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P RE FAC E

N writin g the following work on the Arthu rian

Epic my chief obj ect has been to aid lovers of
o u r old English l iterat u re in their i nvestigations o f
this m ost interest ing corner o f romantic ct ion
This cyclu s o f romances which has n ow co m
man d e d the attention and won t h e ad m irat ion o f
seven centu ries o f read ers has b een to m e an ever
fascinatin g fi eld of stu dy and rese arch and when a
few years ago I was aske d to deliver a co u rse of lec
t u res in aid of a charitable obj ect con nected with the
parish of which I was then rector I could think of n o
subj ect that wou ld be like l y to inte rest a highly i n
t e l l ige nt au dience t o a greate r d egree than this the
n oblest religiou s prose poem o f which E nglan d can
boast
These lectu res have se rved as the basis o f the
,

iii

P re face

iv

p resent work bu t while th e substance o f th e lectu res

has been retained the subj ect matter has been e u
t ire ly recast rewritten i n book form a n d greatl y
enlarged by important add itions
The tr u e character and aim o f the Arthu rian cyclus
o f romances h as been s o thoroughly m isu nderstood
not only by the pop u l ar m ind bu t by many who
otherwi s e are well inform ed that I shall consider
my t im e an d labo u r well expen ded i f I can aid in
dispelling the pop u l ar miscon ception and in even
the slightest degree help in restoring this n ational
epic t o its rightfu l p l ace in the e s tee m o f i ntelligent
m en
I n the composition of this work I have mad e free
althou gh
u s e o f the materia l s that a l ready existed
in every ca s e where it has been necessary t o d o so
I have veri ed statem ents o f fact and have at
times departed wide ly from th e concl u si on s adopted
by others
I acknowledge with great pleasu re my i ndebted
n ess t o the writings o f the following gentlemen :
M Pauli n Paris membre d e l I n s t it u t and editor
o f L e s Roma ns d e [
a Ta bl e Re ad e etc
etc
Sir Frederic Madden ed itor o f L ay n e/eon, Sy r
Ga w ay ne etc e t c
M 1e Vicomte de la V il l e marq u m embre d e l I n
s t it u t and author o f L e s Bar d es Bre t ons etc
etc
,

P re face

M r Thoma s Stephens a u tho r of Th e L i t e r at ur e

of t he K
m
r
y
y
M r F J Fu rnivall M A editor of L e Roma n a u
Sa i nt Graa l L a Q ue s t e a e l Sa i n t Gr a a l The Mor t e
A r t h u r etc etc
M r D W Nash editor of Ta l i ess i n an d a u thor of
the I ntrod u ction t o Me r l i n i n the edit ion o f the
Early En glish Text Society e t c etc
M r Thom as Wright a u thor of the Biog r aph ia
,

'

Br i t a n n ica L i t er ar ia ,

e t c . , e t c.

Pro f David M asson

.

LL D
.

L if e

a uthor of

Mil t on Br i t ish Nove l is t s a nd t he i r Sty l e s Ch a t t er t on

etc et c
I am a l s o indebted t o variou s article s in th e D uhl i n
Th e
Un i ve r s i ty Mag az i ne Th e Sa t ur d ay Re vie w
Eng l ish ma n s Mag az i ne Th e A t h e na um an d perhap s
on e or two other period ica l p ublications
I f in any instance the indebted ne s s which I am
u nd er is not formal ly acknow l edged it is s imply
because at thi s late day I am u nab l e to reca ll the
sou rce of the ob l igation and i n advance stan d ready
to apologise for any s u ch u nintentional overs ight
I n the comparative st u dies Chapters VI I VI I I
and I X I have taken th e pro s e extracts from M r
Wright s reprint o f M al o ry s Mor t Da r t h ur ed ition
of 163 4
I n the case of Me r l in a nd Vivie nne (Chapter VI )
,

P re face

vi

I have t ran s l ated from the French o f D e Borron as

Malory al l but ignores thi s epi s od e
I n the case of Ge ra int a na En ia (Chapte r X ) I
have adopted L ady G u est s adm irab l e trans l ation as
this episode is entire l y om itted by Malory
,

S H G
.

NEW Y O RK Fe hr u a ry 14
,

18 9

C ONT ENTS

HA P TE R I

PA G E

H I S T O R I C A L S KET C H

3
C

H A P T E R II

I TS
T H E A RT H U R I A N E P I C
T URE
C

WI

R T ER

or

THE

LA C E I N

RT H U R I A N E P I C
H APT E R

THE

B A RD S
90

Ro
12 8

MA NC ERS
C

ME RL I N A N D

HE

H A PT E R V

THE
A R T H U RI A N E P I C
C

or

6
5

IV

T
A N A L Y S I S O F T H E A RT H U RI A N E P I C
A N D T H E C HR O N I CL E RS
N A LYS I S

I TE R A
33

H A P T E R III

H A PT E R VI

V I VI E NN E

161

vi i

C o n t e nt s

V 111

HAPT E R

VI I

PA G E

LA

NC E L O T

GU

I N E VE RE A N D E L A I N E
,

GA

H A P T ER V III

L A H AD A N D T H E Q U E S T
C

KI N G

A RT

OF

H A PT E R

IX

I N T A N D E N ID

T H E H O LY

HU R

AA L

GR

241

2 93

G E RA

20

H A P T ER

2
4
3

NOT ES

3 97

I NDEX

42

T H E A RT H U R I A N E PI C

THURIAN
THE AR

C H APT E R I

EPI C

H i s t o r i c al S k e t c h

H E RE is scarcely any s ubj ect in the who l e

range of E nglish literat u re which p resent s
or one which s o
s o tempting a eld for research
well repays carefu l i nve s tigation as the cycl e o f
Anglo N orman romances relating to King Arth u r
and the Knights of the Rou nd Table
Strangely enough the impression seems to exist
even among those who are otherwise wel l in formed
on literary qu estions that these romances are the
cr u d e outgrowth o f an il l iterate age ba s ed o n
legendary tales and fantastic m edi ae va l conceits
which re nd er them u nworthy o f serious stu dy ex
cept perhaps as they reappear in modern setting
and adorned with the polished ve rse o f the lat e
Poet L a u reate
As we advance however in ou r su rvey of the
,

T he

A rt h uri an E pi c

Arth u rian Epic the tru e character of the work will

be bro ught out i n bo l d re l ie f an d we S ha l l s e e that
inst ead o f its being an inartist ic col l ection of mo

nastic l egend s it is on the contrary a grand reli

gio n s prose poem of m arve l lo u s p ower and bea u ty
the prod uction of some of the most learned an d
gifted tro uv eres of the Plantagenet era
This cyclu s of romances b u ilt up as it was on a
tiny germ of history on the bard ic p g e ms o f Wa l es
an d B rittany on l ocal traditions Ch u rch legends
an d L ati n chronicle s w as n evertheless in it s fu l ly
deve l o ped form the Outgrowth o f the political
ecc l e s ias tical and socia l cond itions of the cou rt of
H enry I I o f England
Wal te r M ap who m ay be considered as the origi
nator and author of n early all that is im perishab l e
i n these ta l e s was a man of con s u mmat e geni us va s t
l earn ing an d o f high rep ute at co u rt H is obj ect in
writing the s e ta l es o f chivalry as we shal l s u bs e
q u ently s e e was n ot on l y t o amu se and entertain
h is readers bu t to instr u ct the m in the recogn ised
theology o f the day ; an d s o skilfu lly and s u ccess
f ully did he accomplish his obj ect that his works
obtaine d an instantaneous pop u l arity and were read
or recited (fo r it was the listening age) in cast l e town
and hamlet
N or w as his in u e n ce con ned to England alone
,

H i s t o rical

S ke t ch

The chord which M ap st ru ck vibrated thro ugho u t

the whole of Eu rope I n France N orth an d South
Normandy and Provence in Germany in Spain in
I taly in Flanders and even i n Greece th e brillian t
creations of the English writer seized u pon the im
a gi n at i o n o f the Continental trouv eres who repro
d uce d in whole or in part th e chaste fantasies o f the
English narrator ; o r enchant ed with so su ccessfu l a
form of writing i nvented ad ditiona l romances based
on episodes which Map had o m itted I n deed the
whole of E u rope was sei z ed at this tim e with an
intense passion for narrat ive or roman ce literat u re
and the tales of Map and his conf r ere s supplied an d
s atised the cravings of the popular imagination
I n England these roman ces retained their place
i n the heart of the nat ion for many a long year
Even when the listen in g age had passed away
and the read ing age had t aken its place among
the rst works printed by Wi lliam Caxton i n the
Abbey of We s tm inst er was Si r Thomas M alory s
L a Mor t D a r t h ur a stately folio thou gh o f n o ar
t is t ic merit
This compilation o f earlier romances
however with all its d efects of arrangement an d
sins of omission was d ou btless regarded as a literary
treat by the lords and lad ies of the cou rt o f Edward
IV as they lounged i n the bowers of their ancestral
castles and d reamed o f the heroic past
,

The

A rt h u ri an E pi c

Eve n as late as the reign o f Q ueen El i zabe th

so m e o f the m ore censorial of t h e clergy d e plored
the st ill existing popu lar t aste fo r these vain d e

ce it s
; an d Roger Ascham t ut or t o the Qu een
lou dly co m plains (15 7 0) that
I n this booke
L
a
M
t
D
r
those
b
e
cou
nted
noblest
or
r
a
t
h
u
[
]
kn igh t e s that d o ki ll most m en withou t any q u are ll
an d co m mit to w l e s t a d u o u l t e re s by s u t l e s t s h i ft e s
This is good s t u ffe fo r wise m en to l au gh e
at or hon est men t o take pleasu re at Yet I
kn ow when Gods Bible w as ban ished the Cou rt and
M o rte A rt h u re received in to the Prin ces cha m ber
What toyes the d ayl y re ad y n g of such a booke may
w o rke in the will of a yon g j e n t l e m an o r a y ong
mayde th a t liveth w e l t h e l i e and i d e l ie wise m en

can j u dge an d hon est m e n do pitie

Sti l l the w onderfu l popul a rity which these ro
m an ce s h a d e n j o y ed fo r ve centu ri es w as then o n
the wan e an d in 163 4 th e last black letter editi o n o f
L a Mor t D a r t h u r w as issu ed from t h e press
I t w as n o t u n til the t i m e o f the Refor m ation that
th e Ar thu rian Epic s o m u ch as bega n t o lose its
hold upon popular favou r ; n o r does it seem t o have
su nk into total oblivion u ntil England h ad e n te re d
n the prosaic e ra o f the Com monwealth
u pO
The
sm oke o f theological st ri fe which darkened s o many
years of th e Tu d or p eriod blind e d the e y es o f the
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

Eli z abethan age arose u pon England ; a da z zling

ou tbu rst of gen iu s s u ch as n o one age and n o one
cou ntry had ever before witnessed The Pastoral
romance th e Allegorical romance the Drama o f real
life an d even the L yrics prod u ced du ring this p eriod
reached a degree o f perfect ion never before attain e d
an d one which i n m odern t imes has rarely b e en
equ alled an d seldom if ever su rpassed The works
o f Sir
Philip Sid ney Spenser Shakespeare Ben
up
s
onson
and
others
too
n
umerou
s
to
m
e
ntion
j
planted i n popu lar esteem th e p reviou s writers o f
England The Arthurian ro m ances shared the gen
eral neglect o f al l pre Tu dor literat u re ; the subt le
allegory of the Fa e r ie Q ue e ne eclipsing the myst icism
of the H oly Graal whi l e its subd u ed chivalry was
amply su fcient t o grati fy sixteenth century ideas of
gallant ry and adventure
Fifty years passed an d again civil and reli giou s
d iscord cast their d arkening shadows over the cou n
t ry I t was an age o f scep t icism and of the rst
fru its of u ncomprom ising Dissent when false ideals
lled the shrines of truth The Church w as regard ed
as the embod iment o f an ecclesiastical myth an d
piety consisted in steering a m iddle cou rse between
excessive s i n and excessive sanctity Art was d i
v o rce d from religion ; paint ing architect u re and mu
sic were banished from the sanct uaries of the land
.

H is t o rical

S ke t ch

and the Cross itself w as veiled from the eyes of the

peopl e and melted into a faint l ine o f beaut y
Then followed the Rest orat ion an d a new schoo l
of writers eager to show their loyalty by pa n dering
to the French t astes of King and cou rt iers ; and
nally came the A n n us M i ra hil zls as it has bee n
st y led o f Qu een Anne s reign a perio d u n marked
by men o f p re eminent g eniu s yet abou ndin g i n
clever pleasant writers
D uring the whole of this period as m ight read ily
be in ferred the older literat u re was either forgotten
or read only by the few who had t h e taste an d the
leisu re for antiquarian research Bu t a change came
at last With the passing away o f the poor ei gh
rich in prose but p oor in deed in
t e e n t h centu ry
ideality a new era in the history o f E n glish litera
tu re was ushered in o n e o f the chief f e atu res o f
which w as the revival of the national i nterest i n
these tales of chival ry Tru e antiquaries arose who
not content with a knowledge however intimate o f
the works of the Eli z abethan an d subsequent writers
had the ambition t o go back an d d rink d eeply at th e
very springs of E n gland s national life The cele
antiqua
brat e d a ie t u nz of Bishop Warbu rton that
r ia n is m is to tru e letters what speciou s funguses are
t o the oak which n ev e r shoot ou t an d ou rish till
al l the vigou r and vi rt u e of the grove are n e arly e x
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

To

h au s t e d ,

was d o ubtless the all but u niversal opinion

o f the literary p u nd its o f his d ay B ut this ijas e a ix i t
o f the learned p relate u ttered o n the rst appearan ce
of Percy s Re l igues of A nci e nt P oe t ry was based o n
a false estimate o f the aim s and obj ects of literary
antiq uarianism The w ritings o f a byg on e age are
o f interest to the tru e anti qu ary n o t s o mu ch o n the
score o f thei r age as fo r their i ntrinsic m erit an d the
light which they throw o n th e p roblem s of t o d ay
The mod ern anti qu ary passes by that which is d ead
an d seizes upon the living thought H e can d iscern
the tru e m etal am id t h e alloy o f o l d verse system s
and obsolet e form s of language H e can point ou t
the t ru e g e ms though incrusted with m oral imp u ri
ties H e can detect gen u in e literatu re u n der what
ever form it is presented and antiquarian is m nza lg r e
Warbu rton n ot only u n folds an d irradiates man y o f
the b e auties o f m odern l iteratu re but is the onl y
tru e basis o f the critical stu dy o f the literat ure o f

the present day

We who from o u r youth u p
writ e s Sir W alter Scott
were accu stomed t o ad
mire classical models bec a m e acquainted for the rst
ti m e with a race o f p oets who had the loft y ambitio n
to spu rn the am ing b ou n daries o f the u niverse an d

to inv e st igat e the re al ms o f Chaos and Old N ight

Scott himself took a plun ge into Chaos an d his revival
of chivalric le gend s was the result Sou they dashed

H i s t o ri cal S ke t ch

II

into the realms of Old N ight and bro ught back the
most poten t weapon which he co uld have seized
upon t o shatter the rem aining vestiges o f literary
prej udice an d thraldom ; viz : C axt o n s t ext of L a
Mor t Da r t h u r which was published i n 18 17
From the t im e of Southey d own t o the p resent
day th e cyclus of Arthu rian romances has been in
ecclesiasti
v e s t i gat e d in all its wealth of national
cal and social l ore by so m e o f the ablest scholars
an d m ost profoun d critics o f Eu rope ; while in Eng
land this stud y has nat u rally attracted especial
attention among l i t t er a t e urs from the fact that the
Epic is nat ional property an d is the starting point
o f English romantic ction
Great however as has bee n the valu e of the la
bou rs of the antiqu ary and historian o f English
literat u r e d u ring the past fty y ears i n reclaiming
from oblivion these chaste prod uctions of the No r
man t rouv ere it is d oubt fu l i f the Arthu rian ro
man ce s would once again have become familiar
household stories had not nineteenth cent u ry t rou
v eres reprod u ced some of Map s nest creatio n s
and clothed them with the subtle charm o f their
poetic genius
I t is a signicant fact that the most popu l a r poets
of every age have tu rned to this fou ntain head o f
Eu ropean romance Even Dant e chooses a British

T he A rt h u ri an E pic

12

l ove ta l e as the subt l est charm

fo r

the ear of Fran

*
cesca d a Rim in i a fact signi cant o f the power o f
these earliest rom ance s on the hearts and actions of
Christendom
A poet may go t o them for hints an d fancies al
read y made t o his hands The body o f legen d here
locked up has served as a maga z ine of idea l subj ect s
to some of ou r greatest poets from Spenser Shakes
peare an d M ilton t o Swi nburne L ytton and Ten n y
s o n the last of whom has clothed the grand crea
t ions o f crusad e rom ance with the beauty o f his
most polish e d art I n hi s [ay l l s the antiqu e gu res
of L an celot and Arthu r wander through English
landscape ; Gu inevere apparelled in the freshest
man ner rides by her lover over elds of hyaci nth
that seem like the heavens u pbreakin g through the
earth ; knights converse i n strain s that combi n e the
simplicity o f primal art with the p olish of latest
cu ltu re and y e t even his p ict u res are beaut ifu l on ly
in proportion as he copies faithfully the exqu isite
pathetic tou ches of the m ed i aeval trouv ere
From the brief sum mary o f facts here presented
it will at once b e seen what a l ong an d powerfu l
hold these tales of ch ivalry have had u pon the i m
a gin at io n of Eu rope ; and w hen it is remembered
that they are as attractive to day as th e y were i n the
,

Vi a e No t e A

H i s t ori cal S k e t ch

I3

twel fth and thi rteenth cent uries one is nat u rally led
to enq u ire int o the secret o f their u nparall e l ed po pu
,

l a rit y

On e poi nt i n the hi s tory of thi s cycl u s seems to

have been very generally overl ooked I t is to the
cl e rgy o f the Anglican Chu rch that we are indebted
for nearly all that is o f lasting merit in the s e ro
man ce s
The L atin Chronic l er Geo ffrey of Mon

m outh or Geoffrey A rt uru s as h e was sty l ed by

his critics who wrote (or t ranslat ed ) the story which
form ed the grou ndwork o f all subseq u ent romances
w as a priest residentiary i n the famous Abbey of
Monmo uth and afterwards Bishop of St A s aph
L ayam on who translated and amplied t he Arth u
rian ta l e as it then exi s ted as part of his Br ut o r
H istory of Britain m aking u s e of that form o f the
English l ang uage which has been called Semi Saxon
was a parish p riest of th e Ch u rch l iving at Ern l e y
or L ower Arl ey on the banks o f th e S eve rn
Robert of Glo ucester who i ncorporated in h is
Chronicle the s tory of Arth u r in the c u rren t Early
English of h is day was an Archdeacon o f the C hu rc h
t
I
fam iliar with U n iversity life at Oxford and was one
of the m ost noted ecc l esias tics of the age A nd
nall y Wa l ter Map poet theo l ogian wit an d co u r oLJ
tier who s e geni u s transformed pre exist i ng t raditions
and l e gends into a spirit uali s ed romance in An gl o et
.

fp
t

T he

14

A rt h u ri an E pi c

N orm an French was Archd eacon of Oxford an d

Chap l ain to H enry I I
I t is tru e that Norman tro uv eres like Robert Wace
t/
Robert d e Borron L u ces d e Ga s t and H l ie d e Bor
ron who were not ecclesiastics ad ded to the pe rfe c
tion of the Arthu rian cyclus but granting al l that can
b e said on this score the fact remai ns that this nest
of Christian prose ep ics owes its existence vi rt ually
t o the Anglican Chu rch since it is to the glowing
i magination of Map that we are indebted for the
greater part of all that is artistic and imperishab l e i n
Arth u rian Romance
The fact that the writers o f the s e tales were for
the m ost part trained theologian s an d that M ap
especial l y was besides this a man o f com man ding
genius is highly i mportant in its bearing on the pres
e nt enqu iry Apart from a knowledge o f this fact
it wo u ld be impossible to acco u nt for the u niqu e
character of what we may cal l the aim the idea the
total mean ing o f this cyclus as a whole
J udged merely by the stan dard o f what the world
o r society ho l ds dear these romances are t rue to the
highest and p u rest aspirations o f every loyal mem
be r o f the h u man comm on w ealth
Viewed from the standpoint of the Chu rch the
idea or aim of the st ory is the inculcation of that
spirit u alit y an d idea l perfection which
s potless
,

T h e A rt h u ri an E pi c

I6

standard o f the classic epic in on e at least of its

strictest and m o s t e ss entia l canon s o f str u ctu re in
that there exists m ost u nmistakably a centra l p oint
o f u nity viz : the H oly Graal aro u nd which the
whole story revolves an d which give s it i n this re

spect the stamp of an epic a spirit ualised or reli

i
s epic an d
u
which
renders
it
from
an
art
istic
o
g
point o f view i mmeas u rab l y superior t o any sim i l ar
prose produ ction of lat er times
Do ubtless t o the reader who knows these o r
man ce s only as they have bee n reprod u ced in m od
ern setting they m ust s eem litt l e more than de
t ach e d and oftentimes fantastic ta l es of the age o f
chivalry and want ing in any wel l marked u nderly
ing m oral or spirit u al idea o f su fcient p owe r to
bind al l the parts o f the narrat ive together i n one
harmon iou s who l e A perusal of the origina l ro
man ce s will d ispe l once and for all any su ch illusion
an d wil l help t o exp l ain the remarkable fascina
ti on which these works have ever exercised over the
m inds o f both clergy and laity
B u t there is a still m ore important point to be
considered than the m ere stru ctu re o f these romances
in forming a tru e estimate o f thei r artisti c excellence
These p rose poems when critically examined rank
in every respect with the best specimens of the
tr uest literat u re of England Professor Masson in
,

H i s t o r i c al S k e t c h

I7

one of his essays maintains t hat to the essence of

t ru e literature especia ll y the l iteratu re of the imagi
nation the re is n eeded a broad worl d wid e s y m
pathy with hu man n atu re on the part of the w riter
What h e invent s if it is to live m ust tou ch chords
in the u n iversal heart I t m ust be capable of arous
ing the n oble r feelings not o nl y of one cou nt ry o r of
on e age ; bu t m ust be eq u ally p owerful in all cou n
tries and al l ages I t m ust d ea l with m an as ma n

n
an d n ot as belo nging to a y part icu l ar nation place
or time I t m ust appe al to that which is ete rnal l y
t ru e eternally bea uti f u l an d eternally right A care
fu l analysis o f any one of the great writers whose
works interest u s at the present day wi l l show the
correctness of this criterion The s ecret of the ho l d
which Shakespeare has upon the presen t age is n ot
simply owing to his powers of imagination though
they are o f the highest order ; it is not m erely that
h is l a nguage is highly gu rative it is n ot on ly that
his st y le is p ure chaste an d perspic u o us ; it is n ot
a ny on e n or all of these perfections combi ned that
gives the Poet of Strat ford a hold u pon the minds
and a p l ace in the a ffections of m ankind H e lives
and he wil l live becau se he h as shown hu m an natu re
as it is al l the world over ; its d eepest sorrows
its
highest aspirations its noblest sentim ents it s m o s t
e xalted characteristics
H e sy mpathises with hu m a n
,

T he

18

A rt h u ri an E pi c

goodness and reserves his scorn only fo r what is

insincere and hypocritical and the leading charm of
his works d e pends on the imperishable characte r o f
his materi als and the secu rity with which he has
lai d his fou n dation d eep i n the true hearts o f tru e
m en
These which are the essential characteristics o f
genu ine literatu re are as distinctly present in the
Arthu rian roman ces as they are in the works of
Shakespeare H ere all is ideal al l pu rely imagina
t ive and yet al l rests o n a basis o f what is eterna l
an d general in h u man natu re an d in man s spiritua l
and socia l experience There are no sensational
e ffects ; n o vi ces painted as virt u es ; n o e scape from
j ust d oom for the villain an d yet a hu man sympathy
breathes forth from every page an d pervad es every
roman ce I t is idealised literat u re the resu lt o f tru e
po e t ic i nspiration in which d eep down beneath the
chastened fantasy there lie hidden great spiritual
truths which awaken responsive echoes in the heart
I t is n o won d er therefore that a
o f every reader
work s o n oble in aim s o art istic in structu re s o
warm in its hu man ity an d s o perfect in its nish
shou ld have secu red for itself a lasting pl ace i n the
a ff ections o f mankin d or that s o gre a t a poet as
*
Milton shou ld at one tim e have entertained the
,

Vi de Not e B

H i s t o r i ca l S k e t c h

19

idea of taking this s ubj ect as the them e o f his most

ambitious epic
So far we have been consid ering excl usively the
un iqu e an d fully d eveloped romances o f Walter Map
S ince they come to u s as the m ost perfect version
o f the Arthu rian Epic which we pos s e s s ; and we
have pu rposely passed by with on ly a casu al allu
sion the writings of those who preceded him in this
departm ent o f ction
.
I t is u nqu estionable that Map s version is virtu
ally an ori g ina l p rod u ct ion n ot onl y in its id ea or
aim but also in the gen eral i nvention of the s tory ;
an d yet a carefu l search am on g the olde r Art hu rian
writers d iscloses the fact that M ap w as in debted to
others for the ro ugh grou n d work o f one o f his ro
manees at least and for the crud e outlines o f many
incidents and characters which he reprod uced in
m ore polished an d cou rtl y form
N or was Map alone i n thu s makin g trib utary the
writin gs o f his pred ecessors The Art hu rian epopoi ia
was a thing o f slow growth the production of d i ffer
ent ages an d of m any m inds At each stage i n its
histo ry it rece ived add itions or embellishments which
stam ped i t with the characteristics o f the ind ivid ua l
m in d o f the n arrat or an d of the times in which h e
lived e ach su ccessive romancer taking from h is pred
ec e s s o rs j ust as mu ch or as little as he pleased an d
.

