< Chapter

General
Design

Requirements

and

Considerations
A. J. AISENBREY,

JR.

A. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
l-l. Purpose.-To fulfill a project purpose
o f p reducing crops or increasing crop
production, water delivery to the land must be
provided by a reliable and efficient irrigation
system. A sun-drenched, parched soil may need
only water to change it from a sparsely
vegetated, thirsty desert to a high-yield crop,
farmland oasis as illustrated in figure 1-l. An
increased crop yield of premium quality is very
likely if the proper amount of moisture is made
available to the crop when needed. (See fig.
l-2).
A canal is frequently used to convey water
for farmland
irrigation.
In addition
to
transporting irrigation water, a canal may also
transport water to meet requirements for
municipal, industrial, and outdoor recreational
uses. A variety of recreation is provided by
reservoirs as shown in figures l-3 and 1-4.
The conveyance canal and its related
structures should perform their functions
efficiently and competently with minimum
maintenance, ease of operation, and minimum
water loss.
l-2. Structures. -Many
different types of
canal structures are required in an irrigation
system to effectively and efficiently convey,
regulate, and measure the canal discharge and
also to protect the canal from storm runoff
damage.
The design capacity of the conveyance,
regulating, and water measurement structures
Civil Engineer,
Reclamation.

Hydraulic

Structures

Branch,

Bureau of

discussed throughout this publication is limited

to 100 cubic feet per second.
(a) Corzveyance Structures. -In addition to
the canal itself, it is usually necessary, because
of topography or existing manmade features,
to use inline canal structures to convey water
along the canal route. Such structures include:
(1) inverted siphons to convey canal water
under natural channels, (2) road crossings to
carry canal water under roadways, (3) bench
flumes to conduct the water along a steep
hillside, and (4) drop or chute structures to
safely lower the canal water down a hillside.
(b) Regulating Structures. -Regulation
of
canal discharge begins at the source of water
supply. This may be a canal headworks
structure adjacent to a diversion dam on a
stream or river, a turnout from a larger canal,
or a pumping plant located on a reservoir or
large canal. Downstream from the source of
water supply, regulation of canal discharge is
primarily
controlled
by outflow
through
turnout structures. Where canal flow is to be
divided and directed in several directions,
division structures are used to regulate the
discharge
in each direction.
Wasteway
structures also are used to control flow in a
canal; however, they are more commonly
thought of as protective structures as their
primary function is to discharge excess canal
flows and thereby protect the canal from
damage.
Regulating structures are also capable of
raising the canal water surface higher than
would normally exist when the canal is flowing
1

SMALL

Figure 1-1. Open canal system supplying irrigation

CANAL

STRUCTURES

water to citrus groves, Gila Project, Arizona. PSO-300-l0S86

at less than design capacity. A check structure,

for example, is used to raise the canal water
surface when the canal is flowing at partial
capacity so that a turnout structure may still
deliver its designed capacity. Check structures
are spaced at appropriate intervals along a canal
to provide this capabili ty .
(c)
Water
Measurement
Structures.-Efficient
management of an
irrigation system insists that measurement of
the rate-of-flow and volume delivered be made.
Equitable water distribution to the users is a
primary consideration. Water measurement also
tends to prevent unnecessary wasteful water
management practices, thereby enhancing the
conservation of this great natural resource.

Several
types of water measurement
structures or devices are used. Parshall flumes,
weirs, weir boxes, open-flow meters, and
constant head orifices are the more common
types.
The
constant
head orifice,
although
sometimes used as an inline canal water
measurement structure, is more commonly
used in conjunction
with a turnout and
therefore is discussed in detail with regulating
structures.
Selection of the type of structure best suited
for a particular installation is discussed in
chapter V.
(d) Protective Structures.-Provisions
must
be made in an open irrigation system to

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

Figure 1-2. Irrigating

AND

DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

corn using siphon tubes, Red Willow Unit, Nebraska. P328-701-6140

Figure 1-3. Boating on the Rogue River Project, Oregon.

C448-100-148

Figure 1-4. Fishing on Hungry Horse Reservoir, Montana.

