that it is clean and smooth. The attaching

Sluggish movement of the propeller may be the

result of a buildup of sludge in the propeller dome
or a worn out piston-to-dome seal inside the dome.
Sticking cam rollers may also interfere with smooth
pitch-change movement and feathering operations.
Erratic or jerky operation of the propeller is an indication of the wrong preload shim being used
between the dome and barrel assemblies. If this is
the case, the dome will have to be removed so the
proper shim can be installed.

PROPELLER INSTALLATION
The method used to attach a propeller to an engine
crankshaft varies with the design of the crankshaft.
Currently, there are three types of crankshafts used
on aircraft engines, the flanged crankshaft, the
tapered crankshaft, and the splined crankshaft. The
general installation procedures for all three types
are discussed in the following paragraphs. For specific instructions, you should refer to the aircraft
and engine maintenance manuals.
FLANGED SHAFT
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most horizontally opposed reciprocating engines and some turboprop engines. The front of the crankshaft is
formed into a flange four to eight inches across, perpendicular to the crankshaft centerline. Mounting

Figure 12-82. (A) On a flanged crankshaft with dowel pin

holes, the propeller is mounted to the crankshaft using
bolts and nuts. The dowel pin holes are often arranged so
the propeller can mount in only one position. (B) Most
installations utilize threaded inserts which are pressed into
the crankshaft to eliminate the use of nuts.

Propellers

72-66

Figure 12-83. When installing a propeller on a four-cylinder

opposed engine, one of the blades should come to rest at
the ten o'clock position to help reduce vibration and facilitate hand propping.

Figure 12-84. When installing a propeller on a flanged crankshaft, it is important to follow the propeller manufacturer's
recommended sequence to avoid inducing stress in the propeller hub.

bolts should be in good condition and inspected for

cracks with either a dye penetrant or magnetic particle inspection process. Washers and nuts should
also be inspected, and new fiber lock nuts used if
they are required in the installation.

mounting the propeller, a front bulkhead is placed

on the front of the hub boss before the bolts are
inserted. After the bolts are tightened and safetied,
the spinner is installed with machine screws. The
machine screws are inserted through the spinner
into nut plates on the bulkheads. If the spinner is
indexed, line up the index marks during installation
to avoid vibration. [Figure 12-86]

Most flanges that use dowel pins allow the propeller

to mount on the shaft in only one position. If there is
no dowel, install the propeller in the position specified by the aircraft or engine maintenance manual.
This is important because propeller position is critical
for maximum engine life in some installations. If no
position is specified on a four cylinder horizontally
opposed engine, the propeller should be installed
with the blades at the 10 o'clock and 4 o'clock positions when the engine is stopped. This reduces vibration in many instances and puts the propeller in the
best position for hand propping. [Figure 12-83]
After attaching the bolts, washers, and nuts, tighten
all of the bolts finger-tight. Then, use an approved
torque wrench to tighten the bolts to a specified
value in the recommended sequence. A typical
torque value is 35 foot-pounds or higher for metal
propellers and approximately 25 foot-pounds for
wood propellers. In addition, a typical tightening
sequence requires you to torque the bolts in a crossing pattern. [Figure 12-84]
When a skull cap spinner is used, a mounting
bracket is installed behind two of the propeller
mounting bolts. Once the mounting bracket is
installed, the skull cap is attached to the bracket
with a bolt and washer. [Figure 12-85]
If a full spinner is used, a rear bulkhead is slipped
on the flange before the propeller is installed. After

CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS

Some Hartzell steel hub propellers and all Hartzell

compact propellers are designed to mount on
flanged crankshafts. However, before you mount a
constant-speed propeller on the crankshaft, you
should lubricate the O-ring in the rear of the hub
with a light coat of engine oil. Once this is done,
you can carefully mount the propeller on the flange.
When doing this, pay particular attention to the
O-ring to keep it from being damaged.

Figure 12-85. Some small training aircraft with flange

mounted propellers utilize a skull cap spinner that requires
a mounting bracket to be installed using two of the propeller mounting bolts.

