2 Algebm

L LOGARITHI\rS
Logarithm' can be considered to be exponents In the equation b' - x, for example, the exponent c is the logarithm ofx to the bas e D. The two
equations log,; x- c and b' - x are equivalent

lo&,(x)=c

Inx (b-

log x

[base

[b"_.,]

= ~J

= 10)

Although any number may be used as a bas e for logarithms, two bas es are most commonly used in enginemng The bas e for a common

logarithm is 10. The notation used most often for common logarithms is log, although logiO is sometimes
The bas e for a ".,rural logarithm is 2.71828
logarithm is In, but log. is sometimes , em

,em

. an irrational number that is given the symbol . The most common notation for a natural

What is the value of loglO 1000?

CA) 2
(B) 3
(e) 8

CD) 10

:0)ution

io g 10 1000 is the power of 10 that produc es 1000 Us e Eq. 2. 1

IOI\b{z ) = C

Ib" =

z]

\oglO 1000 = c

HI" = 1000
c = 3

The tmSWeT is (B).

02.1

EtpUJtion 2.4 Tlutn'6" Eq. 2.10: LOKariJ1unic ItknJiJMs

10&11' = 11

log~< = clog~

~<

alJtilog(c log~)

log:ey = log

+ log Y

logl = O

log~/y

= log~ - logy
2.10

Logarithmic i<kntiti.' are us eful in simplitying expressions containing exponentials and other logarithms

\Vhich of the following is equal to (0 001 pf3.J

~ logO.OOt )

~ antiIOg ( logO.OOt )

(e)

ant ilog (log

(D) antilog (

or )

~ logO.OOt )

Solution
Us e Eq. 2.5 and Eq 2.6

log ~< = clog ~

antilog( ~ logO.OOt )

02.2

The tmSWeT is (D).

Etpllllion Z.ll: ClllUl6inK Ow Bn.w

2.11

In.

loglO Z
loglo e

"" 2.302585 1oS10 z

Equation 2.11 is often us eful for calculating a 10garitiun with any bas e quickly when the available r esourc es produc e only natural or conunon
10garitiuns Equation 2.11 can also be used to convert a 10garitiun to a different bas e. such as from a conunon logaritiun to a natural10garitiun

Given tmliog W5 =

0.6990 and iog w9 = 0.9542. willI is the value of i~ 9?

(A) 0.2550
(B) 0.7330

(e) 1.127

(D) 1.365

Solution
Us e Eq. 2.11

iog)o 9
IOSlO 5
= 1. 36:)

0.9542
0.6990

The tmSWeT is (D).

02.3

2. COI'\IPLEX NUl\mERS
A compla numwr is the sum ofa rwl numwr and an imaginary numwr Real numbers include the rational numwr; and the irrational
numwr;, while imaginary numbers represent the square roots of negative numbers. Every imaginary number can be expressed in the fonn ib,
where i represents the square root of -1 and b is a real number. Another term for i is the imaginary unit wctor

i =H
j is commonly used to represent the imaginary unit vector in the fields of electrical engineering and control systems engineering to avoid
confusion with the variable for current, i 1

j=H
\Vhen a complex number is expressed in the fonn a+ib, the complex number is said to be in roctangular or trigono_tric jorm In the
expression a+ ib, a is the real component (or real part), and b is the imaginary component (or imaginary part) (S "" Fig. 2. 1. )

Figure 2.1 Graphical Jipro",ntation oj a Complox Numb",

imaginary
axis

a + jb

,
a

real axis

Most algebraic operations (addition, multiplication, exponentiation, etc.) work with complex numbers \Vhen adding two complex numbers, real
parts are added to real parts, and imaginary parts are added to imaginary parts

(a+ jb) + (c + jd) = (a + c) + j( b +d)

(a+ jb) - (c + j d) = (a - c) + j( b - d )

Multiplication of two complex numbers in rectangular fonn us es the algebraic distributive law and the equivalency