C447-100-S0

I
4
externally protect the canal on the uphill side
from damage by storm runoff water, and
internally protect the canal from excess canal
flows caused by storm waters entering the
canal, or by misoperation of the canal system.
Cross-drainage
structures and wasteways
provide this protection.
Cross-drainage structures are used to direct
storm runoff flows under the canal through
culverts, over the canal in overchutes, or into
the canal by drain inlets.
Wasteways evacuate excess canal flows over
side channel spillways., through radial gated
spillways, or through siphon spillways.
(e)
Structure
Components
and
Appurtcnamzs. -Nearly all canal structures are
made of several different structural parts which
together make up the complete structure.
These parts, (components and appurtenances)
include:
(1) Pipe.-Pipe is commonly used for
placed
that
part
of a structure
underground and which may or may not
be subjected to internal hydrostatic
bursting pressure. Pipe is made from one
of several different materials such as
reinforced
concrete, asbestos cement,
metal, or
welded
steel, corrugated
reinforced plastic mortar. Selection of the
appropriate pipe material is dependent on
several considerations discussed later in
chapter VIII.
(2) Pipe
app ur tenawes. -Appurtenances include such items as pipe collars,
air vents, blowoffs, manholes, and are
discussed later in chapter VIII.
(3) Tratzsitions. -Transitions connect a
canal or natural channel to a structure
inlet or structure outlet. Several different
transition configurations
of reinforced
concrete are used. Earth transitions are
used as required to vary base widths and
invert slopes. See chapter VII for a
detailed discussion of transitions.
(4) Etzergy
dissipators.
-Energy
dissipators are used at the outlet ends of
drop or chute structures to dissipate
excess energy. Energy dissipation may be
achieved by a hydraulic jump in a stilling
pool or by impact in a baffled outlet.
Excess energy may also be dissipated by a
hydraulic jump within a pipe; by impact

SMALL

CANAL

STRUCTURES

on a baffled apron; by impact and valve

losses in a high-head vertical energy
dissipator; or simply by a vertical drop of
a few feet into a pool of water. Energy
dissipators are discussed in detail in
chapter VI.
(5) Safety features. -Safety
features
are used to prevent humans, livestock, and
wildlife from entering a canal and canal
structures, and also to assist in their
escape if inadvertently entered. Various
types of fencing, guardrail, nets, racks,
ladders, and signs are used as safety
precautions. See chapter IX for a more
detailed
discussion of canal safety
features.
l-3.
Other
Requirements.-Many
requirements
vital to a complete
and
competent design of a canal water-delivery
system are beyond the scope of this
publication.
However,
the more basic
considerations are briefly discussed in this
section to remind or acquaint the reader of
other essential design data requirements.
(a) Canal.-Design capacity for an irrigation
canal is determined by the maximum water
demand which is primarily dependent on the
following considerations: (1) the area to be
irrigated, (2) crops to be grown, (3) rotation or
demand system for turnout deliveries, (4)
water losses from evaporation and seepage, and
(5) anticipated efficiency of water application
to the crops. Records of actual water use for
conditions similar to the system to be designed
are valuable guides for estimating the quantity
of water required for each acre. Soil
characteristics and climatic conditions should
also be evaluated. Figure l-5 shows furrow
irrigation of crops from a header ditch, and
sprinkler irrigation is shown in figure l-6.
Location of the canal with respect to the
land to be irrigated is primarily influenced by
topography and economic considerations. If,
for example, water delivery cannot be made by
gravity, the additional cost of pumping would
be included in an economic study. Figure l-7
shows water delivery by gravity from the canal,
through a turnout, to the farmland.
Considerations for the selection of the canal
hydraulic properties include erosion resistance
for the banks and invert of an earth canal,
sideslope
stability,
hydraulic
efficiency,

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

AND

DESIGN

Figure 1-5. Irrigating sugar beets on the Boise

Project, Idaho. C4-10o-I88

~'"

Figure

1-6.

Sprinkler
irrigation
in the Coachella
Valley,
California.
LC830

CONSIDERATIONS

(b) Other Structures. -Detailed discussions

of structures such as tunnels, bridges, utility
crossings, and fish screens and fish ladders are
not included herein.
Tunnels are used where it is more
economical to convey canal water through a
ridge or hill than to: (I) pump water over the
obstruction, (2) convey the water along the
hillside or around the ridge, or (3) construct a
canal section requiring a very deep cut.
Bridges for roadway traffic over a canal are
generally used for canals of much greater
capacity than 100 cubic feet per second.
However, if the monetary value of hydraulic
head in the canal system is particularly high, a
cost comparison of a bridge and a road crossing
structure may be warranted as the head loss
through a pipe road crossing could be
significant.
Utility crossing structures are provided for
existing utilities such as gas, oil, water, sewage,
electricity , and communication lines. Utility
lines may cross over or under the canal, and
frequently require special design considerations
to
comply
with
the
utility
owner's
requirements and the canal design criteria.
Fish screens and ladders are special
structures at or near the source of canal water
supply. Screens exclude fish from a canal
whereas ladders permit migration in the natural
channel.
(c) Soils Exploration. -The following very
generally and briefly discusses some of the
more important considerations associated with
a soils exploration program. Methods and
procedures for drilling, sampling, and testing
are also very important [ I] .2

Figure

J -7.

Irrigating
Washington.

frJ.rit on the Yakima

Project,

C-33-IOO-80

operational flexibility,
and economics. The
need for canal lining and selection of the type
of lining are also determinations which must be
made.

