Reprinted with permission from Chemical Engineering Progress (CEP), April 2015.

Copyright 2015 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE).

Heat Transfer

My Steam Trap Is Good

Why Doesnt It Work?
James R. Risko
TLV Corp.

Even a relatively new steam trap in seemingly

good condition can fail if it is applied incorrectly.
Heres how to recognize and avoid situations
that can lead to a failure.

team is the most efficient and cost-effective means

to provide massive amounts of heat to a production
process. The reliability of a steam system can be
greatly enhanced by focusing on the ability of the steam trap
population to successfully drain condensate from the system.
Draining condensate as it forms is a key factor in achieving
the highest levels of performance.
Condensate drains from the steam system at condensate
discharge locations (CDLs). A CDL is an assemblage of
piping and valves, with the critical component being a steam
trap. Any condensate that is not removed can collect in the
steam distribution system and be propelled downstream by
steam that can travel at speeds of more than 100 mph. Such
high-velocity condensate produces erosion and system hammer, which in turn can cause catastrophic safety or equipment reliability events or, at the very least, leaks from
flanges, piping, and valves.
Unfortunately, many sites do not perform an annual
steam trap survey. A basic steam trap survey provides an
assessment of each traps condition, labeling it either good
or failed. A more in-depth analysis identifies failed traps
as either cold failures or hot failures. A system with a cold
failure is not adequately draining condensate because the
trap is blocked or operating at an unusually low internal
temperature, or the trap itself is hot but the equipment being
drained is cold. A hot failure refers to steam leaking while
the condensate is being discharged. For safe and reliable
operation, each site should establish a minimum threshold
number of CDLs in good condition.
Condition failures can be caused by a trap malfunctioning due to damage, debris, or wear, or by the incorrect appli-

cation or installation of a trap. It can be particularly frustrating to maintenance or operations personnel who replace a
failed trap only to have the new trap fail in the same way as
the trap it replaced. This raises the question: Why doesnt
my good steam trap work?
There can be several reasons why a new, correctly manufactured steam trap might not be functioning properly, most
of which are due to misapplication. This article explores
some of these reasons and explains how to recognize
potential problems, and provides guidance on avoiding such
problems.

COLD FAILURES
Cold failures should be considered the highest priority.
A cold trap does not adequately drain condensate from the
system. This has the potential to cause the most disastrous
results (1). Possible causes for cold failures of good steam
traps include:
negative pressure differential
undersizing
modulating into a stall condition
steam locking due to lift or to distance
group trapping
double trapping
pressure blockage
incorrect low temperature setpoint
high backpressure
backwards installation
debris or deposits
inability to discharge air
isolation or valving-out.
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27

Heat Transfer

P1

P1>P2

P2

Flow

P1

P1P2
No Flow

Steam locking
The essential function of a steam trap is to automatically
open to discharge condensate and shut off to prevent steam
loss. Steam locking occurs when steam collects in the line
between the condensing source and the trap, filling the trap
and preventing it from opening. Steam locking can occur if
there is a vertical rise in the piping or if the trap is located a
long distance from the condensate source.
Steam locking due to lift. Figure 4a depicts a steam trap
with a vertical lift from the condensing source into the trap.
After condensate is initially discharged through the trap, the
vertical riser pipe and trap immediately fill with steam, causing the trap to close. Condensate can continue to form in the
equipment, but it cannot displace the steam in the trap body,
so the trap remains closed. In essence, the trap is steam-locked
shut and the equipment becomes cold or thermally stratified,
even though the trap itself may be hot to the touch. It is the
heat exchange system that is cold due to a steam lock.