(a

+ jb)(c + j d) =

p- - 1

(ac - bd) + j(ad+ be)

Division of complex numbers in rectangular fonn requires us e of the complox conjugato. The complex conjugate of a complex number a+ jb is

a- jb. \Vhen both the numerator and the denominator are multiplied by the complex conjugate of the denominator, the denominator becomes the
real number c? + b" This tecbrrique is known as rationalizing tixl ,,"nominator

a+ jb
c+jd

(a + jb)(c- j d)
(c + jd )(c j d)

(ac + bd) + j( be - ad)

c2 + d 2
02.4

\Vhich of the following is most nearly equal to (7

+ S.2j) / (J + 4j)?

(A) -0.3+1.8)
(B) 1.7-0.5)
(e) 2.3-12)
(D) 2.3+ 1.3)

Solution
\Vhen the numerator and denominator are multiplied by the complex conjugate of the denominator. the denominator becomes a real number

a+ j b
c+ jd
7 + S.2j
J + jd
=

(a +jb)(c - jd)
(ac + bd) +j(bc - ad)
(c+jd)(c jd)
c2+.f
7)(3) + (S.2)(4)} + jS.2)( 3} - (7)(4)}
(3)2 + (4)1
1.672 - O.496j (1.7 - O.Sj)

The tmSWeT is (B).

3. P OLAR COORDINATES
Etpllllion Z.lZ: Polar Form ofa Compkx Nrunber

2.12

z ;;; r ( OO>lO + isinO)

rcisO

z _ rLO

A complex number can be expressed in thepolar form r( cosO

+ jsinO) . where {j is the angle from the x-axis and T is the distanc e from the

origin. T and {j are the polar cooTdinaio, of the complex number. Another notation for the polar fonn of a complex number is rei'

Etpllllion Z.11 nml Eq. Z.14: COmrlinKfi'om Polar Form to &cltmKJdnr Form

= rCOllO
2.13

11 = rsiuO
2.14

02.5

The rectangular fonn ofa complex number, Z

+ ill, can be detennined from the complex number's polar coordinates r and (j using Eq.

2.13

Etpmtion 2.15 tutiI Eq. 2.16: ComY!rlinKftom &cltutKJdnr Fonn to Polar Fonn

2.15

2.16

The polar fonn ofa complex number,

r(cosO + iSinO), can be detennined from the complex number's rectangular coordinates x andy

using Eq. 2.l5 and Eq 2.16

The rectangular coordinates of a complex number are (4, 6) \VIlat are the complex number's approximate polar coordinates?
(A) (4.0,3JO)
(B) (4.0,W)

(e) (7.2.3JO)
(D) (7.2,W)

Solution
The radius and angle of the polar fonn can be detennined from the r:- andy-coordinates using Eq. 2.15 and Eq. 2.16

r =

JZl + 11 _ J(4)Z + (6)Z

= 7.211

(7.2)

6
= arctan(yj z) = arctan '4

= 56.3 '

(56')

The tmSWeT is (D).

02.6

EtpUJtion Z.1 7 arul Eq. Z.1I: MdJiplictJtion tmiI Division wiJI, Pow Forms

[~) (coo 9)

+ jsi0 9))] [rl( cos9z + j8;00,) ]

= r) rl [cOII(9) + 91) + jsin(9) + 91)]

r) (coo9) + jsiu9))
rl

:: [COII(9) - 91) + jsin(9) - 91)]

(COll~ + jSin~)

2.18

(r )r2) L(0) + 92 )

"
"

= -

L(O) - 01 )

The multiplication ami division rules defined for complex numbers expressed in rectangular fonn can be applied to complex numbers expressed
in polar fonn. Using the trigonometric identities, these rules reduc e to Eq 2.17 and Eq. 2.18

Etpmtion Z.U:", Mon-'s Fonmda

(Z + jyt

= Hcos8 + js;nO)]"
= r"