T he

20

A rt h u ri an E pi c

enlarging or adorn ing the re s ul t to s u it his own ca

price o r that of the p ublic
I f therefore we would obtain in t he S implest an d
most natu ral ord er a concise history o f the gradual
u n folding o f the Arthu rian tale we must follow it
i n its chronologica l development tracing the narra
tive step by step from its earliest shadowy i n ce p
tion to its fu l l and nal completion
And this
cou rse we propose t o p ursu e in the prese nt work
We shall glan ce at the an cient bardic poetry o f
Wales Cornwall an d Armorica s o as t o discove r
if possible the birth plhce of this fam ou s cyclus
We shall wande r t hrough the ma z es o f the later
Welsh an d Breton m in strelsy and watch the s ubs e
qu ent history o f the story as u nfolded by the bards
o f the M iddle Ages
We shall visit the cells of i m
agi n at iv e m onks wh o in corporate d the story o f Ar
thu r as part and parcel o f their Chron icles or H istories
o f Britain ; a n d nally we shall p ore over the scrolls
o f the N orman tro uv eres o f E nglan d whose exqu isite
narratives show the Arth u rian cyclus i n its lu xu riant
afte r
growth whe n a s knightly tale o r idyllic fantasy
it entwined itself arou n d the i m agination and e n
grafte d itsel f i nto the heart of the w h ole of Chris
.

t e nd om

And when we have passed this the gold e n age

o f Arth u rian Romance and have arriv e d at the poe t s
,

H i s t o ri c al S k e t c h

2 I

of th e n ineteenth cent u ry we shall take Ten n y son

as the best m od ern exponent o f the N orman epic
and shall compare sid e by side the old rom ances
and the poet s I ay l l s of t h e Ki ng
The Art hu rian tales of the late Poet L au reate are
i n some respects the m ost highly nished o f all the
version s of this celebrated cyclus Thou sands have
read these the most celebrat e d of Tennyson s poems
an d the tim e thu s spent has passe d like a d ream
At ti m es the m usic o f t h e verse rises i n power as
the p oet s imaginat ion d epicts the gran d fest ivities
of Cou rt the brilliant to u rnam ent or the deadly
battle At times it sinks into the softest ten derest
strains as Enid gentle i n her natu re bears witho ut
a mu rmu r the harsh comma n ds o f her suspecting
hu sband ; or when Gu inevere r e ceives i n d eep pas
repentance her Ki n g s withering rebuke
s i o n fu l
A n d who is there that has n ot be e n f asci n ate d
with the chast e an d to u ching d escriptions o f the
late Poet L au reate ? Yet how few o f these reade rs
kno w anything o f the original romances from which
the poet borrowed the scenes which in m a ny in
stances he has s o faith fu lly reprod u ced N o one
dou btl e ss at the pr e s ent day i m agines that the
I ay l l s of t h e Ki ng are the invention o f the p oet s
own brai n ; still co mparativel y few perh aps cou ld
gi ve an intelligent opinion upon the fa ithfu lness o f
,

'

T he

22

A rt h u ri an E pi c

Ten nyson s pict u res or point o u t the sou rces from

which he d rew his inspiration
I n this as i n every departmen t o f literatu r e the
m ost i nteresting and e ffect ive plan o f research c o n
sists i n what m ay be called the compa r a t i ve m ethod
But let u s explai n what is m ean t by this t erm
I t is i mpossible to exam in e crit ically the early na
t i o n al literatu res o f E u rop e without being stru ck
by the fact that a great d eal which is com m only re
garded as ori ginal an d pecu liar t o a given cou ntry
is in reality onl y a reprod u ction in d i fferen t form o f
n t ri e s an d of an earlier age
the creations o f other co
I t was part o f t h e d ut y o f t h e mi n s t re l s the rst

o
f
poets
Eu rope t o tell the m ythic h istory o f the
past and to have their m em ory well stored with the
folk lore o f thei r t ime s o that they m ight be read y
on all occasions t o recite whatever t he c aprice o f
their hearers m ight Call fo r The cleve r m in strel
whether attached t o the cou rt of some p owerful
prince or leading a m ore wandering life and p ra e
t i s i n g his art from place t o place had to catch the
wid ely d i fferent hu mou rs of di fferent au diences and
by a slight chan ge or happy h it to en su re the read y
welcom e which proc u red him his daily bread These
tales whether in p rose o r verse m ad e as they oft e n
were ou t o f t ru e l iteratu re an d m ou lded artistic ally
Were transm itted orally from m instrel t o m in strel and
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

24

I t i s n ot n ecessary however t o t ravel beyond the

literatu re of England t o n d striking instances o f
l iterary parallelism A thousand years before M ilton
had dictated on e word o f P a ra d is e L os t th e theme
had been attempted by the Anglo Saxon poet C aed
m on as part of his Scr ipt ure P a raph ras e The early
p oet sings as M ilto n d oes of the rebellion in H eaven
of the t raitorous archangel o f t h e expulsion o f the
Satan ic hosts of the place o f banishm ent o f the
co u nci l in H ell and of the creation and fall o f Man
This poem it is tru e will not bear co m parison i n
point of struct u ra l pe rfct io n an d scholar l y nish
with that of the blind bard o f the s e v e n t e e t h centu ry
an d yet throughout the e ntire work there are many
an d striking points o f sim ilarit y between the t w o
p oems Every lin e i nde ed o f C ae dmon s narrative
brings t o m ind som e m ore elaborate and highly po l
i s h e d scen e of th e cla s sic M ilton and althou gh the
pa l m for superior geni us learning an d artisti c m erit
rest s with the late r p oet y e t there is man y a passage
in the Saxon poem that far excels in pu rity o f thou ght
an d expression the correspond ing lines i n Pa ra d i se
Who for example can bear to read without
L os t
d ispleasu re M ilt on s coarse and repulsive description
of the scen e im mediately subseq u ent to the Fall ;
and who that has read the correspon ding passag e in
C ae dmon d oes n o t prefer the chaste simplicity of
'

H i s t o ri cal S k e t ch

25

the monk of Whitby P I t wou ld well repay the

lover of tru e literatu re to compare the Ange l of
Presu mption of the old poem with M ilton s colossal
co nception o f L u cifer or to contras t the archangelic
ri d e which is the m ot ive of rebellion i n the heart of
p
Ca d mo n s hero with the m ore ignoble m otive o f
l
u
sy wh ich M ilton attributes t o the b erh o f h is
ea
o
j
epic To gain a full appreciation o f the grand eu r o f
the n arrat ive which ows torren t like from the glow
ing imaginat ion o f M ilton it is n ecessary to have
read the earlier poem with its less arti cial arrange
ment and simple beau ty o f thought sin ce the P a r a
a is e L os t o f the Saxon poet was the rst strain o f
sacred s ong in Englan d which was t o receive its
latest and m ost perfect expression i n the epic of the
n e glected Secretary o f the Commonwealth
Even s o u n iqu e a write r as Bu n y an had been fore
stalled by Gu illau me d e G u il e v il l e a French m onk
of the Cistercian Order o f the fou rt eenth centu ry
i n L e P el e r i nag e d e l homme or as it was known i n
England The Py lg r e mag e of t he Sow l e and the two
works have m any point s in comm on H ow far the
P i lg r i m s P r og r ess is origin al it is di f cult t o deter
m in e M acaulay assert s that Bu nyan had neve r read
but on e work of pop u lar literatu re viz Si r Be v is of
Sou t ha mpt on ; but Bu nyan s own words d is prove this
statem ent
When I was in the world he writes

"

T he A rt h uri an E pi c

26

the Scriptu res thou ght I then what are they ?

a little ink and paper
give m e a ballad a news
book George on horseback o r Bevis o f So u t h amp
t on
Give m e som e book that
tells old Fa

bles
The very m ention of ballad s and chap books
proves how fa m iliar this c l ass o f literatu re was t o him
as well as to his readers Anyon e m oreover who is
at home with the roman ces o f chivalry can s e e in the
port raya l of Greatheart and in the introd u ction o f
adventu res with giants lions and demons how well
acquainted B u nyan was with the t raditional literat u re
of an earlie r day The p
opu larity in Englan d o f D e
G u il e vill e s romance is proved by n u merou s facts
The venerable monk Dan J ohn L ydgat e mad e a
metrical translatio n i nto English o f the French work
by com mand o f the Ear l o f Salisbu ry i n 142 6 u n der
the t itle of P i lg r i mag e of t he or l d I n 148 3 Wil
liam Caxton printed Th e Py lg r e mag e of t he Sow l e

translated oute of Fre n s h e in to En gl ys h e

The
libraries of England contained n u merou s tran slations
o f D e G u il e v i ll e s allegory both i n prose and verse
and these t ranslat ions contin u ed i n pop u lar favou r
and i n u enced ou r literatu re d own t o the tim e o f the
Great Rebellion which formed as it were a chasm
betwee n ancient and modern English writings
Whether or n ot Bu nyan had ever read the D rea me
o
e Py lg r e ma e of t h e Sow l e translated out o f the
h
t
f
g
,

H is t orical S k e t ch

French may be a matter O f qu estion and yet it is im

possible to read the P ilg r i m s P r og r e ss i n the light
o f these t ranslations without arriving at a moral cer
tai nty that Bunyan s inimitable allegory was s u g
gested by De G u il e vil l e s romance an d was largely
indebted to it and to t he roman ces o f chivalry for
m u ch that h as cont ribu ted t o th e popu larity of his
work
I n the French allegory the Pilgrim is inamed with
a desi re o f t ravelling to the heavenly J eru salem I n
a m irror he h as a vision o f th e H oly City The gate
that bars the road is g uarded by angels who d efend
it against the u nworthy Grace de Dieu a lady of
exqu isit e beauty gu ides the Pilgrim t o her ho use
where s h e instructs him baptises him an d con rms
him H e receives the H oly E ucharist an d is p re
sented with the scarf an d the sta ff H e is invested
with the g irdle o f J u stice an d receives as a gu id e a
book of the p rofession o f the Faith H e is then
armed w ith cuirass helmet b uckler sword an d spear
but nding himself cu mbered with al l these acco u
t re m e n t s he begs l eave to pu t them o ff and arms
himself i nstead with D avid s s lin g an d the ve pcb
bles that David u sed agai nst Goliath H e then starts
on his pilgrimage Great dangers m eet him The
Passions i n personied form attack and at t imes
vanq uish him bu t Reas on and G race d e Die u co n

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

28

s t a n t ly

com e to his rescue Tribulation overpowers

h im
H e is assailed by Avarice H eresy and Satan
H e is led ast ray by Fortu n e and takes refu g e in a
convent where he nds Disciplin e Abstinence P o v
e rt y Charity an d Obed ience
The conven t bein g
badly guar ded is assailed by en emies and c aptu r e d
bu t the Pilgrim m akes good his escape At l ast he
meets I n rmit y who seizes him an d Death who strikes
h i m d own
The leading ideas (th ou gh n o t the doct ri ne) are
very sim ilar t o those ip B u nyan s great alle gory ;
Death however comes at last not as Bu n y an s hi gher
fan cy painted it in the shape of a cold river which
m u st be passed bu t in the m ore com m on image of
an armed gure with a scythe Still the whole ro
mance is und er the semblance of a d ream an d if
Bunyan awakes when the phan tom s o f his brai n
have crossed t h e st ream t o the realisation o f his
prison so d oes D e G u il e vil l e when t h e cold sc yth e

of D eath cuts his Pil grim down

I scarcely knew
conclu des the French alle gory
when I awoke
whether I was dead or alive u ntil I heard t h e clock
strike the hou r t o rise and then also the crowi n g o f

the cocks
.

J
Se

ne

mort

u s qu a

t an

m e po vo i e

o u e n vi e

u
e
q

e st o ie

n
n
e
r
ou
so
y
j

H i s t o ri cal S k e tc h
L o ro l o ge d e

Et

e
e
our
l
v
r
p

n u yt

u s si lors

c h an t o i e n t

29

les

c o cq s

N ow Tenn y son s I dy l l s of t he Ki ng are the l at gs t

a n d in so m e respects the m ost highly n ished ver
sion o f the Arthu ri a n tal es that we possess ; they are
m or e over avow e dly based on romances already in
existence and henc e afford a wid e eld for crit ical
comparison The l ate Poet L au reate ad d ed but l it
tle that is positively n ew t o the ma ss of i ncident
that alread y existed O n the contra ry h e omitted
large portions of the original cycle and presented
only detached fragments of that which the old trou
t re s had left as a grand epic who le
vE
H e added it
i s tru e i nnu m e rable pre Raphae lite to uches ; he elabo
rated the minor details an d he gave a m ore delicate
colou ring to passages which otherw ise m ight have
grated on m odern ears Bu t as this work p roceeds
it will be se e n that the frag m ents which Tennyson s e
l e c t e d a n d rewrote in s o fa r as they are beauti fu l in
incid e n t owe th e ir beauty t o t h e m e d ize val romanc e r ;
i n s o far as the y are w a n t ing in bea ut y they owe it
M
M
to Te n n y son alone
L
I n one resp e ct perhaps the results of the presen t
work will be disapp oin t i ng Everyone would rather
retain fanci e s which lo n g poss ession h as en deared
eve n t ho u gh they m ay n ot be tru e than have his lit
tle gods ruthlessl y torn down from their accu stom e d

.t

T he

0
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

niches in the Pantheon o f h is m ind The l ady who

had been in the habit o f thinking that S he s aw in
the S hadows o f the moon two fond lovers bowin g
gracefully to each other after the most approved
fashion o f m odern society was happy in the thou ght
and it was cruel i n the Bishop to destroy the ill usion
by telling her that they were the spires o f a lu nar
cathedral
We d o not like to entertain the idea that H ome r
whom we have been acc u stom ed to c l othe with the
hal o of a blind bard yvas nought bu t a ctitious
nam e given to a cyc l e of o l d Grecian rom ances nor
can we bear to think that Shakespeare ou r model of
genius was indebted to any previous writer for so
m u ch as the conception of creations which we have
bee n used t o regard as essentially h is An d so those
who have gained thei r kno w l edge of Arth u r an d of
his kn ight s of the Ro u n d Table from Tennyson a lone
are likely t o have their poetic sensitiveness ru dely
shocked by many a d iscovery which the older au
thors wil l revea l Sir L an celot for example may
prove to be a p u rely poetic creation o f the Norm an
trouv ere withou t the slightest historical fou ndation
sti ll can we not cherish his nam e and admire his
nob l e natu re as w e d o those o f other creations in
the realm of p u re romance ? Can we not admire
t h e ideals of poetry ZEn e as or Ach i ll es Beatri ce or
.

T he

2
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

I sle o f Avalon an d with th e solitary grande u rs o f

the isle behi nd on e an d with the sea rippling at one s
feet and stretching in haze t owards the opposit e main
l and to pore over Map s pages till in the mood o f
poetic listlessness the m ainland ov e r the ha z e seem s
again the very region wh ere Arthu r ru l ed and the
knights j ou rneyed an d j ou st e d this is reading such

as is possible no w but on ce o r twice i n a li fetim e

,

C HA P T E R
T he

A rt h uri an

II

E pic I t s P l ace

in

Li t e rat u re

those who have not bestowe d m u ch thou ght

u pon the subject it may s eem l ike an at
tempt at paradox t o s ay that p oetry m ay be fo u nd
u n d er the form o f both prose and verse An d
e
t
the
statement
is
strictly
tru
e
So
accustomed
y
have we become in ou r every day speech t o treat
the terms P oetry and Verse as id entical i n th ought
that to speak o f p rose poetry seem s like a co n t rad ic
tion in t erm s Nevertheless the l over o f literatu re
can point o u t whole eld s o f gen u in e poetry as
sensu ou s and ethereal as t h e poetry of verse lying
scattere d u p an d down in the works o f m any o f o u r
great prose writers
I t is scarcely p o s s ible perhaps t o c onceive o f any
thing m ore chas te an d beautifu l than the description
of the three L adies o f Sorrow in De Qu incey s Sus
*
i
r
i
a
P
o
n
I
t
is
a
masterp
iece
of
p
rose
d
e
r
u
di
s
f
p
poetry
I ndeed t h e m oment the force of the apparent
,

Vide No t e C
33

T he

34

A rt h u ri an E pi c

p aradox is recognised its tru th becomes self evident

an d we s e e that even the most arti s t ic v e rs icat io n
does n ot necessarily constit u te p oetry nor does the
absence of v e rs i cat i o n n ecessa rily constit ute p rose
I n other words p oetry is a l together i ndependent o f
the form i n which it is expre s sed This point will
stan d o ut in the strongest possible light as we pro
ce e d sin ce al l of the Ang l o Norman romances are i n
the form o f p rose tho u gh rank l ing with the n ob l est
poetry in ou r language
I n what then does poetry con s ist ? Can it be
logically dened ?
P oet s an d philosophers i n both ancient and m od
e rn t im e s have tried to fathom the secret an d fo rmu
late a d e nition bu t have failed Sir Phi l ip Sid ney
style s it T h e sweet food of sweetly u ttered know l
edge l ifting the mind from the d u ngeon of the body

t o the enj oying of its own divi n e essence

Shake
speare i n his well known l ine s te ll s u s :
,

A s i magi n ation bodi e s forth

T h e for ms o f thi n gs u n k n o w n ,

the P oet s pe n
n
iv
e
s
to
a
ir
n
othi
g
g
y

them t o S h ape s an d
loc al h abitatio n an d a n ame

T urn s
A

According t o M ilton p oet ry is Th e s imp l e s en su

ou s and passionat e ut terance of feeling and tho ught

Sir J Stephens w ho comes n earer to the tru e d e
u ltion than any oth e r
d esc ribes it as T h e me e t

I ts

P l ace i n Li t e rat u re

35

tterance of the deepest thoughts an d p u rest fee lings

of ou r natu re Word s worth ch aract eristica ll y s peak s

of it as The u tterance of emot ions re membered in

tran qu il l ity
Shelley styles it The record of the
best an d happiest m om ents o f the best and happiest

minds ; and Macau l ay d enes poet ry t o be The

art of d oing by m eans of word s what the painte r
does by m eans o f co l ou r
The very natu re of poet ry is s o etherea l i t s li fe
SO sensu ous
its expression s o passion fu l its very
bein g s o spirit ual that even as we t ry to analyse it
it elu des ou r gras p an d vanishes To appreciat e it
is i ntuitive As the scarcely visible aerial form of
the n y mph i n the Scl avo n ic tal e takes the bod i l y
shape o f an earthly maide n beneath the yearn ing
gaze o f love s o poet ry revea l s itself in all th e f ul n ess
o f i t s charms only to those who have a sou l i n sympa
t h y with it
As well m ight one t ry by logical d e
u ltion to give a blin d man an idea of the splend ou r of
a d y ing au t u mn s u n as to en d eavou r t o supp l y poetic
deciency by a verba l d e nition of po e t rv
The fact that p oet ry p resents itself u nder the garb
both o f prose and vers e will appear in a stil l stronge r
light i f the ancient and generall y accepted cl as s ica
tio n of Poetry or the L iteratu re o f I magination be
kept i n view According to this classication Poet ry
compromis e s L yric Dramatic and Epic o r Narrative
u

"

T he

6
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

literat u re L yri c verse as the name indicates in

Odes Ballads and S hort er
cl u d e s those exqu isite
pieces o f sentim e n t which in every age have been
sung to the lyre or other instru ment
Dramatic
verse which is intended to b e acted comprises life
S cenes real o r imaginary with plot i ncident d ialogue
an d choru s arranged for representation on the stage
And nal l y Epic verse which was originally i n
ten ded t o be simply n arrated comprises tales and
histories of grotesqu e adve ntu res or heroic d eeds to
be recited (o r read ) for the e ntertain ment of the
castle the market place o r the home s o f the h u mbler
classes
An d each o f these t hre e clas s es of verse literat u re
has its corresponding prose cou nterpart I n those
rand
outb
rsts
o
f
feeling
which
now
and
again
u
g
sparkle in the oratory of the ancients o r i n the i m
passioned u tterances of more mod ern times we have
prose Odes rising in sublimity to the very highest
range o f poetry Ther e are prose Dramas which i n
poetic power o f creat ion and expression can stand
S ide by S ide with the greatest masterpieces in verse
And s o with Narrative p oetry The Epic is n ot re
I ts prose cou nterpart is the ro
s t ri ct e d to verse
mance o r novel The Epic is a metrical romance ;
the N ovel is a prose roman ce I t may seem per
haps to the severely sensitive m ind to be d egrading
.

