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Classification of engines

OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

Reciprocating engines are classified as sparkignition (SI) engines or compression-ignition (CI)

engines,

depending

on

how

the

E - Exhaust camshaft
I - Intake camshaft
S - Spark plug
V - Valves
P - Piston
R - Connecting rod
C - Crankshaft
W - Water jacket for
coolant flow

combustion

process in the cylinder is initiated.

In SI engines, the combustion of the airfuel
mixture is initiated by a spark plug.
In CI engines, the airfuel mixture is self-ignited as
a result of compressing the mixture above its
selfignition temperature.

The Crankshaft
Transforms the reciprocating motion of the piston and
connecting rod into rotary motion for the propeller.

Cylinder
The core of the engine is the cylinder, with the
piston moving up and down inside the cylinder.

Valves not shown

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Connecting rod
Link which transmits forces between the piston and
the crankshaft.

TDC & BDC

The piston reciprocates in the cylinder between two fixed positions called
the top dead center (TDC)the position of the piston when it forms the
smallest volume in the cylinderand the bottom dead center (BDC)
the position of the piston when it forms the largest volume in the
cylinder.

Stroke

Intake & exhaust valves

The distance between the TDC and the BDC is the largest distance
that the piston can travel in one direction, and it is called the stroke
of the engine. The diameter of the piston is called the bore.

The air or airfuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the
intake valve, and the combustion products are expelled from the
cylinder through the exhaust valve.
The intake and exhaust
valves open at the proper
time to let in air and fuel
and to let out exhaust.
Note that both valves are
closed during compression
and combustion so that
the combustion chamber
is sealed.

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Displacement volume
The minimum volume formed in the cylinder when the piston is at TDC is
called the clearance volume. The volume displaced by the piston as it
moves between TDC and BDC is called the displacement volume.

Compression ratio
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum
(clearance) volume is called the compression ratio r of the engine:

Indicated Work per Cycle

V max VBDC

V min VTDC

Indicated Work per Cycle

Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine
one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. These data
are typically given as PV.

Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine
one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is
typically given as PV.

The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi

The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi

PdV

PdV

WA > 0

WB < 0

Compression
W<0

Power
W>0

Exhaust
W<0

Intake
W>0

Compression
W<0

Power
W>0

Exhaust
W<0

Intake
W<0

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The Otto and Diesel cycles are the ideal

cycles for the SI and CI reciprocating
engines respectively.

Four-stroke internal combustion engines

Otto Cycle

In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition

four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles)

reciprocating engines. It is named after Nikolaus A.

within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes

Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in

two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.

1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by

These engines are called four-stroke internal

Frenchman Beau de Rochas in 1862.

combustion engines.

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The air-standard Otto cycle is the ideal cycle that

approximates the spark-ignition combustion engine.

Process

Description

1-2

Isentropic compression

2-3

Constant volume heat addition

3-4

Isentropic expansion

4-1

Constant volume heat rejection

REAL ENGINES

Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle

Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle

Step 1: Induction Stroke - Intake of gas-air mixture from

the carburetor

Step 2: Compression stroke - Compression of the air-gas mixture

Engine pulls piston out

of cylinder;

Piston moves from BDC

to TDC;

Low pressure in
cylinder;

Both Inlet & exhaust

valves closed;

Atmospheric pressure
pushes fuel air mixture
into cylinder;

Engine does work on

gases during this
stroke;

Engine pushes piston

into cylinder (volume
decreases): high pressure
and temperature in
cylinder;

Inlet valve open,

exhaust valve closed;

Engine does work on

gases during this stroke;

Piston moves from TDC

to BDC.

At the end of this stroke

a spark is introduced.

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Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle

Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle

Step 3: Power / Working Stroke - Ignition and Expansion of the

air-gas mixture

Step 3: Power / Working Stroke - Ignition and Expansion of the

air-gas mixture

Mixture burns to form

hot gases: pressure
increases suddenly;

Gases push piston

from TDC to BDC,
generating work;

Both inlet & exhaust

valves are kept closed;

Gas does work on

engine during this
stroke: engine develops
power.

Only during this stroke the engine develops power;

For the compression and expansion strokes, engine gets
power from its crankshaft;
Power required for the compression and expansion
strokes is only a fraction of the power developed by the
engine.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS: REAL ENGINES

Internal Combustion Engine: 4-stroke Otto cycle

Step 4: Exhaust Stroke - Exhaust of waste gas

Engine pushes piston back

into cylinder: pressure
inside pushes burnt gas
out of cylinder through
open exhaust valve;

Piston moves from BDC to

TDC;

Inlet valve is kept closed

to prevent exhaust gas to
reach the inlet manifold;

Engine does work on gas

during this stroke.

Inline-4

Flat-4

Complete removal of exhaust gas is very important for the efficient

combustion of the next cycle.
V-6

Overhead Cam-4

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Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines

Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines

1. The energy addition in an actual process is never at constant pressure

or at constant volume;
2. The process of expansion and compression are never isentropic
because of the heat transfer to or from the system;
3. A finite amount of work is required for the suction of fresh air or
charge and the discharge of products of combustion.

