FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations

663

F
Fatty Acids see Fermentation

(Industrial): Production of Oils and Fatty Acids.

FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)
Contents

Basic Considerations
Media for Industrial Fermentations
Control of Fermentation Conditions
Recovery of Metabolites
Production of Xanthan Gum
Production of Organic Acids Production of
Oils and Fatty Acids Colours/Flavours
Derived by Fermentation

Basic Considerations
Vusuf Chisti, Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Almeria, Spain
Copyright 1999 Academic Press

Introduction
Fermentation processes utilize microorganisms to
convert solid or liquid substrates into various prod
ucts. The substrates used vary widely, any material
that supports microbial growth being a potential sub
strate. Similarly, fermentation-derived products show
tremendous variety. Commonly consumed fermented
products include bread, cheese, sausage, pickled vege
tables, cocoa, beer, wine, citric acid, glutamic acid
and soy sauce.
Types of Fermentation

Most commercially useful fermentations may be clas

sified as either solid-state or submerged cultures. In
solid-state fermentations, the microorganisms grow
on a moist solid with little or no 'free' water, although
capillary water may be present. Examples of this type
of fermentation are seen in mushroom cultivation,
bread-making and the processing of cocoa, and in the
manufacture of some traditional foods, e.g. miso (soy
paste), sake, soy sauce, tempeh (soybean cake) and
gari (cassava), which are now produced in large indus
trial operations. Submerged fermentations may use a

dissolved substrate, e.g. sugar solution, or a solid

substrate, suspended in a large amount of water to
form a slurry. Submerged fermentations are used for
pickling vegetables, producing yoghurt, brewing beer
and producing wine and soy sauce.
Solid-state and submerged fermentations may each
be subdivided - into oxygen-requiring aerobic pro
cesses, and anaerobic processes that must be con
ducted in the absence of oxygen. Examples of aerobic
fermentations include submerged-culture citric acid
production by Aspergillus niger and solid-state koji
fermentations (used in the production of soy sauce).
Fermented meat products such as bologna sausage
(polony), dry sausage, pepperoni and salami are pro
duced by solid-state anaerobic fermentations utilizing
acid-forming bacteria, particularly Lactobacillus,
Pediococcus and Micrococcus species. A submerged
culture anaerobic fermentation occurs in yoghurt
making.
Fermentations may require only a single species of
microorganism to effect the desired chemical change.
In this case the substrate may be sterilized, to kill
unwanted species prior to inoculation with the desired
microorganism. However, most food fermentations
are non-sterile. Typically fermentations used in food
processing require the participation of several micro
bial species, acting simultaneously and/or sequen
tially, to give a product with the desired properties,
including appearance, aroma, texture and taste. In
non-sterile fermentations, the culture environment

Chisti, Y., in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, Robinson, R., Batt, C., and Patel, P., editors, Academic Press, London,
1999, pp. 663-674. Fermentation (industrial): Basic considerations.

664

FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic
Considerations

may be tailored specifically to favour the desired fermentation batch. The volume of the fermenting
microorganisms. For example, the salt content may broth increases with each addition of the medium, and
be high, the pH may be low, or the water activity may the fermenter is harvested after the batch time.
be reduced by additives such as salt or sugar.
In continuous fermentations, sterile medium is fed
continuously into a fermenter and the fermented
Factors Influencing Fermentations
product is continuously withdrawn, so the fer
A fermentation is influenced by numerous factors, mentation volume remains unchanged. Typically, con
including temperature, pH, nature and composition tinuous fermentations are started as batch cultures
of the medium, dissolved 02, dissolved C02, oper and feeding begins after the microbial population has
ational system (e.g. batch, fed-batch, continuous), reached a certain concentration. In some continuous
feeding with precursors, mixing (cycling through fermentations, a small part of the harvested culture
varying environments), and shear rates in the fer may be recycled, to continuously inoculate the sterile
menter. Variations in these factors may affect: the rate feed medium entering the fermenter (Fig. l(D)).
of fermentation; the product spectrum and yield; the Whether continuous inoculation is necessary depends
organoleptic properties of the product (appearance, on the type of mixing in the fermenter. 'Plug flow'
taste, smell and texture); the generation of toxins; fermentation devices (Fig. l(D)), such as long tubes
nutritional quality; and other physico-chemical that do not allow back mixing, must be inoculated
properties.
continuously. Elements of fluid moving along in a
The formulation of the fermentation medium plug flow device behave like tiny batch fermenters.
affects the yield, rate and product profile. The medium Hence, true batch fermentation processes are rela
must provide the necessary amounts of carbon, nitro tively easily transformed into continuous operations
gen, trace elements and micronutrients (e.g. vitamins). in plug flow fermenters, especially if pH control and
Specific types of carbon and nitrogen sources may be aeration are not required. Continuous cultures are
required, and the carbon:nitrogen ratio may have particularly susceptible to microbial contamination,
to be controlled. An understanding of fermentation but in some cases the fermentation conditions may be
biochemistry is essential for developing a medium selected (e.g. low pH, high alcohol or salt content)
with an appropriate formulation. Concentrations of to favour the desired microorganisms compared to
certain nutrients may have to be varied in a specific potential contaminants.
way during a fermentation to achieve the desired
In a 'well-mixed' continuous fermenter (Fig. l(C)),
result. Some trace elements may have to be avoided the feed rate of the medium should be such that the
for example, minute amounts of iron reduce yields in dilution rate, i.e. the ratio of the volumetric feed rate
citric acid production by Aspergillus niger. Additional to the constant culture volume, remains less than the
factors, such as cost, availability, and batch-to-batch maximum specific growth rate of the microorganism
variability also affect the choice of medium.
in the particular medium and at the particular fer
mentation conditions. If the dilution rate exceeds the
Submerged Fermentations
maximum specific growth rate, the microorganism
will be washed out of the fermenter.
Fermentation Systems
Industrial fermentations are mostly batch oper
ations.Typically,
a pure starter culture (or seed), main
Industrial fermentations may be carried out either
tained
under
carefully
controlled conditions, is used
batchwise, as fed-batch operations, or as continuous
to
inoculate
sterile
Petri
dishes or liquid medium in the
cultures (Fig. 1). Batch and fed-batch operations are
shake
flasks.
After
sufficient
growth, the pre-culture is
quite common, continuous fermentations being rela
used
to
inoculate
the
'seed'
fermenter. Because indus
tively rare. For example, continuous brewing is used
tend to be large (typically 150commercially, but most beer breweries use batch trial fermentations
250 m 3), the inoculum is built up through several
processes.
In batch processing, a batch of culture medium in successively larger stages, to 5-l0% of the working
a fermenter is inoculated with a microorganism (the volume of the production fermenter. A culture in rapid
'starter culture'). The fermentation proceeds for a exponential growth is normally used for inoculation.
larger
certain duration (the 'fermentation time' or 'batch Slower-growing microorganisms require
time'), and the product is harvested. Batch fer inocula, to reduce the total duration of the fer
mentations typically extend over 4-5 days, but some mentation. An excessively long fermentation time (or
traditional food fermentations may last months. In fed batch time) reduces productivity (amount of product
batch fermentations, sterile culture medium is added produced per unit time per unit volume of fermenter),
either continuously or periodically to the inoculated and increases costs. Sometimes inoculation spores,

