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Power system dynamics and stability / Peter W.

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POWER SYSTEM DYNAMICS

AND STABILITY

Peter W. Sauer and M. A. Pai

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
1406 W. Green St.
Urbana, IL 61801

ii

c 1997 (updated 2006), Peter W. Sauer and M. A. Pai. All rights

Copyright
reserved. This material is the property of Professors Peter Sauer and M. A.
Pai and is not to be sold, reproduced, or generally distributed.

iii

To
Sylvia and Nandini

iv

Contents
Preface
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background . . . . . . . .
1.2 Physical Structures . . . . .
1.3 Time-Scale Structures . . .
1.4 Political Structures . . . . .
1.5 The Phenomena of Interest

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2 ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS
2.1 The Fastest Transients . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Transmission Line Models . . . . . . . .
2.3 Solution Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELING

3.1 Conventions and Notation . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Three-Damper-Winding Model . . . . . . . .
3.3 Transformations and Scaling . . . . . . . . .
3.4 The Linear Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . . .
3.5 The Nonlinear Magnetic Circuit . . . . . . . .
3.6 Single-Machine Steady State . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Operational Impedances and Test Data . . .
3.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE CONTROL MODELS

4.1 Voltage and Speed Control Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Exciter Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Voltage Regulator Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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vi

CONTENTS
4.4
4.5
4.6

Turbine Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Speed Governor Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 SINGLE-MACHINE DYNAMIC MODELS

5.1 Terminal Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 The Multi-Time-Scale Model . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Elimination of Stator/Network Transients . .
5.4 The Two-Axis Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 The One-Axis (Flux-Decay) Model . . . . . .
5.6 The Classical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7 Damping Torques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 Synchronous Machine Saturation . . . . . . .
5.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6 MULTIMACHINE DYNAMIC MODELS
6.1 The Synchronously Rotating Reference Frame
6.2 Network and R-L Load Constraints . . . . . .
6.3 Elimination of Stator/Network Transients . .
6.4 Multimachine Two-Axis Model . . . . . . . .
6.5 Multimachine FluxDecay Model . . . . . . .
6.6 Multimachine Classical Model . . . . . . . . .
6.7 Multimachine Damping Torques . . . . . . .
6.8 Multimachine Models with Saturation . . . .
6.9 Frequency During Transients . . . . . . . . .
6.10 Angle References and an Infinite Bus . . . . .

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152

7 MULTIMACHINE SIMULATION
7.1 Differential-Algebraic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Stator Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Polar form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Rectangular form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3 Alternate form of stator algebraic equations
7.3 Network Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Power-balance form . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Current-balance form . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Industry Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 Simplification of the Two-Axis Model . . . . . . .
7.6 Initial Conditions (Full Model) . . . . . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS
7.7

Numerical Solution: Power-Balance Form .

7.7.1 SI Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.2 PE method . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.8 Numerical Solution: Current-Balance Form
7.9 Reduced-Order Multimachine Models . . . .
7.9.1 Flux-decay model . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9.2 Structure-preserving classical model
7.9.3 Internal-node model . . . . . . . . .
7.10 Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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211

8 SMALL-SIGNAL STABILITY
8.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Basic Linearization Technique . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Linearization of Model A . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Linearization of Model B . . . . . . . .
8.3 Participation Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Studies on Parametric Effects . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1 Effect of loading . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2 Effect of KA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3 Effect of type of load . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4 Hopf bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Electromechanical Oscillatory Modes . . . . . .
8.6 Power System Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1 Basic approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.2 Derivation of K1 K6 constants [78,88]
8.6.3 Synchronizing and damping torques . .
8.6.4 Power system stabilizer design . . . . .
8.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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270
270

9 ENERGY FUNCTION METHODS

9.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Physical and Mathematical Aspects . . . .
9.3 Lyapunovs Method . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Modeling Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 Energy Function Formulation . . . . . . . .
9.6 Potential Energy Boundary Surface (PEBS)

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viii

CONTENTS
9.6.1 Single-machine infinite-bus system . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.6.2 Energy function for a single-machine infinite-bus system291
9.6.3 Equal-area criterion and the energy function . . . . . 295
9.6.4 Multimachine PEBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.6.5 Initialization of VP E () and its use in PEBS method 302
9.7 The Boundary Controlling u.e.p (BCU) Method . . . . . . . . 305
9.8 Structure-Preserving Energy Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

A Integral Manifolds for Model

315
A.1 Manifolds and Integral Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
A.2 Integral Manifolds for Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
A.3 Integral Manifolds for Nonlinear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Bibliography

