Fibonacci number

In mathematical terms, the sequence Fn of Fibonacci

numbers is dened by the recurrence relation

Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 ,
with seed values[1][2]

F1 = 1, F2 = 1
or[5]

A tiling with squares whose side lengths are successive Fibonacci

numbers

F0 = 0, F1 = 1.

In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers are the numbers

in the following integer sequence, called the Fibonacci
sequence, and characterized by the fact that every number after the rst two is the sum of the two preceding
ones:[1][2]

The Fibonacci sequence is named after Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci. His
1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European mathematics,[6] although the sequence had
been described earlier as Virahanka numbers in Indian
mathematics.[7][8][9] The sequence described in Liber
Abaci began with F 1 = 1.

1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, . . .

Often, especially in modern usage, the sequence is ex- Fibonacci numbers are closely related to Lucas numbers
tended by one more initial term:
Ln in that they form a complementary pair of Lucas sequences Un (1, 1) = Fn and Vn (1, 1) = Ln . They
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, . . . are intimately connected with the golden ratio; for exam.[3]
ple, the closest rational approximations to the ratio are
2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, ... .
Fibonacci numbers appear unexpectedly often in mathematics, so much so that there is an entire journal dedicated to their study, the Fibonacci Quarterly. Applications of Fibonacci numbers include computer algorithms
such as the Fibonacci search technique and the Fibonacci
heap data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci cubes
used for interconnecting parallel and distributed systems.
They also appear in biological settings,[10] such as branching in trees, phyllotaxis (the arrangement of leaves on a
stem), the fruit sprouts of a pineapple,[11] the owering of
an artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a
pine cone's bracts.[12]

The Fibonacci spiral: an approximation of the golden spiral created by drawing circular arcs connecting the opposite corners of
squares in the Fibonacci tiling;[4] this one uses squares of sizes 1,
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and 34.

1 Origins

By denition, the rst two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are either 1 and 1, or 0 and 1, depending on the
chosen starting point of the sequence, and each subsequent number is the sum of the previous two.

The Fibonacci sequence appears in Indian mathematics,

in connection with Sanskrit prosody.[8][13] In the Sanskrit
tradition of prosody, there was interest in enumerating all
patterns of long (L) syllables that are 2 units of duration,
1

LIST OF FIBONACCI NUMBERS

combinations].[15]
The sequence is also discussed by Gopala (before 1135
AD) and by the Jain scholar Hemachandra (c. 1150).

The number of rabbits form the Fibonacci sequence

Outside of India, the Fibonacci sequence rst appears in

the book Liber Abaci (1202) by Fibonacci.[6] Fibonacci
considers the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit population, assuming that: a newly born pair
of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a eld; rabbits
are able to mate at the age of one month so that at the end
of its second month a female can produce another pair of
rabbits; rabbits never die and a mating pair always produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month
A page of Fibonacci's Liber Abaci from the Biblioteca Nazionale from the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci
di Firenze showing (in box on right) the Fibonacci sequence with posed was: how many pairs will there be in one year?
the position in the sequence labeled in Latin and Roman numerals
and the value in Hindu-Arabic numerals.

and short (S) syllables that are 1 unit of duration. Counting the dierent patterns of L and S of a given duration
results in the Fibonacci numbers: the number of patterns
that are m short syllables long is the Fibonacci number
Fm .[9]

At the end of the rst month, they mate, but there is

still only 1 pair.
At the end of the second month the female produces
a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs of rabbits in the
eld.
At the end of the third month, the original female
produces a second pair, making 3 pairs in all in the
eld.

Susantha Goonatilake writes that the development of the

Fibonacci sequence is attributed in part to Pingala (200
BC), later being associated with Virahanka (c. 700 AD),
At the end of the fourth month, the original female
Gopla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra (c. 1150)".[7] Parhas produced yet another new pair, the female born
manand Singh cites Pingalas cryptic formula misrau cha
two months ago produces her rst pair also, making
(the two are mixed) and cites scholars who interpret it
5 pairs.
in context as saying that the cases for m beats (Fm+1) is
obtained by adding a [S] to Fm cases and [L] to the Fm At the end of the nth month, the number of pairs of rabcases. He dates Pingala before 450 BC.[14]
bits is equal to the number of new pairs (which is the numHowever, the clearest exposition of the sequence arises in ber of pairs in month n 2) plus the number of pairs alive
[16]
the work of Virahanka (c. 700 AD), whose own work is last month (n 1). This is the nth Fibonacci number.
lost, but is available in a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135):
Variations of two earlier meters [is the variation]... For example, for [a meter of length]
four, variations of meters of two [and] three
being mixed, ve happens. [works out examples 8, 13, 21]... In this way, the process
should be followed in all mtr-vttas [prosodic

The name Fibonacci sequence was rst used by the

19th-century number theorist douard Lucas.[17]

2 List of Fibonacci numbers

The rst 21 Fibonacci numbers Fn for n = 0, 1, 2, , 20
are:[18]

The sequence can also be extended to negative index n

using the re-arranged recurrence relation

Fn2 = Fn Fn1 ,
which yields the sequence of negabonacci numbers[19]
satisfying

Fn = (1)n+1 Fn .

The number of binary strings of length n without an

odd number of consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci number Fn+1. For example, out of the 16 binary strings
of length 4, there are F 5 = 5 without an odd number of consecutive 1s they are 0000, 0011, 0110,
1100, 1111. Equivalently, the number of subsets S
{1,...,n} without an odd number of consecutive
integers is Fn+1.