I ts

P lace in L i t e rat u re

37

the classic epic by thus placin g it on a level with

the m od ern novel or t o mention m odern writers o f
romance i n the sam e breath with H o m er Virgil
Dante or M ilton We do not refer howeve r s o
m uch t o what the novel is as t o what the novel
sho u ld be I f i n the maj ority o f instances the ro
mance of to day has n ot fullled its high desti ny
it is beca u se there have been and st ill are deadeni n g
in u ences at work in the world of l e tters which
have d ragged it down and chained it to the earth
I t has be e n said by o n e competent t o j udge in such
m atters that every novel should be a prose I l ia d
o r a prose Ody ss ey The di fferen ce between the
classic Epic and the classic N ove l is far fro m being
so great as m any may imagin e Bu t few cou ntries
throughou t thei r entire h istory h ave produ ced m ore
than on e o r at m ost two g ran d heroic p oem s m ade
o f such
imperishable material as to stand their
grou nd in spite of adverse criticism and the rav
ages o f ti m e and which have take n deeper and
rmer root in the hearts o f m en as the cent u ries
have rolled by An d this is equally tru e o f the
prose literatu re of I m agination I n any on e cou n
t ry there are bu t few red
lettered n ames o n the e n
tire roll o f i ts novelists ; bu t few prose ro m an ces
which will live and take their place sid e by sid e
with their metrical counte rpart s Those however
,

T he

8
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

w h ich

have live d an d have attracted the attention

o f s u ccessive generation s o f men wil l be fou n d
if
closely exa m ined to approach very n early t o the
ep i c standard ; an d th e conclu sion will be forced
upon the m in d that what the Epic is in u n ity o f
design in gran deu r of plot i n invention o f incident
i n delineation of charact er in description o f scen ery
and i n depth o f h u man sympathy that m ust the
N ovel b e i f it is t o live and be worthy o f compari
so n with the m etrica l epic
C o n n i n g o u r attent ion then to Roma n t ic o r
Narrative literatu re (the only subj ect with which
we have any concern at present ) it m ust b e born e
in m i nd that Eng l is h romantic literatu re has com e
d own t o u s in three t otally distinct and i n d e pe n
d en t chann els I n other words there are three clearly
marked kinds o f Romance in English literat u re
There is the Ro m an ce o f Real L if e which can be
traced back t o its origin i n the French Con t e s and
Fa bl i a ux m an y o f which re app ear in Ch a u cer s
Ca n t e r bury Ta l es as for exa mple th e sto ry o f G r i
Subsequently this class o f roman ces formed
s el da
*
the staple o f the chap books o f the sixteenth cen
tu ry an d can be t raced onw a rds in an u nbroken
series in ho m e mad e stori es o f E n glish life su ch as
the H i st ory of Th omas a Re a d i ng o r the Six Worthy
,

Vi d e No t e D

T he

0
4

A r t h u ri an E pi c

poe m s and t h e tast e engendered by it s pe rs o n ica

t ions l a sted till the seventeenth centu ry I n Spe n
s e r s Fa e r ie Q uee n e this allegorical sty l e of writing is
seen decked with the trapp ings of chivalry shrou ded
with the w e ird the fabu lou s an d the supernatu ral
a n d plaintive with the moans of d istressed damsels
Subseque ntly app eared Sir Thomas M ore s Ut opia
a political alleg ory and Sir Philip Sidney s A r ca d ia
a pastoral allegory the l e gitimat e an d n at ural o u t
come o f the popul ar taste o f the day ; an d nall y
the last wave o f the move ment started by the Roma n
d e l a Ros e broke o n English ears when B u n yan p ub
l i s h e d his celebrated religiou s allegories the P i lg r i m s
P rog r es s an d the H oly
ar
The third class o f En glish Romantic literat u re is
the Romance o f Chivalry This which i n N orman
t im es was extensively popular in Engl and consisted
o f fou r gran d epic cycles that were su ng o r recited
t o a greater or l ess extent i n every castle and ham
let fo r man y a long year before either t h e A ll e go ri
cal Romance o r th e Romance o f Real L ife had an
existence an d n o one d esired anything di fferent
anythin g new
The rst of these c y cles o f Chivalric Roman ce re
lated t o the Emperor Charlemagne an d inclu ded
tales histo ries and son gs n o t only o f the Emperor
himself but also of Clovis and Charles the Bald
,

I ts

P l ace i n L i t e rat ure

1
4

To this c ycle belon g th e Cha ns on d e Rol a nd the

Ch r on ique d e Tu rpi n the Roma n d e s L ohe r a i ns and
stories of other au g u st pe rsonages
This series which was French i n origin French i n
subj ect matter an d French in m ode o f t reatment
w as natu rally the produ ction of France a nat ive i n
v e n t i o n o f the French mind and althou gh based on
solid history u nderwent an extensive cou rse o f h ome
an d foreign developm ent
A ski rm ish i n which
Charles the Great su ffered a comparat ive l y i n s ig
n i ca n t loss in a pass of the Pyrenees becam e in
the l e gends o f later times the great battle
,

Wh

C h arl e ma in w ith

en

By Fo n t arabb i a

al l

his

e
e
p

r age f e ll

N ext to the Arthu rian cycle this was perhaps

more widely spread over Christe n do m than any o f
those which we are about to n ame I n England
however it n ev e r took a rm hold of the popu l ar
imagination the exploits o f Arthu r an d his knights
eclipsing to a very g reat extent those o f Charle
magn e an d his peers I n ne Arthu r being a n a
tive British King became th e hero of the E nglish
national e pic ; while Charlemagne being a n ative
E m peror of France becam e the he ro o f the French
nat ional epic
Scarcely in ferior in point of i mportance t o this
,

The

A rt h u r i a n

E pi c

Carlovingian cycle was that of King Alexan der

or as it was sometimes st y led the Lyf e of A l is a u n
d re
Fou r y ears after the battle o f H astin gs Si
m e on Seth a high f u nct ionary in the palace o f
A n t iochu s at Constantinople (he i s styled magis

ter and protovest iary or chief of the wardrobe )

wrote a Greek romance in which he collected ar
ranged an d t ranslated from t h e Persian and Ara
bian legends of Alexander the Great which had
oated down t o his o w n t i m es like the reverbera
tions o f d istant thu nder
This Greek romance
form ed th e fou ndat ion of su cceed ing t al e s I t was
translate d into L at in Germ an Spanish Italian
and even int o H ebrew ; but it w as o n the L atin
version that all subs e qu ent d e velop m ents were
fou nd e d From this sou rce the French legends
st arted and from the French v e rsion the E n glish
romance was developed
Unlike the roman ces of Charle magne this cycl e
becam e n atu ralised in En gl a nd and there is extant
a sp irited metrical version o f the roma n ce o f Alex
*
ander which dates b ack t o the thirteenth centu ry
We may not e in passin g that in the d e scriptions
o f the battles which e n d in the overthrow o f D a rius
an d still m ore i n the I ndian ca m p a i gn o f Alex ander
,

Vi de
t ee n t

M e tr i ca l Roman ce s of

Ce n t u r i e s , by

t h e T hi r tee n t h ,

Fou r te en t h

e r,

18 10

y Wb

e nr

E d i nburgh

a nd

P if

Its

P l ace in L i t e rat u re

43

it i s qu aint even to the verge o f the ludicrous t o

s e e this hero o f th e Old World painted as a medi a:
val kn ight c alled Syr A l e s au n d re and su rround e d
by all the most f antastic po m p and circum stance o f
N orman chival ry
We n ow com e to the third c y cle of the Romance
o f Chivalry
L ong before England had passed i n to the poss e s
sion o f the D ukes o f N or mand y there e xist ed in
the cou nt ry a Dan o Saxo n cy cle wh ich at o n e
tim e form e d l ike that o f Charle m a gn e an d Alex
an der an extensive epic s e ries This the Norman
trouv e re s m ad e t ribut ary They t ranslated it into
French re m odelled and e m bellished t o su it N or m an
tastes but n everthel e ss S howing t h e o l d D an ish
grou n dwork in the colou ri n g o f the stori e s a n d
other d e tails which n o am ou nt o f Fre n ch d ressi n g
could hid e
The o n l y sp e ci m e ns o f this once f a m ou s c y cl e
which have co m e do w n t o u s e ith e r in French o r
En glish are the rom an c e o f H a ve /oh t h e D a ne a n d
Still they form t o
t h e ro m a n ce o f Ki ng H or n
gether an int e resting stud y lli n g up as the y d o
o n e corn e r i n the S hri n e o f e a rl
E
lish
wit
n
d
n
a
y
g
fan c y
The fou rth c y cle is t h e Arthu ri an th at which w e
a re about t o exa m in e i n t h e pr e se n t work
These
,

The

44

A rt h uri an

E pi c

fou r cyc l es the Carlovingian the Alexandrin e the

Dan o Saxon and the Arthu rian comprise co ll e c
t iv e l y the body of Chivalric Rom ance with which
the N orman trouv ere help e d t o while away t h e leis
u re hou rs of t hose whose lives were spent o n the
battle e l d or in th e tou rnament or with which the
*
yong l e urs an d Ges t ours amu sed their less lordly
patrons
I t will thu s be seen that of the three classes o f
En glish Ro mantic literat u re the Romance o f Real
L i fe the Allegorical Ro m
ance an d th e Rom ance
o f Chivalry
w e shall tou ch onl y upon the last
v iz
the Chivalric Romance ; and that of the fou r
rand
c
cles
of
the
R
oman
ce
of
Chivalry
the
Car
g
y
l o v i n gian the Alexand rin e the Dan o Saxon and
the Arthu rian we shall examine onl y the Arthu
rian
At this point stand ing as we d o on the very t h re s
hold o f the subj ect it may help u s to appreciat e the
perfection o f beaut y of the Arthu rian Romance i f
fo r a m o ment we V iew from a d istance its vast pro
portions and its rich blend ing of m e d imv al e ffects
Some o f the writers o n Romantic Fiction t ake it
fo r granted that the Arthu rian Epic has u nd ergone
a lengthened and grad u al cou rse o f d evelop m e n t
They see i n Tenn y son the latest and m ost artistically
,

Vi d e Not e

I ts

P l ace in Li t e ra t u re

45

perfect reect ion of pre existing poem s hist orie s and

romances They regard the Anglo N orman rom ances
in t u rn as th e outgrowth of pre existing Breton tra
d it io n s and these Breton t rad ition s again they view
as an embellished version o f We l sh poems and fol k
lore Accordi ng t o this theory th e Welsh d rew the
grand rough outline on the canvas ; the Bretons
enlarged the original Cambrian d esign and put in
the gro u n d t ints ; the Norman tro uv eres added the
grouping and gave the colou ring to the p ict u re ; the
continental w orkers lled in the gu res in the back
grou nd and Tennyson s u pplied the nishing t ouches
and the ma s sive gilt fram e
With all d ue respect for the opinion of these writ
e rs it is impo s sible t o take this view of the subj ect
except in a very vagu e an d genera l way The Welsh
bards give u s at the most bu t a dim reect ion o f a
great historic fact vi z : the death struggle between
the Kelt and the Saxon and even this reection
becomes d istorted a l most beyond recogn it ion as seen
through the ha z e of myth and fab l e which afterwards
grew up among the Wel sh The Breton traditions
startin g l ike the We l sh with a tiny germ o f history
transformed it into an idealised m emory of a loved
C hieftain whom event ua l ly they su rrou nded with a
h al o o f chivalric glory and can onised as a demi god
The N orman trouv ere throwin g histo ry altogethe r
-

T he

6
4
of

A rt h uri a n E pi c

the question an d taking from Welshman or

Breton only su ch m aterial as suited his pu rpose
reared an imperishable str u ctu re o f sp iritualised ro
mance upon a p oetic l egend o r tradit ion o f the early
Chu rch ; a n d Ten n yson though ostensibly rep ro
d u cin g m edi ae val rom ance has simply painted a
u n iqu e s e t o f Arthu rian pictu res i n which King Ar
thu r becom es an id ealised Prince A l be rt a s e l e ss
gent l eman
These three versions (om itting Tenn yson s for the
pre s ent ) d i ffer from each other n ot in m in or detai l s
only bu t i n essential poi nts The Arth u r o f t he
Bards is a ly r ic character the s ubj ect of a song
Th e Arthu r of the Chron iclers is professed l y a h is
the central gu re o f an epoch
t or i c character
The Arthu r o f the Rom ancers i s an epic character
a knight among
o n e of the p ersonages i n a novel
other knights and n o t i n any sen s e the t ru e hero o f
the p l ot
M oreover each of these three versions had an l n
dependent d evelop ment o i its own By the bards
Arthu r is eventually t ransplanted i n to the r e alms of
myth he is translated t o the skies and the con ste lla

tion Ursa Maj or becam e Arthu r s Chariot

By
the C hronic l ers on the other hand h e becomes an
earthly emperor whose p ower an d cou rtly splendou r
ec l ipse even that o f Charlem agn e With the Anglo
o ut

T he

8
4

A rt h u ri an E pi c

lighting up the d ark backgrou nd of t h e scene

Am ong the noblest gen u ine poems o f the Welsh
bards o f the sixth cent u ry (for then H istory was
in the form o f song ) there is a poem upon the d eath
of Geraint the hero whom Ten nyso n celebrates as
th e h usband o f E nid The author o f this elegy was
Geraint s bard wh o was attached t o his cou rt and
paid t o sing his n oble deeds ; an d s o whe n Geraint
fell i n the famo u s battle o f L ongport the poet cele
brates the va l o u r of his you ng patron d u ring the
ght :
.

B e fore G e r ai n t the terror of t h e foe

I s aw st e e ds f all in t h e toil o f battl e
A n d a ft e r t h e S hout o f w ar a dr e a d ful o n s e t
,

B e for e G e r ai nt t h e scourge o f t h e
I s aw s t e e ds w hit e w ith fo am
,

And

ft e r t h e
blood )

hout

of

b attl e

e ne

m y,

f u rious to r re n t (o f

A t L o n gport

saw

the

ragi n g o f S l au ght e r

ad
d
e
y
arriors blo o d s t ai n e d fro m

And

nI

ri a d s o f

th e

the

ult

as s a

of

G e ra i n t

This is a ray o f historic l ight which falling upon

the person o f Geraint forms contemporary and u m
exceptional testimony t o the fact that Geraint actu
ally lived an d fought d u ring the S ixth centu ry
,

I t s Pl ace in

L it e ra t u re

49

H ere and there a gold en ha z e o f My t hol ogy hangs

over the scene blending with the gen u ine historic
light an d n eeding the spectroscope o f the crit ic to
d istingu ish between the two eleme nts
I t was a passion with C hronic l e rs d u ring the M id
d le Ages to t race the origin of the ir resp e ctive
nations to Tro y afte r the tru e Roman m ode l A
French chronicler derived the name an d origin o f
h is race from a n oble fugitive of Troy Francio
of H ector The English not to be outdone
son
seized eagerly upon Brutus the s o n of Ascanius
as an e ponymou s hero at least as respectable as
Franci o
Geo ffrey of M on mouth on e of the m ost d istin
of
the
at
in
C
hroniclers
has
l
eft
us
a
singu
i
h
e
d
L
u
s
g
l arl y beau tifu l elegiac poe m in which this myth is
cl e arly s e t forth as part of his H istory of Britain
Brutu s after the fall o f Tro y wandering t hro ugh
the M ed iterranean and u ncertain whither t o go ar
rived at a dispeopled island called L e o ge cia where
he foun d in a ru ined city a temple and oracl e of
Diana an d addresses the god dess in the followi ng
incantation which he repeats nin e times and then
o ffers th e vase of sacri ce full of wine an d blood
,

of S h ad e s an d H u n tr e s s w h o at w ill
al k st o n t h e rolli n
g s ph e r e an d throu gh t h e d e e p
O n t h y third r e i gn t h e E arth l o o k n o w an d t e ll

G odd e ss

T he

0
5

Wh t l
Wh t c

A rt h u ri an E pi c

d w h at s e at o f r e st thou bi d d s t me s e e k
a
e rt ai n s e at w h e r e I m ay w o r s h i p th e e
*
Fo r aye w ith t e mpl e s vo w e d an d v ir gi n q uir e s

an

H aving encircl e d t h e alt ar fo u r t imes an d having

pou r e d the win e int o the sacred al tar re he lies
down t o sleep At the third hou r o f the n ight the
e
oddess
hers
lf
stands
before
him
him
an
t
l
l
o
f
s
e
g
island i n t h e Western s e a an d predicts that there
he shall raise a secon d Tro y fou n d an e m pire and
est ablish a roya l lin e :
-

B rutus far to t h e W
e st i n t h e oce an w id e
B e yon d t h e re al m of G aul a l an d t h e re li e s

Se a girt

it lies w h e r e gi an ts dw e lt o f o l d
T hith e r b e n d
No w void it t s t h y pe o ple
T h y cour se
th e r e sh alt thou n d a l asti n g s e at
T h e r e t o t h y s o n s an o th e r T roy sh al l ris e
A n d K i n gs b e bor n o f th e e w ho s e dr e ad e d m i ght
S h all aw e t h e w orld an d c o n q u e r n ation s bo l d f j
-

Awaking fro m his slu mber Bru t us sets sail reaches

Britain an d there fou nds the a ncient British empire
Arthu r am ong other British sovereigns was made
a lin eal d escendant from this ctitiou s hero o f Troy
and as a conse qu ence even the companions of Ar
thu r shared the same historical notoriety I n deed
some o f the romances relating t o Arthu r are styled
Th e Roma nce of Br u t us and s u ch a rm hold did
,

Vi d e
h
I
1 ia

Mi l t o n s

Wh
or

Mass on

s ed

iti

on , vol .

iii p
.

32

I ts

P l ace

L it e rat u re

in

th e se s o called histori e s tak e u pon the minds o f

the p e opl e that Archbishop Peckham in his I nj u n c

tions to t h e d iocese o f St A s aph 12 84 d esire d h is

c l ergy to warn their parishioners the We l sh n ot
to t hink too m u ch o f the idle d reams of their fore

fathers concern ing Brut us an d his arrival i n Britain

No w and again there are quaint Eccl es ia s t ica l
ti nts c ast over this knightly assemblage i n the in
t ro d u ct i o n o f apocryphal legen ds and Chu rch tra
The Ro u nd Table legend fo r example
d it io ns
S hines forth in this d im ecclesiastical light
This
famou s table is rep re s ented as that at which ou r
Saviou r usu all y s at with his Apostles and as that
which was used at the L ast Supper Afte rwards
i t was bequ eathed together with the H oly Graal
so
sa
s
the
ro
mance
to
Bishop
J
oseph
a
descend
y
(
)
ant of J oseph of Ari mathea who thu s becam e the
fou nder o f the order of Ro und Table knights A c
co rd i n gl y the earliest knights were apost olic knights
who at thei r feasts s at aroun d the Table with the
Sangraal placed in the midst By a similar trans
formation the siege pe ril l o u s was that which ou r
L ord him self had occ u pied when o n earth and hence

was to b e left vacant u ntil the

virgin knight
appear e d wh o alone was worthy to ll it
Oth e r lights which fall u pon thi s s cene we m ust
ass
by
more
ra
idl
p
p y

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

N ow and again there is th e reect ion of a Bi bl e

narrative as for example that of the slau ghter of
the I nn ocents Arthu r is t old by M er l in when the
seer is in o n e o f his prophetic moods that he that

shou ld d e stroy him should be born e o n May day

referring o f co u rse to M odred There upon the King
let send for all the chi l dren that were born e on M ay
day begotte n of lord s and born e of ladies
upon pain e o f death An d s o there were fou nd many
lords son s an d all were sent u nto th e king an d s o
was M odre d sent by king L ots wife an d all were
pu t in a s h ippe to the s e a and some were fou re weekes
olde and som e lesse An d so by fort u ne the s h ippe
d rove u nto a castle an d w as a1 to riven an d de
s t ro i e d the m ost part save that Mod red was cast up
and a good man fo u nd him an d n ou rished hi m til
he was fo u rt e e n e y e e re s old an d then brought hi m to

the co u rt
At times we mee t with a Cl ass ica l colou ring the
re e xi o n of the m y thology poems an d tragedies o f
Greece an d Rome I n this connection we may
i nstance the fact that the m ost telling i ncident
i n o ne of the plays o f E u ripides the Me dea has
been transferred to the pages of the Rom ance
and forms a very striking episod e in the legen d
So on the m orrow the re cam e a d amo s e l l from
M organ l e Fay to the king and shee brought
,

P l ace in L i t e rat u re

Its

53

with her th e richest m ante l l that ever w as s ce n e in

the cou rt fo r it was s e t as fu l of preciou s s tone s as
might s tand one by another an d there were the
richest stones that eve r the king s aw An d the

You r sister send eth yo u this m an

d amo s e l l said
tell an d desireth y o u that yee will take this gi ft o f
her and i n what thing shee hath o ffended yo u she
wi ll am end it at yo u r o w n e p l easu re
Whe n the
king beheld this mantel l it pleased him m u ch bu t he
said but little An d with that came the dam o s e l o f
the lake u nto the ki ng an d said Sir I m u st speake
with yo u in private
Say on said the king what

ye will
Sir said the lady put n ot o n yo u this
mantell till ye have s een e m ore and in n o wise l et it
n ot come upon yo u n or on n o kn ight o f you rs till ye
co mmau n d th e bringer thereo f to pu t it upon he r

Well said king Arthu r i t shall be don e as ye

An d then he said u nt o the d amo s e ll
co u n s ail e m e

th at came from h is sister Damo s e l l this m antell

that ye have brought m e I wil l se e it upo n yo u

Sir said s h e it will not be s e e me m e t o weare a

kn ights garment
By my head said king Arth u r
ye shall weare it o r it com e on my backe or o n any
man that heere is ; an d s o the king m ad e it t o be
put u pon her ; and fo ort h w it h s h e fel l d owne dead
and n ever m ore spake word after an d was brent t o

coles
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

54

Bu t apart fro m these an d many other S ingle rays

o f light which give co l ou ring and beauty t o the bril
liant assemblage gathe red together within this Epic
there hangs over al l as it we re a lumi nou s atmos
h
e
r
th
e
pirit
twelfth
centu
ry
chivalry
an
d
e
o
f
s
p
knight errantry and to crown this the spirit of a
healthy Christian ity which casts a m e l low an d irra
d iat in g g l amo u r over the antiq u e scenes an d gu res
o f the t ale
Parables lie hid den in every p age o f the Roman ce
As we read the thought continually arises in the
m in d that there are gfan d an d generalised id eas
u n derlying the simp l e sto ry Arthu r seems t o be a
representative o f the hu m an or physical force of
th e world M erl in a representative of its intellect
Ga l ahad of idea l pu rity ; L ance l ot o f man s spirit
u al warfare ; the Rou n d Tab l e an i mage o f u n iver
sa l brotherhood ; an d the Graal an image of ideal
perfection to which only ideal p u rity can attain
Throughou t these romances m oreover there is
visibly th e working out o f an E s ch yl e an Ate the
embod imen t o f the axiom that sooner o r latter s i n
will nd the sinn er ou t ; fo r from t h e rst terribl e
fall of Arthu r d own to the nal battle in which this

os regum this ower o f kn ighthood is carried

from the eld m ortally wo u nded the m ills o f t h e
g od s grind Sl owly bu t su rely the clou ds darken and
,

C H APT E R I I I

W r i t e rs

of

t he

A r t h u r i an E pi c

H E Arthu rian Romance i n its dawn carries u s

back to the dim twilight o f British literatu r e
t o th e tim e when the dead ly st ruggle bet w een the
Kelt and the Saxon was being waged ; whe n the
daring deeds an d he roic valour of th e Welsh gave
rise t o the rst faint beginnings o f Welsh s ong an d
when the bards attached t o the Cou rt o f this or that
p owerfu l C hieftain sang o f the d eeds o f their pat rons
i n t h e d in o f battle or i n th e qu iet m u n i ce n ce o f
home
To S how however to what an exten t the outsid e
world the civilised world o f that day was ign o
rant o f the far o ff islan d o f Brit t ia and how its very
existen ce was subj ect o f myth and wild fantastic
legend we have only to op en the pages of o n e o f
the m ost n ot e d historians o f the t i m e the illust ri
Procopi u s Secretary t o the great Belisariu s
o us
who writing in the sixth centu ry i e d u ring the
Arthu rian epoch p re s ents u s with a stran ge pictu re
o f th e is l and
,

56

W ri t e rs

of

t he

E pi c

57

They s ay he writes that the sou ls of m en de

parted are always cond ucted to this place but in
what manner I will explain im med iately havi ng fre
quent ly heard it from men of that region relatin g it
most seriousl y O n the coast of the l an d ov e r
against this island Bri t t ia are many vil l a ge s i n h ab
it e d by me n emplo y e d i n shing an d a gricultu re
a n d who fo r the sake o f m e rchand ise pass over to
this island I n other respects the y are su bj ect to
the Fra n ks bu t the y n ever rend e r the m t ribute ;
this burd e n as th e y relate having been o f o l d remit
ted t o the m fo r a certain se rvice which I shall now
d e scribe The inhabitants declar e that the condu ct
in g o f S ouls departed devo l ves upon them i n t u rn
Su ch o f them the refore as o n the ensu ing night a re
to go on this occupat ion in their tu r n o f s e rvice
retiring to their dw e lli n gs as soon as it g rows dark
compose the m selv e s to sl e ep aw ait i n g the cond u ctor
of the expedition All at once at n ight th e y per
ce i ve that their doors are shaken and th e y hear a cer
tain ind ist inct voice sum monin g the m to their work
Without d elay arising from thei r beds they p roceed
t o the shore not u n derst a nd i n g t h e n ecessity which
thu s constrains them ye t n eve rtheless compelled by
its inuence An d here th e y perceive vess e ls in
read iness wholl y void o f m e n not however th e ir
own but c e rtain str ange v e ssels i n wh ich embarking