Soils investigation along a canal and at

structure sites is required to: ( I) identify the
soil materials to be excavated, (2) identify the
soil for potential use as canal embankment, (3)
determine the foundation adequacy for canal
structures and lining, (4) determine the need
for canal lining, (5) determine canal sideslope
stability,
(6)
assess erosion resistance
characteristics,
(7) determine underdrain
requirements
for lined canals, and (8)
2Numbers
sec. 1-25.

in brackets refer to items in the bibliography

SMALL

determine
water-soluble
sulfate
ion
concentrations.
Soil material to be excavated has one of two
classifications: rock or common (soil). The
materials remolded
and used for canal
embankment construction should ideally be
nonexpansive,
possess adequate remolded
shearing strength, be relatively impervious, and
relatively erosion resistant if hard-surface canal
lining is not used. The soil in its natural state
should also possess these qualities. It is
somctimcs necessary to locate a source of
borrow material for canal embankment, for
backfill
adjacent to structures, and for
foundation pads under the structures.
The reaches of a canal which travcrsc low
density
soils
highly
susceptible
to
hydrocompaction should be well delineated. In
addition, the depth to subsurface water levels if
present in any exploration hole should be
rccordcd.
Canal structures discussed in this publication
are relatively
small and consequently
foundation pressures are quite low. Therefore,
structure settlement caused by foundation
consolidation
will usually be small in
magnitude. Foundation treatment however,
may be required to protect the structure from
expansive soils or from undesirable settlement
of low-density material.
Sulfate concentrations in the soil samples
and water samples indicate the relative degree
of potential sulfate attack on concrete [ 21.
Specifying the appropriate type of cement used
in the concrete mix is usually all that is
required to safeguard the concrete. Fly ash is
also sometimes used in the concrete mix for
sulfate resistance [ 31 .
Although a well planned and executed soils
exploration program may be conducted, an

CANAL

STRUCTURES

admonishment by the eminent soils engineer

Karl Terzaghi must always be borne in mind:
.
. results of subsurface exploration still
a wide margin for interpretation. [41
Sound judgment is a requisite in all soil
exploration programs.
(d) Hydrology.-The
canal system should be
reasonably well protected from damage which
could occur from storm runoff. The runoff
area contributing to a natural drainage channel,
the ground slope and vegetative density of the
area, and storm frequency to be used for design
are all infiuential in determining the design
capacity for cross drainage structures.
(e) Sedirnerztution.
-Aggradation
and
degradation studies for a natural drainage
channel
provide the necessary data to
determine earth cover required, for example,
over the top of the pipe for an inverted siphon
under the drainage channel.
extending
Degradation, if extensive enough could cause
an empty pipe to float; whereas aggradation
could create external earth loads great enough
to crack or otherwise damage the pipe.
( f) Operation
md
Muirzterzarzcc. -In
a
Bureau of Reclamation designed system, a
designers operating criteria (DOC) is usually
provided to assist operation and maintenance
(O&M) personnel in adequately protecting the
canal system from unnecessary damage which
could otherwise be caused by misoperation or
inadequate
maintenance.
A rigorous
maintenance program should include control of
weeds, aquatic growths, insects, and pests.
Experience has shown that a well maintained
and operated canal system usually has
dedicated personnel-people
who are justly
proud of their work and take pride in what
they do---people who curt.
le&e

B. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
l-4. General. -Canal structures which have
been standardized in this publication, show
concrete dimensions and reinforcement steel,
and are appropriately sized to provide for
hydraulic,
structural,
and stability
design
considerations.
Ifydruzrlic
desiglz provides:
( 1) adequate

discharge capacity for inline canal structures,

when properly selected and hydraulically set,
to convey the flow at normal canal water
depths, (2) adequate built-in overflow capacity
for inline canal structures to limit infringement
on the canal bank freeboard for emergency
operation or misoperation of the canal, (3)

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

AND

DESIGN

adequate
structural
proportioning
and
appropriate hydraulic setting of structures to
permit excess energy dissipation with minimum
water turbulence at the downstream ends of
the structures, and (4) structural proportioning
of certain transitions to minimize hydraulic
head loss.
Structural
design provides: appropriate
concrete thicknesses and reinforcement steel
patterns for structural members to resist
bending moment, thrust, and shear stresses
imposed by reasonable loads on the structure.
Stability
design
pro vidcs: adequate
structure dimensions so that for most soil
foundation materials, the structure will: (1)
resist sliding and overturning, (2) prevent
percolating water from removing foundation
materials, and (3) provide foundation pressures
less than the maximum allowable bearing
pressure.
Design examples for structures which have
not
been
standardized
illustrate
a
recommended hydraulic design procedure, but
exclude structural design and stability analysis.
1. Loads
l-5. General.-Loads which canal structures
must capably resist include dead load weights,
live loads on operating decks, lateral pressures,
bursting and uplift pressures, and wheel loads.
l-6. Dead Load Weights.-Commonly
used
dead load weights for small canal structures are
presented in the following tabulation:
Load
Water
Backfill
Dry
Saturated
Compacted backfill
Dry
Saturated
Concrete