Thus the bidirectional sequence is

Use in mathematics
1
1
2
3

1
2

1
3

1
10 10 5
1
1
6 15 20 15 6
1
13
1
7 21 35 35 21 7
1
21
1
8 28 56 70 56 28 8
1
34
1
9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9
1
55
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
89
5

1
1

The number of binary strings of length n without

consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci number Fn. For
example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4,
there are F 6 = 8 without consecutive 1s they are
0000, 0001, 0010, 0100, 0101, 1000, 1001 and
1010. By symmetry, the number of strings of length
n without consecutive 0s is also Fn. Equivalently,
Fn is the number of subsets S {1,...,n} without
consecutive integers: {i, i+1} S for every i. The
symmetric statement is: Fn is the number of subsets S {1,...,n} without two consecutive skipped
integers: that is, S = {a1 < < a } with a a +
2.

The Fibonacci numbers are the sums of the shallow diagonals

(shown in red) of Pascals triangle.

The number of binary strings of length n without an

even number of consecutive 0s or 1s is 2Fn. For example, out of the 16 binary strings of length 4, there
are 2F 4 = 6 without an even number of consecutive
0s or 1s they are 0001, 0111, 0101, 1000, 1010,
1110. There is an equivalent statement about subsets.

4 Relation to the golden ratio

4.1 Closed-form expression

The Fibonacci numbers occur in the sums of shallow diLike every sequence dened by a linear recurrence with
agonals in Pascals triangle (see binomial coecient):[20]
constant coecients, the Fibonacci numbers have a
closed-form solution. It has become known as "Binet's
formula, even though it was already known by Abraham
n1

2
(nk1)
de Moivre:[22]
Fn =
k
k=0
n
n
n
n
These numbers also give the solution to certain enumera- Fn = =

5
tive problems.[21] The most common such problem is that
of counting the number of compositions of 1s and 2s that
where
sum to a given total n: there are Fn ways to do this.

For example, if n = 5, then Fn = F 6 = 8 counts the eight

compositions:
1+1+1+1+1 = 1+1+1+2 = 1+1+2+1 = 1+2+1+1 =
2+1+1+1 = 2+2+1 = 2+1+2 = 1+2+2,
all of which sum to n = 5 = 61.

1+ 5
1.61803 39887
2

is the golden ratio (

A001622), and

= 12 5 = 1
0.61803 39887 [23]

The Fibonacci numbers can be found in dierent ways

among the set of binary strings, or equivalently, among
the subsets of a given set.
Since = 1 , this formula can also be written as

4 RELATION TO THE GOLDEN RATIO

Fn =

n ()n

n ()n
21

4.2 Computation by rounding

To see this,[24] note that and are both solutions of the Since
equations
 n
  1
  <
 5 2

x2 = x + 1, xn = xn1 + xn2 ,

so the powers of and satisfy the Fibonacci recursion.

n
for all n 0, the number Fn is the closest integer to
.
5
In other words,
Therefore, it can be found by rounding, that is by the use
of the nearest integer function:
n = n1 + n2

[ n]

Fn = , n 0,
5

and

or in terms of the oor function:

n = n1 + n2 .

It follows that for any values a and b, the sequence dened

n

by
Fn = +
, n 0.
5 2
Similarly, if we already know that the number F > 1 is a
Fibonacci number, we can determine its index within the
sequence by

Un = an + b n
satises the same recurrence

n1

Un = a

+b

n1

+a

n2

+b

n2

= Un1 +Un2 . n(F ) =

(
)

1
log F 5 +
2

If a and b are chosen so that U 0 = 0 and U 1 = 1 then the

resulting sequence Un must be the Fibonacci sequence.
4.3 Limit of consecutive quotients
This is the same as requiring a and b satisfy the system of
equations:
Johannes Kepler observed that the ratio of consecutive
Fibonacci numbers converges. He wrote that as 5 is to
{
8 so is 8 to 13, practically, and as 8 is to 13, so is 13 to
a+b=0
21 almost, and concluded that the limit approaches the
a + b = 1
golden ratio .[25][26]
which has solution
1
1
a=
= , b = a

Fn+1
=
n Fn
lim

This convergence holds regardless of the starting values,

excluding 0, 0. This can be derived from Binets formula.
Taking U 0 and U 1 to be variables, a more general solution For example, the initial values 3 and 2 generate the sequence 3, 2, 5, 7, 12, 19, 31, 50, 81, 131, 212, 343, 555,
can be found for any starting values:
, etc. The ratio of consecutive terms in this sequence
shows the same convergence towards the golden ratio.
producing the required formula.

Un = an + b n
where

a=
b=

U1 U0

5
U0 U1

Another consequence is that the limit of the ratio of two

Fibonacci numbers oset by a particular nite deviation
in index corresponds to the golden ratio raised by that deviation. Or, in other words:

lim

Fn+
=
Fn

=(1 )
and
1

=(1 )
and the initial value is

Animated GIF le showing successive tilings of the plane, and a

graph of approximations to the Golden Ratio calculated by dividing successive pairs of Fibonacci numbers, one by the other.
Uses the Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144

4.4

Decomposition of powers of the golden

ratio

Since the golden ratio satises the equation

2 = + 1,

0 =(1)= 1
F
15

0
5

it follows that the nth term is

1
1
Fn = An
An
5
5
1 n
1
=
()n
5
5
(
(
)n ( )
)n (
)
1 1+ 5
1 1 5

1
=

,
2
1
2
1
5
5
from which the nth element in the Fibonacci series as an
analytic function of n is now read o directly:

this expression can be used to decompose higher powers

(
(
)n
)n
n as a linear function of lower powers, which in turn can
1 1+ 5
1 1 5

.
be decomposed all the way down to a linear combination Fn =
2
2
5
5
of and 1. The resulting recurrence relationships yield
Fibonacci numbers as the linear coecients:
Equivalently,
the same computation is performed by diagonalization of A through use of its
eigendecomposition:
n = Fn + Fn1 .
This equation can be proved by induction on n.
This expression is also true for n < 1 if the Fibonacci sequence Fn is extended to negative integers using the Fibonacci rule Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 .