T he

8
5

A rt h u ri an E pi c

they l ay hold on the oars and fee l their bu rden

mad e heavier by a m ultitu de of passengers the boats
being su nk t o the gu nw a le and rowlock an d oat
ing scarce a nger above the water Th e y see n ot
a single person but having rowed for on e hou r
o n ly they arrive at Brit t ia ; whereas when they
navigate their own vesse l s n ot m akin g u s e o f sails
bu t rowi ng they arrive there with di fculty even in a
ni ght and a day H aving reached the is l and and
been released from their bu rden they depart imme
d iat e l y the boats qu ickly becoming light suddenly
em ergin g from the stream and sinking in t h e water
n o deeper than the kee l These people s e e n o h u
man being either while navigating with them o r
when re l eased from the ship But they s ay that
they hear a certain voice there which seems to an
nou nce to su ch as receive them the nam es o f all who
have crossed over with them and describing the dig
an d calling
n i t i e s which they form erly possessed

them over by their hereditary titles

Bu t wh ile su ch d ense ign orance obtain ed among
the scholars of Constantinople respecting Britai n in
the S ixth centu ry the Welsh were ghting an u m
equal battle with their Saxon foes and Arthu r w as
laying the fou n dation o f a fam e which was destined
t o eclipse even that of Belisarius himself I nd eed
the story o f his heroi c deeds was destined to l iv e
,

W ri t e rs

t he

E pi c

59

and be mad e the subj ect o f popular song when the

folios o f Procopius were m ou lderin g o n the shelves
of U niversity libraries
Standing as we do i n the very van o f antiquarian
research when eve ry eld of literat ure has been
scou red by earn est an d hard working stu d ents ; when
the oldest Welsh literatu re has bee n in vestigated
i n its in m ost recesses by the leading scholars o f
Wales En gland an d Brittany we are apt to forget
that this great achievement is of very recent date
I t is only o f late years that th e literary wealth o f
Wales has been brought to light For s ix h u nd red
years from the twelfth to the eighteenth centu ry
its t reasu res were allowed t o lie bu ried i n oblivion
an d few d uring this period cared t o qu estion the pre
tentions of Arth u r or the valiant d eeds of his knights
on the contrary the ctions o f the poet or t h e ch ro n i
cler were accepted as actual fact were incorporated
int o popular handbooks and for ce nt u ries were tau ght
as part and parcel o f English authentic history
With the da w n o f the prese nt centu ry however
the spirit o f criticism awoke into activity Antiqu a
rian s rubbed thei r e y es a roused th e mselves fro m their
torpor read compar e d an d wei ghed e vidence and
with the reappearan ce o f the N orman romances in
Southey and Scott ca me the critical stu dy o f the
earliest Arthu rian legends
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

60

As we cast ou r eyes over the eld of Arthurian

romance and Arthu rian p oetry and V iew its present
luxu riant g rowth the i mportant question arises Who
were the writers o f this gran d cy cl u s an d what d id
they severally accomp lish ? Or to p ut the qu estion
in other words : What was there already i n e xist
ence of the Arthu rian tales when Ten nyson t ook
the subj ect i n hand
The writers o f Arth u rian Romance we shall cl a ssify
as the Bards the Chroniclers an d the Ro m anc e rs ;
or the m en who s ang ; t he m en who h is t o rie d and
the men who inve n ted The rst two classes n eed
not detai n u s long bu t th e third class S ince it i s
both highly important and highl y interesting we
shall exam ine m ore at length
O n e o f the m ost d istingu ished o f the pioneers i n
the revival o f Welsh learn i n g was Owen J on es b orn
abou t the m iddle o f the l ast centu ry
Whil e
still a boy tending cattle i n his nativ e Welsh eld s
h e was wont t o in dulge i n reveries o n the an cient
literary and warlike glories o f his cou nt ry H e was
accu stomed to atten d the variou s m u sical an d poeti
c al contests o f the bards o f his day t h e Ei s t e d d v o d s
o r I s teth vd d s and being a bright clever lad he was
i n itiated into the mysteries of mu sic and poet ry
H e had heard from these bards accou nts o f the d i f
fe re nt castl e s in which were preserved am ong other
,

W ri t e rs

of

t he

E pi c

61

t reas u res t h e ancient a n d valu able man uscripts which

contained the cherished poetry o f his native land
and t o more th a n on e of these he mad e a pilgrim
e cio us
a e
i
n
the
h
pe
of
getting
access
to
the
pr
0
g
d ocum ents But it was al l in vain What cou ld a
poor cou ntry bo y h ave t o do with a ncient poetry ?
They thought him mad a n d n either tears n or en
treaties could gain hi m s o m uch as a glimpse of the
well guard ed parchm ents Repulsed and derided
this i nspired bo y bent h is steps hom ew a rd t i m e
and again w ith a heavy he art and sick a t soul
But he was n ot t o be foiled Coming t o the con
e
cl u s i o n that money a lone would forge a k
t
o
open
y
thes e d u ngeons of his loved literat u re h e tr avelled
up t o L ondon enter e d in the ye a r 17 60 as a shop
boy a furrier s o n Tha m es Stre e t an d am id al l the
dru d ge ry o f a m en i al o i ce liv e d i n f a nc y a m o n g
b a rds a n d w arri o rs a n d princes From sh o p bo y he
rose to be clerk ; from clerk t o p artn er ; fro m p a rt
ner to he ad o f the rm The prize w as now a f
ter forty ye a rs o f toil wit hin his re a ch A man of
o ne
idea he d e voted h is rich e s t o the attai n m e nt
o f his li fe d ream
C op y ists were emplo y ed ; the
castle d oors were throw n ope n the priceless ma n u
scripts w e re placed at his serv ice ; an d by the be
gi nni n g o f the p res e nt centu ry he h ad coll e cted
tra n scripts o f a greater n u mber o f celebrated m an u
,

T he

62

A rt h u ri an E pi c

scripts o f Welsh literatu re than h e had ever d reamed

to exist By the y ear 18 0 7 th e s e were p ublishe d a t
his o w n e xp e ns e un d e r the title o f Th e My vy r ia n
A r ch a i ol ogy of
a l es
N at u rally e nough this col
l e ction was t h e most perfect of its kind indeed
t h e onl y o n e worthy to be cal l ed a collectio n of
Welsh p o e try which existed fo r m any years ; and
even at the p resen t d ay notwithstand ing t h e later
achievements o f Welsh scholars in this direction
the My vy r ia n A r ch a iol ogy contin u es to hold it s pl ace
as the forem ost work of its ki n d
I n this collectio n are the poetica l remains of
the three celebrated Wels h bards L l yw arch H en
An eu rin and T alis s in who lived j u st b e fore o r
du ring the sixth cen t u ry and wer e cont emporary o r
n earl y s o with the historic Arthu r
I f we try to peer into the darkness of these p re
historic times we can catch here an d there a glim
me r o f fact a little bit o f solid history regarding
th e se oldest Kymric bards ; bu t the tissu e o f fable
which gre w up and surrou n d e d them i n after t im es
obscu res o r d istorts ne a rly all besides Two facts
however stan d p romi nen tly o u t an d d eserve espe
L l yw arch H en wh e n a y outh served
cial n otice
together with Geraint in the a rm y under Arthur
an d was present at the battl e o f L on gport A D
1 o f which mentio n w as m ad e i n the last cha ter
0
5
p
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

64

recreat ion of the bu lk of the people ; an d

o n e o f thes e collections the Re d Booh of H e r e s t
g
is extant and preserved in the library of J esus C o l
lege Oxford Som e fty years ago L ady Char
lott e Guest procured a cop y of this m an uscript and
translated it into English in ord er that S he m ight
enact t h e part o f a Ma bi n og or Welsh minstrel to
*
he r o w n children
So excellent w as her transl ation
o f th e se Mabin ogi on s o vividl y d id it m irror forth
t h e spirit o f these antiq u e stories a n d SO re m arkable
w a s it fo r both beauty an d delity that L ad y Gu est
was nall y ind u ced t o per m i t its p ublic at io n an d
h as thu s con f e rred a last ing obli ga tio n o n the E ng
lish stu dent Among th e se Welsh nov e ls (fo r such
they are in th e ir p resent for m ) a re thr e e o f the Ar
thu ria n ro man c e s and hence the work is highl y
inter e sti n g in its bearing o n the pres e nt e n qu i ry
T o s u m up then what w e have a lre ad y s aid the
earli e r b ards o f Wales supply u s with p oems co n
tempora ry or n e arly s o with the histo ric Arthu r ;
t h e l at e r b a rds inau gu ratin g an a g e o f fable trans
for m whatever they tou ch i n to st ra n ge ct io n S
plai n facts becom e i n th e ir ha n ds m yths an d the
nat u ral assu m es the form o f the supern atu ral while
in the Mabinogion oral t raditio n s are developed into
stat ely p rose romance
t e l l e ct u al

Vide No t e F

W ri t e rs

t he

E pi c

65

I f now we t u rn to the map o f France we shall

nd j ust across the Channe l from Cornwall a s e c
tion o f the cou ntry still called Bretagne sometim es
Arm orica som et imes Brittan y an d som eti m es L ittle
Britain I t is t o all intent s and p u rposes a Welsh
settle m ent and the literat u re of the people i s fou nd
to be as full o f Arthu rian l e gends as that o f the
Welsh in England H ow are we to accou nt for this ?
I t is historically certain that d u ri n g the long st rug
between
the
Ky
m
ry
and
the
Saxons
great
n
u
m
l
e
g
bers of the oppressed British ed to the cont inen t
as an asylu m Those who thu s left their native lan d
poor an d exi l ed would n atu rally carry with the m the
p oems histories tales and al l in fact that went to
M ore
make up the literatu re o f their form er home
over they wou ld natu rally c arry as a treasu r e t he
rem e mbra n c e o f those C hie ftai n s who had d e fe n ded
th e ir nativ e l and ; and the most popu lar of these
w a s Arthur
H is i m age ide alised by sad thought
and rendered real by a cru el an d u nwilling e xile
kept i n their hearts t h e high plac e which he long
before had occupie d at the head of th e ir ar my
Thus th e y s ang his noble d e eds his d e ath and his
hoped fo r retu rn And som e o f these poem s are
still extant A celebrated Fren chman o f ou r tim e
the Vicomte d e la V ill e marq u a native o f Bre ton
sp e n t a large amou nt o f m on e y an d the gr e a t e r part
,

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

T he

66

o f his li fe in collecting Breton ballad s an d romance s

o f the olden tim e and i n ord e r t o make his co l l e c
tion more valuable he m ingled freel y with the Ar
mo ri can peasantry s o as to gle a n the many ancient
trad ition s which were kn own to be oating am ong
the people and t o reect still more ancient tales
The result o f his labors is comprised chiey in the
fou r followi n g works : Ba rzaz Br e iz Ch a n t s popa
l a i r e s d e l a Br e t ag ne L es Roma ns d e l a Ta bl e Rond e
,

et

l es

Cont es

P oemes d u V 3 Si ecl e

L a L eg e nd e

" "

'

I r l a nd e ,

L es Ba r d e s Br e t ons

d es A nci e ns Br e t ons

Ca mbr i e

Ce l t ique

Br e t ag ne ,

en

works which
throw all the li ght that we S hal l need on the Arm ori
can phase o f this famous cyc l u s
From the close o f the golden era o f Welsh poetry
t o the dawn of the brilliant era of the Chron iclers
or from the sixth to the twelfth centu ry th e re was
bu t l ittle literatu re i n any o f the m oder n Eu ropean
tongues The gra n d ou tbu rst of m odern v e rnacu lar
literatu re si m u ltaneously or nearly s o in the twelfth
and thirteenth cent u ries in the variou s Eu rop ean
nations it is n eedless to say was m etrical All over
feu dal Eu rop e d u ring this period the passion for
narrative was som ething u nprecedented L ords a n d
l adies i n their castles bu rghers in their households
and peasants in their cottages were all possessed o f
an i nten s e pas si on fo r s t o rie s The m instrel who s e
en

et

en

W ri t e rs

of

t he

E pi c

67

d uty it w as to satisfy this demand invented bor

rowed an d t ranslated n ow rehearsing kn own facts ;
now collecting and shaping l egend s in which the
feats and personages o f me d ize val h istory were
work e d into roman ces of chivalry n ow remodelli ng
classic stories o f the ancient world and reprod u cing
Alexande r as a Fre n ch knight an d Virgil as a great
magician ; now taking a subj e ct out of ecclesiastica l
lore or adapting so m e Oriental tale which had been
brought Westward by the Cru sades or now t elling
simply comic tales o f everyday li fe
I n no co untry was the impu lse to the narrative
for m o f literatu re earlier or stronger than in Britain
The N orman con qu est interrupting as it did the na
tive ten dencies of the Saxon m ind handed over the
cond uct of literatu re in En gland t o those who were
pr e e m in e n tly the trouv eres o f E u rope viz ; the
An glo N orman minstrels (for we m ust remembe r
th at a gre at e r n u mber o f distinguished N orman
trouv er e s of the twelfth and thirteenth cent u ries
were born on the En glish than on the French side
of the Channel) and s o powerfu l was the in fu sion
int o Englan d of the Tro uv ere or N arra tive as d is
tinct from the Trouba dou r or L yric spirit that
throughout the whole cou rse of En g lish literatu re
since w e can s e e the N arrative impulse rulin g and
t h e L y ric subord inate
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

68

Fo r nearl y a hu n dred years after the battle of

H astings the tro u v eres amused their patrons with

narratives from the stock which they had brought
with them from the continent or with Dan o Saxon
tales which they fou nd already pop u lar i n Englan d
But about the m iddle o f the twe l fth cent u ry a
stron g impetus was given to writers o f romance
the e ffects o f which are felt even at this d istance
of time
I t was d u ring the early p art of the twelfth cen
*
tu ry that Walter Cal e ni u s a member o f the U n i
versity o f O x
ford an d Archdeacon d urin g o n e o f
his vacations m ade a tou r i n Brittan y While there
he met a friend who showed h im an antiquarian
treasu re which he stated that he had fou nd in some
o u t o f the way corner o f his monastery and had pre
serve d u nti l he should nd some o n e who cou ld
appreciate it This treasu re was an ancien t m an u
script entitled i n Welsh Br u t y Br e nh i ne d or
H istory o f the Kings i e t he Welsh Kings of
Brit a in which he entru st e d to his English guest
Upon his retu rn to Eng
a s a m ost v a lu able relic
l an d the Archdeacon com m itted this precious man
u s c ript t o the care o f the accomplished Geoffrey o f
,

Wl
a

of h i s

i
d

L e l an

t e r C al e n i us

r th

or

al t e r o f

Wl l i
a

gf

ord

i n Be rksh

\Nal l i n gfor d z L at C al e va or C al e na an d
.

I t i n er a ry , i x

50

re

e n ce

th e

pl

ace

C al e n i us

Wi t
r

e rs

f t he E pi c

69

Monm outh a priest of the Anglican Chu rch who

tells u s that he was a g reeabl y su rprise d by a request
from W a lter Cal e n i us Archdeacon o f Oxford to
translate a book from the British tongu e which he
ad bro u ht from Brittan y
Walter
h
H
e
acco
rd
(
g
)
i n gl y m ade a L atin t ran slation of t he work probably
incorporating We l sh legends an d tales from other
sou rces or from h is own fu nd of n at ive trad itions
This work was brou ght out i n the autu m n o f 1147
u nd er the patrona ge of Robert Earl of Glou cester
a man celebrated for his encou ragem e n t o f learn in g
and t o whom the work was ded icated
This H is t ory o f Ge o ffrey s is a ve ry quai n t p ro
d uction Weird K y m ric l e gends scraps o f a uthent ic
history and fully developed romance are m ingled
together and c l othed in the grave st y l e o f a m onastic
h istori an ; the old gro undwork being stran gel y em
broid ered with classic a l terms and crossed here and
there with thread s o f m edi aev al thou ght But never
t h e l e s s it was the m ost popu l a r book o f the day
The S ensation it created was beyond all p a rallel
I t t u rned th e head s o f y oun g kn i ghts an d you n g
monks and se n ti m entally i n clined da m oiselles an d
mad e it s author at on ce the best known and best
abused man of the time
William o f Newbu rgh an other p riest of t h e A n gli
can Chu rch (p e rh aps th rou gh j e a lou sy ) abu s e d the
,

T he

0
7

A rt h u ri an E pi c

lear n ed Geo ff rey as vigorou sly i f n o t as po l ite l y

*
a s a m od e rn reviewe r m i ht have d on e
Gerald
g
o f Wales said he knew a m an w h o had seen legions
an d man y others
o f d evils s w arming about the book
regarded Geo ffrey as a spl e nd id e me nd ax a brilliant
liar But the work was a gran d su ccess ; an d Geof
frey who was hence forth known u nder the s obr ique t
o f A rt u ru s could a fford to laugh at their harm less
rage I f this work was bad history it was n e v e rt h e
less marvellou sly good romance an d is right fu lly
regard ed as the startin g p oin t o f English Romantic
Fiction I t is the S pri ng at which all subsequ ent
writers drank and d rank d eep fu ll d raughts an d
hen ce Geo ff re y o f M on mouth s nam e holds a d e s e rv
e d l y hi gh place in the a n nals o f Fiction
A s we b e fore stat e d the N orman t rouv e res h ad
hitherto been co mpell e d t o allay the in satiable d e
sir e fo r n arr ative evinced by the nobility an d lower
class e s fro m the supply (su ch as it w as ) which they
had brou ght with them from their n at ive lan d Bu t
th e y were i n p ossession o f an i n exhaustible
no w
m ine o f t reasu re We can fancy the d elight o f a
m instrel with this H is t ory i n h a n d fra m ing there
from a delight fu l series o f ro m antic and magi c s t o
ries any one o f which v e rs i e d and e mbellished with
a few add itional t ouches o f fancy would b e su re to
,

Vi de Not e G

T h e A rt h u r i an E pi c

French r oma nce was an enlarge d translation o f Geof

frey s L atin H is t ory embellished with add it ional
tou ches o f fancy and with an occasion al poetic ad
d ition to the story I n like manner L ayamo n s
English H is t ory is an expanded translation o f ace s
Fre nch r oma nce with some m ost im portant add itions
to the ta l e as for example Arthu r s romantic vo yage
with the fairies t o the I sle o f Avalon B ut n e v e rt h e
less whatever developments o r changes the story re
ce iv e s in after t imes the m ai n points as narrated by
Geo ffrey remain essent ially u naltered in al l s ubs e
q u ent rom ances H ence forward we invariably nd
in Arthu r s compan y his beaut ifu l qu e e n Gu in e vere
his t raitorous n ephew Mod red Sir Kay his seneschal
Sir Bedivere his butle r and Sir G aw ain e his cou nsel
lor and ambassador
I t is worthy o f n otice th at all o f these three works
whether called H istory o r Roma n ce w e re really an d
an d
truly professed H is t or ie s
were re garded as
s u ch at the ti m e o f their publication But at the
presen t day th e y cannot be viewed i n an y other li gh t
than as works o f ction p u re an d simpl e
The Arthu rian Romance then up to a n d i n clud
ing the tim e o f Geo ffre y w as l ittle m ore than a m ed i
le gen ds
z
e val condensation o f pre existin g po e m s
an d t ales
As we co m e t o the t w e lfth centu ry Roma n cers a

W ri t e rs

t he

E pi c

73

marve l lou s t ransformation tak e s place and the m od

ern fu lly developed roman ces of Arth u r be gin to
assu me de n ite shape
On e o f the m ost remarkable o f the l iterary men at
the Cou rt of H en ry I I was Walte r Map poet wit
and theologian L ike Geoffrey an d L ayamon he had
lived o n the m arches of Wales an d within hearin g
of Welsh song H e cal l s the Welsh ou r cou nt ry

men and England ou r M other

H e had stu died
at t h e University of Paris where he s aw and p erhaps
had taken part in town an d gown riots H e was
afterwards on familiar t erm s with Thomas a Becket
and repeats conversations which he had had with that
noted m an H e was also a cou rt ier abou t the palace
of the Kin g w it h whom he was i n hi gh favou r ; and
su ch was his stand ing that he was appointed on e of
the J ustices Itinerant of E ngland and was sen t on
more than one occasion to foreign cou rts on a ffai rs
of state so that as he wittil y say s he had scarcely
leisu re to live (v ix va co vive r e ) Finally we n d
hi m Can on of St Pau l s Cathed ral su bsequ ently
Archdeacon of Oxford and then we hear but l ittle
fu rther concernin g him We know from authentic
docu m ents that he was a l ive i n the n int h year o f
the rei gn of King J ohn (12 0 7 ) an d we also know
from a statem ent of G i ral d u s C ambre n s is that he
died before th e e n d of th a t rei gn
,

T he

74

A rt h uri an

E pi c

As a writer in L atin he was highly d ist ingu ished

a s a writer i n N orman French h e was equ ally d ist in
i
she d
Bu
t
the
poin
t
o
f
chief
impo
rtance
to
u
s
is
u
g
the fact t hat to him we are in debted for a large po r
t ion o f the cycle o f Arthu rian roman ces in the m ost
perfect form in which they are known to u s I n d eed
1 of all th e writers o f th is c ycle Walter Map stands o u t
l
i
n
ce
s
I
t
was
he
who
p
ut
a
subtle
spiritual
r
ac
i
e
p
p
f
mean in g into them and mad e of d etached and frag
mentary tales a gran d epic cyclus H e it doubtl e ss
was who wrote the L atin originals o f L e Roma n d a
1
*
!

It is un q u e s i
Sa i n t Gra a l and L e Roman d e Me r l i n
that he was the author o f L a Q ues t e d e l
I abl e
t io f
Sa i n t G r a a l L e Roma n d e L a nce l ot d a L a c and L e
Roma n d e L a Mor t A r t us o r the Passing o f Arthu r
I t is t o him we are indebted for the cre a tion o f that
ideall y p ure knight Sir Galahad in a word fo r
nearly all t hat is beaut iful chaste an d im perishable
i n these romances
I f we look simply at the n u mber and extent o f
Map s works it i s immed iately apparen t e ven from
so supercial a view what an i mportant advan c e
had been wrou ght in the perfection o f the Arthu
rian cyclus by this le arn ed cleric an d novelist But
this is onl y o n e item and that a very sm a ll o n e i n
the s u m total of his services Previ ou s to the tim e
,

Vi de No t e

W ri t e rs

t he

E pi c

75

of Geo ffrey o f Monm outh there existe d i n Wales

both N orth Wales an d Corn Wales litt l e else than
straggling tales m y thological p oems and scraps of
authentic history ; in Armorica a mass o f ballad
poetry and t rad itions in nu merable Even Geo ffrey
and his followers simply arranged an d ampli ed
materials which had been collected i n B rittany as
on e ch apter of a contin u ous narrat ive ; as part and
parcel o f a professed H is t ory Walter Map on the
contrary co m ing close u pon the hee l s o f these writ
ers a n d while they were i n the very n oont ide of
their popu larity as historians stood boldly forth
n o t as a recorde r of sober facts bu t as a writer of
r oma n ce s a n d thus laid the fou ndation fo r a species
of ctional writin gs destined for two lon g ce n t uries
t o for m t h e onl y popu lar literatu re o f En gl an d an d
to overshadow m ore pr e t e ntiou s works s o late as
the d ays o f Quee n Eli z ab e th
B ut the fact of chie f importan ce with respect to
Map s writings yet rem a i n s to be n oted I n every
narrative poem which aspires to the d istinction of
an Epic th e re must b e (in add ition to othe r pe rfe c
tions) a ce n t r a l poi n t of u n i ty a point aro u n d which
the whol e story r e volve s and t owards which e very
thou ght gravitates an d eve ry i n cid ent points There
mu st be so to sp e ak a sou l a vital p ri n cipl e which
a n imates every pa rt and throws life into its m ost
,

The A rt h u ri a n E pi c

6
7

remote ramicati ons There m ust be an indwe l lin g

force which sets the whole m achinery o f the p oem
in m otion ; which controls eve ry part which makes
the whole work harmoniously together an d nall y
brings about an appropriat e ending
No w the t r a d i t ion of t h e H oly Gr a a l const it ut es
this point of u nity in the Arth u rian Epic
There w as a Ch u rch trad ition or rather perhaps
an apocryphal legend cu rrent in the M id dl e A ges
which acco unt ed for the m iracles attend ing the early
years of Christian ity by the mystic u n earthly p ow
ers attributed to a C u p or Graa l which had belonged
to J oseph of Arim athea ; an d as Chu rch trad ition
regarded J oseph as one o f the rst Apostles o f
Britain this Graal story cou ld very easily be mad e
th e central point or point of u nity in this Norman
epopoii a ;
and this Map sei z ed upon Accord in g t o
the rom ance the H oly Graal is represented as the
cup or d ish ordi narily u sed by ou r Savio u r when he
o ffered sacrice an d from which he adm i n istered
the L ast Suppe r to the Apostolic band After
wards when o u r Saviou r was seized by the J e wish
soldiers on e of thei r n u mber carried o fI the H oly
Graal an d delivered it t o Pilate ; but the Governor
fearing to retain anythin g which had belonged t o
J esu s gave it to J oseph of Arimathea whom he
knew t o be on e o f o u r L ord s m ost d evoted friends
.