Propellers

12-67

Figure 12-86. A full spinner mounts to forward and rear bulkheads with machine screws. On some smaller aircraft, the spinner may
mount to only a rear bulkhead.

McCauley constant-speed propellers are also

installed on flanged crankshafts. Like Hartzell propellers, an O-ring in the rear of the hub must be lubricated with a light coat of engine oil to allow its movement as the propeller is secured to the crankshaft
flange. A dry O-ring can tear and become pinched
during installation unless lubricated. [Figure 12-87]

When installing a constant-speed propeller that can

be feathered, the installation and adjustment procedures are similar to that of other constant-speed
models. However, if the blades are left in a feathered
position, they should be rotated to their low pitch
angle. For safety reasons, it is best to use a blade
paddle on each blade.

Figure 12-87. McCauley constant-speed propellers are installed on flanged crankshafts with an O-ring seal to prevent oil leakage.

12-68

Propellers

Figure 12-88. On some low horsepower engines, the crankshaft is tapered and is threaded on the end for propeller
mounting.

TURBOPROPELLERS

When installing a constant-speed, reversing propeller, use the same basic procedures that are used
for other flanged shaft propellers. One difference,
however, is the addition of the Beta tube. The Beta
tube is installed through the propeller piston after
the propeller is installed, and is bolted to the forward part of the piston.
TAPERED SHAFT
Tapered shaft crankshafts are found on older
engines that produce low horsepower. This type of
crankshaft requires a hub to adapt the propeller to
the shaft. To prevent the propeller from rotating on
the shaft, a large keyway is cut into the crankshaft
taper and the propeller so that a key can hold the
propeller in place. [Figure 12-88]
When installing a wood propeller on a tapered
shaft, the propeller boss is installed over the adapter
hub and a faceplate is placed between the boss and
mounting bolts. This faceplate distributes the compression load of the bolts over the entire surface of
the boss. If a new fixed-pitch wood propeller is
installed, inspect the mounting bolts for tightness
after the first flight and again after the first 25 flight
hours. [Figure 12-89]
Before installing the propeller on the crankshaft, the
shaft must be carefully inspected for corrosion,
thread condition, cracks, and wear in the keyway
area. If cracks are allowed to develop in the keyway,
they can spread rapidly and eventually cause crankshaft failure. It is good practice to inspect the
key-way with dye penetrant at every 100-hour or
annual inspection. Any minor surface defects found
during the pre-installation inspection should be
dressed or

Figure 12-89. A typical mounting hub for a wood propeller

uses a face plate to distribute the compression load evenly
over the boss of the propeller hub.

polished out in accordance with the engine manufacturer's maintenance manual. In addition, the propeller hub components and mounting hardware
should be inspected for wear, cracks, and corrosion.
Defective components must be replaced or repaired
as necessary.
Before permanently installing the propeller, a trial
fit of the hub on the crankshaft should be done
using a liquid transfer ink such as Prussian Blue.
Prussian Blue is a dark blue ink, or dye, which has
the consistency of a light grease. This dye visibly
reveals the amount of contact between two mating
surfaces. To do a trial fit, begin by applying a thin,
even coat of dye on the tapered section of the crankshaft. Once this is done, place the key in the keyway
and install the hub on the crankshaft and torque the
retaining nut. In practice, the hub, snap ring, and
retaining nut are never disassembled. If, however,
they were disassembled for inspection or repair,
place the retaining nut against the hub and install
the puller snap ring. Once assembled, the retaining
nut may be torqued. [Figure 12-90]

Figure 12-90. A snap ring is installed inside a propeller hub

mounted on a tapered or splined shaft to aid in removing
the propeller from the shaft.