Feed

Constant
volume

Initial volume

Feed

Harvest

Recycle inoculum
Constant
volume

Feed
Harvest

(C)

Harvest

Inoculum from
separate source
(D)

Figure 1 Fermentation methodologies. (A) Batch fermentation. (B) Fed-batch culture. (C) Continuous-flow well-mixed fermentation.
(D) Continuous plug flow fermentation, with and without recycling of inoculum.

produced as seeds, are blown directly into large fer

mentation vessels with the ingoing air.
Microbial Growth

Microbial growth in a newly inoculated batch fer

menter typically follows the pattern shown in Figure
2. Initially, in the lag phase, the cell concentration
does not increase very much. The length of the lag
phase depends on the growth history of the inoculum,
the composition of the medium, and the amount of
culture used for inoculation. An excessively long lag
phase ties up the fermenter unproductively - hence
the duration of the lag phase should be minimized.
Short lag phases occur when: the composition of the
medium and the environmental conditions in the seed
culture and the production vessel are identical (hence
less time is needed for adaptation); the dilution shock
is small (i.e. a large amount of inoculum is used); and
the cells in the inoculum are in the late exponential
phase of growth. The lag phase is essentially an adap
tation period in a new environment. The lag phase is
followed by exponential growth, during which the
cell mass increases exponentially. Eventually, as the

1:

dX
= j.lX -kdX
(Equation 1)
dt
where: X is the biomass concentration at time t; 1-1 is
the specific growth rate (i.e. growth rate per unit
cell mass); and kd is the specific death rate. During
exponential growth, the specific death rate is neg
ligible and Equation 1 reduces to Equation 2:
dX = pX
(Equation 2)
dt
For a cell mass concentration X0 at the beginning
of the exponential growth (X0 usually equalling the
concentration of inoculum in the fermenter), and
taking the time at which exponential growth com
mences as zero, Equation 2 can be integrated to
produce Equation 3:
X
In-=

Xo

Lag phase
Exponential
growth

nutrients are exhausted and inhibitory products of

metabolism build up, the culture enters a stationary
phase. Ultimately, starvation causes cell death and
lysis, and hence the biomass concentration declines.
Exponential growth can be described by Equation

Stationary
phase

Death
phase

Fermentation time

Figure 2 Typical growth profile of microorganisms in a sub

merged culture.

(Equation 3)

Using Equation 3, the biomass doubling time, td, can

be derived (Equation 4):
td

j.lt

ln2

=-

(Equation 4)

J1
Doubling times typically range over 45-160 min. Bac
teria generally grow faster than yeasts, and yeasts
multiply faster than moulds. The maximum biomass
concentration in submerged microbial fermentations
is typically 40-50 kg m-3
The specific growth rate J.l depends on the con
centration S of the growth-limiting substrate, until

the concentration is increased to a non-limiting level

and ll attains its maximum value llmax The dependence
of the growth rate on substrate concentration typ
ically follows Monad kinetics. Thus the specific
growth rate is given a.s Equation 5:
f.1 =

f.lmax ks + S

(Equation 5)

where k, is the saturation constant. Numerically, k, is

the concentration of the growth-limiting substrate
when the specific growth rate is half its maximum
value.
An excessively high substrate concentration may
also limit growth, for instance by lowering water
activity. Moreover, certain substrates inhibit product
formation, and in yet other cases, a fermentation
product may inhibit biomass growth. For example,
ethanol produced in the fermentation of sugar by
yeast can be inhibitory to cells. Multiple lag phases
(or diauxic growth) are sometimes seen when two or
more growth-supporting substrates are available. As
the preferentially-utilized substrate is exhausted, the
cells enter a lag phase while the biochemical machin
ery needed for metabolizing the second substrate is
developed. Growth then resumes. Details of the kin
etics of continuous culture, fed-batch fermentation,
product formation and more complex phenomena,
such as the inhibition of growth by substrates and
products, are given in the references listed under
Further Reading.
Aeration and Oxygen Demand