Pressure

Negative pressure differential,

undersizing, and modulating into a stall condition
A steam trap will discharge condensate if there is a
positive pressure differential, but will not discharge condensate if the pressure differential across it is zero or negative
(Figure 1). An undersized trap will not allow sufficient
condensate flow to maintain proper drainage. These basic
principles are easy to understand.
Drainage becomes more complicated, however, when
steam equipment or tracing operates under modulating control. For instance, a modulating control valve may operate
with a steam supply pressure of 150 psig and the equipment
may have a 30-psig backpressure, but the valves delivery
pressure modulates to achieve equilibrium between the supply heat and the heat demand. When pressure differential
varies, because of either modulating control or undue influence of backpressure, the system may encounter a stall condition (Figure 2). This may occur, for example, in thermally
stratified heat exchange equipment. Equipment in a stall that
experiences rapid valve modulation can also suffer from
hammer due to the multiple effects of thermal and hydraulic
shock (Figure 3).
A related effect occurs when the modulating valve
reduces the supply pressure while maintaining a positive
pressure differential across the trap. The pressure differential
may decrease to the point where the traps capacity is no
longer sufficient to meet the adjusted demand. Such modulation (i.e., a positive but smaller differential) is analogous to
an undersized trap at static pressure conditions. Whenever
traps are to be installed on equipment with inlet modulating
control valves or regulators, it is advisable to analyze the
steam chest pressure profile for the full range of process or
heating demand.

Vary
Pre ing Ste
ssu
re L am
ine
Trap

Time

p Figure 2. Heat exchange equipment may have modulating steam control

that adjusts the supply heat to the heat demand. If the equilibrium point is
less than or equal to the backpressure, a stall occurs and condensate does
not flow.
Steam

Site of
Water Hammer

P2

p Figure 1. The pressure differential across a steam trap must be positive

(P1 > P2) in order for flow to occur (top). If there is no pressure differential
or a negative differential (P1 P2), the trap cannot discharge condensate
(bottom).

www.aiche.org/cep April 2015 CEP

Pump

Stall Point

Process Fluid

28

Constant
Backpressure Line

Condensate

p Figure 3. Stall conditions are a common cause of water hammer and

damage in heat exchangers.

Steam

Vertical Rise
in Piping
Before Trap

Process
Fluid

p Figure 4a. Some applications may require a vertical

rise into the trap. If it is not designed properly, severe
steam locking and subcooled temperatures can occur.

Condensate

Move Trap
Closer to
Heat Exchanger

p Figure 4b. Locating a trap a long horizontal distance from the condensing source can allow
steam to flow across the top of the condensate, leading to severe steam locking.

Steam locking due to lift can occur with any riser pipe
into the trap, particularly when the riser is made of largebore piping. The lift condition needs to be analyzed and a
solution such as a small-bore lift fitting, drilled vent, or
steam lock release provided to prevent the steam lock.
Otherwise, the CDL will fail cold and not drain the equipment adequately, even though the steam causing the lock
may make the trap itself hot to the touch.
Steam locking due to distance. A similar phenomenon
occurs when a trap is located too far away (horizontally)
from the condensing source (Figure 4b). A trap may be
located relatively far from the process equipment if there
is not enough space available near the equipment to install
a trap in close proximity. A trap might also be installed at a
distance so it is more readily accessible or outside of a zone
where special garments or permits are required.
In a distance-related steam-lock situation, the trap itself
may be hot to the touch from the steam causing the lock, but
condensate can pool on the inlet side and back up into the
equipment, causing a cold condition. Condensate has a low
specific volume (approximately 0.017 ft3/lb) and occupies
very little space in the pipe between the equipment and the
steam trap. Steam can pass over the top of the condensate in
the line and lock the trap, even though more condensate is
being produced in the equipment.
To obtain the best performance from a steam trap, locate
the trap as close to the vertical drop as possible. If it is not
possible to move it closer, a simple solution to prevent steam
locking is to install a vertical drop immediately before the
trap, even if the trap is located a distance away from the
equipment. The vertical drop usually helps to prevent a
steam lock due to distance by allowing for a leg of condensate at the traps entrance, as long as the condensate piping is
pitched downward toward the trap.
A third alternative is to install a balance line directly on
or immediately before the locked trap at its inlet. This allows
the steam that would normally be compressed to return to
the steam line instead.