Propellers

The hub should then be removed from the crankshaft and inspected for the amount of ink transferred from the tapered shaft to the propeller. The
ink transfer must indicate a minimum contact area
of 70 percent. If insufficient contact is found, the
crankshaft and hub should be inspected for the
cause. The mating surfaces can be lapped with a
polishing compound until a minimum of 70 percent
contact area is achieved. After this is done, thoroughly clean the hub and crankshaft to remove all
traces of Prussian Blue and polishing compound.
Once the minimum contact area is achieved, apply
a very light coat of oil or antiseize compound to the
crankshaft. Make sure that the key is installed properly, then place the hub assembly and propeller on
the shaft. Be sure that the threads on the shaft and
nut are clean and dry, then verify that the puller
snap ring is in place before torquing the nut to the
proper value. Failure to tighten the retaining nut to
the proper torque results in play between the propeller, front cone and rear cone. Any space between
the cones and the propeller produces galling and
wear on their surfaces. Safety the retaining nut to
complete the installation.

SPLINED SHAFT
Splined crankshafts are found on
most radial engines, some horizontally
opposed, and some

Figure 12-91. The master spline on a splined propeller shaft

ensures that the propeller is correctly positioned when
installed on the engine.

12-69

inline engines. The splined shaft has grooves and

splines of equal dimensions and a double width
master spline to ensure that a hub will fit on the
shaft in only one position. [Figure 12-91]
Before installing a propeller on a splined shaft,
inspect the crankshaft for cracks, surface defects,
and corrosion. If any defects exist, repair them in
accordance with the engine manufacturer's
instructions. Crankshaft and hub splines are
inspected for wear with a go/no-go gauge which is
0.002 inch larger than the maximum space
allowed between the splines. The splines are serviceable if the gauge cannot be inserted between
the splines for more than 20 percent of the spline
length. If the gauge goes in more than 20 percent
of the way, the hub or the crankshaft is
unairwor-thy and must be replaced.
To help ensure that the propeller hub is centered on
the crankshaft, a front and rear cone are installed on
each side of the propeller hub. The rear cone is typically made of bronze and is split to allow flexibility during installation and to ensure a tight fit. The
front cone, on the other hand, is made in two pieces
as a matched set. The two halves are marked with a
serial number to identify them as mates in a set.
[Figure 12-92]
In addition to the front and rear cones, a large
retaining nut is used to tighten and hold the propeller in place. The retaining nut threads onto the
end of the splined shaft and presses against the front

Figure 12-92. Splined propeller shafts require front and rear

mounting cones to ensure that the propeller is properly
aligned on the shaft.

72-70

Propellers

Figure 12-94. Rear cone bottoming occurs when the tip of the
rear cone contacts the land on the rear seat of the hub before
the hub seats on the cone. Removal of a specified amount of
material from the cone's apex corrects this problem.

Figure 12-93. With a splined shaft installation, the propeller

is held in place by a retaining nut that threads onto the end
of the splined shaft and presses against the front cone.

cone to sandwich the propeller tightly between the

front and rear cones. [Figure 12-93]
Like the tapered shaft, a trial installation of the propeller should be completed to ensure a proper fit. To
do the trial installation, begin by applying a thin
coat of Prussian Blue to the rear cone. Next, slip the
rear cone and bronze spacer onto the crankshaft
pushing them all the way back on the shaft. With
the rear cone in place, align the hub on the master
spline and push the hub back against the rear cone.
Coat the front cone halves with Prussian Blue and
place them around the lip of the retaining nut.
Install the nut in the hub and tighten it to the proper
torque.

seat of the hub before the hub becomes seated on the

rear cone. One way to correct rear cone bottoming is
to remove up to 1/16 inch from the apex of the cone
with sandpaper on a surface plate. [Figure 12-94]
Front cone bottoming occurs when the apex of the
front cone bottoms on the crankshaft splines, before
it has a chance to seat on the hub. Front cone bottoming is indicated by either the hub being loose on
the shaft after the retaining nut has been torqued, or
when there is no transfer of Prussian Blue to the
front hub seat. Correct front cone bottoming by
using a spacer of no more than 1/8 inch thickness
behind the rear cone. This moves the hub forward,
enabling the hub to properly seat on the front cone.
[Figure 12-95]
Once a proper fit between the hub and splined shaft
is ensured, reinstall the rear cone and permanently