Weight,
(Ibs./cu. ft.)
62.4
100
125
120
135
150

To conveniently differentiate between soils

which are above and below the water level in a
soil mass, the terms dry and saturated are used.
Obviously the soil adjacent to a structure is not
ovendry and does possess a certain moisture
content.
1-7. Operating
Deck
Uniform
Live

CONSIDERATIONS

Loads.-Operating
decks for structures using
stoplogs are designed for a uniform live load of
150 pounds per square foot; otherwise a
uniform live load of 100 pounds per square
foot is used. Decks for radial gate hoists require
special structural design considerations which
are not included herein.
1-8. Lateral Pressures. -Lateral
pressures
from several different sources are imposed on
walls of structures. Resultant forces from these
pressures must be adequately resisted by the
reinforced concrete.
(a) Water. -A fluid pressure of 62.4 pounds
per square foot (psf) per foot of depth is
caused by water. The pressure diagram is
triangular with the resultant force acting at
one-third the height above the base of the
pressure diagram.
(b) Eurtk.-Active
earth pressures may be
determined
using Rankines solution
of
Coulombs equation [ 51 . The pressure diagram
is assumed to be triangular, the same as for
water, with the resultant force acting at
one-third the height above the base of the
pressure diagram. Because of this similarity
with the fluid pressure of water, the pressure
caused by earth is sometimes referred to as an
equivalent fluid pressure.
Standardized canal structures have been
structurally
designed to resist moist earth
active lateral pressure equal to 30 psf per foot
of depth and saturated earth active lateral
pressure of 85 psf per foot of depth. Unless
unusual soil properties exist, these values are
considered adequate for design of small canal
structures. For a detailed discussion of earth
pressures on concrete retaining walls, see
bibliography reference [ 5 1.
(c) Construction a17d Operutirzg Equipment
Wheel Surcharge. -Walls of structures should be
designed to withstand
construction
and
operating equipment wheel loads which are
transmitted through the earth adjacent to the
structure. An additional lateral load equivalent
to 2 feet of earth surcharge is usually used.
This results in an additional
uniformly
distributed
lateral pressure (rectangular
pressure diagram) of 60 psf from the backfill
surface to the bottom of the wall. Standardized
canal structures are designed to withstand this
additional load.
(d) /cc.-Ice loads on structures should be

considered if wintertime canal operation is

required. The magnitudes for ice thrust
presented in bibliography reference [ 51 may be
used.
(e) Wind.-Wind
loads on small irrigation
structures are not included in the structural
and stability analyses.
l-9. Other
Pressures. -(a) U#ift. -Uplift
pressures, which may be caused by water
percolating under or along the sides of
hydraulic
structures, reduce the effective
weight of a structure and are therefore
particularly significant in the stability analysis.
Stilling pool floors, for example, are
subjected to uplift pressure from downstream
water levels which may saturate the soil behind
the wall to a significantly higher elevation than
the water depth in the pool just upstream from
the hydraulic jump. Weep holes are used to
lower the saturation level.
(b) Hydrudic
Trarzsients. -Pressure surges in
a pipe and bore waves in a canal accompany
any change of flow in the system. These
transients
are u sually of insignificant
consequence in a small, open irrigation system
and are therefore generally omitted from
structural design considerations. A gradual rate
of change of flow minimizes the magnitude of
hydraulic transients.
(c) Seismic. -Additional
earth and water
pressures imparted to small canal structures by
earthquakes are not included in the design
considerations. The increased loads are minor
since the earth, water, and concrete masses are
all small. Temporary stress increases caused by
seismic loads would therefore be minor.
l-l 0. Wheel Loads Transmitted to Buried
Conduit. -Pipelines crossing under highways
and railroads must be designed to withstand
surcharge loads from trucks and locomotives.
Concentrated wheel loads are transmitted
through earth cover and distributed at the top
of pipe where they are considered to be
uniform loads. For design convenience, the
uniform loads are converted to equivalent
heights of compacted earth cover and added to
the actual earth cover. Pipe is selected to
withstand this total equivalent earth cover.
(a) Highways.-Equivalent
earth cover for
highway wheel loads is based on criteria of the
American Association
of State Highway

SMALL

CANAL

STRUCTURES

Officials
[6]
(AASHO).
The following
tabulation shows total equivalent earth cover
for various heights of earth cover over the top
of the pipe with H-15 and H-20 truck wheel
loads.