Submerged cultures are most commonly aerated by

bubbling with sterile air. Typically, in small fer
menters, the maximum aeration rate does not exceed
1 volume of air per unit volume of culture broth. In
large bubble columns and stirred vessels, the
maximum superficial aeration velocity tends to be
< 0.1 m s-1 Superficial aeration velocity is the volume
flow rate of air divided by the cross-sectional area
of fermenter. Significantly higher aeration rates are
achievable in airlift fermenters. In these, aeration gas
is forced through perforated plates, perforated pipes
or single-hole spargers located near the bottom of
the fermenter. Because 0 2 is only slightly soluble in
aqueous culture broths, even a short interruption of
aeration results in the available 02 becoming quickly
exhausted, causing irreversible damage to the culture.
Thus uninterrupted aeration is necessary. Prior to use
for aeration, any suspended particles, microorganisms
and spores in the gas are removed by filtering through
microporous membrane filters.
The 02 requirements of a fermentation depend on
the microbial species, the concentration of cells, and
the type of substrate. 0 2 supply must at least equal

02 demand, or the fermentation will be Orbmited.

02 demand is especially difficult to meet in viscous
fermentation broths and in broths containing a large
concentration of Orconsuming cells. As a general
guide, the capability of a fermenter in terms of 02
supply depends on the aeration rate, the agitation
intensity and the properties of the culture broth. In
large fermenters, supplying 02 becomes difficult when
demand exceeds 4-5kgm-3 h- 1
At concentrations of dissolved 02 below a critical
level, the amount of 02 limits microbial growth. The
critical dissolved 02 level depends on the micro
organism, the culture temperature and the substrate
being oxidized. The higher the critical dissolved 0 2
value, the greater the likelihood that 0 2 transfer will
become limiting. Under typical culture conditions,
fungi such as Penicillium chrysogenum and Asper
gillus oryzae have a critical dissolved 02 value of
about 3.2 x 10-4 kgm-3 For bakers' yeast and Esch
erichia coli, the critical dissolved Oz values are
6.4 x 10-5 kg m-3 and 12.8 x 10-5 kg m-3 respectively.
The aeration of fermentation broths generates
foam. Typically, 20-30% of the fermenter volume
must be left empty to accommodate the foam and
allow for gas disengagement. In addition, mechanical
'foam breakers' and chemical antifoaming agents are
commonly used. Typical antifoams are silicone oils,
vegetable oils and substances based on low-molecular
weight polypropylene glycol or polyethylene glycol.
Emulsified antifoams are more effective, because they
disperse better in the fermenter. Antifoams are added
in response to signals from a foam sensor. The exces
sive use of antifoams may interfere with some down
stream separations, such as membrane filtrations hydrophobic silicone
antifoams are particularly
troublesome.
Heat Generation and Removal

All fermentations generate heat. In submerged cul

tures, typically 3-15kWm_, comes from mictoolat
activity. In addition, mechanical agitation of the broth
produces up to 15 kW m- 3 Consequently, a fermenter
must be cooled to prevent a rise in temperature and
damage to the culture. Heat removal tends to be
difficult, because typically the temperature of the
cooling water is only a few degrees lower than that
of the fermentation broth. Therefore industrial fer
mentations are commonly limited by their heat-trans
fer capability. The ability to remove heat depends
on: the surface area available for heat exchange; the
temperature difference between the broth and the
cooling water; the properties of the broth and the
coolant; and the turbulence in these fluids. The geom
etry of the fermenter determines the surface area that
can be provided for heat exchange. Heat generation

FERMENTATION {INDUSTRIAL}/Basic Considerations 667

due to metabolism depends on the rate of 02 con

sumption, and heat removal in large vessels becomes
difficult as the rate of 02 consumption approaches
5 kgm-3 h- 1
A fermenter must provide for heat transfer during
sterilization and subsequent cooling, as well as remov
ing metabolic heat. Liquid medium, or a slurry, for a
batch fermentation may be sterilized using batch or
continuous processes. In batch processes, the medium
or some of its components and the fermenter itself
are commonly sterilized together in a single step, by
heating the medium inside the fermenter. Steam may
be injected directly into the medium, or heating may
take place through the fermenter wall.
Heating to high temperatures (typically 121oq
during sterilization often leads to undesirable reac
tions between components of the medium. Such reac
tions reduce the yield, by destroying nutrients or by
generating compounds which inhibit growth. This
thermal damage can be prevented or reduced by ster
ilizing only certain components of the medium in
the fermenter and adding other, separately-sterilized
components, later. Sugars and nitrogen-containing
components are often sterilized separately. Dissolved
nutrients that are especially susceptible to thermal
degradation may be sterilized by passage through
hydrophilic polymer filters, which retain particles of
0.45J.!m or more. Even finer filters (e.g. retaining
particles of 0.2Jlm) are also available.
The heating and cooling of a large fermentation
batch takes time, and ties up a fermenter unpro
ductively. In addition, the longer a medium remains
at a high temperature, the greater the thermal deg
radation or loss of nutrients. Therefore, continuous
sterilization of the culture medium en route to a pre
sterilized fermenter is preferable, even for batch fer
mentations. Continuous sterilization is rapid and it
limits nutrient loss - however, the initial capital
expense is greater, because a separate sterilizer is
necessary.
Photosynthetic Microorganisms