Matrix form

A 2-dimensional system of linear dierence equations

that describes the Fibonacci sequence is
(
) (
)(
)
Fk+2
1 1 Fk+1
=
1 0
Fk+1
Fk
alternatively denoted

Fk+1 = AFk ,

A = SS 1 ,
An = Sn S 1 ,
(
)
(
)

0
1
where =
and S =
.
0 1
1
1
The closed-form expression for the nth element in the Fibonacci series is therefore given by
( )
(
)
F1
Fn+1
= An
F0
Fn
( )
F1
= Sn S 1
F0
( )
( n
)

0
1 F1
=S
S
0 ()n
F0
(
(
)( n
)
)( )
1
1
1

1 1

=
,
n
1
1

0 ()
0
5 1
which again yields

which yields Fn = An F0 . As the eigenvalues of the

matrix A are = 12 (1+ 5) and 1 = 12 (1 5) corn ()n

.
F
=
n
responding to the respective eigenvectors
5

7 COMBINATORIAL IDENTITIES

The matrix A has a determinant of 1, and thus it is a 22 of 5x2 + 4 or 5x2 4 is a perfect square.[28] This is
unimodular matrix.
because Binets formula above can be rearranged to give
This property can be understood in terms of the continued
fraction representation for the golden ratio:

(
n = log

=1+

which allows one to nd the position in the sequence of a

given Fibonacci number.

1+

1+

Fn 5 + 5Fn2 4
2

This formula must return an integer for all n, so the radical

.
1 + ..
expression must be an integer (otherwise the logarithm
The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive does not even return a rational number).
convergents of the continued fraction for , and the matrix formed from successive convergents of any continued
fraction has a determinant of +1 or 1. The matrix rep7 Combinatorial identities
resentation gives the following closed expression for the
Fibonacci numbers:
Most identities involving Fibonacci numbers can be
proved using combinatorial arguments using the fact that
(
)n (
)
Fn+1
Fn
1 1
Fn can be interpreted as the number of sequences of 1s
=
.
Fn
Fn1
1 0
and 2s that sum to n 1. This can be taken as the deniTaking the determinant of both sides of this equation tion of Fn, with the convention that F 0 = 0, meaning no
sum adds up to 1, and that F 1 = 1, meaning the empty
yields Cassinis identity,
sum adds up to 0. Here, the order of the summand
matters. For example, 1 + 2 and 2 + 1 are considered two
n
2
dierent sums.
(1) = F
F
F .
n+1 n1

Moreover, since A A = An+m for any square matrix A, For example, the recurrence relation
the following identities can be derived (they are obtained
form two dierent coecients of the matrix product, and
one may easily deduce the second one from the rst one Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 ,
by changing n into n + 1),
or in words, the nth Fibonacci number is the sum of the
previous two Fibonacci numbers, may be shown by diFm Fn + Fm1 Fn1 = Fm+n1 ,
viding the Fn sums of 1s and 2s that add to n 1 into two
non-overlapping groups. One group contains those sums
Fm Fn+1 + Fm1 Fn = Fm+n .
whose rst term is 1 and the other those sums whose rst
In particular, with m = n,
term is 2. In the rst group the remaining terms add to
n 2, so it has Fn sums, and in the second group the
2
2
remaining terms add to n 3, so there are Fn sums. So
F2n1 = Fn + Fn1
there are a total of Fn + Fn sums altogether, showing
F2n = (Fn1 + Fn+1 )Fn
this is equal to Fn.
= (2Fn1 + Fn )Fn .
Similarly, it may be shown that the sum of the rst FiThese last two identities provide a way to compute Fi- bonacci numbers up to the nth is equal to the (n + 2)-nd
bonacci numbers recursively in O(log(n)) arithmetic op- Fibonacci number minus 1.[29] In symbols:
erations and in time O(M(n) log(n)), where M(n) is the
time for the multiplication of two numbers of n dign
its. This matches the time for computing the nth Fi-
Fi = Fn+2 1
bonacci number from the closed-form matrix formula,
i=1
but with fewer redundant steps if one avoids recomputing
an already computed Fibonacci number (recursion with
This is done by dividing the sums adding to n + 1 in a difmemoization).[27]
ferent way, this time by the location of the rst 2. Specifically, the rst group consists of those sums that start with
2, the second group those that start 1 + 2, the third 1 +
6 Recognizing Fibonacci numbers 1 + 2, and so on, until the last group, which consists of
the single sum where only 1s are used. The number of
The question may arise whether a positive integer x is a sums in the rst group is F(n), F(n 1) in the second
Fibonacci number. This is true if and only if one or both group, and so on, with 1 sum in the last group. So the
n

7
total number of sums is F(n) + F(n 1) + ... + F(1) + 1
and therefore this quantity is equal to F(n + 2).

2
2
F2n = Fn+1
Fn1
= Fn (Fn+1 + Fn1 ) = Fn Ln

where Ln is the n'th Lucas number. The last is an identity

A similar argument, grouping the sums by the position of for doubling n; other identities of this type are
the rst 1 rather than the rst 2, gives two more identities:
n1

F3n = 2Fn3 + 3Fn Fn+1 Fn1 = 5Fn3 + 3(1)n Fn

by Cassinis identity.

F2i+1 = F2n

i=0

and

3
F3n+1 = Fn+1
+ 3Fn+1 Fn2 Fn3

3
2
F3n+2 = Fn+1
+ 3Fn+1
Fn + Fn3
( 2
)
(
)
2
F4n = 4Fn Fn+1 Fn+1 + 2Fn2 3Fn2 Fn2 + 2Fn+1

F2i = F2n+1 1.

These can be found experimentally using lattice reduction, and are useful in setting up the special number eld
In words, the sum of the rst Fibonacci numbers with odd
sieve to factorize a Fibonacci number.
index up to Fn is the (2n)th Fibonacci number, and the
[31]
sum of the rst Fibonacci numbers with even index up to More generally,
Fn is the (2n + 1)th Fibonacci number minus 1.[30]
i=1

A dierent trick may be used to prove

Fkn+c
n

k ( )

k
ki
.
=
Fci Fni Fn+1
i
i=0

Putting k = 2 in this formula, one gets again the formulas

of the end of above section Matrix form.