W r i t e rs

of

t he

E pi c

77

Accordingly it w as u sed as the receptacle for the

sacred blood which owed from the wou nds of ou r
Saviou r both while hanging upon the C ross and
also when he was taken d own by the loving hands
of J oseph Subsequ ently whe n the J ews cast Jo
s e ph int o prison on charge of complicity i n assert ing
that Christ was t ruly risen from the d ead the Graal
was placed m iracu lou sly i n his hands and kept him
i nsensible to the pangs o f hu nger and the horrors o f
his d ungeon d u ring the forty and two years of his
imprisonm ent At len gt h released by Vespasian
he quitted J e rusalem and taking with him the m i
ra cu l o u s Vessel made his way through France into
Britain where it was carefully prese rved in the t reas
u ry of a king of the island called the Fisherman
King
I n this roma n ce which i s evidently the i n t ro d u c
tory one to the whole cycle non e of the knights o f
the Rou nd Table are m ention ed ; the Graal it se l f
and the l egen dary history o f J oseph an d his d escen d
ants forming the sole subj ect of the romance
I n after tim es the H oly Graal was suppose d to be
lost its ve ry existence was known only as a d im tra
d i t i o n al remembrance ; only as a shadowy d ream o f
a something mystic an d holy ; a t reasure once pos
sessed bu t n ow mysteriously gone
H ere the n was theme enough t o re the i m agina
,

"

w l

T he

8
7

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

tion o f a less poetic m in d th a n that o f Walter Map

What a grand subject fo r a romance o f chivalry !
Why cou ld n ot th e national trad itions o f M erli n an d
Arthu r an d the kni ghts of his Co u rt who had ap
are d
hitherto
only
in
connection
with
earthly
e
p
achievements why cou ld not these trad itions be i n
What
co rpo rat e d in an epic a spiritu alised epic ?
kni ghtly adventu re cou ld compare with the Qu est an d
Achievement of the Sangraal ? And s o Map wrote
L e Roma n d a Sa i n t Gr a a l to give u nity a n d complete
ness to the series and L a Q ues t e d e l Sa i n t Gr aa l as
t h e adventu re pa r e xce l l e nce o f the noble knights
But the vessel was lost
T h e ti mes
G r e w to such e v il th at t h e hol y c u p
(he
as c au ght aw ay to H e av e n an d di sappe ared
.

and the ve ry mem ory of it had a l most fad ed ou t of

the m in ds o f men H o w were these apocryphal l e
to
be
tted
so
to
speak
t
o
the
tales
o
f
chiv
n
e
d
s
)
(
g
The
task
was
n o t d i fcult
As
the
kn
ights
al r
?
y
o f the Rou nd Table s a t at a ro y a l b a n qu et there

was heard cry ing o f thu nder and in the midst

o f the blast e n t re d a sun ne beame more clear by
s e av e n t imes than eve r they s aw day and all they

were a l ighted o f the grace o f the holy Ghost an d

so they looked eve ry m an o n other as they had
been e dombe Then e n t re d i nto the hall the holy
.

A r t h uri an E pi c

T he

80

ence I n Britain of the H oly Graal m ight s e rve as the

mainspri n g t o s e t all the romantic deeds o f the noble
kni ghts in m ot ion M erlin was a great prophet bu t
at best a weird pagan prophet This could n ot be
perm itted there m ust be no p rophet disassociated
from the Chu rch H e was m odi ed there fore into
the s o n of a Spirit e n d with his natu re akin to that
of a bad an g e l but transform ed by Baptism A S fo r
the superhu man valou r o f the knights o f the ro
m an ce s the only p iou s way o f reconciling that with
the faith o f the Chu rch was to make them all descend
in di rect line from J oseph o f Ari mathea ; and this Map
d oes I n this way legen ds believed by the people
were n o t contradict ed ; they we re accepted as they
stood carefully arranged sifted pu ri ed hallowed
and su rro u nded with a subtle atmosphere o f piety I n
this w ay Map gain ed his obj ect H e satised the
clergy he am used an d instru cted barons an d b u rghers
alike he pleased the scholar an d he lled the chasms
in the popular tales by writing these introdu ctory
roman ces o f the Saint Gra al
Taking Map s produ ctions as a whole they form
a gran d epic cycl us There is not it is tru e the
steady marshalling o f eve nts i n continu ity o r the
u ninterruptedly su stained n arrative which is essentia l
to the epic bu t there does exist an d that m ost u n
mistakably a central poi nt o f u nity which holds all
.

W ri t e rs

of

t he

E pi c

the romances together and for this re ason we call

these ro m ances as they cam e fro m the pen of Walter
Map an epic c y clus o r series
Three lesser lights i n the galaxy of Romance
writers of this ti me we m ust n ot entirel y pass over
Robert d e Borron is to be remembere d as the re
u t e d author and actual translator i nto Fre n ch o f
p
the Roma n d u Sa i nt Gr a a l and o f the Roma n d e
Me r l i n which appeared d u ring the period when
Map w a s busy with the Graal romances L u ces de
Gast an d H l ie d e B orron con tem porari es o f Walter
Map are also n otewo rt hy as the a u thors of the rst
and second part s respectively o f L e Roma n d e Tr is
t a n d oubtless the most perfect of al l the episodes
which the early romancers i nt rod u ced into the series
in order t o g ive co mpl e t hn e s s and sy m
m et ry t o the
epic Even Matthew Arnold cou ld nd attractions
in this romance su fcient to d raw his attention fo r
a t im e from the st u d y o f classical m od els Still it
is simply an episode and i n no sense essential t o the
u nityo f the narrative
I t will be remarked that the writers o f these
romances with only on e exception namely L aya
m on were N orm an tro uv eres and their language the
Norm an French The reason o f th is is obviou s t o
those who are acquainted with the h istory o f the
En g ish language Fo r two centu ries after the Nor
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

82

man con quest Fre n ch was the langua ge o f the ru lin g

classes A French speaking ro y a l fa m il y w as o n the
throne su rrou n ded by m inisters vassals cou rtiers
ecclesi astics lawy ers soldiers and m in strels all
spe aking French an d eschewing the lang uage of
the conqu ered race as too barbarou s to express the
chiv a lri c id eas of those o f g e ntle birth D u ring this
period the good o l d Saxon was t reated by N orman
pharisees as a leper I t was outcast it was insulted
it was oppressed What ever was in ten ded for th e
peru sal o f t h e literate appeared in a L atin garb ;
what ever was written for the diversion of the noble
appeared in cou rtl y Ffe n ch Yet u n derlying the
polished su rface the rough powerf u l Saxon owed
an i m petu ou s cu rrent I t broke volcani c like throu gh
the cru st o f Fren ch in L ayamon and then d is ap
o
f
re d
it
was
in
revolt
but
even
then
gave
si
ns
e
a
g
p
the p ower which it was hou rl y acqu iring and which
w a s d e sti n ed ere l ong to overthrow its opp ressor
Bu t fo r the ti m e being its oppressor t ri u mphed
Ro m ance after rom ance appeared and the l anguage
was Fren ch ; but at last the crisis arrived Thou gh
al l the roman ces o f Map and his compeers an d fol
lowe rs had with on e o r two exceptions shown a
preferen ce fo r th e N orman French o f the trouv eres
L
the
great
compilation
a Mor t D a r t h ur o f Sir
e
t
y
Thom as Mal e o re o r Malory publishe d in 148 5 was
,

W ri t e rs

t he

E pi c

83

t ranslated ou te o f ce rt e y n bo o ke s of Fre n ss h e into

M iddle English : After t h at I had acco mpl ys s h e d

and fy nys s h e d d y v e rs h ys t o rye s say s Caxton i n the

Prologu e
many noble and d yve rs ge n t y l
m en o f thys ro y ame of En gl o n d camen and d e
mau nded m e many and o ft t yme s w h e rfo re that I
h ave not d o make an d e n pryn t e the n oble h y s t o ry e
o f the s ay n t gre al and of the moost re n o m e d c rys
ten kyng fy rst and ch ye f
kyng Arthu r
H e accord ingly complied with the requ est of these

an d then proceeds in this fash

d y v e rs ge n t yl me n
io n
For to passe the t yme this book shal be ples
a u n t e to rede in b ut for to g y ve fayth and by l e ve
that al is t re w e that is co nt ayn e d herin ye be at
yo u r l ybe rt e bu t al is w ryt o n for ou r d o ct ryn e and
for to beware that we falle n ot to vyce n e synn e bu t
t e xe rcys e an d fo l o w e vert u by w h y ch e we may co m e
an d at t e y n e to good fame an d renom me i n thys l y f
and after thys s h o rt e and t ran sy t o ry e l y i t o com e

u nto e v e rl as t yn g blys s e i n heven

Equ ally curious and in teresting is the colophon

o f this ed ition :
Th u s e n deth writes Caxton this
n oble and j oyou s b ooke e n t yt l e d L a Mor t Da r t h ur
No t w y t h s t a n d i n g it t re at e t h of the byrt h l y f an d
actes of the sayd ky n ge Arthu r an d o f his n oble
kn ygh t e s o f the rou nd e table t h e yr m arv e yl l o u s
e n u e s t e s and adv e nt u res t h ach e vy n g of the sang
q
y

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

84

real an d in the ende la Morte Dart h ur with the

dolorou s d eth and d e part yn g out of this w o rl d e of
h i ch e booke was red u ced i nto Eng
them al
l y s s h e by s y r Thomas Ma l ory kn ight as afore is
say d an d by me d e vy d e d into XX I bo o ke s chap
t y red a n d e mpry n t e d and fynys s h e d in t h abbe y
e s t m e s t re th e l ast day o f J u ly
the yere o f ou r

L ord MCC C C L X X X V Caxton m e e ri fecit

Sir Thomas M alory can s carcely be regarded as
o n e o f the Roman cers except by way o f cou rtesy
since this cyclu s m u st be considered to have re
c e iv e d its n ishing touches when Walte r Map p u b
2 M or t A r t us
Still ke e pin g
l is h e d his Roma n d e [2
this fact i n m ind we may very j ustly accord Malory
a n iche in this old Poets corner as the last fo r man y
a long year i ndeed for over three hu nd red years
who d id anything to r e vive an interest in Englan d s
oldest romances or legends which are as famous as
brilliant and as suggestive as those of early Greece
o r Rome We m ust n ot forget however that it
is n ot an ori gin al work but simply a compi l ation
That Malory s work is n ot an artisti c or perfect
prod u ction 15 evident t o every critical reader I t
contain s no well conceive d plot or rather n o p l ot
at all Adventu res battles tou rnaments and fe s t iv
ities are com m in gled in su ch inextricable con fusion
and with su ch a persistent d isre gard o f the u nit ies
,

'

W ri t e rs

t he

E pi c

85

that one might al most s uppo s e the a uthor to have

been su ff ering from an i ntel l ect u al n ih t ma r a whi l e
perform ing his task [At one time we read o f some 745 i
famous battle in which A rthu r is engaged but be
fore the issu e is nal ly decided we are snatched
away t o witn ess a passage of love between L ancelot
and G u in evere and scarcely is this satis factorily
conclu ded when we are plu nged into a mi l ee where
spears are broken an d swords clash together t o
watch the prowess o f Tristan ) I n ad dition t o this
want o f system the compiler has been gu ilty o f so
m any sins o f omission t hat anyon e who has read th e
o riginals from which Malo ry transcribed m u st regret
a hu ndred times in s o m any pages that the execution
o f the work was n ot performed by mo re skilfu l hand s
St ill the Mor t Da r t h ur with all its impe rfections
has a subtle magnetic charm w hich is irresist ible
Even the conspicu ou s absence of articial nish onl y
tends to heighten the e ffect upon the m ind and to
one who is accustomed to the close d rawing room
atm osphere of the m od ern fashionable n ove l to tu rn
t o Ma l ory is to exchange the crowded city for the
free air the green elds an d the utter list l essn ess of
an ideal landscap e
To digress for one mom ent Ma l ory s nam e s ug
gests on e of the man y cu riou s an d u nanswered prob
lems of literatu re Who was Sir Thomas Malory ?
.

T he

86

A rt h u ri an E pi c

Strange as it may appear we kn o w m ore respecting

the l ife of L lyw a rch H n than we do o f this knight
o f Edward I V s t im e
We know h is nam e we know
that he compiled this work ; b u t that is all and nat
u ral l
u
eno
gh
we
do
n
ot
rest
satised
with
such
m
ea
y
gre details
We like t o becom e bett er acquainte d
with the m en to whom we are in d ebted fo r ou r
intellectual pleasu re We like to vi s it the Tu dor
Cou rt and hear En glan d s Qu e e n call Sid ney lov
e like t o go t o Swi ft s apart
in gl y my Philip
ments in L ondon on his retu rn from a dinn er at
L ord H arley s and watch him j otting down scraps
of Cou rt gossip in a babbling way t o amuse his

litt l e witch Stella We like t o form one of the

party when impec u n iou s Go l dsm ith wh o
wrote
like an an gel but talked like poor Pol l is to read
his Retaliat ion an d s o we shou ld like t o pictu re t o
ou rselves this u nkn own kn ight as living i n some
q u aint castle i n the cou ntry or in som e old city
d w elling with the French scrolls and folios about
him resetting the Arth u rian Romance i n con nected
English for Caxton t o print A S i t is he is a vox
,

et

ra

t e r e a n ih i l

From th e midd l e o f the seventeenth centu ry

when the last of the black letter edition s o f Malory
was issu ed from the p ress as a protest against Cer
vantes an d Q uixot ism we hear n othing o f these
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

88

H ad the fteenth centu ry p rod u ced a H omer

a Dante or a M ilton instead of a Mal
3 Vi rgil
ory we m ight n o w be i n possession o f an epic of the
age o f chivalry comparable with any which the world
has ever kn own The gran d and chaste creation s
o f Walter Map
the com prehensiven ess an d u nity
of his invention s form ed a grou n dwork which had
only t o be sym m etrically developed and thrown
int o the form o f an epic poem to have gai ned fo r
its au thor an imm ortality o f fam e As it is the work
is s t il l u ndon e Even Te nnyson fai l ed t o produ ce
an epic of chivalry an d the theme awaits the fash
i o n in g touch of som e fu t u re poet
Perhaps after su ch an ad m ission it m ay be tho ught
s uperu ou s to enter upon a consid eratio n o f the mer
its an d demerits o f Tennyson s Arthu rian poems
But this does not n ecessarily follow I n ord er t o
form a correct opin ion o f any poetical work we ought
at the very o u tset to discover i f possib l e the class
p oet ical compositions which the author pro
of
p oses t o writ e an d to j udge him accordingly Ten
n y s o n himself classied his Arthu rian p oems u nder
the heading o f l dyll s H e d oes not therefore in
this d irection lay claim to the d ignity of an epic
poet and as this is all that w e m aintain we can not
possibly be d oing any inj ustice t o h is memory
I t is m oreover u n iversally adm itted that Te n ny
,

W r i t e rs

t he

of

E pi c

89

on s fam e rests more especially on his abi l ity as a

r
c
poet
and
that
he
wanting
in
the
compre
i
as
w
ly
h e n s iv e n e s s of grasp the power o f su s tained thought
and that high developm ent of the dramat ic faculty
which are the invariable characteristics o f a great
epic poet Were any proof wanting t o S how Ten ny
son s u n t n e s s for the task which he u ndertook the
chron ological order in wh ich he prod uced his [dy l l s
wou l d show that he had never grasped the Arthu
*
rian tales as a who l e as an epic prod u ct ion
J udging Tennyson therefore in accordan ce with
the t itle which h e himself pre xed t o his tales of
chivalry we are bou nd to regard them as so many
short d etached poems form in g collectively a series
sim ilar t o that o f M ap and whi l e supe rior t o Map s
in point of p re Raphae l it e to u ch yet s trangely i n fe
rior t o his i n breadth o f grasp i n grandeu r of sim
i
l
i
an
d
i
n
powers
of
art
istic
construct
ion
t
c
p
y

T he

M or te

i h dp

ubl s

oe

W
MA

'

d A r th u r ,
of

or

T e nn yson s

am on g

A r t h u r , w as

'

the

t he

P i g

Ar t h

l at e r, if

as s n

of

Ar t

ri an se r e s

t h e l a te s t

cl

u r,

w as t h e

w h l e th e

ubl is h e d o f

i q ?

r st

Co mi ng of
t h e I dy l l s

C HAP T E R IV

A nal ys i s

of

t he

A th

and

t he

u r an

E pi c T h e B ard s

C h ro n i cl e rs

N this and the fo ll owing chapter we shall e n

d e avo u r t o give a concise su m mary of th e Ar
th u rian Cyclu s or Epic tracing it through the three
d istinct l y marked versions o f the sto ry the Anglo
Kym ric or Cambrian ; th e Franco Kymric o r Bre
ton and the Anglo N orman or English ; an d when
we arrive at the twelfth and thirteenth centu ry ro
man ce s o f the t rouv eres we shall e n deavou r t o throw
these d etached tales i nto the form o f a conn ected
n arrative so as t o pre s ent a clear cut outline o f the
cyclu s as a whole from the birth o f King Arthu r to
the t im e when the shades of death close aro u n d the
b roken spirit of Sir L ance lot an d u tte r darkness cov
ers th e e ntire scene
I n d oing this we sha ll have t o bring into bold re
lie f the history o f the King who to a certain exten t
is the cent ral gu re of the Rou n d Tab l e knights y e t
we shall n ot by s o d oing i n any respect l essen the
interest which nat u rall y gathers arou n d the subj ect
,

90

A rt h u r i a n E pi c

T he

2
9

The poet then proceeds t o describe the battle of

L ongport an d depicts the scen e most V l V Id ly ; the
thick m ist hanging over the battl e eld the horses
up t o their kn ees in blood and covered with a go ry
foam ; the d ead massed in heaps o n the gree n
sward the warri ors re d with blood ; the cries o f car
nage and am es o f bu rning ru ins these an d other
horrors of the str uggle the aged bard pict u res w ith
the weird imagi nat ion of an eye witness ; an d as a
climax to the scen e o f blood he tells of the d eath
of Geraint
,

A t L o n gport w as G er ai n t

sl ai n
T h e v ali an t chi e f o f t h e w oodl an ds
S l ayi n g t h e e n emy in h is f al l

of

e vo n ,

Th e n as thou gh the i ntense sorrow of the bard fo r

the taking o ff of his lord could be assuag e d onl y by
the thought of swi ft retribut ion he ad ds :
,

Y n L l o n gb ort h l l as
G w yr d e w r

A rthur

mmyn yn t

cy

dur

A mmh e ra w d yrr l l yi ad yr l l av u r
A t L o n gport w e re

sl ai n by A rthur
V ali an t w arriors w h o s mote w ith t h e st e e l
h
c to r
A
rthur
co
der
r
e
t
e
dir
e
t
h
m
m
a
m
i
s
e
a
n
f
o
(
)
w or k s (of w ar)
,

of

the

I n another poem on the d eath of his own sons

who were killed o n the eld of battl e we hear the
,

B ard s

T he

a nd

C h r o n ic l e rs

93

orrowing of the aged L lyw arch for heroes who were

adorned with the golden chain the mark of hi gh
m ilitary command
I n the opening st anza the poet mou rns his favou r
ite child Gwen n and pict u res him as having watched
t h e fo e from the b a nks of th e L even the n i ght b e
fore h e was killed ; an d then bu rsts forth as though
his va l iant s o n rem ind ed him of a still greater war
rior
s

tch e d
A rt h ur n e e r

G w e nn

th e r e

wa

on

the

ot

sp

he n ce

ithdr e w

referring doubtl e ss to the sit e o f the d esperate battle

i n which Arthu r (accord ing to Ne n n i u s) fo ught and
van quished his Saxon foes
I f there is on e thing cl e arly e st ablished by the
poems of L l y w arch H en it is that d u ring the S ixth
centu ry Arthu r was at the head o f the petty i nde
pende nt sovereignties i n the South o f Britain and was
commande r in chief in thei r wars with the Saxons
a n d that Geraint s o n o f Erbin
was his s ubordinate
i n arms an d subj ect t o his ord ers
I t is also be y on d dispute that L l y w a rch bestows
greater praise upon warriors who served u nde r Ar
thu r s comm and than upon the com m a nde r i n
chief hi m self I n the battle o f L ongp o rt which
Arth u r direct e d it w as the va l o u r o f Ge raint that
.

A rt h u ria n E pi c

T he

94

arrested the bard s n otice Arthu r is simpl y m en

t i o n e d as the comman der and con d u ct or of the war
while Geraint is ce l ebrated with
digni ed peri

phrase
That Arthu r was a cou rageou s warrior is u n q u e s
t i o n abl e
but that he was the irresistible warrior o f
the later histori es and romances a hero fro m whom
kings and nations sank back in panic is d isproved
*
by the meagre encomi u ms o f contemporary bards
I f we look to the oldest Cambrian poems we nd
that they hav e for thei r centra l gu re n o t Arth u r
but a famous warrior n amed Uri en the patriot chie f
who led the Kymry o f th e N orth o f Britain i n their
struggle against the forces o f I d a the Angle I t is
Urien rather than Arthu r whose praises t he o l d bards
d e l ight to ce lebrate
.

May I

An d again

n e ve

sm

il e if I pr ai s e

U ri e n

I sho uld h av e c e as e d to
i sh e d

n ot

be me rry

if

U ri e n h a d pe r

So sing s T alis s in and the strain is repeated in

variou s forms in many o f his poems
This comparative silence o f the bards of the S ixth
centu ry with regard t o the historic Arthu r becom es
complete as we approach the dawn o f prose history
,

Vi dc No t e I

A rt h u ri a n E pic

T he

6
9

po e t with respect to those who were n ot su fciently

wealthy t o d o s o At the risk o f anticipating what
we may subseq u ently s ay we may m ention the fact
that all the earliest acco u nts o f Arthu r agree in stat

ing that h e was a petty p rince and that there

were i n Britain many m ore n oble

H ence it is
not su rprising but o n the contrary simply what
w e m i ght expect a pr ior i that the heroic deed s of
Arthu r S hould n e ver have been su ng by the older
bards who were intent on acqu iring rich gifts in
retu rn for their pa n e gyrl cs o n the more powerfu l
chiefs by whom they were m ain tained
L l y w arch H en was at tached t o the cou rt of Ger
aint ; T al i s s in to the cou rt of U rien while Arthu r
s o fa r as we know had no one o f the bards i n his
reti n u e to sin g h is valiant d eeds
M oreover the silence o f professed historia n s need
n ot astonish u s O f Gildas we know n ext t o n oth
ing and can spe ak with certainty n either as to his
parent age h is native land n or even his name The
period whe n h e lived has been c a lled i n qu estion
and even the works o f which h e is the repu ted author
H e qu otes n o book but the Bible an d in the preface
t o his history he can didly con fess e s it is my pres
ent p urpose t o rel ate the d eeds o f an indole n t an d
slothfu l race rather than the exploits o f those who

h ave be e n valiant in the eld

I t is n o wonder
.