Photosynthetic cultures of microalgae and cyano

bacteria require light and C02 as nutrients. Micro
algae such as Chiarella and the cyanobacterium
Spirulina are produced commercially as health foods
in Asia. Algae are also cultivated as aquaculture feeds
for shellfish.
Typically, open ponds or shallow channels are used
for the outdoor photosynthetic culture of microalgae.
Culture may be limited by the availability of light,
but under intense sunlight, photoinhibition limits
productivity.
Temperature variations also affect
performance.
More controlled production is achieved in outdoor

tubular photobioreactors, bubble columns and airlift

systems. Tubular bioreactors use a 'solar receiver',
consisting of either a continuous tube looped into
several U-shapes to fit a compact area, or several
parallel tubes connected to common headers at either
end. The continuous looped-tube arrangement is less
adaptable, because the length of the tube cannot
exceed a certain value: photosynthetically-produced
02 builds up along the tube, and high levels of dis
solved 02 inhibit photosynthesis. The parallel-tube
arrangement can be readily scaled up by increasing
the number of tubes. Typically, the tubes are 0.050.08 min diameter and the continuous-run length of
any tube does not exceed 50 m. However, greater
lengths may be feasible, depending on the flow vel
ocity in the tube. The tubular solar receivers may be
mounted horizontally, or horizontal tubes may be
stacked in a ladder configuration, forming the rungs
of the ladder. The latter arrangement reduces the area
of land required.
The culture is circulated through the tubes by an
airlift pump or other suitable low-shear mechanism.
The maximum flow rate is limited by the tolerance of
the algae to hydrodynamic stress. The flow velocity is
usually 0.3-0.5 m s- 1 The tube diameter is limited by
the need to achieve adequate penetration of light. This
declines as the cell concentration increases, due to
self-shading. Closed, temperature-controlled outdoor
tubular systems attain significantly higher prod
uctivity than open channels. The protein content of
the algal biomass, and the adequacy of the devel
opment of colour (chlorophyll) affect the acceptability
of the product.
Among other types of culture system, airlift devices
tend to perform better than bubble columns because
only part of the airlift system is aerated and hence the
penetration of light is less affected by air bubbles.
Conventional external-loop airlift devices may not be
suitable because of the relatively high hydrodynamic
shear rates they generate. However, concentric-tube
airlift devices, with gas forced into the draft tube
(zone of poor light penetration), are likely to perform
well. Also, split-cylinder types of airlift system may
be suitable. However, the volume of the aerated zone
in any airlift device for microalgal culture should not
exceed approximately 40% of the total volume of the
circulating zones. This way the light blocking effect
of bubbles remains confined to a small zone.
Submerged-culture Fermenters

Types The major types of submerged-culture bio

reactor are:
stirred-tank fermenter
bubble column
airlift fermenter
(A)
(B)

668

FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations

(C)

0
0

Air

t------t------>-r-Liquid
overflow
0

Riser

Packing

Downcomer
Recycle
0

(D)

(E)

'--- '--Pump
(F)

Figure 3

Air

Product

Types of submerged-culture fermenter. (A) Stirred-tank fermenter. (B) Bubble column. (C) Internal-loop airlift fermenter.

(D) External-loop airlift fermenter. (E) Fluidized-bed fermenter. (F) Trickle-bed fermenter.

fluidized-bed fermenter
trickle-bed fermenter.
These are shown in Figure 3.
Stirred-tank Permenter (See Fig. 3(A).) This is a
cylindrical vessel with a working height-to-diameter
ratio (aspect ratio) of 3-4. A central shaft supports
three to four impellers, placed about 1 impeller-diam
eter apart. Various types of impeller, that direct the
flow axially (parallel to the shaft) or radially
(outwards from the shaft) may be used (Fig. 4). Some
times axial- and radial-flow impellers are used on the
same shaft. The vessel is provided with four equally
spaced vertical baffles, that extend from near the walls
into the vessel. Typically, the baffle width is 8-10%
of the vessel diameter.

of its poor performance relative to other systems.

It is not suitable for very viscous broths or those

containing large amounts of solids.

Airlift Permenters (See Figs. 3(C) and 3(0).) These

come in internal-loop and external-loop designs. In
the internal-loop design, the aerated riser and the
unaerated downcomer are contained in the same shell.
In the external-loop configuration, the riser and the
downcomer are separate tubes that are linked near
the top and the bottom. Liquid circulates between the
riser (upward flow) and the downcomer (downward
flow). The working aspect ratio of airlift fermenters
is 6 or greater. Generally, these are very capable fer
menters, except for handling the most viscous broths.
Their ability to suspend solids and transfer 02 and
Bubble Column (See Fig. 3(B).) This is a cylindrical heat is good. The hydrodynamic shear is low. The
vessel with a working aspect ratio of 4-6. It is sparged external-loop design is relatively little-used in
at the bottom, and the compressed gas provides agi industry.
tation. Although simple, it is not widely used because Fluidized-bed Permenter (See Fig. 3().) These are

FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations

(A)

(B)

(D)

(E)

669

(C)

(F)

Gambar 4 Impellers untuk pengaduk tangka fermenter. (A) Rushton disc turbine (radial flow). (B) Marine propeller (axial flow). (C)
Lightnin' hydrofoil (axial flow). (D) Prochem hydrofoil (axial flow). (E) lntermig (axial flow). (F) Chemineer hydrofoil (axial flow).