Group trapping
Collecting condensate from several sections of steamheated equipment into one condensate line that discharges
into a single steam trap is a practice known as group
trapping. Reasons cited for group trapping include space
limitations (real or perceived) and the desire to reduce
installation costs. However, group trapping provides a false
sense of economy. In most instances, it limits the performance of the heating system due to pressure differentials and
short-circuiting.
It can be difficult to identify problems with group trapping at the trap itself. The trap condition might appear to be
good the trap is hot to the touch and is not leaking steam.
However, the equipment being drained by the trap often
suffers from significant thermal stratification. A trap in this
condition is categorized as a cold failure.
Consider the four-coil air heater shown in Figure 5.
The cool air encountering the first coil absorbs the largest

14.5 psi
14.7 psi
14.9 psi
15.0 psi

p Figure 5. The practice of group trapping may appear to be a reasonable

measure. However having different condensing rates in the various sections
causes short-circuiting, preventing lower-pressure condensate from flowing
into the trap. This causes flooding and reduced heating in the affected
equipment.

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29

Heat Transfer

amount of heat and therefore creates the most condensation. When the steam condenses, the steam pressure in
the coil drops simultaneously. The heated air reaching
the last coil is much hotter and absorbs less heat, creating
less condensation and a smaller pressure drop across that
coil. Even though the inlet pressure to the four-coil system
remains constant, the effective pressure drop from the inlet
to the outlet of the first coil is larger than the pressure drop
across the fourth coil. This pressure imbalance creates
a short circuit. The second and third coils can also have
outlet pressures lower than the fourth coils outlet. The
result is significant thermal stratification and reduced heattransfer capacity of the coils.
Installing a single trap, instead of low-cost, individual
traps for each coil, is a costly design decision, because it can
significantly reduce the heating capability of the equipment
and prevent it from performing at its maximum.

Double trapping
Double trapping is the practice of installing a second
trap in series immediately after another trap (Figure 6). It
is sometimes intended to be a temporary measure, where a
so-called master trap is installed on a condensate line downstream of a failed trap (or traps), or as a second trap to act as
a backup in case the first trap fails. While installing two traps
in series might seem to be a good safety measure, it can lead
to trap blockage and waterlogging of all of the equipment
the trap is supposed to drain.
Double trapping can cause a cold failure in two ways:
live or flash steam exiting the first trap enters the second trap, causing the second trap to close
the available pressure differential is split over two
traps, and the driving force across the second is insufficient
for the required load.
When a trap fails, it leaks live steam; when it functions
properly, a portion of the discharged condensate flashes
into steam because of the pressure differential. In either
case, when two traps are set in series, live or flash steam

exits the first trap, with multiple effects:

system backpressure increases
the second trap closes, interrupting flow
waterlogging (i.e., failure of the condensate to drain)
and/or water hammer can occur.
The full pressure differential between the inlet and outlet
is available for a single trap. Double trapping, on the other
hand, divides the pressure differential between the two traps.
If the pressure drop is not large enough for the condensate
flow to overcome the outlet pressure, condensate will pool at
the inlet of the first trap. To avoid this, both traps would need
to be oversized. Additionally, in cases of higher backpressure
in the return line, one of the traps may need to be substantially larger to account for the smaller differential pressure
across it.
If trap failure is a concern, keep spare traps on hand and
replace faulty traps promptly. In addition, install a block
valve on the inlet and outlet sides of steam traps to allow for
quick and easy replacement. A bypass valve that directs condensate to the plants drain system is also useful. If a backup
is required for a critical process, install a trap in parallel, not
in series, and switch flow to it if necessary.