B a rd s

T he

C h r o n i c le rs

and

97

the refore that the very name of Arthu r is o m itted

by such a writer of histo ry Bu t with Bed e the
case is somewhat d i fferent Gildas wrote at the
latest only on e h u nd red and fty years after the
Arthu rian era and m ight be expected t o know
something of the valian t d eeds o f his cou nt rymen
at l east from tradition Bu t Bede did not live u ntil
three h un d red years after this epoch and does not
profess t o relate what had happened before his ow n
t im e except upon the authority o f older writers ;
hence his silence upon this matter is not su rprising
To d isbelieve in the historic existe nce o f su ch a
personage as Arthur simply shows an u nhealthy
scepticism I f m erciless critics after havi ng scou re d
the whole eld of Welsh an d Saxon literat u re prior
to the ninth cent u ry and nd ing little more than
the bare mention of the nam e of Arthu r u ndertake
t o den y that such a being ever existed we m ust c a ll
upon th e m to explain so m e very st ubborn facts
We m ust as k the critic to explain how it com es t o
pass that the gu re of a real historic Arthu r rst
fou n d its w ay into Welsh literatu r e ; for were we t o
adm it (which we d o not ) that the stan zas relatin g
to Arthu r i n L lyw a rch H en s accre dited writings
are interpolations still the form o f characte r o f the
l anguag e p roves be y on d dispute th a t th e y m ust
have been ins e rted at a v e ry earl y d ay an d o n e not
.

T he

8
9

A rt h u ri an E pi c

far rem oved from the period whe n the Arth u r o f

L ly w arch s poe m s was com m on l y believed to have
been ght ing i n the South of Britain But this is
not al l We m ust ask the critic if he d enies the
existence o f a historic Arthu r to acco u nt for the
m ention of o u r hero in later Welsh ta l es where he
loom s forth shrou de d in the mists o f an earl ier age
an d indistinct in outline but nevertheless too grand
a shadow n o t to have had som e reality behind it
We m u st as kthe critic m oreover to acco u nt for
t h e very presence o f those Breton bal l ads which
exist among the peasantry of L ittle Britain j u st
over the Chan n e l frOm Cornwall ; to explain the
m eaning of man y n am es o f places which we nd
there like L yonn esse doubtless na m ed by Cornish
refugees in m emory of the place where

K i n g A rthur s

H ad fal l

T abl e , m an by man ,

bout th e ir lord

K i n g A rthu r

We must call upon him to exp l ain what the Breton

p e asants meant n ot two cent u ries ago when at
their feasts they u sed t o cry ou t pas s ion atel y :
,

N o K in g

A rthur i s

n ot

d e ad

h e w ill

co me a gai n

The bu rden o f p roof is on the side o f the scept ic

Critics may d eny Arthu r s existence if they will ;
they may tr ansl at e himto t h e lan d o f myth or fab l e ;

f)

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

T he

10 0

ll

the kin gs and m ilitary force of

Britain fought agai nst the Saxons and a l t h ough w e
t h e r e w e re ma ny mor e nobl e t h a n h i ms e lf yet he was
twelve t im es chosen thei r command er and w as as
often conqu eror ) I n the eighth battle
Arthu r bore the image of the H oly Virgin m other
o f God upon h is shou l ders a n d through the power
o f Ou r L ord J esu s Christ a n d the H oly Mary p u t
the S axons t o ight an d p u rsu ed them the whole
I n the twelfth bat t l e
d ay with great slaughter
Arthu r p en etrated t o the hill o f Badon and
in this engagement nin e hu ndred and forty fell by
his hand a lone n o o n e b u t th e L ord a ffording him

ri t o n s
assist a nce I n all these engagements , th e (B
e
l
were successfu l fo r n o strength can ava il against the

will o f the Almighty

I n this accou nt we have the rst extant historic
m ention i n prose o f Arthu r and n atu rally enough
as it was written by an ecc l esiasti c we h ave a reli
gio n s elem ent i ntroduced into that which was a plain
historic a l fact G rant e d that the Arthu rian stan z as
above qu oted are gen u in e stil l the bard speaks o f
Arthu r as a warrior o n ly while Ne n n iu s clothes him
with a n ai r o f sanctit y ; stat e s him to have born e
the im a ge o f t h e Virg in o n his shield ; in fact d raws
upon an ecclesi astical i m agination rather th a n upon
a uthentic history
a

T he

B ard s

C h ro n i c l e rs

and

10 1

As we approach the remains of Cambrian poet ry

from the S ixth to the tenth cent ury preserved i n the
My vy r ia n A r ch a iol ogy we seem t o be ente ring a l n
m inous clou d of myth fable an d p oetic fancy : a
mythologica l ha z e hangs over every person and scene
till even the out l ines o f the historic characters of
forme r days can scarcely be d isce rned i n this thick
poetic m ist
Am on g these remains we nd a poe m attribu ted
to T al i s s in in which Arthu r is represented as the
S on o f Uther Pen dragon H ere Uther is king o f
the Shad es the myst eriou s and veiled Being t he
appointer o f battles with the rainbow as his buckler
H e app e ars as a kind of Mars the ge n iu s o f war
I n fact Uther is here a pu rely mytholo gical person
age Even when paying h i s add resses t o Arthu r s
mother he assumes the form o f a cloud i n We l sh
M
Gor l a s which the Fren ch t rouv ere transform s into
Gorlois D uke o f Cornwall
35
J
I n the same poem Arthu r th e s o n o f Uther Pen
d ragon is the chie f of battles and the honou r o f Corn
w all N oth in g can resist his valou r ; and they christen

him Arthu r o f the m iraculou s sword

The bard ic
syn od chants in his prais e Be Arthu r bless e d a c
cording to the rites o f the assembled bards Glo ry
to the cou ntenance which ashes in t h e ght when

all arou nd is stri fe

H e receives from his father the
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

10 2

S word which this pseu do T al i s s in c alls

the great

G laive o f the M ighty Enchanter

H e u nd ert akes
reat
expeditions
captu
res
cities
inn
u
merable
an
d
g
subdu es tracts o f cou ntry wholly u nknown to modern
a ml a n
f
eographers

nall
he
falls
at
the
battle
o
C
;
g
y
a n d i s seen n o m ore
An other bard states that he was
t ranslat ed to the skies and became the constellation
U rsa Maj or called i n Welsh Arthu r s Chariot
As we issu e once again from this real m of myth
and fabl e the gu re o f Arthu r stands out in a less
u nearthly light
*
I n the Arthu rian tales in the Ma bi n og ion the
Kin g holds h is cou rt at Caerleon H e is represe n t ed
as sittin g in the centre o f his h al l o f state o n a seat
o f gree n woven twigs with a carpet o f am e colou red
satin u nder his feet and a crimson cu shion u n de r
his elbow There is but little etiqu ette O bserv e d an d
all passes in al m ost a bou rgeois fashion The Prince
go s to sleep o n h is t h ro n e
H is sword h e draws
e
h
n d n ot
11 against the wild
the
forest
o
f
a
(L1
)
against the Saxo n H e exhibits n o S i g n o f reli g ious
belief and were it n ot that occasion a lly he is pres e nt
when Mass is celebrated o n e would thi n k hi m an y
thing bu t a Christian H is cou rtiers eat an d d ri n k
a ro u n d h i m i n utter w anto nn e s s passi n g aw ay t h e

G u l c

of

th e

T h e L ad

M a bi nogi on

y of

the

Fo un t ai n

Vi dc

An

i n L ad

G ue st

t ran sl at

on

r
"

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

10 4

The oldest Armorican poems like the Welsh re pre

sent him si mply as a v alian t warrior Others depict
him as protecting his cou nt ry from the ravages o f
a nts and d ragons
i
With
som
e
he
even
becomes
g
the frien d o f God an d the pr ot eg e o f the Saint s s u r
passin g the bravest o f his nation in valou r and the
scenes o f his dari ng deeds are m in utely pointed o ut
I n dee d n ot content with m erely sin g in g his praises
the pop u lar religion sculpt u red him in granite and
at the p resent day in front o f on e o f the chu rches
in Brittany m ay be seen a bas relief representi ng the
i de a l patriot crown o n head an d sword in hand over
com ing a d ragon by t h e aid o f St Ef am o n ; a work
clearly established as belonging t o the en d o f the
eleventh or begin ning of the twelfth cent u ry B ut
a nal glory awaited Arthu r i n Arm orica From
being a hero o f po e try celebrated by t h e popu lar
bards in ballads or by less august persons i n resid e
tales he becam e an epic hero straggling tales oral
t raditions an d u nwritten poems were collected and
dou btless remodelled more advan ced notions o f
chivalric heroism an d Christia n virtu e were intro
d u ce d an d the whole thrown into a ctional Br ut y
Br e nh i ne d o r H is t ory of t h e Ri ng s by som e u nkn own
author by the beginn in g o f the twelfth centu ry
We have already ment ione d the L ati n history o f
I n the introd u ctio n to his
G eo ffrey o f M on mouth
,

'

T he

B ard s

an d

C h ro n i cl e rs

10 5

work he states that while st u dyi n g the history o f

the kings of Britain and wonderi n g why Gild as and
Bed e had not m ade m ention o f those who liv e d
prior to the Christian era nor o f Art hu r and m a ny
others he was agreeably su rprised by a r e qu est fro m
Walter Cal e n iu s Archdeacon o f Oxford t o translate
a book from the British tongu e which Walter had
brought from Brittany
A S we s aw i n the last chapter Geoff rey s t rans
lation o f this work created a most profoun d i mpre s
sio n all over England I t was d evou red with the
u t m ost avid ity by all classes an d s o lastin g was
the e ff ect which it p rod u ced that even the Fren ch
romancers while writ ing a distinct versio n o f the
le gen d still followed (an d were compelled to follow )
t h e outlin e s o artistically sketched by Geo ffrey
The story as narrated by this fa m ous Chronicler
falls n atu rally i nt o three section s
The rst ex
te n ds from the bi rt h of Ki n g Arthu r t o the e n d
o f his con qu est o f Gau l and his second coronation
as King The secon d opens with the com ing of
the famou s Roman embassy an d closes with the
news of Mo d re d s t re achery and attempt to carry o ff
qu een Gu inevere
The third section com mences
with t h e su dden retu rn o f Arth u r to Britai n and
ends with the nal battle o f C aml an an d death of
t h e Kin g
,

T h e A rt h u ri a n E pi c

10 6

I n this s o called H is t ory Arthu r is represented as

the s o n of king Uther Pendragon an d I gerna a
lady celebrated for he r beauty an d form erl y the
wife o f Gorlois D uke o f Cornwal l
After U t h e r s
death which happen ed i n consequ en ce of his drink
in g wate r from a poison ed spring Arthu r then a
youth o f ftee n is crowne d King at a general assem
bly o f the n ob l es at Silchester at the hands o f the
holy D u brici u s Archbishop o f Caerleon the City o f
Then follows a long series of his co n
L egions
q uest s carried o n against the Saxons an d Scots H e
subsequ ently subd u es all England an d Scotlan d with
the assistance o f his n eph ew H oel o f Armorica and
then proceeds to annex I relan d I celand th e Ork
n eys Nor w ay Dacia Aqu itain e an d the t w o Gau ls
nishin g with Paris which h e O btains as the pri z e
of a d u el with Fl o l l o the Roman tribu ne and gover
nor o f the city After the lapse o f n ine years d u r
ing which Gau l was na l ly red u ced he d ivides the
conq u ered territories amon g his p rin cipal adherents
and then ret u rns in triu mph t o England
Two incidents occu r du ring this period which de
serve notice ; (1) shortly before his I rish exped ition
the King marries Gu inevere whom Geo ffrey states t o
have been d escended from a noble Roman famil y ; an d
o f the celebrated sword
he
comes
into
possession
2
()
Calibu rn o r Excalibu r which o u r a uthor merely states
-

T he

10 8

A rt h u r i a n

E pi c

voyage he dreams a port e ntou s drea m of a fearfu l

contest between a ying ery d ragon and a y ing
boar en ding in the d est ru ction o f the latte r an
omen which he interprets in his own favou r Sub
sequ e n tl y two engagem ents take place between the
Britons and the Romans in which th e form er are
victoriou s though n ot withou t the loss o f s e vera l
important knights on the side o f th e Britons a mon g
whom were Bedivere an d Kay and o n the sid e o f
the Romans the Emperor hi mself and s e vera l o f
his allies
This victory achieved A rt h u r pro ce e d s onwards
t owards Rome which lfo w e v e r h e d oe s not r each by
reason o f the intelligen ce brought him when a bout
t o cr oss t h e A lps o f Mo d re d s t reason ous revolt and
carrying o ff o f Queen Gu inevere An d s o the s e c
o n d section ends
I n the third d ivision Arthu r retu rns in hot haste
an d a erce cont e st partly naval partly o n land takes
place at Richborough where M odred attempts to o p
pose his M onarch s landi n g I t is here that G aw ai n e
m eets his death to the great sorrow of the King
As soon as the report o f his retu rn gets abroad the
Qu een ees from York to Caerleon and takes the vei l
i n order to avoid the possible fu ry o f her h u sban d
while M od red collects his forces and occupies Win
chester Arthu r besie ges hi m there and a battle
,

'

T he

B ard s

C h r o n i c l e rs

an d

10 9

ensues i n which M od red is d e feat e d Thenc e the

traitor retreats to Cornwall and makes a stan d on
the river Cambula where the l ast o f Arthu r s co n

tests that great battle in the West takes p l a ce

The King a n d M odr e d meet in S ingle combat the l at
te r is sl ain o utright but Arthu r is mo rtally wou nd e d
an d all the p rincipal knights on both sides perish i n
the fray Arthu r is carried from th e eld o f battl e
t o the I sle o f Avalon t o be cu r e d o f h is wou nds a n d
gives up his crown to Cad o r s s o n Constanti ne in
the year of ou r L ord 5 42
Such is a brief anal y sis o f the acco u nt given by
Geo ffr e y A rt u ru s as he was called an d whom we
hav e designated the rst of the Chroniclers
A S this is the rst collective accou nt o f poe ms
trad itions oral tales and on d i t s o f the Arthu rian
romances in Brittan y an d Wales it d eserves a so m e
what closer scrutin y This work was styled a H is
t ory and soon became extensively pop u lar
I ndeed
within a cent u ry a fter its rst appearan c e it was
generally adopt e d by writers o n English history and
d uring severa l successive centu ries but few dared t o
spe ak ag a inst i t s veracity
But the m ost impo rtant question which this H is
t ory suggests is this :
To what extent are Chival ry
an d Knight errantry recognised in this work ? As
we have seen this which is the m ost charming
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

1 10

featu re i n m odern versions is totally abse n t in all

previous Welsh writers
I n Geo ffrey however it
is d istinctly visible H ere we n d Arthu r w ith the
exp ression the animation and the reli e f which the
poetical pai nting o f the Arm orican bards have g iven
him H e retains bu t little o f the king of the old
Welsh stories H is th ou g hts his words his acts are
those of a kn ightl y king H e enters i n full panopl y
into the world of chivalry the very dawn o f which
ill u mines his feat u res H e belongs not s o mu ch to
the Cambrian s as to al l civilised Eu rop e H is
knights Kai an d Be d w y r becom e French o n e i s o f
H e has the Cross
L a M anche the other o f Anj ou
engrave d on his sword and even o n his helmet he
bears the sign o f the Christian as a crown H e sta n ds
be fore us in the ush o f yo u th p erfect i n form h an d
some in feat u re an d n oble i n character The Britons
love and follow him into the thickest o f dangers ; the
national saints protect him ; the pagan Saxons fear
hi m as their scou rge an d attack him only by treason
H e is brave as the Ch arlemagne o f sto ry n o r is he
a less chivalric ideal o f the Christian king o f the
eleventh centu ry than Charlemagne H e is led by
love o f glory a n d advent u re beyond the l i mits of
H e holds full cou rt in
h is own narrow kingdom
all the cities o f Western Eu rop e even at Paris and
his sword glitters whe rever French or Norman a rm s
,

'

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

T he

I2

Oxford cleric mad e his appearance o n the stage all

these touches were familiar devices of aspiring a u
thors of that day t o give their ctions th e semblance
of fact a n d reality We cannot forget the clever
forgeri e s o f Chatterton which deceived eve n so acu te
a critic a s Walpol e ; or the ctions o f D e Foe which
s o far m isled the hard logical m ind o f L ord Chatham
that he actu ally once qu oted the Me moi rs of a Ca va
l ie r as g en u in e history
Still are the circu mstances
connected with this man uscript really as susp icio u s
as som e wou ld have u s b e lieve ? One fact is certain ly
suspicious The man uscript from which Geo ff rey
states that he copied the maj or part o f his H is t ory
can not n o w be found I t is lost hopelessly lost But
Geo ffre y s translation remains and if we cannot bring
t h e fa m ou s m a n u script itself to a critical test we can
at least cross exa m in e the transl ation
I f then we scru ti nise this H is t ory closely an d e rit i
call y we are met by som e very interesting resu lts
We nd t ales t raditi ons an d l e gen ds imbedded i n
Geo ffr e y s n arrative which we recognise at once as
Breto n o r Ar m orican and n o t Welsh for they can
be t r ac e d t o Breton t radit ions st ill extan t and to
which the Welsh h ave n othin g si m il ar in the whole o f
their literatu re Th e y a re ind igenou s t o Armoric a
an d th e ir prese n ce in Geo ffre y s H is t ory i s u n deniable
proof that he received these a t least from Brittany
,

T he

B ard s

C h ro n i c le r s

an d

1 13

O n the other hand a carefu l an d critical analysis

discloses the exist ence o f tales t rad itions and
legend s which we recogn ise at on ce as Welsh and
n ot Breton ; for they can be traced t o Welsh t rad i
tions still extant and t o which the Bretons have n o
paralle l These it is equally certain were n ever
fou n d in an y Breton manuscript
The truth seems to be that Geo ffrey did translate
from some manuscript now lost the greate r part o f
his Arthu rian tales b u t that bein g a Welshman a n d
living on the bord e rs of Wales and being fam i liar
with Welsh traditions he occasionally i nserted tales
and legends from the Welsh storehou se o f ction
The question then recu rs was it the Kym ry o f
W a les or the Kymry o f Brittany that contributed the
spirit of knight e rrantry which is s o conspicu ous
i n this work ? Certainly n ot the K y mry o f Wal e s
N othin g could be m ore re m ot e from the British c o n
c e pt i o n than k n i ght errantry or the sp irit o f a d v e n
tu re neithe r of which had place in the Kymric
charact e r i n p re N or m a n t im es After that period
t h e love o f adventu r e gradually insinuated itself
into the nati onal character and showed i tself d u ring
the Crusades when the Cambrian knights j oined the
standard o f religious fanatics and mixed on ter m s o f
intimacy with those o f other countries But p re vious
to the tw e lfth cent u ry this spirit was totally wa n ting
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

1 14

It

is to t h e N ormans and n o t t o t h e Kymry that

the Arthu rian Rom a n ce is in d e bte d fo r it s spirit o f
a dventu re an d its kni ht errantry
O
f
all
the
peop
le
g
o f ancie n t
E u rope the N ormans showe d them
s e lves d uring the peri od which preceded the rise
o f roma n c e
literatu re to be the m ost i n trepid an d
adventu rou s This attribu te which they inherited
from thei r sea farin g ancestors they alway s retain ed
and when they settled down in Neustria afterwards
N ormandy as conq u erors this was still their ru ling
passion They were m oreover p ractica l plagiarists
i m itators an d i mp rovers When ever the ir ne igh
bou rs i n vented or posse ssed a n y thing worth y of ad
m ira t i o n the sharp inqu isitive N orm a n thrust his
aquilin e n ose From a Frank castle o r a L ombard
chu rch to a Bre ton b a ll a d o r rom ance there was the
sharp eager fa ce o f th e N orman i n the van M o re
over the N orman inv a riably int e rmarried with the
p eopl e a m ong whom he settled and borrowed and
i mproved their lit e ratu re From the time th a t he
settl e d i n N eu stria Brittany becam e a sort o f e f
o f N or m and y a n d hen ce the Breton literatu re was
made tributary The N orman d id not invent Ar
thu ri a n lit eratu re bu t improved and embellished
what h e fou n d alread y i nvented i n Brittany I t was
t h e N orman m instr e l who in fu sed into it the spirit
o f adve nt ure and kni ght errant ry a n d hence its a
p
,

T he

1 16

A rt h uri an E pi c

as it a ppears in these romances we m ust examin e

the system as it existe d i n both France and England
du ring the twelfth cent u ry
When these romances were being fashioned Chiv
al ry consisted in a doub l e t riad of L oves

The L ove of God and as a n atu ral co n s e

I
n
e
f
the
defence
H
o
l
y
Chu
rch
u
e
c
o
q
I I The L ove of t h e L a d ies an d as a n atu ral
consequ en ce the defen ce of Woman as w oma n
I I I The L ove of Count ry an d as a nat ural
con sequ en ce the d e fen ce o f Society at l arge
Bu t these external characteristics of chivalry had
corre s pon din g internal l aws which form ed a secon d
triad o f L oves :

The L ove of L oy a l ty i n its broadest sense ;

I
l oyalty t o G o d ; loyalty t o the Church ; loyalty t o
the King ; loyalty t o o n e s fellows even though en e
m ies an d l oyalty t o self

I I The L ove of Cour t esy consisting n ot s o m u ch

in the kn owledge o f cerem on ial customs (though this
w as n o t disregarded ) as i n that true m odesty sel f
den ial a n d respect fo r others which flow sp ontan e
o u s ly fro m the heart o f the t ru e gentleman

I I I The L ove of M u n ice nce o r the desp is a l o f

m oney for its ow n sake
This double t riad o f L oves constituted the very
sou l o f chivalry an d formed the strongest co n ce iva
,

B ard s

T he

C h r o ni c le rs

an d

1 17

ble i n centive t o vi rt u e i n wom an and ide a l pe rfe c

tion in man
At the period i n question every baron ia l castle
o f the wealthier n obles throughou t E u rop e was a
scho ol o f chivalry Eve ry child o f gentle bi rth at
the age o f seven was taken from the cu stody o f
wom en an d placed in charge of m en of the war
rior class H en ceforth he becam e n ot only pu pil
but se rvan t an d attendant H e was n ot only a
d a mois ea u bu t a page or valet (for these words had
n ot t hen lost their n obility o f m ean i ng) H er e i n
the castle su rro un ded by kn ights and ladies h e was
tau ght rst an d forem ost the d uty o f obe d ie n ce i n
order that he m ight becom e the t ru e h nech t the
tru e servant the tru e knight I n the eld he l earned
to ride and guid e his h orse with skill ; i n the ar
m ou ry t o u se sword an d lance with dexterity ; o n
the tiltin g g rou nd t o acqu it himsel f as a m in iat u re
k n i ght
Bu t let u s follow the stripli n g int o th e tiltin g
grou n d where the n ovic e s take thei r m or n in g e xe r
cise Close by the meadow is the m a ssive castle
with its battlements p o rtcullis and drawbridge
while fringing the m eadow are the pavili on s o f the
variou s knights decked with armorial ags o f bril
liant colou rs an d the knights themselv e s are there
watching the tyros of the lists at their m orni n g ex
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

1 18

The youth ful page armed cap a pie in boy

arm ou r m ou nted o n a pony rides full galop an d
with p oised l ance at a large wooden gu re of a
m an that stan ds i n the m iddle o f t h e grou nd The
gu re is m ou nt ed on a pedestal o n which it revo l ves
wh en struck the arms o f the gu re being st retched
ou t at full lengt h while from either han d dan gles
a lon g wooden sword attached t o the hand by a
ring The novice rides at th e gu re as at an en emy
his h a nd grasping rm ly the t ou rnamen t spear an d
h is boyish face a glow with excitement H e st rikes
it bu t n o t i n tru e kn ightly fashion ; the gu re
swi n gs rou n d on its pivo t an d i n doing s o d eals the
u nskilful youth a st inging blow with the w ooden
sword which it holds i n its o utstretched han d The
spectators l augh and s o the rest t ry their skill
What a school for ph y sical train i ng ! what a fertile
soil for ambition I H o w could these e d ge l i n gs fail
t o ven erate the veteran knight whose str e ngth and
prowess had been tested i n m any a j ou st an d battle ?
Or follow these valets when the m ilitary exercises
o f the day are en ded I f th ere is a chase in the
h u nting e l d they are requ ired t o attend ; i f the
Baron s guests are t o take an equ estrian prom enad e
th ey are e xpected t o follow I f there is a m essage
t o be delivered th e y are sen t o n the erran d I n the
baron ial d i ning h all they alon e serve the lordly
e rci s e

A rt h u ri an Epic

T he

12 0

b l e an event i n the li fe o f the you th could n ot b e

allowed to pass with out religiou s rites The sword
which i n fu tu re was to be h is distingu ishin g weapon
was p laced upon th e a l tar o f t h e chu rch solem nl y
b l essed an d present ed t o the p ost u lan t o n condi
t i on that it shou ld b e employed solely i n t h e inter
e s t o f religion an d h on ou r
H is duties hen ceforth
were o f a m ore practical character H e w as e s cu rie r
or m aster o f the stables H e broke the picked h orses
t o al l the m anoe u vres o f war T o him w as entruste d
the sole charge an d keepin g o f the arm ou r o f the
kn ight H e a lon e m i ght equ ip the kn ight s h orse o n
all occasions ; a task o f n o small responsibility i n
those days I f the kn ight rod e o n his palfrey an d
u nar m ed (which h e always did when an en cou nt er
was n o t im m inent ) his squ ires followed leadin g th e
war horse an d bearin g his arm o u r I f a combat was
abou t t o take p l ace it was the d uty of the squ ires
t o arm the knight an d s e e that every clasp an d bu ck l e
was rmly faste n ed an d secu re t o lead u p the g ra nd
ch e va l an d t o assist his lord when h e m ou nted his
high h orse As soon as t h e battle o r du el began
th e squires i n atten dan ce t ook up their position be
hi n d their lord and the rst shock o f the encou n ter

past thei r r ol e com m e n ced I f the knight was over

borne an d u nhorsed the y i n stan tly ca m e t o h is rescu e
with a fresh h orse i f his was wou nded o r i f the kn ight
.