Height of
earth cover,
feet
2

Total equivalent earth cover for

wheel loads shown,

11.8
1.5
6.9
1.3
8.0
8.7
9.4

9.1
7.8
8.1
8.6
9.2
9.9

For earth covers less than 2 feet, special

provisions such as concrete encasement of the
pipe or slab covers are required. Wheel load
effect is negligible when the earth cover is more
than 8 feet.
Wheel load impact factors used for earth
covers less than 3 feet are as follows: (1) 10
percent for earth covers of 2 feet 1 inch to 2
feet 11 inches, (2) 20 percent for earth covers
of 1 foot 1 inch to 2 feet, and (3) 30 percent if
the earth cover is 1 foot or less.
Special provisions, such as detours and
safety precautions, as may be required by a
highway commission should be included in the
design specifications.
(b) Railroads. -Design and installation of
pipe under a railroad often requires special
provisions to comply
with the railroad
company requirements. Jacking casing pipe
through the railroad embankment is a common
requirement. Pipe used to convey the canal
water (carrier pipe) is then installed in the
casing pipe.
The top of pipe installed under a railroad
roadbed is usually at least 3 feet below the top
of the railroad tie unless otherwise specified by
the railroad.
For an E-72 railroad loading [ 71, usual
Reclamation practice is to provide a pipe class
to withstand a total equivalent cover of 20 feet
when the top of pipe is 3 to 15 feet below the
top of the railroad tie. Additional load caused
by impact is included in the total equivalent
cover previously discussed.

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

AND

DESIGN

2. Stability
1-l 1. Bearing
Capacity. -Foundation
bearing pressures for small structures are of
small magnitude and will ordinarily be less than
allowable bearing pressures for the various soil

types [51.

Foundation treatment may be required,

however,
for low-density
or expansive
foundation soils. Ordinarily, hydrocompaction
by ponding will sufficiently consolidate soils of
low density. Overexcavation of the foundation
soil
and replacement
with compacted,
nonexpansive soil is a usual treatment for
expansive soil foundations. The nonexpansive
soil surcharges the underlying expansive soil
and thereby can adequately reduce the
foundation movement. Overexcavation is also
sometimes used for foundation treatment of
low-density soils.
When installing pipe in rock, the foundation
should be overexcavated and replaced with a
gravel or earth cushion to permit a more
uniform bearing pressure for the pipe. This is
essential to effectively
utilize the design
strength of the pipe, and to preclude unequal
settlement and resultant cracking of pipe.
l-1 2. Sliding Coefficient. -Any
structure
subjected to differential lateral pressures must
capably resist the tendency to slide. Resistance
to sliding is developed by shearing strength
along the contact surface of the structure base
and the foundation, or by shearing strength
within the foundation material itself. Shearing
strength developed by cohesion is omitted and
only that developed by mechanical friction at
the base and foundation interface is used for
sliding analysis of small structures. An
allowable sliding coefficient equal to 0.35 is
used unless unusual soil conditions exist. This
may be expressed as:
g=

0.35

where:
CH = summation of lateral forces acting
parallel to the assumed sliding
plane, and
EN = summation of forces, reduced by
uplift, acting normal to the
assumed sliding plane.

CONSIDERATIONS

l- 13. Overturning. -To prevent overturning,

the sum of the stabilizing moments must
exceed the sum of the overturning moments on
the structure.
Checks and check-drop
structures are perhaps the most critically
loaded small canal structures subject to
overturning. Maximum upstream and minimum
downstream
water surfaces subject these
structures to unsymmetrical loads which tend
to cause overturning.
The resultant of all forces acting on the
structure should fall within the middle third of
the structure base to provide safety against
overturning. This location of the resultant also
provides a more uniform bearing pressure on
the foundation.
1-14. Percolation. -All
standardized canal
structures have sufficient cutoff and structural
lengths to provide a percolation factor of 2.5
or more. This is considered adequate for most
soils to prevent piping of foundation materials
from beneath or adjacent to small structures.
Under ordinary
operation,
the maximum
differential hydraulic head across the structure
causing percolation is of short duration. For a
more detailed discussion of percolation, see
subchapter VIII C.

3. Hydraulics
1-15. Hydraulic Control-In
the competent
hydraulic design of any hydraulic structure it is
necessary to first determine the location of the
water surface control.
Hydraulic control is at the downstream end
of a structure if the downstream water surface
influences the height to which the upstream
water surface must rise. If the downstream
water surface does not influence the upstream
water surface, the control is at the upstream
end of the structure.
Upstream control for example will usually
exist for a relatively short culvert conveying
storm runoff under a small canal where the
outlet channel water surface is several feet
below the upstream pipe invert. In this
instance, the downstream water surface does
not control
the upstream water surface;
instead,
the upstream water surface is
controlled at the inlet end. The upstream pipe
invert elevation, the size of pipe, and the