Pressure blockage
When the steam traps valve head is located on the inlet
side of the valve seat (Figure 7), thermodynamic action
easily closes the traps automatic-opening mechanism. This
type of trap needs a mechanical advantage to overcome the
closing force created by steam pressure on the valve head.
For example, traps that operate based on the density principle (i.e., the difference between the densities of the steam
and the condensate), such as float and inverted-bucket
mechanical traps, open to discharge condensate when the
buoyancy of the float or bucket overcomes the closure
force. The mechanical advantage needed to allow this is

Closing
Force

Valve Head
(Float)

Opening Force

p Figure 6. The full pressure differential between the inlet and outlet is
split between traps that are double-trapped. This reduces the capacity of
the second trap. Additionally, flash/live steam can close the second trap.

30

www.aiche.org/cep April 2015 CEP

Valve Seat

p Figure 7. A pressure blockage occurs when the difference between the

inlet pressure and the backpressure exceeds the traps differential pressure
rating.

Incorrect low temperature setpoint

Bimetallic (and expansion-type thermostatic traps) tend
to have a sluggish response. Thus, the temperature setting
at which the trap begins to open must be significantly lower
than the temperature of saturated steam (Figure 8) to prevent
the trap from blowing live steam into the condensate return
header. This setpoint may be as much as 50F lower than the
saturated steam temperature, depending on the system pressure and the return header backpressure.
Metal strip(s) or plate(s) in a bimetal trap expand and
contract in response to temperature changes, and this deflection causes the trap to open and close. When the condensate
temperature is above the setpoint temperature, the deflection
is minimal and the trap remains closed. When the condensate has cooled to the setpoint temperature, the amount of
deflection is sufficient to open the trap slightly, allowing the
condensate to begin draining slowly.
Depending on the capacity that needs to be drained,
condensate can back up at the traps inlet, where it continues to cool and further increases the condensate load. The
additional subcooling causes the metal strip to bend more,
gradually increasing the size of the opening and the condensate discharge flowrate, until the trap is fully open and
condensate is discharging at its full-open rate. The amount
of additional subcooling required to reach the full-open position may be an additional 50F, which represents 100F of
subcooling below the saturated steam temperature.
If the opening temperature is set too low, the trap closes
tight early, and then an even larger degree of subcooling is
needed to deflect the element and fully open the valve.

ve
Cur
ion
t
a
r
u
Sat
Subcooling
am
Ste
Before Opening

Temperature

obtained by operating the trap below its specified maximum

operating pressure (PMO) and maximum differential pressure (PMX).
However, a trap operating below its PMO/PMX specifications might experience a line pressure increase, for
example, due to a combination of higher boiler pressure and
reduced demand elsewhere in the system, or to a drop in
system backpressure. If that increased differential pressure
causes the steam trap to exceed its PMX, the trap may not
develop sufficient mechanical advantage to open, and the
trap fails cold. If a new trap of the same model is installed
to replace the failed one, the trap will continue to experience cold failures. The trap needs to be replaced by one with
a higher PMX rating. Often the PMX is exceeded in error
for example, if someone unfamiliar with the systems
nominal pressure and its variance installs a trap with an
inadequate PMX rating.
Traps with an outlet valve head do not experience this
type of problem. Rather, the high pressure forces the valve
open and it does not have sufficient capability to close the
valve when its PMX is exceeded. This creates a hot failure.

Trap Starts
to Open
Trap is
Fully Open

Pressure

p Figure 8. The temperature setpoint at which a bimetallic trap starts to

open must be significantly below the temperature of saturated steam. If it is
too low, the trap closes early, causing a cold failure. If it is too high, the trap
will blow steam (a hot failure).

High backpressure
Many bimetallic and some balanced-pressure thermostatic steam traps have a downstream valve head design,
where the valve head is downstream of the valve seat
(Figure 9). High backpressure pushes the valve head toward
the seat. Thus, dynamic system conditions that significantly
increase the backpressure can increase the closure force
from the downstream side, closing the steam trap early and
causing a cold condition.
Depending on the condensate load and the application,
these traps can require a significant backup length to allow
the condensate to subcool sometimes as much as 40 ft or
more. The risk of water hammer damage or personnel injury
in the event of such backup is high in systems that may not be
able to provide the necessary volume to hold the subcooled
condensate without incident. Because of the large volume of
condensate in the line, it is unwise to use these traps on steam
main drips or process heating applications. They may be
suitable, or in some cases recommended, for low-temperature
trace heating or instrument enclosure warming. If the backup
is too far from the trap and extends into the application being
drained, then it becomes a cold failure.