(COIIn8 + j~inn8)
2.19

Equation 2.19 is <k Moivr.',jorm"la This equation is valid for any real number x and integer n

EtpUJtion Z.ZO TlU"UI'61, Eq. Z.U: Erlhr's EtpUJtiollS

eiI =

COIl8 + j8in8
220

jl

= COIl8 - j8m8
2.21

02.7

e- j ' = COIlO- jsillB

1.11

HinO =

:' "'
-.~-~'~-"

2;

1.13

Complex numbers can also be expressed in exponential fonn The relationship of the exponential fonn to the trigonometric fonn is given by
oquatiom, also known as E~!or~ i<knfifio,

E~!or~

If j =

.;=t, which of the following is equal toJ?

(A) )"

(B) 070
(C) -1
(D)

e- f

Solution
) is the imaginary unit vector, so r = 1 and 0 = 90

Solution
) is the imaginary unit vector, so r = I and 0 = 90

(i) in Fig. 2.1. From Eq. 2.19 ,

From Eq. 220 ,

e i l = cos8 + jsinO

Since 0 = 1f/ 2,

( .. )' =e l.,.,

jJ= el ,

e ,

The tmSWeT is (D).

02.8

4. POLYNOl\IIALS
A polynomial is a :rational expression-usually the sum of several variable terms known as monomial,-that do es not involve division The
<kgr ojl"" polynomial is the highest power to which a variable in the expression is raised The following ,tandard polynomial jorm, are
us eful when trying to find the roots ofan equation

[n is any pot<it ive integer[

=(a + b)

a~-I _ a~-~ b + a~-J b'l )

[n is a.IIy pot<itive odd integer[

The binomial I""or.m defines a polynomial of the fonn (a + bj"

(a + bY'

a~

[;-0]

c,

+ nan- 1b + C:a"- Zb2

[;- 1]

.,
i! (n

i) !

[.d]

[i ..0, 1,2, . .,n]

The co efficients of the expansion can be determined quickly from Faxal', trhmglo-each entry is the sum of the two entries direcUy above it
(S ee Fig. 2.2 .)

02.9

Figure 2.2 Paxal', Trianglo

n = 0:

, = 1,
n = 2:

n = 3:
n=

4:

n = 6:
7:

, =5,
n=

10

35

10
20

15

21

15

35

21

,
7

The values xl. X2. . X" of the independent variable Xthat satisty a polynomial equationf(x) - 0 are known as root, or zoro, of the polynomial
A polynomial of degree n with real coefficients will have at most n real roots. although they need not all be distinctly different

5. POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Etpmtion Z.U tmiI Eq. Z.Z5: Qrmilmtic EtpmtiollS

2.24

2.25

A quadratic oquation is a second-degree polynomial equation with a single variable A quadratic equation can be written in the fonn of Eq 2.24 .
where x is the variable and G, b, and c are constants. (If a is zero, the equation is linear.)
The root" Xl and x2, ofa quadratic equation are the two values ofx that satisty the equation (i.e., make it true). These values can be found from
the quadratic formula, Eq. 2.25
The quantity under the radical in Eq 2.25 is called the dixriminant. By inspecting the discriminant, the types of roots of the equation can be
determined
If b2 -4ac > 0, the roots are real and unequal
If b2 - 4ac _ 0, the roots are real and equal. This is known as a dowblo root.
If b2 -4ac < 0, the roots are complex and unequal

02.10

\VIla1 are the rools of the quadratic equation -]x + z2 = - H)l

Solution
Rearrange the equation inlo the fonn of Eq 2.24

z~ + (- 7z ) + 1O=0
Us e the quadratic fonnula, Eq. 2.25 . with a

- b Vb 2

,.

- (-7)

= 1, b = -7, and c = 10

4ac

J( -7)~ -

(4)( 1)( 10)

(2)( 1)

= 2and f>

The tmSWeT is (D).