10

assumed entrance loss are all factors which

determine the height to which the upstream
water surface must rise to discharge the flow.
Downstream hydraulic control exists for a
properly designed inverted siphon when flow is
at design capacity. The canal water surface at
the downstream end of the siphon controls the
upstream canal water surface. For partial
discharges, hydraulic control is at the siphon
inlet if the downstream water surface is low
enough to permit the water to enter the siphon
at minimum energy, which is at critical depth.
For many structures, location of the
hydraulic control may be determined by
inspection of the structure profile and the
normal channel or canal water surfaces at each
end of the structure. In other cases the
Bernoulli theorem [ 81 should be used to
determine
the hydraulic control location.
Beginning from a known downstream water
surface, a Bernoulli equation can be written
between pairs of consecutive points. If a
Bernoulli balance is attainable between all pairs
of points from the outlet through the inlet,
downstream control exists. If, however, a
Bernoulli balance is not attainable between two
consecutive points, a hydraulic jump between
the points is indicated and hydraulic control
will be at the inlet. It may then be assumed
that the water depth in the pipe at the inlet is
at critical depth; that is, at minimum energy.
Hydraulic
Head
l16.
Losses. -(a) Friction. -The Manning formula,
[8] V = L$!S r2/3 sl/z, is used to determine
friction losses in a canal system. For all
a
monolithic
concrete canal structures,
roughness coefficient
n = 0.014 is used.
Roughness (friction) coefficients used for pipe
are n = 0.013 for precast concrete, asbestos
cement, reinforced plastic mortar, and steel,
while n = 0.024 is used for corrugated-metal
pipe. A 20 percent reduction in the n value is
used as a safety factor in the hydraulic analysis
of excess energy dissipation
for those
structures which perform this function.
(b) Trunsitions and Bends. -Transitions are
used to geometrically change the water prism
shape and cause acceleration or deceleration of
the flow. Losses associated with convergence
and divergence of the water prism are discussed
in chapter VII.

SMALL

CANAL

STRUCTURES

A change in the direction of flow causes

bend losses. The magnitude of the loss is
dependent on the water velocity, and the angle
for a miter bend or the degree of curvature of a
circular curve. Pipe bend losses are discussed in
chapter VIII.
1- 17. Discharge
Coefficients. -(a) Orifice.-For a conduit flowing full, the discharge
coefficient, C, used in the orifice equation [8],
Q = CAdm,
indicates the magnitude of the
assumed entrance loss. Values of C may be
related to an entrance loss coefficient, K, in
the expression K,h,,
by the relationship
- 1. Values commonly used are:
c

Ko

0.6
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.82

1.78
1.04
0.78
0.56
0.50

The value for C in the orifice equation is

primarily dependent on the hydraulic entrance
conditions.
Subsequent chapters of canal
structures using the orifice equation indicate ar
appropriate C value for a specific design.
(b) Weir. -Weirs are commonly used to
measure the rate of flow of water. The basic
weir equation [8] is Q = CLH3/.
The
appropriate value for the discharge coefficient,
C, is primarily dependent on the geometric
shape of the weir and contraction of the sheet
of water flowing over the weir.
Values for C and equations for the more
commonly used weirs are:
Weir
Rectangular
Rectangular
Cipolletti

suppressed
contracted

Weir equation
Q = 3.33 L H3i2
Q = 3.33 (L - O.TH) H312
Q = 3.367 L H3 2.

For a comprehensive discussion of weirs, see

chapter V.
4. Structural Considerations
l-l 8. Reinforced
Concrete. -(a) Allowable
Stresses. -Standardized
canal structures
included
herein,
which show concrete

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

AND

DESIGN

thicknesses
and size and spacing of
reinforcement
bars, were designed by the
working stress method based on a ccncrete
strength of 4,000 pounds per square inch (psi)
at 28 days (fb ), and reinforcement steel having
a specified minimum yield strength of 60,000
psi (f,). Allowable working stresses used were
1,800 psi compression (f,) for concrete and
24,000 psi tension (f,) for reinforcement steel.
For
many of the smaller standardized
structures,
nominal
minimum
concrete
thicknesses and minimal reinforcement steel
patterns control the design. In these cases the
concrete and steel strengths indicated could be
reduced
without
jeopardizing
structural
integrity.
Reinforced precast concrete pressure pipe
was designed by the ultimate strength method
using fb = 4,500 psi, fY = 40,000 psi, and an LF
= 1.8 as a load factor.
( b ) M i 11i m u m Reinforcement
Requirements. -The minimum reinforcement
used for canal structures should be No. 4 bars
(l/2-inch
diameter) at 12-inch spacing when
reinforcement is placed in a single layer, or
where exposed faces of concrete are reinforced.
In unexposed faces of concrete having
two-layer
reinforcement.
the minimum
reinforcement should be No. 4 bars at 18
inches.
The following criteria should be used to
the
cross-sectional area for
determine
temperature or minimum reinforcement. The
percentages of reinforcement steel areas listed
are percentages of the gross cross-sectional area
of the concrete to be reinforced:
(1) Single-layer reinforcement.-For
slabs
with joint spacing not exceeding 30 feet
and:
Not exposed to freezing
temperatures or direct
sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.25 percent
Exposed to freezing
temperatures or direct
sun . . . . . .._.........