333

CONTENTS

ix

CONTENTS

PREFACE
The need for power system dynamic analysis has grown significantly in
recent years. This is due largely to the desire to utilize transmission networks
for more flexible interchange transactions. While dynamics and stability
have been studied for years in a long-term planning and design environment,
there is a recognized need to perform this analysis in a weekly or even daily
operation environment. This book is devoted to dynamic modeling and
simulation as it relates to such a need, combining theoretical as well as
practical information for use as a text for formal instruction or for reference
by working engineers.
As a text for formal instruction, this book assumes a background in
electromechanics, machines, and power system analysis. As such, the text
would normally be used in a graduate course in electrical engineering. It has
been designed for use in a one-semester (fifteen-week), three-hour course.
The notation follows that of most traditional machine and power system
analysis books and attempts to follow the industry standards so that a transition to more detail and practical application is easy.
The text is divided into two basic parts. Chapters 1 to 6 give an introduction to electromagnetic transient analysis and a systematic derivation
of synchronous machine dynamic models together with speed and voltage
control subsystems. They include a rigorous explanation of model origins,
development, and simplification. Particular emphasis is given to the concept of reduced-order modeling using integral manifolds as a firm basis for
understanding the derivations and limitations of lower-order dynamic models. An appendix on integral manifolds gives a mathematical introduction
to this technique of model reduction. Chapters 6 to 9 utilize these dynamic
models for simulation and stability analysis. Particular care is given to the
calculation of initial conditions and the alternative computational methods
for simulation. Small-signal stability analysis is presented in a sequential
xi

xii

PREFACE

manner, concluding with the design of power system stabilizers. Transient

stability analysis is formulated using energy function methods with an emphasis on the essentials of the potential energy boundary surface and the
controlling unstable equilibrium point approaches.
The book does not claim to be a complete collection of all models and
simulation techniques, but seeks to provide a basic understanding of power
system dynamics. While many more detailed and accurate models exist
in the literature, a major goal of this book is to explain how individual
component models are interfaced for a system study. Our objective is to
provide a firm theoretical foundation for power system dynamic analysis to
serve as a starting point for deeper exploration of complex phenomena and
applications in electric power engineering.
We have so many people to acknowledge for their assistance in our careers
and lives that we will limit our list to six people who have had a direct impact
on the University of Illinois power program and the preparation of this book:
Stan Helm, for his devotion to the power area of electrical engineering for over
sixty years; George Swenson, for his leadership in strengthening the power
area in the department; Mac VanValkenburg, for his fatherly wisdom and
guidance; David Grainger, for his financial support of the power program;
Petar Kokotovic, for his inspiration and energetic discussions; and Karen
Chitwood, for preparing the manuscript.
Throughout our many years of collaboration at the University of Illinois,
we have strived to maintain a healthy balance between education and research. We thank the University administration and the funding support of
the National Science Foundation and the Grainger Foundation for making
this possible.
Peter W. Sauer and M. A. Pai
Urbana, Illinois

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background

Power systems have evolved from the original central generating station concept to a modern highly interconnected system with improved technologies
affecting each part of the system separately. The techniques for analysis of
power systems have been affected most drastically by the maturity of digital computing. Compared to other disciplines within electrical engineering,
the foundations of the analysis are often hidden in assumptions and methods that have resulted from years of experience and cleverness. On the one
hand, we have a host of techniques and models mixed with the art of power
engineering and, at the other extreme, we have sophisticated control systems
requiring rigorous system theory. It is necessary to strike a balance between
these two extremes so that theoretically sound engineering solutions can be
obtained. The purpose of this book is to seek such a middle ground in the
area of dynamic analysis. The challenge of modeling and simulation lies in
the need to capture (with minimal size and complexity) the phenomena of
interest. These phenomena must be understood before effective simulation
can be performed.
The subject of power system dynamics and stability is clearly an extremely broad topic with a long history and volumes of published literature.
There are many ways to divide and categorize this subject for both education
and research. While a substantial amount of information about the dynamic
behavior of power systems can be gained through experience working with
and testing individual pieces of equipment, the complex problems and operating practices of large interconnected systems can be better understood if
1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

this experience is coupled with a mathematical model. Scaled-model systems

such as transient network analyzers have a value in providing a physical feeling for the dynamic response of power systems, but they are limited to small
sizes and are not flexible enough to accommodate complex issues. While
analog simulation techniques have a place in the study of system dynamics,
capability and flexibility have made digital simulation the primary method
for analysis.
There are several main divisions in the study of power system dynamics and stability [1]. F. P. deMello classified dynamic processes into three
categories:
1. Electrical machine and system dynamics
2. System governing and generation control
3. Prime-mover energy supply dynamics and control
In the same reference, C. Concordia and R. P. Schulz classify dynamic studies
according to four concepts:
1. The time of the system condition: past, present, or future
2. The time range of the study: microsecond through hourly response
3. The nature of the system under study: new station, new line, etc.
4. The technical scope of the study: fault analysis, load shedding, subsynchronous resonance, etc.
All of these classifications share a common thread: They emphasize that
the system is not in steady state and that many models for various components must be used in varying degrees of detail to allow efficient and
practical analysis. The first half of this book is thus devoted to the subject
of modeling, and the second half is devoted to the use of interconnected
models for common dynamic studies. Neither subject receives an exhaustive
treatment; rather, fundamental concepts are presented as a foundation for
probing deeper into the vast number of important and interesting dynamic
phenomena in power systems.