Fi 2 = Fn Fn+1 ,

i=1

or in words, the sum of the squares of the rst Fibonacci

numbers up to Fn is the product of the nth and (n + 1)th
9 Power series
Fibonacci numbers. In this case note that Fibonacci rectangle of size Fn by F(n + 1) can be decomposed into
squares of size Fn, Fn, and so on to F 1 = 1, from which The generating function of the Fibonacci sequence is the
power series
the identity follows by comparing areas.

Other identities

s(x) =

Fk xk .

k=0

Numerous other identities can be derived using various This series is convergent for |x| <
methods. Some of the most noteworthy are:[31]
simple closed-form:[32]

8.1

Cassini and Catalans identities

Main article: Cassini and Catalan identities

s(x) =

1
,

and its sum has a

x
1 x x2

This can be proved by using the Fibonacci recurrence to

expand each coecient in the innite sum:

Cassinis identity states that

s(x) =

Fn2 Fn+1 Fn1 = (1)n1

Fk xk

k=0

Catalans identity is a generalization:

= F0 + F1 x +

(Fk1 + Fk2 ) xk

k=2

Fn2

Fn+r Fnr = (1)

8.2

nr

Fr2

d'Ocagnes identity

=x+

Fk1 x +

k=2

=x+x

k=2

Fk xk + x

k=0

Fm Fn+1 Fm+1 Fn = (1)n Fmn

Fk2 xk

= x + xs(x) + x2 s(x).

k=0

Fk xk

11 PRIMES AND DIVISIBILITY

Solving the equation

No closed formula for the reciprocal Fibonacci constant

s(x) = x + xs(x) + x2 s(x)

1
= 3.359885666243 . . .
Fk

k=1

for s(x) results in the above closed form.

If x is the reciprocal of an integer k that is greater than 1,
the closed form of the series becomes

is known, but the number has been proved irrational by

Richard Andr-Jeannin.[34]
The Millin series gives the identity[35]

k
Fn
= 2
.
n
k
k

k1
n=0

7 5
1
=
,
Fn
2
n=0 2

In particular,

which follows from the closed form for its partial sums as
N tends to innity:

Fn
1
= 2m
m(n+1)
10

10m 1
10
n=1
for all positive integers m.
Some math puzzle-books present as curious the particu1
s( 10
)
1
lar value that comes from m=1, which is 10
= 89
=
.011235 . . . . [33] Similarly, m=2 gives
.00010102030508132134 . . . .

1
s( 100
)
100

1
9899

1
FN
= 3 2 1 .
n
F
F2N
n=0 2

11 Primes and divisibility

11.1 Divisibility properties

10

Reciprocal sums

Every 3rd number of the sequence is even and more generally, every kth number of the sequence is a multiple
of Fk. Thus the Fibonacci sequence is an example of a
Innite sums over reciprocal Fibonacci numbers can
divisibility sequence. In fact, the Fibonacci sequence satsometimes be evaluated in terms of theta functions. For
ises the stronger divisibility property[36][37]
example, we can write the sum of every odd-indexed reciprocal Fibonacci number as

k=0

1
F2k+1

(
)

5 2
3 5
=
0,
,
4 2
2

and the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers as

gcd(Fm , Fn ) = Fgcd(m,n) .
Any three consecutive Fibonacci numbers are pairwise
coprime, which means that, for every n,
gcd(Fn, Fn) = gcd(Fn, Fn) = gcd(Fn,
Fn) = 1.

)
(
)
)
3

5
5
42 0,
44 0,
+ 1Every
. prime number p divides a Fibonacci number that
2
2
can
be determined by the value of p modulo 5. If p is
k=1
congruent to 1 or 4 (mod 5), then p divides Fp , and if
If we add 1 to each Fibonacci number in the rst sum, p is congruent to 2 or 3 (mod 5), then, p divides Fp .
there is also the closed form
The remaining case is that p = 5, and in this case p divides
F . These cases can be combined into a single formula,
using the Legendre symbol:[38]

1
5
=
,
1 + F2k+1
2

1
5
=
Fk2
24

k=0

and there is a nested sum of squared Fibonacci numbers

giving the reciprocal of the golden ratio,

p | Fp( 5 ) .
p

11.2 Primality testing

(1)k+1
k
2
j=1 Fj
k=1

51
=
.
2

The above formula can be used as a primality test in the

sense that if

11.4

Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers

n | Fn( 5 ) , where the Legendre symbol has
n
been replaced by the Jacobi symbol, then this
is evidence that n is a prime, and if it fails to
hold, then n is denitely not a prime. If n is
composite and satises the formula, then n is a
Fibonacci pseudoprime.

if p = 5
0
= 1
if p 1 (mod 5)

1 if p 2 (mod 5).

(p)

If p is a prime number then

When m is largesay a 500-bit numberthen we can
(p)
Fp
(mod p)
calculate F (mod n) eciently using the matrix form.
5
[46][47]
Thus
0 (mod p).
(
) (
)m
Fm+1
Fm
1 1
(mod n).

For example,
Fm
Fm1
1 0
Here the matrix power Am is calculated using Modular
exponentiation, which can be adapted to matrices-modular exponentiation for matrices[39]

11.3

Fibonacci primes

Main article: Fibonacci prime

and Fp( p )

( 25 ) = 1,

F3 = 2,

F2 = 1,

= 1,

F4 = 3,

F3 = 2,

= 0,

F5 = 5,

= 1,

F8 = 21,

( 35 )
( 55 )
( 75 )
( 11
5 )

F7 = 13,

= +1, F10 = 55, F11 = 89.

It is not known whether there exists a prime p such that

A Fibonacci prime is a Fibonacci number that is prime.
The rst few are:
2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229,
A005478.

Fp( p ) 0 (mod p2 ).
5

Such primes (if there are any) would be called WallSun

Sun primes.