0.30 percent

For slabs with joint spacing greater than

30 feet and:
Not exposed to freezing
temperatures or direct
sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35 percent

CONSIDERATIONS

11

Exposed to freezing
temperatures or direct
sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 percent
Walls and other structural
members
should have a total percentage of horizontal
reinforcement
equal to the sum of the
percentages required for both faces as
determined for double-layer reinforccmcnt.
(2)
Douhlc-laycr
reinforcement.-For
joint spacing not exceeding 30 feet and
with:
Face adjacent to earth . . . . 0.10 percent
Face not adjacent to earth
nor exposed to freezing
temperatures or direct
sun . . .
. . . . . . . 0.15 percent
Face not adjacent to earth
but exposed to freezing
temperatures or direct
sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20 percent
If a structural member exceeds 30 feet in
any direction parallel to the reinforcement, an
additional 0.05 percent of reinforcement steel
area is required in that direction.
If a slab is fixed along any line, the
dimension from the line of fixity to the free
end
is doubled
to determine
if the
reinforcement requirement should bc based on
a length not exceeding 30 feet or a length
greater than 30 feet.
Reinforcement spacing should not exceed
three times the thickness of the member for
reinforcement
and twice the
temperature
thickness of the member for stress bars.
Other minimum requirements and general
notes for designing, showing, and detailing
reinforcement steel are indicated on figure l-8.
When using the illustrations of standardized
canal
structures
presented
herein as
construction drawings, figure l-8 should be
used for
general notes and minimum
requirements for detailing reinforcement.
(c) Minimum Wall Thickness.--To provide
ease of concrete placement and insure good
bond between the reinforcement and concrete,
the minimum concrete thickness of cantilever
walls should be 1 inch per foot of height (5
inches minimum) for walls up to 8 feet high.
For walls exceeding 8 feet in height, the
minimum concrete thickness should be 8
inches plus 3/4 inch for each foot of wall
height greater than 8 feet.

12

SMALL

coocrete

Figure I-8.

Strctrei,Acl

General notes and minimum

CANAL

STRUCTURES

ifs,

requirements

for detailing reinforcement

(Sheet 1 of 2). 103-D-1 194

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

AND

DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

FILLET

13

IPOR
TYPICAL

TYPICAL

OFFSET

GREATER

BLOCKOUT
RECESS
:Secod r*ope concrete Shown )

Figure l-8.

ES.5
DETAILS

DETAILS

SECTION

TYPICAL

FILLET

CORNER

A-A

DETAILS

General notes and minimum

requirements

for detailing reinforcement

(Sheet 2 of 2). 103-D-1 194

THAN

/P

14

SMALL

(d) I;illcf,s.~Fillcts are used to relieve stress

concentrations,
provide increased strength,
facilitate
concrete
placement,
and to
accommodate removal of forms. For small
canal structures, fillets are not ordinarily
required for these purposes. However, 6inch
fillets which may be formed by excavation
lines for the structure are commonly used at
the junctions of cutoff walls and floor slabs.
Fillets used at the base of cantilever walls are
usually 3 inches for walls up to 8 feet tall.
(e) Clrtojjs. -- The primary purpose of cutoff
walls is to increase the percolation path to
prevent piping of foundation material and
reduce percolation. Cutoffs should be used for
structures in a concrete-lined canal as well as
earth canals. Cutoffs also protect a structure
from undermining, if excessive erosion should
occur in an earth canal. Erosion protection of
coarse gravel or riprap is frequently required at
the ends of structures in an earth channel to
control erosion. Criteria to determine if erosion
protection
is required, and the type of
protection required, are discussed later in
subchapter VII B and shown on figure 7-8.
These criteria should be used where protection
is indicated on structure illustrations. The
passive resistance of earth behind a cutoff
increases the resistance of the structure to
sliding, although this resistance is usually
omitted in the stability analysis. Criteria for
lengths and thicknesses of cutoffs are also
included in subchapter VII B.
1- 19.
Structural
Steel
and
Welding. -Structural steel used with small canal
structures is primarily for stoplog and gate
frame guides. Nominal size members are used
to provide
sufficient
rigidity.
Strength
requirements for steel shapes used to fabricate
safety devices such as handrail and ladders are
also nominal. All dimensions and strengths of
metalwork used in standard canal structures are
included on the illustrations.
Many illustrations in subsequent chapters
show welding requirements for metal parts.
Explanations of the welding symbols and
required welding procedures are included in
bibliography reference [ 91
5. Carnal
l-20.