6. ROOTS
EtpUJtion Z.Zti: 1aI. Roots of /J Compkx Nruttlwr

2.26

Us e Eq. 2.26 to find the Idh root of the complex number z =

r ( COllO + jsinO) n can be any inleger number

\VIla1 is the cub e rool of the complex number g.,j6Ol "?

(D) 2(COII( 20'

+ 120 'n) + j~in( 20 ' + 120' n))

Solution
From Eq 2.26 . the J:th rool of a complex number is

02.11

The tmSWeT is (D).

7. PROGRESSIONS AND SERIES

A sequenc e is said to divorgo (i. e.. be divorgont) if the terms approach infinity. and it is said to convorgo (i. e.. be convorgont) if the terms
approach any finite value (including zero)
A ""rio, is the sum of terms in a sequenc e There are two typ es of series: Ajinito ""rio, has a finite number of terms. An injinito ",rio, has an
infinite number of terms. but this do es not imply that the sum is infinite. The main tasks associated with series are detennining the sum of the
terms and detennining whether the series converges A series is said to converge if the sum. S". of its terms exists. A finite series is always
convergent. An infinite series may be convergent

Etpllllion Z.Z 7 tmiI Eq. Z.ZI: AriJI_tic ProKMSSion

I = a+(n - l )d
2.27

S = n(a + 1)/ 2 = n [2a + (n - 1)d] / 2

The arithm<lfic progro"ion is a standard sequenc e that diverges It has the fonn shown in Eq. 2.27
In Eq. 2.27 and Eq. 2.28 . a is the jir;t torm. d is a constant called the common dilloronco. and n is the number of terms
The differenc e of adjacent terms is constant in an arithmetic progression The sum of terms in a finite arithmetic series is shown by Eq 2.28

\VIlat is the sum of the following finite sequenc e of terms?

18,25,32,39, .. . , 67

(A) 181

(B) 213

02.12

(e) 234

(D) 340
Solution
Each tmn is 7 more than the previous tmn. This is an arithmetic sequenc e. The general mathematical representation for an arithmetic sequenc e

"
l = a+(n - I )d

In this cas e, the differenc e tmn is d - 7. The first tmn is a - 18, and the last tmn is I - 67

= a + (n-I) d

1-
d
67 - 18
=
+1
7
~ -- +,

~ 8

The sum ofn tmns is

S =n[2a+(n - l)dj f 2
(8) 2)( 18) + (8 - 1)(7))
2
= 340

The tmSWeT is (D).

EtpUJtion 1.lJ TI"m16" Eq. 1.11:

~o_Uic

ProKMSSion

1= a ....- 1
2.29

S=a{l - r") f (l - r)

[" #1]
2.30

2.31

~~Sn=af(l - r)

[r <l]
2.32

02.13

s~

"

a - rl

La"; - l

1- .

i~ l

The goo,""tric progr""ion is another standard sequenc e The quotient of adjacent Imns is constant in a geometric progression. It converges for
- I < r < 1 and diverges otherwis e
In Eq. 2.29 through Eq. 2.32 , a is the first t=, and r is known as the common ratio
The sum ofa finite geometric smes is given by Eq 2.30 and Eq. 2.31 . The sum ofan infinite geometric smes is given by Eq 2.32

\VIla! is the sum of the following geometric sequenc e?

32, 80, 200, ... , 19531.25

CA) 21,13125
(B) 24,718.25
(e) 31,250.00
CD) 32,530.75

Solution
The common ratio is

r=

80

200 = 2.5

32

8Q

Sinc e the ratio and both the initial and final terms are known, the sum can be found using Eq. 2.31

S = (a - r l)/ (l - r )
32 - (2.5 )(19531.25)
1
=

2,5

32,530.75

The tmSWeT is (D).

02.14

Etpllliion 2.11 TlU"OI'6" Eq. 2.16: ~~ of S~1Ys

"

~ c =nc
;~I

2.33

"

"

;~I

hi

~cx; = c ~ x;

"

LJr; + 11;

nn

z;) = D r; + LY1
; -1

h i

h i

..