Fibonacci primes with thousands of digits have been Also, if p 5 is an odd prime number then:[47]
found, but it is not known whether there are innitely
many.[40]
{ ( ( )
)
1
Fkn is divisible by Fn, so, apart from F 4 = 3, any
5 p5 5
(mod p) if p 1 (mod 4)
2
2
)
1 ( (p)
Fibonacci prime must have a prime index. As there 5F p1
2
(mod p) if p 3 (mod 4).
2 5 5 3
are arbitrarily long runs of composite numbers, there
are therefore also arbitrarily long runs of composite Fi- Example 1. p = 7, in this case p 3 (mod 4) and we
bonacci numbers.
have:
No Fibonacci number greater than F 6 = 8 is one greater
or one less than a prime number.[41]

( 7
)
( 7
)
1
1
( 75 ) = 1 :
2 5( 5 ) + 3 = 1,
2 5( 5 ) 3 = 4.
The only nontrivial square Fibonacci number is 144.[42]
Attila Peth proved in 2001 that there is only a nite num- F = 2 and F = 3.
3
4
ber of perfect power Fibonacci numbers.[43] In 2006, Y.
2
2
Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, and S. Siksek proved that 8 and 5F3 = 20 1 (mod 7) and 5F4 = 45 4 (mod 7)
144 are the only such non-trivial perfect powers.[44]
Example 2. p = 11, in this case p 3 (mod 4) and we
have:

11.4

Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers

With the exceptions of 1, 8 and 144 (F 1 = F 2 , F 6

and F 12 ) every Fibonacci number has a prime factor
that is not a factor of any smaller Fibonacci number
(Carmichaels theorem).[45] As a result, 8 and 144 (F 6 and
F 12 ) are the only Fibonacci numbers that are the product
of other Fibonacci numbers A235383.

( 11
5 ) = +1 :

1
2

)
5( 11
5 ) + 3 = 4,

1
2

)
( 11
5( 5 ) 3 = 1.

F5 = 5 and F6 = 8.
5F52 = 125 4

(mod 11) and 5F62 = 320 1

(mod 11)

Example 3. p = 13, in this case p 1 (mod 4) and we

have:

The divisibility of Fibonacci numbers

by a prime p is re( )
lated to the Legendre symbol p5 which is evaluated as
( 13
follows:
5 ) = 1 :

1
2

)
5( 13
5 ) 5 = 5,

1
2

)
( 13
5( 5 ) + 5 = 0.

10

14

APPLICATIONS

F6 = 8 and F7 = 13.

This series continues indenitely. The triangle sides a, b,

c can be calculated directly:
(mod 13) and 5F72 = 845 0 (mod 13)

5F62 = 320 5

Example 4. p = 29, in this case p 1 (mod 4) and we

have:

an = F2n1
bn = 2Fn Fn1

( 29
5 ) = +1 :

1
2

( 29
)
5( 5 ) 5 = 0,

1
2

( 29
) c = F2 F2 .
n
n
n1
5( 5 ) + 5 = 5.

These formulas satisfy a2n = b2n + c2n for all n, but they
only represent triangle sides when n > 2.
2
2
5F14 = 710645 0 (mod 29) and 5F15 = 1860500 Any
5 four
(mod
29)
consecutive
Fibonacci numbers Fn, Fn, Fn
and
Fn
can
also
be
used
to generate a Pythagorean triple
For odd n, all odd prime divisors of Fn are congruent
[52]
in
a
dierent
way:
to 1 modulo 4, implying that all odd divisors of Fn (as
F14 = 377 and F15 = 610.

the products of odd prime divisors) are congruent to 1

modulo 4.[48]
For example,

2
2
a = Fn Fn+3 ; b = 2Fn+1 Fn+2 ; c = Fn+1
+Fn+2
; a2 +b2 = c2 .

Example 1: let the Fibonacci numbers be 1, 2, 3 and 5.

Then:
F1 = 1, F3 = 2, F5 = 5, F7 = 13, F9 = 34 = 217, F11 = 89, F13 = 233, F15 = 610 = 2561.
All known factors of Fibonacci numbers F(i) for all i <
50000 are collected at the relevant repositories.[49][50]

a=15=5
b = 2 2 3 = 12
c = 22 + 32 = 13

11.5

Periodicity modulo n

52 + 122 = 132

Main article: Pisano period

13 Magnitude

If the members of the Fibonacci sequence are taken mod

n, the resulting sequence is periodic with period at most
6n.[51] The lengths of the periods for various n form the
so-called Pisano periods
A001175. Determining a
general formula for the Pisano periods is an open problem, which includes as a subproblem a special instance
of the problem of nding the multiplicative order of a
modular integer or of an element in a nite eld. However, for any particular n, the Pisano period may be found
as an instance of cycle detection.

Since Fn is asymptotic to n / 5 , the number of digits

in Fn is asymptotic to n log10 0.2090 n . As a consequence, for every integer d > 1 there are either 4 or 5
Fibonacci numbers with d decimal digits.
More generally, in the base b representation, the number
of digits in Fn is asymptotic to n logb .

14 Applications

The Fibonacci numbers are important in the computational run-time analysis of Euclids algorithm to determine the greatest common divisor of two integers: the
algorithm is a pair of consecuStarting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the worst case input for this[53]
tive
Fibonacci
numbers.
length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with inte2012 show how a generalised Figer sides, or in other words, the largest number in a Brasch et al.
Pythagorean triple. The length of the longer leg of this bonacci sequence also can be connected to the eld of
triangle is equal to the sum of the three sides of the pre- economics.[54] In particular, it is shown how a generalised
ceding triangle in this series of triangles, and the shorter Fibonacci sequence enters the control function of niteleg is equal to the dierence between the preceding by- horizon dynamic optimisation problems with one state
passed Fibonacci number and the shorter leg of the pre- and one control variable. The procedure is illustrated in
ceding triangle.
an example often referred to as the BrockMirman ecoThe rst triangle in this series has sides of length 5, 4, and nomic growth model.