Mirip dengan kolom gelembung dengan penampang

diperluas bagian atas. C a i r a n d i r e s i r k u l a s i
t e r u s d i p o m p a k e v e s s e l b a g i a n , pada
kecepatan yang cukup untuk fluidize padatan atau
menjaga mereka dalam suspensi. Fermentor ini
memerlukan pompa eksternal. Bagian atas diperluas
untuk memperlambat kecepatan dari aliran bagian atas,
sehingga padatan tidak keluar dari bioreaktor.

Trickle-bed Permenter (Lihat Gambar. 3(F).) B e j a n a

ini terdiri dari silinder dikemas dengan
d u k u n g a n m a t e r i (e.g. woodchips, batu, struktur
plastik). Sup port memiliki ruang terbuka yang luas,
untuk
aliran
cairan
dan
gas
dan
pertumbuhan
mikroorganisme
pada
d u k u n g a n y a n g s o l i d .Sebuah nutrisi cair
disemprotkan ke bagian atas bahan pendukung, dan
menetes ke bagian bawah, udara dapat mengalir ke
bagian atas, berlawanan dengan aliran cairan. Fermentor ini
digunakan dalam produksi cuka, serta proses-proses lain.
Mereka cocok untuk cairan dengan viskositas rendah
dan beberapa padatan tersuspensi.
Design Irrespective of their configuration, industrial
bioreactors for sterile operations are designed as pres
sure vessels, capable of being sterilized in situ with
saturated steam at a minimum guage pressure of
0.11 MPa. Typically, the bioreactor is designed for a
maximum allowable working pressure of 0.280.31 MPa (guage) and a temperature of 150-180C.
The vessels are designed to withstand a full vacuum.
Modern commercial fermenters are predominantly
made of stainless steel. Type 316L stainless steel is

preferred, but the less expensive Type 304L (or 304)

may be used in less corrosive situations. Fermenters
are typically designed with clean-in-place capability.
A typical submerged-culture vessel has the features
shown in Figure 5. Sight glasses in the side and top of
the vessel allow for easy viewing. The top sight glass
can be cleaned during fermentation, using a short-dur
ation spray of sterile water derived from condensed
steam. An external lamp is provided, to light the vessel
through the sight glass or a separate window.The vessel
has ports for sensors of pH, temperature and dissolved
02 A steam-sterilizable sampling valve is provided.
Connections for the introduction of acid and alkali (for
pH control), antifoam agents, substrate and inoculum
are located above the liquid level in the bioreactor
vessel. Additional ports on the top support a foam
sensing electrode, a pressure sensor and sometimes
other instruments. Filter-sterilized gas for aeration is
supplied through a submerged sparger.Sometimes C02
or ammonia may be added to the aeration gas, for pH
control.
A harvest valve is located at the lowest point on the
fermenter. A mechanical agitator, entering from either
the top or the bottom, may be used. The agitator shaft
supports one or more impellers, of various designs
(Fig. 4). A high-speed mechanical foam breaker may
be provided at the top of the vessel, and waste gas
may exit through the foam breaker. Commonly, the
exhaust gas line also has a heat exchanger, to condense
and return water in the gas to the fermenter. The top

670

FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL}/Basic Considerations

Selection Considerations in selecting industri.al fer

menters are:
1. Nature of substrate solid, liquid, suspended
slurry, water-immiscible oils).
2. Flow behaviour (rheology), broth viscosity and
type of fluid (e.g. Newtonian, viscoelastic,
pseudoplastic, Bingham plastic).
3. Nature and amount of suspended solids in broth.
4. Whether fermentation is aerobic or anaerobic,
and 02 demand.
5. Mixing requirements.
6. Heat-transfer needs.
7. Shear tolerance of microorganism, substrate and
product.
8. Sterility requirements.
9. Process kinetics, batch or continuous operation,
single-stage or multistage fermentation.
10. Desired process flexibility.
11. Capital and operational costs.
12. Local technological capability and potential for
technology transfer.