MEP or imep (pi)

The mean effective pressure found from the indicator
diagram is referred to as the indicated mean effective
pressure, imep (pi)

The mean effective pressure (MEP) is a fictitious pressure that, if it

operated on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the
same amount of net work as that produced during the actual cycle.

MEP

Wnet
wnet

Vmax Vmin vmax vmin

The mean effective pressure can be

used as a parameter to compare
the performances of reciprocating
engines of equal size. The engine
with a larger value of MEP delivers
more net work per cycle and thus
performs better.

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Indicated Power (ip)

Net work done per cycle (area of power loop area of pumping loop)

The indicated power is defined as the rate of work done by

Work done per cycle = MEP x A x L

the gas on the piston as evaluated from an indicator

diagram.

Where

Indicated Power (ip)

MEP

Mean effective pressure;

Area of piston;

length of stroke.

Brake Power (bp)

The term brake power, bp , is used to specify that the power

ip

= Work done per cycle x cycles per unit time

is measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power

= MEP x A x L x cycles per unit time

delivered by the engine to the load.

= MEP x A x L x N x n / nR
Where
N
crankshaft (or engine) speed in rev/s;
nR
number of crank revolutions per cycle;
= 2 for 4-stroke;
= 1 for 2-stroke;
n
- number of cylinders.

The engine is connected to a brake which can be loaded in

such a way that the torque (T) exerted by the engine can
be measured:
The torque (T) is obtained by reading off a net load, W, at
a known radius, R, from the axis of rotation.
T=WR
N crankshaft (or engine) speed in rev/s

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Brake Power (bp)

Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.

An IC engine was tested in the lab at a speed of 1000

rpm with an effective load of 1 kN on the brake drum

b
Stator

having a radius of 0.75 m. Calculate the brake power

Force F

Rotor

produced by the engine.

N
Load cell

78.6 kW
The torque exerted by the engine is T = Load (W) x radius (R)
The brake power, bp, delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:

bp T ( 2 N ) T

rad rev
units :

( J ) W (1 kW 1.341 hp )
rev s

Friction Power & Mechanical Efficiency

The difference between the ip and the bp is the friction
power (fp), and is that power required to overcome the
frictional resistance of the engine parts:

Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)

The indicated mean effective pressure, imep (pi) does not contain
the effect of friction or work necessary to pump the gases in and

fp = ip bp

out and drive the camshaft and various accessories. It consequently

The mechanical efficiency of the engine is defined as:

Mechanical efficiency, M

bp
ip

where M usually lies between 80 and 90%.

is higher than the brake mean effective pressure or bmep (pb).

bmep = M x imep
or

imep

bmep
M

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Brake mean effective pressure, bmep (pb)

A four-stroke single cylinder IC engine develops 5 kW

of brake power with a mechanical efficiency of 80%

The pi is consequently higher than the brake mean effective

pressure or bmep (pb).

running at 1500 rpm. If the indicated mean effective

pressure is 7 bar, find the dimensions of the cylinder
assuming that stroke length and diameter are equal.

bmep = M x imep
pb = M x pi

97 mm

or

imep

bmep
M

pi

pb
M

We know that

Brake mean effective pressure, bmep

Mechanical efficiency, M

bp

ip

bp M x ip

M and MEP are difficult to obtain and are usually combined

and replaced by brake mean effective pressure, bmep (pb):
bmep = M x MEP

and

ip = pi x A x L x N x n / nR
For a four-stroke engine (nR = 2)

x pi x A x L x N x n
bp M
2

bp
But

bmep x A x L x N x n
2

bp T ( 2 N ) T
2NT

bmep A L N n
2

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Brake Power (bp)

Brake mean effective pressure, bmep

Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.

bmep A L N n
2NT
2
4
bmep
T
ALn
bmep T
bmep is directly proportional to the engine torque and

b
Force F

Stator
Rotor
N

Load cell

The torque exerted by the engine is T = Load (F) x radius (R)

The brake power, bp, delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and
absorbed by the dynamometer is:

bp T ( 2 N ) T

rad rev
units :

( J ) W (1 kW 1.341 hp )
rev s

is independent of the engine speed.

Morse Test

Morse Test
For a four-cylinder engine:

Morse Test is applicable to multi-cylinder engines:

If the values of ip of the cylinders are denoted by I1, I2, I3 and I4,

1. The engine is run at desired speed and output is noted;

and the power losses in each cylinder are denoted by L1, L2, L3

2. One of the cylinders is cut out by short circuiting spark plug.

and L4, then the value of bp, B, at the test speed with all

Under this condition other cylinders motor this cut cylinder.

The

cylinders firing is given by:

speed falls because of the loss of power with one

cylinder but is restored by reducing the load.

3. The Torque is measured again when the speed has reached
its original value.
4. The difference in output is measure of the indicated power
of cut-out cylinder. Thus for each cylinder indicated power
is obtained to find out total indicated power.