1.2

Physical Structures

The major components of a power system can be represented in a blockdiagram format, as shown in Figure 1.1. While this block diagram rep-

1.3. TIME-SCALE STRUCTURES

Mechanical

Electrical

Supply
Control

Pressure
Control

Speed
Control

Voltage
Control

Network
Control

Load
Control

Fuel
Source

Furnace
&
Boiler

Turbine

Generator

Network

Loads

Fuel

Steam

Torque

v, i

P, Q

Energy
Control
Center

Figure 1.1: System dynamic structure

resentation does not show all of the complex dynamic interaction between
components and their controls, it serves to broadly describe the dynamic
structures involved. Historically, there has been a major division into the
mechanical and electrical subsystems as shown. This division is not absolute,
however, since the electrical side clearly contains components with mechanical dynamics (tap-changing-under-load (TCUL) transformers, motor loads,
etc.) and the mechanical side clearly contains components with electrical dynamics (auxiliary motor drives, process controls, etc.). Furthermore, both
sides are coupled through the monitoring and control functions of the energy
control center.

1.3

Time-Scale Structures

Perhaps the most important classification of dynamic phenomena is their

natural time range of response. A typical classification is shown in Figure 1.2. A similar concept is presented in [6]. This time-range classification
is important because of its impact on component modeling. It should be
intuitively obvious that it is not necessary to solve the complex transmission
line wave equations to investigate the impact of a change in boiler control
set points. This brings to mind a statement made earlier that the system
is not in steady state. Evidently, depending on the nature of the dynamic

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Lightning Propagation

Switching Surges

Stator Transients and

Subsynchronous Resonance
Transient
Stability
Governor and Load
Frequency Control
Boiler and LongTerm Dynamics

107

105

103

0.1

10

103

105

Time (sec)

Figure 1.2: Time ranges of dynamic phenomena

disturbance, portions of the power system can be considered in quasi-steady
state. This rather ambiguous term will be explained fully in the context of
time-scale modeling [2].

1.4

Political Structures

The dynamic structure and time-range classifications of dynamic phenomena

illustrate the potential complexity of even small or moderate-sized problems.
The problems of power system dynamics and stability are compounded immensely by the current size of interconnected systems. A general system
structure is shown in Figure 1.3. While this structure is not necessarily common to interconnected systems throughout the world, it represents a typical
North American system and serves to illustrate the concept of a large-scale
system. If we speculate about the possible size of a single interconnected
system containing nine coordinating councils, four pools per coordinating

1.4. POLITICAL STRUCTURES

Company
120 Generators

Pool
210 Companies

Coordinating
Council 35 Pools

International
9 Coordinating
Councils
Figure 1.3: System organizational structure
council, six companies per pool, and ten generators per company, the total
possible number of generating stations can exceed 2000. The bulk power
transmission network (138765 kV) then typically consists of over 10,000
buses. Indeed, the current demand in the nine coordinating councils within
the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) exceeds 500,000
MW [3]. At an average 250 MW per generator, this roughly confirms the
estimate of over 2000 generators in the interconnected North American grid.
Dynamic studies are routinely performed on systems ranging in size from
the smallest company to the largest coordinating council. These are made
at both the planning/design and operating stages. These studies provide
information about local capabilities as well as regional power interchange
capabilities. In view of the potential size, dynamic studies must be capable of sufficiently accurate representation without prohibitive computational
cost. The nature of system engineering problems inherent in such a complex
task was emphasized in two benchmark reports by the U. S. Department
of Energy (DOE) and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) [4, 5].
These reports resulted in a meeting of international leaders to identify di-

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

rections for the future of this technology. These reports set the stage for
a whole new era of power system planning and operation. The volume of
follow-on research and industry application has been tremendous. Perhaps
the most significant impact of these reports was the stimulation of new ideas
that grew into student interest and eventual manpower.

1.5

The Phenomena of Interest

The dynamic performance of power systems is important to both the system

organizations, from an economic viewpoint, and society in general, from a
reliability viewpoint. The analysis of power system dynamics and stability
is increasing daily in terms of number and frequency of studies, as well as
in complexity and size. Dynamic phenomena have been discussed according
to basic function, time-scale properties, and problem size. These three fundamental concepts are very closely related and represent the essence of the
challenges of effective simulation of power system dynamics. When properly
performed, modeling and simulation capture the phenomena of interest at
minimal cost. The first step in this process is understanding the phenomena
of interest. Only with a solid physical and mathematical understanding can
the modeling and simulation properly reflect the critical system behavior.
This means that the origin of mathematical models must be understood, and
their purpose must be well defined. Once this is accomplished, the minimal
cost is achieved by model reduction and simplification without significant
loss in accuracy.