12

Right triangles

3. Skipping 8, the next triangle has sides of length 13, 12 Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci
(5 + 4 + 3), and 5 (8 3). Skipping 21, the next triangle numbers can be dened by a Diophantine equation, which
has sides of length 34, 30 (13 + 12 + 5), and 16 (21 5). led to his original solution of Hilberts tenth problem.[55]

11
The Fibonacci numbers are also an example of a complete
sequence. This means that every positive integer can be
written as a sum of Fibonacci numbers, where any one
number is used once at most.
Moreover, every positive integer can be written in a
unique way as the sum of one or more distinct Fibonacci
numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any
two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as
Zeckendorfs theorem, and a sum of Fibonacci numbers
that satises these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation. The Zeckendorf representation of a number
can be used to derive its Fibonacci coding.
Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom
number generators.
They are also used in planning poker, which is a step in
estimating in software development projects that use the
Scrum (software development) methodology.
Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of the
merge sort algorithm in which an unsorted list is divided
into two lists whose lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci numbers by dividing the list so that the two
parts have lengths in the approximate proportion . A
tape-drive implementation of the polyphase merge sort
was described in The Art of Computer Programming.

Yellow Chamomile head showing the arrangement in 21 (blue)

and 13 (aqua) spirals. Such arrangements involving consecutive
Fibonacci numbers appear in a wide variety of plants.

ing fern and the arrangement of a pine cone,[12] and the

family tree of honeybees.[60] However, numerous poorly
substantiated claims of Fibonacci numbers or golden secFibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of the Fibonacci tions in nature are found in popular sources, e.g., relating
to the breeding of rabbits in Fibonaccis own unrealistic
heap data structure.
example, the seeds on a sunower, the spirals of shells,
The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fi- and the curve of waves.[61]
bonacci number of nodes that has been proposed as a
Przemysaw Prusinkiewicz advanced the idea that real innetwork topology for parallel computing.
stances can in part be understood as the expression of cerA one-dimensional optimization method, called the tain algebraic constraints on free groups, specically as
Fibonacci search technique, uses Fibonacci numbers.[56] certain Lindenmayer grammars.[62]
The Fibonacci number series is used for optional lossy
compression in the IFF 8SVX audio le format used on
Amiga computers. The number series compands the original audio wave similar to logarithmic methods such as
-law.[57][58]
Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio (denoted ), the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci
numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This
method amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden
ratio base being shifted. To convert from kilometers
to miles, shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence
instead.[59]

15

In nature

Further information: Patterns in nature and Phyllotaxis

Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings,[10] in
two consecutive Fibonacci numbers, such as branching
in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets
of a pineapple,[11] the owering of artichoke, an uncurl-

Illustration of Vogels model for n = 1 500

A model for the pattern of orets in the head of a

sunower was proposed by H. Vogel in 1979.[63] This has
the form

12

16 GENERALIZATIONS

2
n, r = c n
2

where n is the index number of the oret and c is a constant scaling factor; the orets thus lie on Fermats spiral. The divergence angle, approximately 137.51, is the
golden angle, dividing the circle in the golden ratio. Because this ratio is irrational, no oret has a neighbor at exactly the same angle from the center, so the orets pack
eciently. Because the rational approximations to the
golden ratio are of the form F(j):F(j + 1), the nearest
neighbors of oret number n are those at n F(j) for some
index j, which depends on r, the distance from the center.
It is often said that sunowers and similar arrangements
have 55 spirals in one direction and 89 in the other (or
some other pair of adjacent Fibonacci numbers), but this
is true only of one range of radii, typically the outermost
and thus most conspicuous.[64]

The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci
sequence. (After Hutchison, L. Growing the Family Tree: The
Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships.[66] )

one X chromosome from her mother (the sons maternal grandmother), and one her father (the sons maternal
grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male
descendants X chromosome ( F3 = 2 ). The maternal
grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother,
15.1 The bee ancestry code
and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes
Fibonacci numbers also appear in the pedigrees of ideal- from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents
contributed to the male descendants X chromosome (
ized honeybees, according to the following rules:
F4 = 3 ). Five great-great-grandparents contributed
to the male descendants X chromosome ( F5 = 5
If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a ), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a
male or drone bee.
given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy
is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to ap If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, it
pear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually a
hatches a female.
population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)
Thus, a male bee always has one parent, and a female bee
has two.

16 Generalizations

If one traces the pedigree of any male bee (1 bee), he has

1 parent (1 bee), 2 grandparents, 3 great-grandparents, Main article: Generalizations of Fibonacci numbers
5 great-great-grandparents, and so on. This sequence of
numbers of parents is the Fibonacci sequence. The number of ancestors at each level, Fn, is the number of fe- The Fibonacci sequence has been generalized in many
male ancestors, which is Fn, plus the number of male ways. These include:
ancestors, which is Fn.[65] This is under the unrealistic
assumption that the ancestors at each level are otherwise
Generalizing the index to negative integers to prounrelated.
duce the negabonacci numbers.

15.2

The human X chromosome inheritance tree

Luke Hutchison noticed that the number of possible

ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a
given ancestral generation also follows the Fibonacci
sequence.[66] A male individual has an X chromosome,
which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome,
which he received from his father. The male counts as
the origin of his own X chromosome ( F1 = 1 ), and
at his parents generation, his X chromosome came from
a single parent ( F2 = 1 ). The males mother received

Generalizing the index to real numbers using a modication of Binets formula.[31]

Starting with other integers. Lucas numbers have
L1 = 1, L2 = 3, and Ln = Ln + Ln. Primefree sequences use the Fibonacci recursion with other starting points to generate sequences in which all numbers are composite.
Letting a number be a linear function (other than the
sum) of the 2 preceding numbers. The Pell numbers
have Pn = 2Pn + Pn .
Not adding the immediately preceding numbers.