B = (I1 L1) + (I2 L2) + (I3 L3) + (I4 L4)

and if number 1 cylinder is cut off, then I1 = 0. The new bp, B1:

B1 = (0 L1) + (I2 L2) + (I3 L3) + (I4 L4)

B - B1 = I1

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Brake Thermal Efficiency, BT

Morse Test
By cutting out each cylinder in turn the values , I2, I3 and I4 can

The power output of the engine is obtained from the

chemical energy of the fuel supplied.

be obtained:

I = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4

The overall

efficiency of the engine is given by the brake thermal

efficiency, BT,

BT

brake work
energy supplied

BT
Where

bp
x Q net,v
m

mf

is the mass of fuel consumed per unit time;

Q net,v is the net calorific value of the fuel.

Specific fuel consumption, sfc

The specific fuel consumption (sfc) is the mass flow rate

Indicated Thermal Efficiency, IT

It is the ratio of indicated power developed on the piston to

of fuel consumed per unit power output, and is a

the energy content of the fuel supplied. It represents the

criterion of economical power production:

conversion factor of chemical energy of fuel into linear

mf
sfc
bp

mechanical power.

IT

IT

Indicated power (ip)

Fuel power

ip
.

m f x Q net,v

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Indicated Thermal Efficiency, IT

Dividing BT by IT

BT

Volume of air induced (V) & Swept Volume(Vs)

bp
TDC

m f x Q net, v

Stroke

VS

VS

VS

VS
BDC

IT

ip
.

m f x Q net, v

BT
bp

M
IT
ip

Volumetric Efficiency, V

V
V

Bore

Ve = VS n
Ve = (/4) D2 L n
Where:
Ve = engine capacity, Vs = cylinder swept volume
n = number of cylinders, L = stroke, D = bore diameter

Volumetric Efficiency, V

Air Entering the Engine

Engine Displacement

Volume of Air Entering the Engine

Swept Volume

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Volumetric Efficiency, V
Engines are only capable of 80% to 90% volumetric
efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency depends upon throttle opening
and engine speed as well as induction and exhaust
system layout, port size and valve timing and opening
duration.
High volumetric efficiency increases engine power.
Turbo charging is capable of increasing volumetric
efficiency up to 50%.

&

A four-cylinder petrol engine has a bore of 57 mm and a stroke of 90 mm.

Its rated speed is 2800 rev/min and it is tested at this speed against a brake
which has a torque arm of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N and the
mass of fuel consumed is 0.001 376 kg/s and it has a lower calorific value of
44 200 kJ/kg.
A Morse test is carried out and the cylinders are cut out in the order 1, 2, 3,
4, with corresponding brake loads of 111, 106.5, 104.2 and 111 N,
respectively. Calculate for this speed:
a) the engine torque;
b) the bmep;
c)

the brake thermal efficiency;

d) the specific fuel consumption;

e) the mechanical efficiency and the imep.
(55.2 Nm; 7.55 bar; 26.6%; 0.306 kg/kWh; 82.8%; 9.12 bar)

A quality governed four-stroke, single cylinder gas

engine has a bore of 146 mm and a stroke of 280 mm. At
475 rev/min and full load the net load on the friction
brake is 433 N, and the torque arm is 0.45 m. The
indicator diagram gives a net area of 578 mm2 and a
length of 70 mm with a spring rating of 0.815 bar per
mm. Calculate the ip, bp and mechanical efficiency.
(12.49 kW; 9.69 kW; 77.6%)

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Thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle as a

function of compression ratio (k = 1.4)

Timing diagram

For a given compression ratio, an ideal Otto cycle using a monatomic

gas (such as argon or helium, k = 1.667) as the working fluid will have
the highest thermal efficiency.

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Two-Stroke Engine
A two-stroke, two-cycle, or two-cycle engine is a type of internal

Two-Stroke Engine
Less moving parts:
Piston
Crank shaft
Reed valve

combustion engine which completes a power cycle in only one

crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up and down

Oil is mixed in fuel for lubrication,

Hence engine can operate at any angle

movements, of the piston in comparison to a "four-stroke

engine", which uses four strokes to do so.

Runs hotter , quicker in acceleration,

and lighter in weight then 4-stroke.

Top of the piston is wedged shape in

order to help incoming gases to enter
and exhaust gases to escape.

Get fewer km per litre

Operation of two-stroke engine

The two stroke engine employs the crankcase as
well as the cylinder to achieve all the elements of
the cycle in only two strokes of the piston.

Intake & Compression stroke

Intake. The fuel/air mixture is first drawn into
the crankcase by the vacuum created during the
upward stroke of the piston through the reed valve.

360 degrees rotation of crankshaft

completes the cycle.
Compression. The piston then rises, driven by
flywheel momentum, and compresses the fuel
mixture. (At the same time, another intake stroke
is happening beneath the piston).

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Power & Exhaust/Transfer Stroke

Operation of Two-stroke

Power. At the top of the stroke the

spark plug ignites the fuel mixture.
The burning fuel expands, driving
the piston downward.

Exhaust/Transfer:Toward the end of the stroke,

the piston exposes the intake port, allowing the
compressed fuel/air mixture in the crankcase to
escape around the piston into the main cylinder.
This expels the exhaust gasses out the exhaust
port, usually located on the opposite side of the
cylinder.

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