Freeboard. Xanal

lining

and canal

CANAL

STRUCTURES

banks are extended above the canal normal

water surface as a safety measure to protect the
conveyance
system
from
overtopping.
Freeboard provides for a canal water surface
higher than normal which may be caused by
sedimentation
in the canal, temporary
misoperation of the canal system, excess flows
caused by storm runoff entering the canal
through drain inlets, additional water depth
resulting from a rougher friction coefficient
than used for design, and waves produced by
wind or surges which accompany sudden
changes in flow.
Figure l-9 shows the vertical distance which
canal lining and canal banks should be
extended above the canal normal water surface
to provide
adequate freeboard.
Special
requirements for canal bank freeboard at
structures such as inverted siphons and drain
inlets
are discussed in the appropriate
subchapters for each particular structure.
requirements
for the canal
Freeboard
structures
are also discussed with each
structure.
1-21. Winter Operation. --Winter operation
of a canal system where temperatures are
subfreezing may require additional canal and
structure
freeboard to permit wintertime
design capacity to flow under an ice cover. At
subfreezing temperatures an ice cover readily
forms when velocities are less than 2.2 feet per
second. If velocities are fast enough to prevent
formation of an ice cover, frazil ice may form,
and if allowed to accumulate on racks at inlets
to structures will cause backwater. Additional
forces caused by expansion of the ice cover or
by ice lenses in clayey foundation materials
should be considered.
l-22. Profile Sheet. -Many design examples
of structures in this publication refer to a canal
profile sheet. The development of the canal
profile requires close coordination of data
obtained
from several different
studies
including: (1) canal design capacity, (2) canal
water
surface requirements
for turnout
deliveries, (3) canal location with respect to
topography within and adjacent to the canal
prism,
(4) canal location
to minimize
disturbance or relocation of existing features,
and (5) the canal cross section.
Data from canal plan and profile sheets are
essential for design of the canal structures.

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SMALL

16

6. Forms tor Structures

1-23. Mono/ithic Concrete.-It is sometimes
advantageous to use "knock-down,"
reusable
steel
forms
for
monolithic
concrete
construction of small irrigation structures. A
construction procedure that has been used
successfully is to assemble the specially
designed forms in an area remote from the
construction
site,
place and tie the
reinforcement steel in the forms, and then haul
the unit to the jobsite. After carefully placing
the structure-form into position, concrete is
placed for the entire structure.
1-24. Precast

Concrete. -If

sufficient

Figure 1.10. Precast concrete transitions in various

stages of completion. P-707-729-1763

Figure 1-11. Placing precast concrete transition.

P-707-729-2134

CANAL

STRUCTURES

number of structures for a small canal system

are identical,
it may be economically
advantageous to precast them in a yard and
haul them to the jobsite for installation.
Figure 1-10 shows concrete being placed for
a transition, and completed transitions in the
precasting yard. Slings are frequently used to
lower precast concrete structures into position
at the jobsite, as shown in figure I-II, for
placing a precast concrete transition. Figure
1-12 shows an inplace, broken-back transition
as a component part of a road crossing
structure.
To provide a uniform bearing surface for
precast concrete structures, a thin layer of
mortar at least an inch thick should be placed
on the foundation surfaces just prior to placing
the structure. A mortar bedding for a precast
concrete inlet to a turnout structure is shown
in figure 1-13.
St an d ard structures discussed in this
publication
which require a deck for
operational purposes, show either precast walk
planks or a precast deck. Precast decks are used
for the longer spans and are not mechanically
connected to the basic structure. The bearing
area at one end should have a very smooth
surface
to
permit
temperature-induced
elongation or contraction of the deck without
causing additional shear and bending moment
stresses on the structure. Two asbestos sheets
each having graphite on one side only and with
the graphite surfaces in contact are sometimes
used to provide such a surface.

Figure 1-12. In-place precast concrete transition,

partially backfilled. PX-D-72830

GENERAL

REQUIREMENTS

AND

DESIGN

CONSIDERATIONS

Figure 1-13. Precast concrete turnout inlet being

lowered into position on mortar pad. p- 707- 729-1769

17

Figure 1 -14. Slide gate being operated to control

flow through turnout. P(F)-200-5717 NA

c. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1-25.
[1]
[2]
[3]

[4]

Bibliography.

"Earth Manual," Bureau of Reclamation, Second Edition,

1974.
"Concrete
Manual,"
Bureau of Reclamation,
Eighth
Edition,1975.
"Fly Ash Increases Resistance of Concrete to Sulfate
Attack,"
Report No. C-1224, Bureau of Reclamation,
January 1967.
Terzaghi, Karl, "Does Foundation
Technology
Really
Lag?" Engineering News-Record, February 15,1962, p.
59.

[5]
[6]

[7]

[8]
[9]

"Design Criteria for Concrete Retaining Walls," Bureau of

Reclamation, August 1971.
"Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges," American
Association of State Highway Officials, Tenth Edition,
1969.
"Manual for Railway Engineering,"
American Railway
Engineering Association, Vol. 1, Current to March 13,
1971.
King, H. W. and Brater, E. F ., "Handbook of Hydraulics,"
Fifth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., N.V., 1963.
"Structural
Welding Code," American Welding Society,
lQ7.'