After the retaining nut is torqued, immediately

remove the retaining nut and front cone and note
the amount of Prussian Blue transferred to the hub.
A minimum of 70 percent contact is required. Then,
remove the hub from the crankshaft and note the
transfer of dye from the rear cone. As with the front
cone, a minimum of 70 percent contact is required.
If contact is insufficient, lap the hub to the cones
using special lapping tools and fixtures.
If no dye is transferred from the rear cone during the
transfer check, a condition known as rear cone bottoming may exist. This occurs when the apex, or
point, of the rear cone contacts the land on the rear

Figure 12-95. Front cone bottoming occurs when the apex

of the front cone bottoms on the crankshaft splines. This
prevents a good seat between the front cone and propeller
hub. As a result, the propeller hub is loose, lacking a tight
fit to the crankshaft.

Propellers

12-71

mount the propeller on the shaft. As you recall, the

position of the propeller on the hub in relation to
the master spline is predetermined. Some installations require a certain blade to align with the master spline while other installations require the
blades be perpendicular to the master spline position. Therefore, be sure to consult the engine maintenance manual for the requirements of a particular
installation.
PROPELLER SAFETYING
Once a propeller is properly torqued, it must be
safetied. There is no one correct way to safety a propeller installation because of the many different
types of installations. For this reason, the discussion of safetying methods is limited to the types
more commonly used.
A flanged shaft installation has the largest variety of
safety methods because of its many variations. If the
flange has threaded inserts installed, the propeller
is held on by bolts screwed into the inserts. In this
case, the bolt heads are drilled and safetied with
0.041 inch stainless steel safety wire, using standard
safety wire procedures. [Figure 12-96]

Figure 12-97. If the propeller installation uses castellated

nuts with drilled bolts, safety the nuts with cotter pins.

bolts, the nuts are safetied to the bolts with cotter

pins. [Figure 12-97]
The retaining nuts for tapered and splined shaft
installations are safetied in the same way. In addition, a clevis pin is installed through the safety
holes in the retaining nut and crankshaft. The clevis
pin must be positioned with the head toward the
center of the crankshaft. This allows centrifugal
force to hold the clevis pin tightly in the hole
against its flanged head. [Figure 12-98]

If threaded inserts are not pressed into the flange,

bolts and nuts are used to hold the propeller in
place. Some installations use fiber lock nuts which
require no safetying, but the nuts should be
replaced each time the propeller is removed. For
installations
using castellated nuts
and
drilled

Figure 12-96. On propellers secured to a flanged hub with

bolts, pairs of bolt heads are safety wired together to keep
the bolts from loosening.

Figure 12-98. To safety the retaining nut on a tapered shaft

propeller installation, a clevis pin is installed through the
safety holes in the retaining nut and crankshaft. The clevis
pin must be installed with its flanged head toward the center of the crankshaft.

72-72

OPERATIONAL CHECK
An operational check should be conducted once a
constant-speed propeller has been installed and
safetied. To conduct this check, follow ground
runup procedures for the aircraft you are operating
and position the aircraft for maximum safety. The
first time a newly installed propeller operates at
high rpm on an engine, it is always wise to be alert
to the hazards of possible propeller failure.
All adjustable propeller systems share common features in regard to their control configuration.
Propeller controls must be rigged so that an increase
in rpm is obtained by moving the controls forward
and a decrease in rpm is caused by moving the controls
aft.
Furthermore,
engine
throttles
must be

Propellers

arranged so that forward thrust is increased by forward movement of the control, and decreased thrust
is obtained by aft movement of the throttle.
When running-up an engine and testing a newly
installed Hydromatic propeller, it is necessary to
exercise the propeller several times. This is done by
moving the governor control through its entire
range of travel several times to free the dome of
entrapped air.
Once all ground checks and adjustments are successfully completed, a test flight should be conducted. The test flight verifies the propeller system
response to dynamic loads and determines if any
other adjustments are necessary. After the test flight,
check for oil leaks and component security.