Figure 4 A typical submerged-culture fermenter. (1) Reactor

vessel. (2) Jacket. (3) Insulation. (4) Protective shroud. (5) Inoc
ulum connection. (6) Ports for sensors of pH, temperature and
dissolved 02. (7) Agitator. (8) Gas sparger. (9) Mechanical seal.
(10) Reducing gearbox. (11) Motor. (12) Harvest nozzle. (13)
Jacket connections. (14) Sample valve with steam connection.
(15) Sight glass. (16) Connections for acids, alkalis and antifoam
agents. (17) Air inlet. (18) Removable top. (19) Medium feed
nozzle. (20) Air exhaust nozzle (connects to condenser, not
shown). (21) Instrumentation ports for foam sensor, pressure
gauge and other devices. (22) Centrifugal foam breaker. (23)
Sight glass with light (not shown) and steam connection. (24}
Rupture disc nozzle. Vertical baffles are not shown. Baffles are
mounted on brackets attached to the wall. A small clearance
remains between the wall and the closest vertical edge of the
baffle.

of the fermenter is either removable or provided with a

manhole. A port on the top supports a 'rupture disc'
that is piped to a drain. The disc is intended to protect
the vessel in the event of a pressure build-up. The
fermentation vessel is jacketed for heat exchange, and
the jacket may be covered with fibreglass insulation
and a protective metal shroud. Additional surfaces
for heat exchange, typically coils, may be located
inside the vessel.
The equipment for fermenting slurries containing
undissolved solid substrates is identical to that used in
submerged-culture processes. Commonly-used slurry
fermenters include stirred tanks, bubble columns, and
airlift vessels.

Solid-state Fermentations
Substrate Characteristics

Water Activity
Typically, solid-state fermentations
are carried out with little or no free water. Excessive
moisture tends to aggregate the substrate particles,
and hence aeration is made difficult. For example
steamed rice, a common substrate, becomes sticky
when the moisture level exceeds 30-35% w/w. Per
centage moisture by itself is unreliable for predicting
growth: for a given microorganism growing on dif
ferent substrates, the optimum moisture level may
differ widely. This water
activity correlates with
microbial growth. The water activity of the substrate is
the ratio of the vapour pressure of water in the
substrate to the saturated vapour pressure of pure
water at the temperature of the substrate. Water activ ity
equals 1/1OOth of the relative humidity (RH%) of the
air in equilibrium with the substrate. Typically, water
activities of < 0.9 do not support bacterial growth,
but yeasts and fungi can grow at water activ ities as low
as 0.7. Thus the low-moisture environment of many
solid-state fermentations favours yeasts and fungi.
The water activity depends on the concentrations
of dissolved solutes, and so sometimes salts, sugars or
other solutes are added to alter the water activity.
Different additives may influence the fermentation
differently, even though the change in water activity
produced may be the same. Furthermore, the

FERMENTATION (JNDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations

fermentation process itself leads to changes in the

water activity, as products are formed and the
substrate is hydrolysed, e.g. the oxidation of carbo
hydrates produces water. During fermentation,
the water activity is controlled by aeration with
humidified air and, sometimes, by intermittent spray
ing with water.
Particle Size The size of substrate particles affects
the extent and the rate of microbial colonization, air
penetration and C02 removal, as well as the down
stream extraction and handling characteristics. Small
particles, with high surface-to-volume ratios, are pre
ferred because they present a relatively large surface
for microbial action. However, particles that are too
small and shapes that pack together tightly (e.g. flat
flakes, cubes) are undesirable because close packing
reduces the interparticle voids that are essential for
aeration. Similarly, too many fine particles in a batch
of larger particles will fill up the voids.
Substrate pH The pH is not normally controlled in
solid-state fermentations, but initial adjustments may
be made during the preparation of the substrate. The
buffering capacity of many substrates effectively
checks large changes in pH during fermentation. This
is particularly true of protein-rich substrates, espe
cially if deamination of the protein is minimal. Some
pH stability can be obtained by using a combination
of urea and ammonium sulphate as the nitrogen
source in the substrate. In the absence of other con
tributing nitrogen sources, an equimolar combination
of ammonium sulphate and urea is expected to yield
the greatest pH stability.

671

Heat Transfer

The biomass levels in solid-state fermentations, at 1030 kg m-3, are lower than those in submerged cultures.
However, because there is little water, the heat gen
erated per unit of fermenting mass tends to be much
greater in solid-state fermentations than in submerged
cultures, and again because there is little water to
absorb the heat, the temperature can rise rapidly. The
cumulative metabolic heat
generation in fer
mentations producing koji, for the manufacture of a
variety of products, has been noted at 419-2387 kJ
per kilogram solids. Higher
values, up to
13 398 kJ kg-I, have been observed during com
posting. Peak heat generation rates in koji processes
lie in the range 71-159kJkg- 1h- 1 but average rates
1
are more moderate, at 25-67 kJ kg-1 h- The peak
rate of production of metabolic heat during the fer
mentation of readily oxidized substrates, such as
starch, can be much greater than that associated with
typical koji processes.
The substrate temperature is controlled mostly
through evaporative cooling- hence drier air provides
a better cooling effect. The intermittent spraying of
cool water is sometimes necessary to prevent dehy
dration of the substrate. The air temperature and
humidity are also controlled. Occasionally, the sub
strate-containing metal trays may also be cooled (by
circulating a coolant), even though most substrates
are relatively dry and porous, and hence are poor
conductors. The intermittent agitation of substrate
heaps further aids heat removal. However, despite
much effort, temperature gradients in the substrate
do occur, particularly during peak microbial growth.
Koji Fermentations

Aeration and Agitation

Aeration plays an important role in removing C02

and controlling temperature and moisture. In some
cases, an increased concentration of C02 may be
severely inhibitory, while an increase in the partial
pressure of 02 may improve productivity. Deep layers
and heaps of substrate may require forced aeration
and agitation. Forced aeration rates vary widely, a
typical range being (0.05-0.2) x 10-3 m 3 kg- 1 min- 1
Occasional turning and mixing improve 02 transfer
and reduce compaction and mycelial binding of the
substrate particles. However, excessive agitation is
undesirable because continuous agitation damages the
surface hyphae - although mixing suppresses spor
ulation, which is often unwanted. The frequency of
agitation may be purely experience-based, as in the
occasional turning of a fermenting heap of cocoa
beans, or it may be adjusted in response to a tem
perature controller.