Valve Seat
Hot
Condensate

Valve Head
(Closed)

Backpressure

p Figure 9. Backpressure on a bimetallic trap with a downstream valve

head design pushes the valve toward the seat. If the backpressure is too
high, the valve closes earlier than intended, causing condensate to back up
and creating a cold condition.
Article continues on next page
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31

Heat Transfer

Backwards installation
Installing a steam trap with the flow arrow pointing in the
downstream direction seems like a simple task. Nevertheless,
it is not uncommon to find a trap that has been installed
backwards.
When a trap with a downstream valve head or integral
check valve (such as a bimetallic trap) is installed backwards,
the inlet steam pressure can hold the valve shut, causing a
blocked, cold condition. Density-based and thermodynamic
traps do not have a valve that can be held closed by reverse
flow, so if installed backwards they typically experience hot
failures rather than cold failures.
Debris or deposits
Mud legs should be blown down regularly for
example, at system startup or shutdown and before and after
installing a new trap. If maintenance, operations, or contractor personnel do not do this, debris can accumulate quickly
and be deposited in the new trap, creating a blockage.
A longer-term condition can occur when the condensate
contains particulates, such as iron oxide or leached copper.
Debris can accumulate at the entrance of the valve seat and
prevent the trap from closing, thereby causing a hot failure (Figure 10). But, some condensate flashes as it passes
through the steam traps orifice. The incondensable particles
that were in solution can simultaneously precipitate out of
the flashed fluid. This precipitate forms deposits that can
metallically bond to the orifice, build up, cause a blockage,
and create a cold condition.
Inability to discharge air
Some steam traps that operate on the density or thermodynamic principle are not able to vent significant amounts
of air. This can cause them to close when they encounter
air upon startup or ingressed air (for instance, from vacuum
breakers). Noncondensable air inside the trap body can lock

p Figure 10. Minerals in the condensate can build up at the orifice outlet
and prevent the trap from closing.

32

www.aiche.org/cep April 2015 CEP

the trap shut, creating a cold condition.

To avoid this problem, select traps that vent air. Thermo
static traps have this air-venting feature, as do float-andthermostatic, disc-and-thermostatic, and inverted-bucketand-thermostatic traps.

Isolation or valving-out
This type of cold failure can involve one of two
scenarios.
Scenario 1: After a new steam trap is installed, it needs
to be put into service. If the installer leaves this task for
the operations staff, but the operators do not realize they
are expected to do it, the CDL will not be able to drain
condensate.
Scenario 2: A leaking trap represents a hot failure, and
although the trap is leaking steam, it is at least discharging
condensate as intended. If a worker valves-out the CDL to
stop the leak, what was an inefficient operation leaking
steam becomes a dangerous cold failure.
HOT FAILURES
Many facilities assign the highest maintenance-response
priority to hot failure i.e., leaking steam traps. However, hot failures typically do not present the same safety
issues as cold failures. Even though the drainage of leaking
traps is inefficient, they nevertheless discharge condensate
from a steam system. The main benefits to fixing hot failures
are economics-related. Possible causes for hot failures of
good steam traps include:
backwards installation
incorrect orientation
oversizing
high backpressure
inability to handle superheat
incorrect high temperature setpoint.
Backwards installation
Depending on the type of trap, backwards installation
can cause either a cold failure as discussed earlier or a hot
failure.
When density-based or thermodynamic traps are
installed backwards, it is usually not possible for the valve
mechanism to close. Steam loss occurs until the installation
is corrected.
Incorrect orientation
A steam trap installed in the wrong orientation may
experience a hot failure in two ways.
If a density-principle trap is installed in an incorrect orientation, the valve mechanism may be unable to close, and
steam will leak. For example, the horizontal trap installed
vertically in Figure 11 may experience steam blow-through