- LZ;
h i

2.35

r>=(n+nZ )/2

~,

2.36

Equation 2.33 through Eq 2.36 list some basic properties of series. The terms x"y" andz, represent general terms in any series. Equation 2.33
describ es the obvious result ofn repeated additions ofa constant, c. Equation 2.34 shows that the product ofa constant, c, and a serial
summation of series terms is distributive. Equation 2.35 shows that addition of series is associative. Equation 2.36 gives the sum of n
consecutive integ ers. This is not really a property of series in general; it is the property ofa special kind of arithmetic sequenc e. It is a us eful
identity for us e with wm-oj-t""-yoar,' deprocialion

Etpllliion 2.1 7:

P~r S~1Ys

..

~a; (x - a)'

L a;x - 1

= a1 + "'.I x

2.37

+ a Jxl + .. . + a" x ..- I

j= 1

Apowor ",rio, is a series of the fonn shown in Eq 2.37 . The intorval ojconvorgonco ofa power series consists of the values ofx for which
the series is convergent Due to the exponentiation of terms, an infinite power series can only be convergent in the interval-l <x< I
A power series may be used to represent a function that is continuous over the interval of convergenc e of the series The powor ",rio,
ropro",ntalion may be used to find the derivative or integral of that function
Power series behave similarly to polynomials: They may be added together, subtracted from each other, multiplied together, or divided term by
term within the interval of convergenc e. They may also be differentiated and integrated within their interval of convergenc e. If

02.15

Power smes behave similarly to polynomials: They may be added together, subtracted from each other, multiplied together, or divided term by
term within the interval of convergenc e. They may also be differentiated and integrated within their interval of convergenc e If

I (z ) =

E" a;zi , then over the interval of convergenc e,

E'l'UJtion 1.lB: Taylor's S~1Ys

f('l')

f (a)
!"(a)
,
I (a) + - ,- (z - a) + - ,- (z - a)
1.

2.

.,

+.,.+ I n)(a) (:I'- a)"+ ..

Taylor', ",ri., (Taylor', /ommla), Eq. 2.38 , can b e used to expand a function around a point (i. e., to approximate the function at one point
based on the function's value at another point). The approximation consists ofa smes, each term composed ofa dmvative of the original
function and a polynomial. Using Taylor's fonnula requires that the original function be continuous in the interval [a, b1 To expand a function,
lex), around a point, a, in order to obtain/(b), us e Eq 2.38
If a - 0, Eq. 2.38 is known as a Maclaurin ",ri.,
To be a us eful approximation, two requirements must be met: (1) Point a must be relatively clos e to point b, and (2) the function and its
derivatives must be known or be easy to calculate

Taylor's smes is used to expand the function/(x) about a- 0 to obtain/(b)

I (x ) = 3z3+ 4'l'+ 8

\VIlat are the first two terms of Taylor's smes?

(A) ,~ + ~

(e)

(C)~ +J%(D)

' - lij"

Solution
The first two co efficient terms of Taylor's smes are

02.16

1(0)

(3)(0)3
= 1/ 8

fez)

flO)

+ (4)(0) + 8

-(9z 2 + 4)
(3z3 + 4z + 8)2

-;---,(,( 9),-(0_)'_+~4)'--o-,
((3)(0)3 + (4)(0) + 8

~ _-4 ~ - 1/ 16
64

Using Eq. 2.38 , find the first two complete terms of Taylor's series

flo)

l ib) = f(a)+ - L,- (b - a)

("it)Cb - O)

="8+
1

-, - -16
The tmSWeT is (B).

Footllotos

1. Th< NCEES FE R<fo,.na Handbook (NCEES Handbook) u"" on!J j 10 rep,.",nl Ii>< imaginmJ unil ><clor. Thi' book u"" bothj and i

02.17