B ard s

T he

C h ro n i c l e r s

an d

12 1

himse l f w as h u rt shieldin g hi m from the blows o f his

antagonist even at the risk o f their o w n lives u ntil he
,

I n the castle the sq u ire was perm itted t o penet rate

farther than the simple page withi n th e sacred pre
fam ily H e had a recognised rank
cin ct s of the
am ong th e inmates an d was requ ired to be p resent
at p rivat e reu n ion s or m ore p ublic gatherin gs H e
was the Master of Cerem on ies when distin gu ished
gu ests visited the castle an d i nitiated forei gn prin ces
an d other n ob l e visitors into the mysteries o f n ational
etiqu ette I f as pa ge he had often sighed for the
consecrated sword an d the sm iles of a lady elect so
as squ ire h e looked eagerly forward t o the crested
he l m et the m assive arm ou r the heraldi c coat an d
th e gilded spu rs which the kn ight wore o n the eld ;
or t o the richer silks an d costlier fu rs which he wore
i n the castle halls ; perhaps t oo to the badge which
the kn ight display ed i n t ou rn ament the token o f
his lady s favou r
At len gth the severe trainin g of an other seven
years s u ccessfully past k n ighthood duly followed
O n the eve of his consecration the can didate con
fessed his sins H is ar m ou r w as placed on the altar
o f the chu rch and th e re alon e i n the s acre d bu ild
ing the postulant watched the livelon g n ight in
,

The

12 2

A rt h u ri an

E pic

fasting an d p rayer As soon as m orning d aw n e d h e

was led t o the bath ; then the white g arm ent was
thrown over h im (a kin d o f chrisom ) godfathers were
appointed ; a l ock o f hair was cu t O ff indicating a
m odi ed form of ton s u re ; an d other rites were per
form ed al l sy mbolical o f th e pu rity hu m ility an d
l oyalty which the Chu rch requ ired of the tru e knight
Then h e heard M ass his arm s were so l em nly blessed
an d he was kn ighted by Bishop priest o r som e knight
o f high rank in the n am e of God o f St George an d
o f St
M ichael the Archange l The n ewly created
kn ight then swore to sp e ak the tr uth ; t o maintain
the right to protect women the poor and the dis
tressed t o practi ce co u rtesy t o pu rsu e the I n d e l s ;
to despise riches an d l uxu ry ; an d t o main tain his
hon ou r at every cost H e then received the Blessed
Sacrament i n con rm at ion of his oath an d s o the
cerem ony ended
The y ou ng n oble was n ow a knight s o far as the
Chu rch was con cern ed but the l aws of chiva l ry de
H e m u st n ow wi n
man d e d somethin g additiona l

his s p urs
H is appearance in the eld was hence
forth the same as that o f the proudest kn ight i n
every respect s ave one ; h is S
hie l d u n like theirs was
plain u nemblaz oned wanting as yet the coat O f arm s
which distingu ished one kn ight from an other and
which was equ ivalen t t o their n am es being in s cribed
.

T he

12 4

A rt h u r i an E pi c

had broken h is knightly oath show the detestation i n

which su ch a character was h eld I t is tr u e that this
loyalty was at times carri ed t o fantastic lengths
We read how the kn ights o f the re s pective cou n
t ries du ring the wars o f Englan d an d Fran ce fought
a s they fou ght at the t ou rnam ent bearing over their
arm ou r scarfs an d devices as the live ry o f their l adies
elect ; som e i ndeed goin g s o far as t o wear a cover
in g over o n e o f their eyes an d vowin g for the sake
o f their ladies
n ever to s e e with both u ntil they
sh ould have signalised thei r prowess in the eld !
Still fantastic as it was the goddesses o f this idola
try kn e w b ut t o o well t h e valu e o f su ch worship t o
think o f tu rn i n g it into derision they knew that it
was the resu lt of ideal delity and that it was su re
t o lead to ideal h eroism
An d what a grace the virtu e o f cour t e sy m u st have
thrown over the stern habits o f the social li fe o f that
period Doubt l ess the deep reverence for the Blessed
Vi rgin M ary as th e idea l o f wom anho od had some
what t o d o with this Bu t the strict train ing o f the
baron ial castle had still m ore From early boyhood
t he page was taught t o regard every lady as peerless ;
as a being t o wh om adorat ion was d u e a n d toward
whom he was t o act o n all occasion s with sterling
m odesty an d profou n d respect By a decree o f the
Cou n cil o f Cl e re mo n t he w as requ i red at the age of
,

T he

B ard s

C h r o n i c l e rs

a nd

12 5

twelve to take an oath be fore the B ishop of the

Di ocese that h e wou ld defen d t o the u ttermost th e
oppressed the wid ow and the orphan ; an d that
wom en both m arried an d single when in distress
shou l d have his special protection A S imilar oath
as we have alread y s e en was requ ired o f the candi
date for knighth ood H ow could it be otherwise
than that the knight should regard woman with
ideal cou rtesy sin ce s h e was his especial charge ; or
that woman i n retu rn shou ld regard him with feel
ings o f lovin g pride and strive to be worthy o f his
worship
B ut this virtu e o f cou rtesy ten ded above a ll e l se to
soften down the natu ra l rou ghn ess and cru elty o f war
W
M
*
The Tr ace of God an d the P e a ce of t h e Ki ng were
steps in the sam e d irection The kn ight who upon
hearin g that his m ortal en emy w as i n wan t o f win e
st opped the siege sen t him a cask from h is ow n s u p
plies u nder a ag o f t ruce and the n con ti n u ed the
war was si m ply carrying ou t the true spirit o f chiv
al r
i
I
t
s
t
he
virtu
e
o
f
m
e
i
cou
rtesy
which
d
m
a
l
v
y
laid the basis o f that in du lgent treatm ent of prison
e rs u nkn own t o antiqu ity b u t practised in m odern
civilised warfare
Valou r loyalty co urte s y m u n i ce n ce a love of
right a h atred o f oppression these form ed the code
,

Vi de No t e L

T he

12 6

A rt h u ri an E pi c

o f a tru e knight o f the twelfth centu ry an d it is

beca u se the essential attributes o f chivalry are of
this imperishab l e n atu re that it is l aughed at only
by the half ed u cated an d he l d i n disrepute only
when ideality is lacking in th e m in d o f a n ation
Chivalry was the p rodu ction o f n o o n e cou rt an d
I t existed wherever Christian ity
o f n o one co u ntry
held sway I t existed d uring the twelfth centu ry
am on g al l C hristian nations an d resu lte d from a rest
less asp i ration aft er i d e al perfection This cravin g
was d u e t o the teach ings o f th e Chu rch Abstract
ing a warri or from the provi n ce o f history m aking
hi m feel the impu lses an d speak th e l anguage o f a
m ore civilise d age enriching him with all that cu lti
v at e d m i n ds deem go od an d n oble this which we
n d in the Arthu rian Romance could o nly have fo u nd
favou r among ecclesiasti cs The fact that Arthu r is
represented as havin g worn the image o f the Virgin
o n his S h ield and the Cross o n his he l met ; tha t the
grand e st events in his l i fe his coronation and even
his wars were hal l owed by th e m ost sol e m n rites of
H oly Chu rch these facts S how an ecclesiastic al i n
u e n ce
I t was n o t the bards o r the C hron iclers as
such bu t the clergy who gave that high religiou s col
o u ri n g t o p op ular t radition s which has cast a pa l e
me l low l ight over subse qu en t romances I t is t h e
in f usion o f the pu re the sub l ime the i m m utable
,

C H APT E R V

A n al ys is

of

T he

t he

A rt h u rian E pi c

R o man ce rs

N the last chapter we t raced the Arthu rian c y clus

d own t o the ti me o f Geo ffrey o f M on m o uth
the rst of the Chron iclers A s we before said the
p ublication o f this work marked a grand ep och i n
the history o f ro man t ic ct i o n i n Englan d an d even
in E u rop e The N orm an m instrels wh o before this
had been p ut t o their wits en d to devise n ew tales
with whi ch t o am use their lordly patrons were n ow
i n possession o f an i nexhaustible fu n d o f stories
Wace in his French m etrical chron icle L i Roma n
d e Br ut translating from the L atin of Geo ffrey adds
little absolutely n ew m atter in the way o f incident
t o Geo ffrey s accou nt o f Arthu r being conten t with
amp l i fying an d adorn ing his predecessor s p rose H is
Still there is one p oin t highly imp ortant to the
t ory
perfection an d u n ity o f the epic o n which the poems
of the Welsh bards the Welsh triads the popu lar
Welsh tales the early t radition s of Wales and even
Geo ffrey s work main tai n a profou n d silen ce ; bu t
.

12 8

R o ma n c e rs

T he

I 29

which Wace ment ion s for the rst time We refer

a ce s
to the legend o f the Rou n d Tab l e I t is i n
work that we rst hear of this celebrated board Bu t
even here i t appears only as a germ the subj ect be
ing dismissed with two short lines

F ist

A rthur 1
a

roo n d e

D on t B rito n s di nt
e

T abl e

m ai n t e

f abl e

L ayamon ,

tu rn ing his back alike u p on the cou rtly

Fren ch o f the palace an d the scholastic L atin o f the
m onastery t ran slated ace s rom ance int o good n a
t ive Engl ish thu s striking on e of those d eadly blows
which ended in the tri u mph o f the Saxon speech as
the classica l lan guage o f En gland H is version how
ever u nlike that o f Wace contains imp ortant addi
t i ons t o the story I t is i n his work that we rst
hear of the presence o f fairies at Arth u r s birth
So

n
says L ayamo n
as Art hu r cam e i nt o the
s oO
worl d fairies received him they enchanted the child
with magic m ost strong ; they gave him strengt h to
be the best of all kni ghts ; they gave hi m an other
gift that he shou ld be a rich king ; they gave him
a third that he should live lon g ; they gave t o the
prince vi rtues m ost good s o that h e was m ost gen
e ro u s o f all l iving m en
These the fai ries gave him

an d th u s the child thrived

The Rou nd Table leg e n d moreover at L ay amo n s

an

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

13 0

han ds u ndergoes a qu aint phase o f deve l opment

I t saith i n the tale that the king wen t t o Cornwall ;
then there cam e t o him an on o n e wh o was a crafty
workman an d met the king an d greeted him fairly :
H ail Arthu r n ob l est o f kings I am thine o w n man
I know of t ree works [carpentry] I heard s ay be
yon d the sea that t h y kn ights gan t o ght a t t h y
board on m idwinter s day many fel l for their m ick l e
prid e wrought m u rderou s pl ay an d for their high
lin eage each wou ld be withi n Bu t I will work thee
a board exceedi ng fair that thereat m ay s it sixtee n
h u ndred and more s o t hat n one m ay be without
An d when thou wi l t ride th ou mayest carry it with
thee and s e t it where th o u wilt an d then th ou n eed
t o the wor l d s end that ever a n y
e s t n ever fear
pro u d kn ight at thy board m ay make ght for there
shal l the high be even with the low
Ti m b e r was
brou ght a n d the board begu n I n fou r w e eks ti m e
the work was compl e ted
At a high day the folk
were assembled an d Arth u r himself approached soon
t o the board an d ordered all his kn i ghts t o t h e board
forth right When al l were seated then spake each
w ith other ; they all sat e abou t there were n on e
with ou t Every sort o f knight was there exceedin g
wel l disposed ; they were al l seated the high with
the l ow This was the same board that Briton s
boast o f an d s ay man y so rt s o f l easing [fa l se ta l es]
.

T he

13 2

A rt h u ri an E pi c

gan depart The Briton s believe yet th a t he is alive

an d dwelleth i n Avalon with the fairest o f all queens

an d they ever yet expect when Arth u r shall retu rn

Su ch then is th e story of Arthu r when stripped
o f all those adven tu res an d m arvels which have con
ferred o n it as deep an d u n dyin g a fascination as the
ven erable myth s of Rom an histo ry have cast upon
th e earliest ann als o f i mperia l Rom e Su ch is the
tale which ou r ancestors n ot three cent u ries ago
grave l y received as historical truth ; yet many a
reader wil l doubtless n d this version qu ite as n ew
perhaps m ore s o than m any o f th e m ore m arve l lous
editions o f the story
I n n o accou nts which we have hitherto m ention ed
d o we n d that array o f kn ights su rrou nding Arthu r
which we d o in the later versions an d whose i ndi
vidual advent ures form the greater part o f the later
roman ces Even i n the Chronic l ers Arthu r stands
ou t a l one is the true cent re o f the tal e s an d h is
knights occup y b ut subordi nate positions an d e x e r
cise l itt l e i n u ence on his fortu nes
I t is n ot till we com e to the Romancers that th e
brilliant p agean t o f kn ightly heroes an d heroines
bu rsts i nt o view an d it is n ow n ecessary in order t o
make this sketch o f the Arthu rian cyl u s complete
t o presen t a br ie f an alysis o f what these great writ
.

T he

Ro mance rs

13 3

We m ight give an abstract o f that p l ea s ant l y

j umbled condensation o f former rom an ces l eft u s by
Si r Thomas Malory ; bu t we pre fer t o throw in to
the form of a con n ected narrative the separate ro
manees o f the N orman trouv eres redu c e d t o some
thin g like chron o l ogical order
I t will be rem embered that we divided the h isto ry
of Arth u r as re l ated by the C hron iclers into three
sect ion s the rst endin g with his rm establishm en t
on the British throne an d secon d coronation t ogether
with h is queen ; the second term i natin g with the
intelligence brought t o the King when abou t t o
cross the Alps of Mo d re d s t reache ry ; an d the third
bringin g the hist ory o f o u r hero t o an en d by the
battle of Caml an Bu t even in this version there is
an i ntrod u ct ory chapte r There i s a gu re which
looms forth i n the d im backgrou n d before ever we
hear o f King Arthu r or i ndeed o f Uther Pen dragon
I t is the gu re o f M erlin who emerges from a dark
and shadowy past j ust as Arthu r him self at the c l ose
o f the version van ishes int o a dark an d myst eri o u s
futu re
This division o f the cyclus i nto three sect ion s
ho l ds good with respe ct t o the Romancers i f we
*
m ake one or two impo rtan t changes
I n the rst
place although M erlin retain s his position i n the d im
,

Vi de

149 .

A r t h u ri a n

T he

13 6

E pi c

The story opens at T in t agil castle a stronghold

of Gorlois Duke o f Cornwal l Uther Pen dragon
Arthu r s father is i ntrod u ced t o u s as laying siege
t o this castle with the avowed obj ect o f despoiling
th e Duke of his beautiful wife I ger n a But th e cas
t l e is w e ll garrisoned an d resists all th e forces which
Uth er can brin g against it At this j u ncture M erlin
with an E lij ah like su dden n ess m akes his appear
an ce upo n the scen e and engages t o brin g about
U t h e r s marriage with I gerna on on e co n dition
viz that th e king sh ou ld grant him a single requ est
T h e t erms are agreed upon an d U ther is sworn
upon the fou r E vangelists t o deliver to his (Mer
lin s ) cu stody whensoever he shal l d eman d it the
child which then an d there he predicts shall be born
o f the m arriage B y the magic arts of the great
seer the castle is taken that very n ight ; Gorlois is
slain i n the enco u nter and on the m orrow the king
an d I gerna are wedded t o the great j oy o f the bar
on s I n du e ti m e Arth ur is born and Uther in fu l
l m e n t o f his oath commands two knights an d two
ladies t o take the child wrapped i n a cloth o f gold
to the postern gate of the castle and t o deliver him
t o a certain poor m an whom they wou ld n d there
waitin g t o receive h im N o soon e r is the babe in
Merlin s p ossessi on than the seer mysteriou sly dis
appears with his charge Ti m e and space present
,

Ro mance rs

T he

13

n o obstacles to him H e is n o sooner go ne than we

nd the child i n t h e arms of the n ob l e wi fe of S ir
H ector a p rince of Cornwall an d to her as foster
m other the babe is entru sted but n ot before Merli n
has caused a holy man to ch ri sten him an d nam e
him Arth u r H enceforth we hear n othing o f the
royal child u nti l Uther is lying up on his d eath bed
Then while the barons are standin g arou n d their
dying chief M erli n appears abruptly amon g them

Sir
asks the crafty sage
S hall you r so nn e
Arthu r bee ki ng after you r dayes o f this re al m e ?
I give him Gods blessi n g and m ine an d
bid hi m p ray for my sou le
an d that he
the crow n e up on forfeitu re o f my bless
cl ai m e

in g
said the kin g i n presence of his baron s and
then yielded u p the ghost
After U t h e r s death there was seen i n the Cathe
d ral church of L ondon o n e S u nday m orn i n g be fore
the high altar a larg e ston e with an an vil o f steel
upon it an d a sword xed by its point i n the anvil
an d ben eath i n letters o f gold w a s th e inscription
.

W
h

ul l e t h

t his

s w or d o

t h is

v il e
is r igh t w is e hi ng bor ne of Eng l a nd
By t hp
advice of Merlin Archbishop Dub rici u s proE
l di m s a
a n d t ou rnament an d kn ights from a l l qu art ers ar
r
g
rive e ager t o essay the adventu re of the sword an d
all uns u ccessf ul Am ong them co m es Sir H e ct or
o so

out

s t on e a nd a n
.

T he

13 8

A rt h u ri an

E pi c

with his own s o n Si r Kay an d his fo s ter s o n the yo u ng

Arth u r S ir Kay havin g th ought l essly l eft his sword
behin d him d espatches Arth u r t o fetch it who pass
in g the chu rch happen s t o look i n when his eye rests
up on the mystic sword an d t o save himself the troub l e
of riding farther he d ism ou nts an d p ul ls it o ut o f the
anvil U n consciou s that he has perform ed any great
feat h e retu rns and being questi oned by Sir H ector
te ll s h o w an d where he had obtain ed it The knight
convin ced that h is foster child i s the right fu l ki ng
is about t o do h o m age when Arthu r endeavou rs t o
restrai n him
A l as l m i n e o w n e deare father
why kn e e l e yo u to m e ?
Nay n ay m y lord Ar

thu r replies sir H ector it is n o t s o I was n e ver

you r fath e r n e o f you r blo n d bu t I wote wel l that
you are o f an hi gher blood than I wen d e yo u were
H e then proceeds t o tell him the whole story how
M erlin had brought him an u nkn own child t o the
ca s tle an d how h e and his wi fe had cared fo r him
Then Arthu r m ade great m on e when h e e u nder

st ood that S ir H ecto r was n o t h is fath er

Tim e an d
again in the pres e nce of the assembled baron s does
this u n known y outh draw forth the m ysterious sword
the on l y o n e o f th e m all capable o f perfor m in g the
adventu re Tim e a n d aga in d o the b aro n s envi ou s
an d angry su cceed in gettin g t h e nal award p ost
p o n ed Bu t n o del ays avail them an d nally they
,

T he A rt h u rian E pic

140

word that shall be you rs an d I may

5 0 they rode
ti l they cam e t o a lake which w as a faire water and
a bro ad e an d in the m iddes o f the lake king Arthu r
was ware o f an arm e clothed in white sam ite that
held a faire sword in the han d
L o said M erlin

t o the king yon der is the s word that I sp ake o f

With that they s aw a d amos e l l going u pon the lake

What d am o s e l l is that ? sai d the king

That is

th e lady o f the lake said M erlin an d withi n that

l ake is a roch an d therein is as faire a place as any
is o n earth an d ri chly be se e n e an d this d amos e l l will
com e t o you an on e an d t h e n speak faire t o her that
sh e will give you th at sword
There w ith cam e the
d amos e l l t o kin g Arth u r an d saluted him an d he her

a ai n e
m
Da
osel
sai
d
th
e
king
what
sword
is
g
that which th e arm e holdeth yon der above the water ?