Koji fermentations are widely practised, typical

examples of solid-state fermentations. Koji comprises
soybeans or grain on which mould is growing, and
has been used in oriental food preparation for thou
sands of years. Koji is a source of fungal enzymes,
which digest proteins, carbohydrates and lipids into
nutrients which are used by other microorganisms in
subsequent fermentations. Koji is available in many
varieties, which differ in terms of the mould, the
substrate, the method of preparation and the stage of
harvest. The production of soy sauce, miso and sake
involves koji fermentation. Koji technology is also
employed in the production of citric acid in Japan.
The production of soy sauce (shoyu in Japanese) koji
is detailed below, as an example of a typical industrial
solid-substrate fermentation.
The koji for soy sauce is made from soybeans and
wheat. Soybeans, or defatted soybean flakes or grits
are moistened and cooked (e.g. for 0.25 min or less,

at about 170C) in continuous pressure cookers. The

cooked beans are mixed with roasted, cracked wheat,
the ratio of wheat to beans varying with the variety
of shoyu. The mixed substrate is inoculated with a
pure culture of Aspergillus oryzae (or A. sojae), the
fungal spore density at inoculation being about
2.5 x 108 spores per kilogram of wet solids. After a 3day fermentation, the substrate mass becomes green
yellow because of sporulation. The koji is then har
vested, for use in a second submerged fermentation
step. Koji production is highly automated and con
tinuous- processes producing up to 4150kgh- 1 of
koji have been described. Similar large-scale oper
ations are used to produce koji for miso and sake in
Japan.

wood, metal or plastic, and often have a perforated

or wire-mesh base to achieve improved aeration. The
substrate is fermented in shallow ( 0.15 m deep)
layers. The trays may be covered with cheesecloth to
reduce contamination, but processing is non-sterile.
Single or stacked trays may be located in chambers in
which the temperature and humidity are controlled,
or simply in ventilated areas. Inoculation and occa
sional mixing are done manually, although the hand
ling, filling, emptying and washing of trays may be
automated. Despite some automation, tray fermenters
are labour-intensive, and require a large production
area. Hence the potential for scaling up production is
limited.

Static-bed Permenter

This is an adaptation of the

tray fermenter (Fig. 7).1t employs a single, larger and
Solid-state fermentation devices vary in technical deeper, static bed of substrate located in an insulated
sophistication, from very primitive banana-leaf wrap chamber. 02 is supplied by forced aeration through
pings, bamboo baskets and substrate heaps to the the bed of substrate.
highly automated machines used mainly in Japan.
Some 'less sophisticated' fermentation systems, e.g. Tunnel Permenter This is an adaptation of the static
the fermentation of cocoa beans in heaps, are quite bed device (Fig. 8). Typically, the bed of solids is quite
effective at large-scale processing. Also, some of the long but no deeper than 0.5 m. Fermentation using
continuous, highly mechanized processes for the fer this equipment may be highly automated, by way
mentation of soy sauce, that are successful in Japan, of mechanisms for mixing, inoculation, continuous
are not suitable for less highly developed locations in feeding and harvest of the substrate.
Asia. Thus, fermentation practice must be tailored to
Rotary Disc Permenter The rotary disc fermenter
local conditions.
The use of pressure vessels is not the norm for solid consists of upper and lower chambers, each with a
circular perforated disc to support the bed of substrate
state fermentation. The commonly used devices are:
Solid-state Fermenters

tray fermenter
static-bed fermenter
tunnel fermenter
rotary disc fermenter
rotary drum fermenter
agitated-tank fermenter
continuous screw fermenter.

These are described below. Large concrete or

fermentation chambers, or koji rooms, may be
with steel, typically Type 304 stainless steel. For
corrosion-resistant construction, Type 304L
316L stainless steels are used.

brick
lined
more
and

Tray Permenter This is a simple type of fermenter,

widely used in small- and medium-scale koji operations in Asia (see Fig. 6). The trays are made of
Exhaust-

Figure 6

Tray fermenter.

Drain

Figure 7

Static-bed fermenter.
Motorized

-Conditioned
air

Figure 8 Tunnel fermenter.

FERMENTATION (INDUSTRIAL)/Basic Considerations

673

-Exhaust

-+-Air

Figure 9

Rotary disc fermenter.

Motor
Filling port

Motor

Figure 10

Rotary drum fermenter.

(Fig. 9). A common central shaft rotates the discs.

Inoculated substrate is introduced into the upper
chamber, and slowly moved to the transfer screw.
The upper screw transfers the partly fermented solids
through a mixer to the lower chamber, where further
fermentation occurs. The fermented substrate is har
vested using the lower transfer screw. Both chambers
are aerated with humidified, temperature-controlled
air. Rotary disc fermenters are used in large-scale koji
production in Japan.