(i.e., the steam blows through the open

valve). Blow-through could also occur if the
trap were installed upside down.
Most inline steam traps have a preferred
orientation, usually either horizontal or vertical. Although an inline trap might function
acceptably in any direction, its life expectancy might be longer in one orientation than
the other. For example, disc traps installed
in a non-optimal orientation can experience
more-frequent cycling and more-rapid internal wear that reduces the traps lifespan and
causes hot-failure leakage in a shorter period
of time.
The disc trap in Figure 12 may have been
installed vertically in an attempt to improve
drainage under shutdown. However, in this position the disc
is vertical, which shortens the life of the trap. The same
trap in a horizontal application would have a longer useful
life. A different type of disc trap (e.g., a costlier two-bolt,
swivel-connector type that maintains a horizontal disc when
installed vertically or in any other orientation) would be a
better choice for this line.

Oversizing
Except for float-type designs, an oversized steam trap
also typically has a shorter life than one that is properly
sized. Inverted-bucket, thermostatic, and thermodynamic
traps can be more prone to early failure than float traps
when oversized. The result of shortened life is premature
hot failure.
Technically speaking, if an oversized trap experiences
a hot failure, its condition would not be considered good.
However, the user may consider the trap to be relatively
new and wonder why it failed
sooner than expected.
High backpressure
High backpressure can
cause a cold failure in some
trap designs, but it can also
cause a hot failure in others.
Thermodynamic steam traps,
in particular, are susceptible to hot failure due to high
backpressure. Many thermo
t Figure 11. Many traps require (or
operate better in) a specific orientation.
This horizontal density trap installed
vertically is likely to experience
blow-through.

p Figure 12. This disc trap may work in any orientation, but cycling in the vertical position shortens the
traps life.

dynamic traps cannot operate with backpressure above 80%

of the inlet pressure (some can tolerate only 50%). This
is because the small differential does not allow the trap to
develop the necessary velocity on the underside of the disc
to obtain and maintain tight closure. As a disc trap wears or
becomes fouled, its ability to operate with high backpressure
tends to decrease.
Avoid thermodynamic traps in applications where the
backpressure is near the traps specified tolerance limits.
On the other hand, when backpressure is removed from
a bimetallic trap with a downstream valve head design, the
valve can open and blow live steam. This is because the
backpressure helps close the valve, and removing it allows
the valve to stay open longer.

Inability to handle superheat

Some steam trap designs may not be suitable for use at
elevated superheat temperatures.
Balanced-pressure thermostatic traps (Figure 13) have
a liquid filling that vaporizes when the temperature of the
condensate flowing through it approaches the temperature of
saturated steam; the expansion of the liquid-filled chamber
Liquid-Filled
Capsule

Hot
Condensate

p Figure 13. Superheat conditions can cause the capsule inside a

balanced-pressure trap to rupture, causing a hot failure.

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33

Heat Transfer

closes the trap to prevent steam flow. If the trap encounters

superheat temperatures above its rating, the element containing the liquid may rupture, causing live steam to leak.
Similarly, if the temperature rating of a bimetal element
is exceeded (such as can occur during temporary leakage
caused by debris holding a valve seat open), the element can
fatigue or its dissimilar layers can separate. This can prevent
the trap from closing, with the net effect of steam loss.
Even a new trap in good condition can be damaged by
high superheat temperatures and experience a hot failure.
No matter how many new, good traps of the same model are
installed, the superheat condition will cause the same damage and hot failure.
A water prime in the bottom of an inverted-bucket trap
provides for bucket flotation, which causes the valve to
close. If the condensate load is insufficient, such as can
occur if the trap experiences superheat or rapid pressure
modulation by the control valve, the required water prime
may be lost. If this happens, the bucket loses buoyancy and
falls, and steam is lost (Figure 14).