13
The Padovan sequence and Perrin numbers have
P(n) = P(n 2) + P(n 3).
Generating the next number by adding 3 numbers
(tribonacci numbers), 4 numbers (tetranacci numbers), or more. The resulting sequences are known
as n-Step Fibonacci numbers.[67]
Adding other objects than integers, for example
functions or strings one essential example is
Fibonacci polynomials.

17

See also

Elliott wave principle

Fibonacci word
The Fibonacci Association
Verner Emil Hoggatt, Jr.
Fibonacci numbers in popular culture
Wytho array

18

Notes

[1] Beck & Geoghegan 2010.

[2] Bna 2011, p. 180.
[3]

A000045

[4] John Hudson Tiner (200). Exploring the World of Mathematics: From Ancient Record Keeping to the Latest Advances in Computers. New Leaf Publishing Group. ISBN
978-1-61458-155-0.
[5] Lucas 1891, p. 3.
[6] Pisano 2002, pp. 4045.
[7] Goonatilake, Susantha (1998), Toward a Global Science,
Indiana University Press, p. 126, ISBN 978-0-25333388-9
[8] Singh, Parmanand (1985), The So-called Fibonacci
numbers in ancient and medieval India, Historia
Mathematica, 12 (3): 22944, doi:10.1016/03150860(85)90021-7
[9] Knuth, Donald (2006), The Art of Computer Programming, 4. Generating All Trees History of Combinatorial
Generation, AddisonWesley, p. 50, ISBN 978-0-32133570-8, it was natural to consider the set of all sequences
of [L] and [S] that have exactly m beats. ...there are exactly Fm+1 of them. For example the 21 sequences when
m = 7 are: [gives list]. In this way Indian prosodists were
led to discover the Fibonacci sequence, as we have observed in Section 1.2.8 (from v.1)

[10] Douady, S; Couder, Y (1996), Phyllotaxis as a

Dynamical Self Organizing Process (PDF), Journal of Theoretical Biology, 178 (178): 25574,
doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0026
[11] Jones, Judy; Wilson, William (2006), Science, An Incomplete Education, Ballantine Books, p. 544, ISBN 9780-7394-7582-9
[12] Brousseau, A (1969), Fibonacci Statistics in Conifers,
Fibonacci Quarterly (7): 52532
[13] Knuth, Donald (1968), The Art of Computer Programming, 1, Addison Wesley, ISBN 81-7758-754-4, Before
Fibonacci wrote his work, the sequence Fn had already
been discussed by Indian scholars, who had long been interested in rhythmic patterns... both Gopala (before 1135
AD) and Hemachandra (c. 1150) mentioned the numbers
1,2,3,5,8,13,21 explicitly [see P. Singh Historia Math 12
(1985) 22944]" p. 100 (3d ed)...
[14] Agrawala, VS (1969), Piniklna Bhratavara (Hn.).
Varanasi-I: TheChowkhamba Vidyabhawan, SadgurushiShya writes that Pingala was a younger brother of
Pini [Agrawala 1969, lb]. There is an alternative opinion that he was a maternal uncle of Pini [Vinayasagar
1965, Preface, 121. Agrawala [1969, 46376], after a
careful investigation, in which he considered the views of
earlier scholars, has concluded that Pini lived between
480 and 410 BC
[15] Velankar, HD (1962), Vttajtisamuccaya of kavi Virahanka, Jodhpur: Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, p.
101, For four, variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, ve happens. For ve, variations of two earlier
three [and] four, being mixed, eight is obtained. In this
way, for six, [variations] of four [and] of ve being mixed,
thirteen happens. And like that, variations of two earlier
meters being mixed, seven morae [is] twenty-one. In this
way, the process should be followed in all mtr-vttas
[16] Knott, Ron. Fibonaccis Rabbits. University of Surrey
Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences.
[17] Gardner, Martin (1996), Mathematical Circus, The Mathematical Association of America, p. 153, ISBN 0-88385506-2, It is ironic that Leonardo, who made valuable contributions to mathematics, is remembered today mainly
because a 19th-century French number theorist, douard
Lucas... attached the name Fibonacci to a number sequence that appears in a trivial problem in Liber abaci
[18] Knott, R, Fib table, Fibonacci, UK: Surrey has the rst
300 Fn factored into primes and links to more extensive
tables.
[19] Knuth, Donald (2008-12-11), Negabonacci Numbers
and the Hyperbolic Plane, Annual meeting, The Fairmont
Hotel, San Jose, CA: The Mathematical Association of
America
[20] Lucas 1891, p. 7.
[21] Stanley, Richard (2011). Enumerative Combinatorics I
(2nd ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 121, Ex 1.35.
ISBN 978-1-107-60262-5.

14

[22] Weisstein, Eric W. Binets Fibonacci Number Formula.

MathWorld.
[23] Ball 2003, p. 156.
[24] Ball 2003, pp. 1556.
[25] Kepler, Johannes (1966), A New Year Gift: On Hexagonal Snow, Oxford University Press, p. 92, ISBN 0-19858120-3
[26] Strena seu de Nive Sexangula, 1611
[27] Dijkstra, Edsger W. (1978), In honour of Fibonacci
(PDF)
[28] Gessel, Ira (October 1972), Fibonacci is a Square
(PDF), The Fibonacci Quarterly, 10 (4): 41719, retrieved April 11, 2012
[29] Lucas 1891, p. 4.
[30] Vorobiev, Nikola Nikolaevich; Martin, Mircea (2002),
Chapter 1, Fibonacci Numbers, Birkhuser, pp. 56,
ISBN 3-7643-6135-2
[31] Weisstein, Eric W. Fibonacci Number. MathWorld.
[32] Glaister, P (1995), Fibonacci power series, The Mathematical Gazette, 79 (486): 521, doi:10.2307/3618079,
JSTOR 3618079