Figure 11

Agitated-tank fermenter.

mounted in cylindrical or rectangular tanks, to agitate

the fermented substrate (Fig. 11). Sometimes, the
screws extend into the tank from mobile trolleys,
that ride on horizontal rails located above the tank.
Another stirred-tank configuration is the paddle fer
menter. This is similar to the rotary drum device, but
the drum is stationary and periodic mixing is achieved
by motor-driven paddles supported on a concentric
Rotary Drum Permenter The cylindrical drum of
shaft.
the rotary drum fermenter is supported on rollers,
and rotated at 1-5 r.p.m. around the long axis (Fig.
10). Rotation may be intermittent, and the speed may
vary with the fermentation stage. Straight or curved
baffles inside the drum aid in the tumbling of the Continuous Screw Permenter In this type of
substrate, hence improving aeration and temperature fermenter, sterilized, cooled and inoculated sub
control. Sometimes the drum can be inclined, causing strate is fed in through the inlet of the non-aerated
the substrate to move from the higher inlet end to the chamber (Fig. 12). The solids are moved towards
lower outlet during rotation. Aeration occurs through the harvest port by the screw, and the speed of
rotation and the length of the screw control the
coaxial inlet and exhaust nozzles.
fermentation time. This type of fermenter is suit
Agitated-tank Permenter In this type of fermenter, able for continuous anaerobic or microaerophilic
either one or more helical-screw agitators are fermentations.

Sterile substrate
and inoculum

Further Reading

Fermented
product

Figure 12

Continuous screw fermenter.

Safe Fermentation Practice

The microorganisms used in certain industrial fer
mentations are potentially harmful. Certain strains
have caused fatal infections in immunocompromised
individuals, and rare cases of fatal disease in pre
viously healthy adults have also been reported. Micro
bial spores and fermentation products, as well as
microbes, have been implicated in occupational dis
eases. Most physiologically active fermentation prod
ucts are potentially disruptive to health, and certain
products are highly toxic. The product spectrum of a
given microorganism often depends on the fer
mentation conditions. Under certain environmental
conditions, some organisms, e.g. Aspergillus flavus
and A. oryzae, are known to produce lethal toxins,
and specific strains of the blue-veined cheese mould
Penicillium roqueforti also produce mycotoxins under
narrowly defined environmental conditions. Poor
operational practice and failings in process and plant
design can increase the risks. The safety aspects of
industrial fermentations are considered in some of
the literature cited under Further Reading. Consumer
safety, product quality and the cleanliness of a fer
mentation product should be ensured by compliance
with Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP).

Chisti Y (1989) Airlift Bioreactors. London: Elsevier

Applied Science Publishers.
Chisti Y (1992) Build better industrial bioreactors. Chem.
Eng. Prog. 88(1): 55-58.
Chisti Y (1992) Assure bioreactor sterility. Chern. Eng.
Prog. 88(9): 80-85.
Chisti Y (1998) Biosafety. In: Subramanian G (ed_) Rio
separation and Bioprocessing. Vol. 2, p. 379. New York:
Wiley-VCH.
Chisti Y (1999) Solid substrate fermentations, enzyme pro
duction, food enrichment. In: Flickinger MC and Drew
SW (eds) Encyclopedia of Bioprocess Technology. Vol.
5, p. 2446. New York: John Wiley.
Chisti Y and Moo-Young M (1991) Fermentation tech
nology, bioprocessing, scale-up and manufacture. In:
Moses V and Cape RE (eds) Biotechnology: The Science
and the Business.P. 167. New York: Harwood Academic
Publishers.
Chisti Y and Moo-Young M (1994) Clean-in-place systems
for industrial bioreactors: Design, validation and oper
ation. ]. Ind. Microbial. 13: 201-207.
Crueger Wand Crueger A (1990) Biotechnology: A Text
book of Industrial Microbiology, 2nd edn. Madison:
Science Tech Publishers.
Doran PM (1995) Bioprocess Engineering Principles.
London: Academic Press.
Hambleton P, Melling J and Salusbury IT (eds) (1994)
Biosafety in Industrial Biotechnology. London:
Chapman & Hall.
Steinkraus KH (ed.) (1989) Industrialization of Indigenous
Fermented Foods. New York: Marcel Dekker.
Wang DIC, Cooney CL, Demain AL et al (1979) Fer
mentation and Enzyme Technology. New York: John
Wiley.
Ward OP (1989) Fermentation Biotechnology. Stony Strat
ford: Open University Press.

Media for Industrial

Fermentations
Graeme M Walker, School of Molecular and Life
Sciences, University of Abertay Dundee, UK
Copyright 1999 Academic Press

See also: Fermentation (Industrial): Basic Con

siderations; Control of Fermentation Conditions;
Recovery of Metabolites; Production of Xanthan Gum;
Production of Organic Acids; Production of Oils and Fatty
Acids; Colours/Flavours Derived by Fermentation. Fer
mented Foods: Origins and Applications; Fermented
Vegetable Products; Fermented Meat Products; Fer
mentations of the Far East; Beverages from Sorghum
and Millet; Fermented Fish Products. Fermented Milks:
Range of Products; Yoghurt; Products from Northern
Europe; Products of Eastern Europe and Asia.

Introduction
The production of foods and beverages from fer
mentable carbon
sources by microorganisms
represents the oldest and most economically sig
nificant of all biotechnologies. A wide array of plant
and animal-based complex media for the industrial
cultivation of bacteria, fungi and yeasts are employed
in the food industry (Table 1).
The composition of a fermentation medium in
terms of nutrients, their bioavailability, and the