Incorrect high temperature setpoint

As discussed earlier, because bimetallic and expansiontype thermostatic traps can have a slow response, the setpoint at which the trap begins to open must be significantly
lower than the temperature of saturated steam (Figure 8). If
the setting is too close to the saturated steam temperature,
the trap is likely to discharge live steam a hot failure.
Inadequate subcooling can also occur as bimetal elements fatigue over time. Fatigue loosens the nut used to
adjust the temperature setting; this raises the opening temperature, which has the effect of reducing subcooling. If this
is allowed to continue, the trap will start to leak steam.
In closing
In almost all of the situations discussed (except those
specifically related to shortened trap life), steam traps can be
new and performing perfectly to the manufacturers specifications before experiencing a hot or cold failure.
One way to avoid these problems is to conduct an
annual steam trap survey to diagnose the operating condition of the trap population and identify potential areas of
misapplication or faulty installation. It is also helpful to
schedule an annual review meeting with the facilitys preferred trap manufacturer to confirm that the traps are being
selected and installed properly on specific applications as
CEP
recommended.

Acknowledgments
The author acknowledges his colleagues Philip Woodward, Drew Mohr,
Jon Walter, and Norm White for their help in preparing this article.

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Steam

Condensate

Inverted Bucket
Prime

p Figure 14. Inverted-bucket traps require a priming liquid to prevent

steam loss. If this prime is lost, for instance, due to superheat, the result
will be steam blow-through.
JAMES R. RISKO, CEM, PEM, is the president of TLV Corp. (13901 South
Lakes Dr., Charlotte, NC 29873; Phone: (704) 597-9070; Email: risko@
tlvengineering.com). The author of more than 30 articles related to
steam and condensate systems, he is active in both the standards and
technical-writing activities of the Fluid Controls Institute (FCI), and
has previously served as the organizations chairman, standards chair,
and chair of the Secondary Pressure and Steam Trap Sections. He has
earned three energy management certifications, from the Association
of Energy Engineers, North Carolina State Univ., and the Institute of
Energy Professionals. He holds an MBA from Wilkes Univ. (Wilkes Barre,
PA) and two BS degrees, in mathematics/education and business
administration/accounting, from Kutztown Univ. (Kutztown, PA).

Literature Cited
1. Risko, J. R., Beware of the Dangers of Cold Traps, Chemical
Engineering Progress, 109 (2), pp. 5053 (Feb. 2013).

Additional Resources
Risko, J. R., Steam Heat Exchangers are Underworked and OverSurfaced, Chem Eng., 104 (11), pp. 5862 (Nov. 2004).
Risko, J. R., Handle Steam More Intelligently, Chem. Eng.,
124 (11) pp. 4449 (Nov. 2006).
Risko, J. R., Steam Traps Operating Principles and Types,
Fluid Controls Institute Technical Sheet #ST 107, www.fluid
controlsinstitute.org/pdf/resource/steam/ST107OperatingPrinciplesandTypes.pdf, FCI, Cleveland, OH (Apr. 2008).
Walter, J. P., Implement a Sustainable Steam-Trap Management
Program, Chemical Engineering Progress, 110 (1), pp. 4349
(Jan. 2014).
TLV, What Causes Stall to Occur, www.tlv.com/global/US/
steam-theory/stall-phenomenon-pt1.html, TLV Co., Kakogawa,
Japan (2010).
TLV, What is Water Hammer, www.tlv.com/global/TI/steam-theory/
what-is-waterhammer.html, TLV Co., Kakogawa, Japan (2011).
TLV, Group Trapping, www.tlv.com/global/US/steam-theory/
group-trapping.html, TLV Co., Kakogawa, Japan (2013).
TLV, Double Trapping, www.tlv.com/global/US/steam-theory/
double-trapping.html, TLV Co., Kakogawa, Japan (2013).
TLV, Steam Locking, www.tlv.com/global/US/steam-theory/
steam-locking.html, TLV Co., Kakogawa, Japan (2014).