18 NOTES

[44] Bugeaud, Y; Mignotte, M; Siksek, S (2006), Classical and modular approaches to exponential Diophantine equations.
I. Fibonacci and Lucas perfect powers, Ann.
Math., 2 (163): 9691018,
arXiv:math/0403046 , Bibcode:2004math......3046B,
doi:10.4007/annals.2006.163.969
[45] Knott, Ron, The Fibonacci numbers, UK: Surrey
[46] Ribenboim, Paulo (1996), The New Book of Prime Number Records, New York: Springer, p. 64, ISBN 0-38794457-5
[47] Lemmermeyer 2000, pp. 734.
[48] Lemmermeyer 2000, p. 73.
[49] Fibonacci and Lucas factorizations, Mersennus collects all
known factors of F(i) with i < 10000.
[50] Factors of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers, Red golpe collects all known factors of F(i) with 10000 < i < 50000.
[51] Freyd, Peter; Brown, Kevin S. (1993), Problems and Solutions: Solutions: E3410, The American Mathematical
Monthly, 99 (3): 278279, doi:10.2307/2325076
[52] Koshy, Thomas (2007), Elementary number theory with
applications, Academic Press, p. 581, ISBN 0-12372487-2

[33] Khler, Gnter (February 1985), Generating functions of

Fibonacci-like sequences and decimal expansions of some
fractions (PDF), The Fibonacci Quarterly, 23 (1): 2935,
retrieved December 31, 2011

[53] Knuth, Donald E (1997), The Art of Computer Programming, 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd ed.), Addison
Wesley, p. 343, ISBN 0-201-89683-4

[34] Andr-Jeannin, Richard (1989), Irrationalit de la

somme des inverses de certaines suites rcurrentes, C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris Sr. I Math., 308 (19): 539541, MR
0999451

[54] Brasch, T. von; Bystrm, J.; Lystad, L.P. (2012),

Optimal Control and the Fibonacci Sequence (PDF),
Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 154 (3):
85778, doi:10.1007/s10957-012-0061-2

[35] Weisstein, Eric W. Millin Series. MathWorld.

[55] Harizanov, Valentina (1995), Review of Yuri V. Matiyasevich, Hiberts Tenth Problem", Modern Logic, 5 (3):
345355.

[36] Ribenboim, Paulo (2000), My Numbers, My Friends,

Springer-Verlag
[37] Su, Francis E (2000), Fibonacci GCDs, please, Mudd
Math Fun Facts, et al, HMC

[56] Avriel, M; Wilde, DJ (1966), Optimality of the Symmetric Fibonacci Search Technique, Fibonacci Quarterly (3):
2659

[38] Williams, H. C. (1982), A note on the Fibonacci quotient Fp /p ", Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 25 (3):
366370, doi:10.4153/CMB-1982-053-0, MR 668957.
Williams calls this property well known.

[57] Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual, AddisonWesley,

1991

[39] Prime Numbers, Richard Crandall, Carl Pomerance,

Springer, second edition, 2005, p.142.

[59] Zeckendorf representation, Encyclopedia of Math

[40] Weisstein, Eric W. Fibonacci Prime. MathWorld.

[60] Marks for the da Vinci Code: B". Maths. Computer

Science For Fun: CS4FN.

[41] Honsberger, Ross (1985), Mathematical Gems III, AMS

Dolciani Mathematical Expositions (9): 133, ISBN 088385-318-3

[61] Simanek, D. Fibonacci Flim-Flam. LHUP.

[58] IFF, Multimedia Wiki

[42] Cohn, JHE (1964), Square Fibonacci Numbers etc, Fibonacci Quarterly, 2: 10913

[62] Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; Hanan, James (1989), Lindenmayer Systems, Fractals, and Plants (Lecture Notes in
Biomathematics), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-97092-4

[43] Peth, Attila (2001), Diophantine properties of linear recursive sequences II, Acta Math. Paedagogicae Nyregyhziensis, 17: 8196

[63] Vogel, H (1979), A better way to construct the sunower head, Mathematical Biosciences, 44 (44): 17989,
doi:10.1016/0025-5564(79)90080-4

15

[64] Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; Lindenmayer, Aristid

(1990), The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants, SpringerVerlag, pp. 1017, ISBN 978-0-387-97297-8
[65] The Fibonacci sequence as it appears in nature (PDF),
The Fibonacci Quarterly, 1 (1): 5356, 1963
[66] Hutchison, Luke (September 2004). Growing the Family
Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family Relationships (PDF). Proceedings of the First Symposium on
Bioinformatics and Biotechnology (BIOT-04). Retrieved
2016-09-03.
[67] Weisstein, Eric W. Fibonacci n-Step Number.
MathWorld.

19

References

Ball, Keith M (2003), 8: Fibonaccis Rabbits

Revisited, Strange Curves, Counting Rabbits, and
Other Mathematical Explorations, Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11321-1.
Beck, Matthias; Geoghegan, Ross (2010), The Art
of Proof: Basic Training for Deeper Mathematics,
New York: Springer.
Bna, Mikls (2011), A Walk Through Combinatorics (3rd ed.), New Jersey: World Scientic.
Lemmermeyer, Franz (2000), Reciprocity Laws,
New York: Springer, ISBN 3-540-66957-4.
Lucas, douard (1891), Thorie des nombres (in
French), 1, Gauthier-Villars.
Pisano, Leonardo (2002), Fibonaccis Liber Abaci:
A Translation into Modern English of the Book of
Calculation, Sources and Studies in the History of
Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Sigler, Laurence E, trans, Springer, ISBN 0-387-95419-8

20

External links

Periods of Fibonacci Sequences Mod m at MathPages

Scientists nd clues to the formation of Fibonacci
spirals in nature

Fibonacci Sequence on In Our Time at the BBC.

(listen now)
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Fibonacci numbers, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN
978-1-55608-010-4
Sloanes A000045 : Fibonacci Numbers. The
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
Foundation.

16

21

21
21.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

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