I wou l d it were m ine for I have n o sword

Si r
king said the d am o se ll o f the l ake that sword is
m in e an d i f yee wi l give m e a gift when I aske it
o
u
yee
shal
have
it
By
my
faith
said
king
y

Arthu r I will give y o u any gift that y o u will aske

or d esire
Well said the d amo s e l l goe ye int o
yonder barge and rowe yo u rs e l fe u nt o the sword an d
take it an d the scabbard with you an d I wi l l aske
m y gift when I see my tim e
S o king Arthu r and
M erlin alighted tyed their horses to t w o trees an d
so they wen t int o th e barge And when they cam e

R o man c e r s

T he

14 1

t o t he sword that the han d held king Arthu r t ooke

it u p by th e hand l es and t ooke it with him ; an d the
arm e and the hand went un der the wate r ; an d so cam e

t o t he lan d an d rode fort h

Afte rwards he m arries G u i nevere the dau ghter of
L e o d e gra u n ce king o f C ame l iard an d receives with
her as a present the fam ou s Rou n d Table which
it seems cou ld seat any n u mber o f knights up to
on e hu n dred an d fty
At th e cerem ony o f the marriage a n d coronation
the orde r of the Roun d Table is i n s titu ted and
com prise s thirty two seats inc l u din g that o f the

King an d the
siege pe ril l o u s the latter bein g
reserved for the be s t kn ight in the w or l d t ill
wh ose appearance it was t o rem ain vacant o n pai n
o f m ysteri ous p u n i s hmen t to any l ess n oble on e
who sh ou ld pre s um e to occu py it
I n this rst section Arthu r appears chiey in the
character o f an ordin ary kn ight errant s eekin g ad
ventu res relieving distressed damsels an d n ot i n fre
qu ently g etting sorely m au l ed by older han ds than
him s e lf At times h is ve ry li fe is endangered by
the machination s o f s om e h ostile en chant ress from
whose m alice he i s saved only by the int erposition o f
M erlin or the L ady of the L ake Occasion ally too
he acts as com mander i n chie f o f an army as in the
battle again s t the eleven con federate kings i n th e
,

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

142

forest o f Be d e gray n e where however he appears t o

have owed m ore t o his m i racu l ou s sword than to h is
skill as a tactician
There are two i ncidents con nected with this s e c
ti on which are highly i m p ortant i n their bearing o n
the epic u nity of these roman ces After the depart
u re o f kin gs Ban and Bors Mo rgau s e the wi fe o f
king L o t o f Orkn ey m oth er o f G aw ai n e and there
fore Arthu r s half sister cam e t o Arthu r sent thither
by her h u sband t o espy the Cou rt of the you ng King
though ostensibly o n a message o f stat e
and s h e
was a passing fayre l ad y wherefore the king cast
great love u nt o her
an d s h e was h is sister
on his m others side
But all this time king
Arthu r k u e we n o t that king L ots wife w as h is
sister
The result o f this mes a l l ia n ce was the ad
ven t o f M odred whose history t o t h e very last cast
its dark shadow over Arthu r s life u ntil in the ful
n ess of tim e the King made a terrible atoneme nt fo r
this in expiable s in at the hand o f the very wretch
whom h e had begotten
What [Es ch yl e an Ate dogging the footsteps o f its
vict im in silent vengean ce cou ld thro w a mor e tragic
co l ou ring over a tale than does this incestu ous cu rse
over the Arthu rian Roman ce
One other point With this section closes the
hi s tory of M er l in The famou s magician seer an d
,

T he

144

A rt h u ri an E pi c

long tim e victory hovered n ow over t he Ro mans

now over the Britons t ill nally king Arthu r espie d
where L u ciu s fo ught and did wonde r with his o w n e
hand s and anon he rode to him an d either smote
other e rs ly ; and at the last L u cius s m ote king
Arthu r overthwart the visage and gave him a l arge
wou nd and when king Arthu r felt himse l f hu rt anon
hee smote hi m [L u ci us] again e with Excalibu r that
it c l e ft h is head from the som et o f h is helm and stinte d
n o t til l it came ben eath the b rest
And then the
e mpe ro u r fel l down e dead an d there ended he his

life
This o f co u rse throws the Romans an d their
al l ie s into con fusion ; they take to ight pu rsu ed by
the Britons who put over on e hu ndred thou sand to
the sword !
I n Geo ffrey s f l is t ory it i s stated that th e King
after this decisive victory was a bout t o cr oss t he A lps
bu t w as prevente d from d oing s o in consequ ence o f
receiving n ews of Mo d re d s revolt I n the Romance
the
treason
o f Mod re d does n o t occ u r u nti l m any

a years later and accordingly the N

alim
r states
w
I that Arthu r e nt re d into L orain e Braband and
Flau nders and sithen retu rned into hie Almaine an d
s o over the m o u n t ai n e s into L u mb a rd y an d after into

D u ring his triu mphal march t o Rom e

T u s kai n e
a ll the cities arou n d send great su ms o f money prof
fe rin g him their al l egiance and do homage fo r the
,

R o ma n c e rs

T he

145

lan ds they hold Even before he reaches Rome all

the s enators that were left alive an d all the noblest
cardinals com e forth to meet him an d pray that th e y

may c ro w n e him e mpe ro u r with holy creme

On
the day appointed for the ceremony he ente rs Rom e [a n
M
in triu mph and there he was crow n ed e mpe ro u r by
th e p opes o w n e han ds with all the s o l e mn it ie that
cou ld be mad e and soj ou rned there a certaine t im e
an d e stablished all his lands from Rome u nto Fran ce
and hee gave lands and re al me s u nto his servants and

3
knights to every each after his deserving in su ch w is e l
f
d w t
that n on e of them complained
Then after this al l h is lords an d kn ights an d all
the great men of estate assembled them t o ge t h e r L-
afore the triumphant co n q u e ro u r king Arthu r an d
said Noble e mpe ro u r blessed b e the e ter n al God !
you r m o rt al l warre is all nished an d y ou r con qu est f {I

1
is achieved in s o mu ch that we know n o man s o great I
nor migh t ie that d are make any warre against you

1
71
They then requ est leave t o retu rn t o th e i r h o m e s fu fl
which Arthu r grants : gran d preparation s are mad e
an d nally King and knights pass over the s e a ir
and l and at Sandwich against whom came qu eene
M
G u e n e ve r and m et with hi m an d mad e great j oy o f J

his co mmin g
1 t
So far as we have gon e (i e in the rst two s e c
t ions ) whatever d i fference the re may be between the
,

i ,

"

10

T he

146

A rt h u ri an E pi c

H istory an d the Roman ce whether in the p lot the

incidents o r the epic sou l o f the tale the two ver
sions are su fciently S imilar to enable u s t o recog
nise a common origin fo r both And this statement
holds equally tru e o f the third o r as we m ust n o w
call it the fou rth section in both H istory an d Ro
man ce as we shall p resently s e e
B ut in the Romance there is an additional section
as we before n oticed an d it is this in crement to the
story which gives t o the Romance o r Epic its d is
t i n ct iv e character
So important in deed are these
additions that from them a l on e we are warranted i n
regarding the Rom an ce as a totally distinct version
from the H isto ry This section p ecu liar to the Ro
mance h as m oreov e r a distingu ishing m ark which
stamps it and which leaves its imprint upon the
whole version That mark is the famou s tale o f the
Q u es t of t h e H oly Gr a a l No othe r version contai ns
it A s we said i n a previou s chapter this Q uest is
Its achievem ent forms
t h e adventu re pa r e xce l l e nce
the cu lm inatin g p oint o f the whole story I t is the
an d
o n e point towards which every incident tends
which rend ers I ntelligible al l that goes before and all
that follows Even i f we grant that the d e epe s t i n
t e re s t gathers aro u n d the t ragic ending o f Kin g and
J:

n i h t s still this is simply because we can appreciat e

k
g
f
y
e t t e r the wid espread ru in after an earthquake than
,

T he

8
4

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

scend o n the other sid e an d reach t h e rst o f ou r

t w o h alting pl a ces i n the descent the point where
M od re d revolts ; thence we follow the steep down
ward p ath till w e co m e to the poi nt where Arth u r
falls a n d d ies ; and n all y we r e ach the p lain on ce
again t h e d e ath o f Q ueen an d L ancelot an d the end
o f the Rom ance
This third section then reaching from Arthu r s
coronation as Emperor to the r e volt o f M odred
falls nat u rally into t hree parts : (I ) The events im
mediat e l y preceding th e Quest ; (2 ) the Quest itself ;
the
events
subsequent
to
the
Qu
est
and
intro
(3 )
d u ct o ry t o the fo u rth section or the revolt o f
M odred
I n this part o f t h e n arrat iv e which occupies a co n
s i d e rabl e l e n g th o f ti m e and by far the l a rgest amoun t
o f space i n the e pic
Arthu r reti res somewh at into
the backgrou nd H e is n ow E m peror of the ci vi l:
ised world an d chief of a brotherhood of kn ights
which n u m bers in its ranks the ower o f t h e chivalry
o f Christen dom b u t
as he takes n o active part in
the a ctual Qu est of the H oly Graal the narrative is
m ore especially occup ied with the d eeds o f t hose
wh o acqu ired celebrit y by participati n g in this noble
advent u re Among the p erson age s who now st an d
prom in ently forward no o n e has s o great a sh are i n
this section o f the le gend and ind e e d i n al l that fo l
-

T he

15 0

l ows as Sir

A rt h u r i an E pi c

L ancelot

of

the L ake Aft e r the co n

he retu rns t o England with the
u est o f I taly
victorious army b ut soon growi n g w e ary o f the ease
an d luxu ry o f Cou rt lif e go e s forth i n search o f ad
ventu res which as we shall subsequently s e e he
nds to his heart s content I t was d u ring on e o f
th e se advent u res that he stayed at the castle o f a
certain ki n g Pelles a lin eal d escen dant o f J oseph o f
Ari m athea This kni ght it appears kn e w that his
N
daughter Elai n e (n o t h er o f Astolat ) was d e stined
t o be the m other o f the p eerless h ero who should ac
complish th e Qu est o f the H oly Graal and accord
i n gl y h e end eavou rs h is u tmost t o bri n g abou t a
match b e tween his daught er and L ancelot Faili n g
i n this he procu res the aid o f an e n cha n tr e ss an d by
magical deception att ai n s the desi red end I n cou rse
o f t ime Gal ahad is
born but o f his subsequ ent
care e r we hear bu t little u ntil w e arrive at the e v e o f
the great Quest
M ean ti m e we nd n o w an d a gain new kn ightly
m e m bers el e cted t o the Order o f the Rou nd Tabl e
I t is at this stage o f the story that the episod e o f
\
Gareth and dame L i o n e s occu rs wh ich T e n nyson
reset in o n e o f the f dy l l s of t h e Ki ng I t is n o w fo r
the rst tim e that we re ad o f Tristan and L a B e al
I s o u d e o n e o f the m ost exqu isite pi e ces o f m edi ae v a l
ro mance which we possess The introd u ction o f this
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

15 2

th e romancer Aft e r he i s kni ghted by the King

and has take n his seat among the less ren owned
members o f the Rou n d Table a m aiden in the
Queen s cou rt w h o was d u mb enters the hal l an d
wen t u n to Percivale and tooke him by the hand and
said alo u d that the king and al l the knights m ight

heare it Arise s ir Percivale the noble kni ght and

And there sh ee brought him
G o d d e s knight
u nto the right sid e o f the S iege pe rill o u s an d said

Faire knight take here thy siege for that appe r

t a i n e t h u nto thee and u nt o non e other
I n this w ay the Cou rt o f Kin g Arthu r became the
centre o f all that was impe rial i n e mpire an d knightly
in knighthood I f the Roman ambassadors could
report t o the Emp eror that Arthu r s estate was the
royallest that ever wee s aw in o u r dayes for he was
served at th e table with n in e kings an d the n oblest
fellowship o f other prin ces lords an d knight s that
bee in all the world and every knight approved an d

like a lord what m ust that estate have been when

he had mad e tributary the whole cou ntry from

Rom e t o Fran ce and had assembled aroun d him

self the m ost valiant barons and beauteou s lad ies o f
these his conqu ered territ ories ? But this w as
n o t all
Even knights like Tristan whose prou d
spirit m ight have re fused t o bow t o Arthu r as co n
u e ro r o r others like L ancelot whose prowess might
q
.

R o mance rs

T he

15

have m ad e them form idable rivals were allu red by

the sp l endou r o f a Cou rt which eclipsed that of all
form er dynasties and were irresist ibly d rawn within
the magic circle of an Order which raised its m em
bers t o the highest pinnacle o f worldly fam e
Su ch is the glowing p ictu re which the Rom an cers
have drawn o f Arthu r s Cou rt as an in trod uction t o
the Qu est o f th e H oly Graal
And yet throu ghou t al l these episodes when
Arth u r s glory rises t o its highest pitch by his inva
sion o f I taly by the brilliant splen d ou r o f his wed
ding feast ; i n all his high festivals of Pen tecost an d
E aster when from far an d n ear the chival ry o f the
world comes t o hon ou r hi m the han dwrit in g on the
wal l is disti nct l y seen casting over all the spectra l
gl are o f retribution i n consequ ence o f previou s s in
An d n ow a n ew scen e opens before u s The peer
l ess Galahad having b e en kn ighted is i n du e tim e
admitted t o the fellowship of the Rou n d Table At
the ho u r when the kn ights were s eated for dinn er
the San graa l appears an d Galahad at the biddin g o f

the h oly m aiden places himself i n the siege

r
e
ill
o
u
s
The
vision
of
the
myst
ic
Vesse
l
cau
es
s
p
profou n d ast on ishm ent and when it has van ished
G aw ai n e avows his determ ination t o go forth on the
Q u est Th e p roposition is im mediately cau ght u p
by al l the boldest knights present A rt hu r s grie f at
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

15 4

this su dden resolu ti on is beyond bou n ds H e know s

he h as a p r e sentimen t that this wou ld be the la s t
t im e th a t all the m embers o f th e O rder wou ld m eet
at the Rou nd Tabl e
But his entreaties are in e ffe c
tu al and the hall is soon desert ed by t h e brilliant
asse m blage n ever t o m eet there in equal n u mbers
an d splen dou r again
A ll th e kn ights wit h the exception of L anc e lot
P ercival Bors an d Galahad soon abandon the Quest
being thwarted by foes both en dish an d hu m a n and
also by holy herm its w h o tel l them that with o u t
p u rity o f l ife they will n o t be able t o obtai n even a
vision o f the Sangraal Sir Gal ahad an d his two
compan i o n s in arms Perciv a l an d B ors proceed
u n der the directi on o f th e h oly m ai de n an d at
length th e advent u re is achieved
Si r Galah a d is
t ran slated t o heaven i n th e sight o f h is frien ds Sir
B ors retu rns to Arth u r s Cou rt t o relate th e story o f
their m iraculou s achi e vem ent and Percival becom es
a herm it an d n o lon ge r appears i n the ro m an ce
The reu nion o f the knight s after this a dventu re is
a m elanch oly o n e Sad gaps may be seen at the
Rou nd Tabl e a n d m any seats formerly occupied by
those who bore nam es o f high ren own are n ow empty
The golden n ames o f Tristan L am o rak Percival and
Galahad are ther e bu t they are gon e The Kin g s
darkest foreb odings fall fa r sh ort o f the reality bu t
.

15

T he

A rt h uri an E pi c

war between him an d the Kin g B ut n ow G aw ain e

becomes L ancel ot s m orta l en emy and at h is in stiga
t ion th e Kin g crosses the sea besieges L ance l ot i n
his Fren ch castle o f J oyou s Gard and su rrou n ds the
adj acent t own with his army
I n the H istory as we have seen it is o n the break
i ng o ut o f the Roman war that Arthu r leaves his
Q ueen and kingdom in charge o f Mod red I n the
Romance this d oes n ot take place t ill the King de
termines upon the siege o f
And there
Gard
kin g Arthu r mad e s ir M od red ch i e fe ruler o f all
lfr n gl an d an d also hee pu t qu een e G u e n e v e r u nder
his go ve rn au ce be ca u s e s ir M odred was king Ar
th u rs son ne fo r hee gave hi m the ru le o f all h is
lan d an d o f his qu eene An d s o king Arthu r passed

over the s e a an d landed upon s ir L au ncelots land

The war which ensu ed m ight have bee n ended
tim e an d again had it n o t bee n fo r the i mplacable
hatred and bitter vengeance o f G aw ain e who u rges
the King o n i n spite o f h is still deep love for the
knight who had most wronged him At length news
o f his trust
o f Mo d re d s treachery an d violatio n
w
tis G ard
compels the King to raise the siege o f Joy g
and retu rn to cha s tise t h e t raitor And s o the third
section ends
The n al act i n this m edi ae val tr agedy both in the
appalling grand eu r o f the closin g scen e and i n th e
.

At

3 gh
{

a
g
g

'

n
I

me

lC

T he

R o ma nce rs

15

chasten e d si mplicity of the narrative is perhaps u n

equalled by a ny w rit ing i n the E nglish tongu e
An d there (at Dover) w as s ir M od r e d re a dy
waiting
t o let his o w n e f a ther t o land

upon the land th at h e was king o ff

But Arthu r
in spite o f al l opposition e ffects a l a n d i n g and puts
the r e bel a r my t o ight
Poor G aw ai n e whe n the battle is o v e r h e is fou nd
i n a g re at boat e ly ing m ore than h a l fe d e ad to
the great sorrow of the King his u ncle As Arthu r
holds t h e d y in g knight in h is arms his roy al he a rt
overows and he s obs alou d
I n s ir L au n celot and
o
u
I
most
had
my
o
a
n
m
ine
f

a
n
e
and
now
d
a
c
y
j y
have I lost my j oy o f you both wherefore all m in e

earthl y j oy is gon e from m e

Gaw a i n e when it is
too late sees the mad n ess o f the cou rse he has b e e n
pu rsu i ng and a pri e st having bee n su m moned
writes t o Sir L anc e lot this letter indited by G a
waine in broken and fast faili ng acc e nts :
Flou re o f all noble kn ights that ever I heard o f
or s aw in m y dayes I s i r G aw ain e king L ots sonn e
o f O rke n e y sisters son n e u nto the n oble king Ar
thu r send u n to thee greeting and let thee h ave
knowled ge that the tenth day o f May I w as smitten
upon the old wou nd which thou gavest m ee before the
c it i e o f Be n w i ck
e an d through the same wou nd that
thou gavest mee I am come u nto my d eath day
and I wil l that al l the world wit that I s ir G aw ain e
,

15

T he

A rt h u ri an E pi c

kn ight o f the rou n d t able sought my d eath an d not

through thy d eserving bu t it was min e o w n e seek
ing ; wherefore I beseech thee s ir L au n celot
for all the love that ever was be t w e e n e u s
m ake n o t ary in g but come over the s e a i n all the hast
that tho u m aie s t with thy n oble knights and re s ce w
that n oble king that mad e the e kn ight
fo r
he is fu ll straightly be s t o o d with a false t rait o u r
sir M od red an d h e hath let cro w n e h ims e l fe
king an d he wou ld have wedded my lady qu een e
G u e ne ve r
if shee had n o t pu t her se l fe i n
the tou re o f L ondon
And s o i n deep p en itenc e
*
he dies
Arthu r p u rsu es M odre d from place to place till at
length u n able to escape the tra itor is forced t o
stan d his grou n d and ght
On t h e eve o f the
battle however t h e ghost o f G aw ain e appears to
Arthu r warn ing him not t o ght the n ext d ay or he
would be slain A tru ce is accordin gly p rop osed
an d accepted ; bu t m ut ual d istrust exists and e a ch
commander strictl y charges his army that if an y man
S ees a sword drawn in the enemy s r anks t o rush a t
once to the attack O n the ve ry day against which
G aw ain e had cautioned him an d j ust as the truce is
being ratied a snake issu es from a bush hard by
and stings o n e o f the knights on the foot I n a n
u nguard e d mom e n t the knight draws h is sword t o
,

Vi de Not e

T he

160

A rt h u r i an E pi c

But as if the terrible cu rse had n o t even yet

work e d itself thoroughly o u t the m e d iazval roman
cer contin ues to pain t the closing scene o f all in ev e r
darkening colou rs piling ru in upon ru in u ntil the
on ce glowi n g halls o f many towe re d Cam elot d is ap
p ear in u tter black n ess an d n either King n o r Qu een
n or k n ight is l e ft n ought save the lonely gloom o f
d irest d esolation
Th e rom a n ce m ust be read as it c a m e fro m the
imagin at ive bra in an d skilfu l touch o f the Nor m an
t rouv ere i f we wo uld re alise t o the fu ll ext e nt its
exqu isite beaut y its artistic p e rf e ction an d its mar
v e l l o u s p ower
I n the specia l stu dies which follow we sh all enter
m ore fully into the consideration o f m any o f the i n
ci d e n t s o f the story than h as b e e n possibl e in such
a su m mary s ketch as we h ave here given of the
Arthurian Epi c
,

C H A P T E R VI

M e rl in

and

V i v ie n n e

H E pe rsonage rst in chro nological order

though perhaps n ot rst i n impo rtance i n
t h e Arthu rian Romance is M erlin the p rophet and
encha n ter I n poi n t o f tim e he appears upo n t h e
stage lon g before Ki n g Arthu r his fa m ou s exploits
reaching back even t o the reign of Vortigern H e
also represents th e i n t e l l e ct o f the world as depicted
i n these poems while Arth u r repres e nts simply its
i
ca l f or ce
I
t
is
t
o
the
n
ecromantic
skill
and
h
s
py
wis e cou nsels o f M erlin that the King o w es h is birth
his crow n h is ord e r o f Roun d Table kn i ghts a n d his
victories I t is M e rlin who a s Cou rt prophet and
cou nsellor p redicts the grandest events i n the li fe o f
his sov e reign an d withou t whos e a dvice n o a ff a ir of
m om en t is u n dertaken
But t he legend of thi s p rophet protector a n d
counsellor is involved in n o little obscu rity We m ust
ther e fore n ow retrace ou r steps back throu gh the
da zz lin g p e riod of the Rom ancers wh e re t h e brilli a nt
,

161

T he

162

A rt h u ri an E pi c

o f the m edia: val writer h a s cloth e d al l

ima g in atio n
the scen es h e depicts with a g low o f n oonday splen
dou r ; back through th e sombre era o f the C h ro n i
clers where i n the gre y d awn o f earl y rom ance the
gran d outlines o f the m ore pro m in ent gures can be
disce rn ed with tolerable accu racy ; back to the thick
misty shades o f bardic ti mes where a m id the dark
n ess o f p r e historic days the gu res o f heroes and
en chanters loom colossally forth like di m super
nat u ra l forms the very haz e which obsc u res the m
magnifyin g their tru e proportions
As we peer into the d i m pa st the gu re of M erlin
stands o u t at o n e t ime as a Welsh bard at a n other
a s a Roman ki n
g at another as magician prophet
and enchanter ; on e form o r the other appearing in
bolder relief as a chance ray o f h istoric o r bardic
light S hooting far into t he thick darkness illu minates
this o r that side o f the character o f this mysteriou s
being
I t appears to be historical l y certain that abou t
t h e sixth cent u ry there lived a personage who u nder
t h e n ame o f Myrd h in o r as it is written in the oldest
Welsh form Myrt h in acquired celebrity as a bard if
not as o n e gifted with s upe rn at u al powers I n the
My vy r ia n A r ch a iol ogy there are s ix poems attrib
u t e d to this bard
non e of which perhaps belong
to him un l e ss they have been altered from t he ir
,

'

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

164

very early authority the prophetic child who was

after w ards t o d evelop into M erlin the enchanter was
called A m brosiu s t he name M erlin being then u n
known And here we are met by a cu rio u s co n fu
sion of two totally dist inct characters At the t ime
when Ambrosi u s the enchanter was at the height o f
his f a m e as a m agician Am brosius the king was a re
n o w n e d ruler o f Britain at least s o says t he H is t ory
I ndeed the historic Ambrosiu s (Ambrosius A u re l i
anu s) was the brother o f king Uth e r Pend ragon an d
hence Arthu r s u ncle an d accord ing to Geo ffrey of
M onmouth he p reced e d U ther as king in Britain the
nam e Ambros e being at the t i me o f the accou nt a
we l l known and comm o n appell ation M oreover the
birth and paren tage o f both Ambrose the king and
A m brose the magician were involved in obscu rity
an d fable an d con sequ ently it is n o wonder th at a
write r n arrat ing events which occu rred m any years
before his own tim e should confou nd th e two A m
brose the king an d Ambrose the e nchanter and
attribu te t o the e n chanter tradition cu rr e nt respect
ing the kin g Wh ateve r of a kin gly character ther e
for e e arl y a ccou nts o f M erli n A m brose may contai n
we may throw o u t o f consideration as the result o f
con foun din g two t otally d istinct personages
The earliest a ccou n t o f Ambrose the ench anter is
in the history o f N enn ius Vorti gern by the advice
,

M e rl i n

a nd

Vi v i e n n e

165

his twelve wise men resolved t o bu ild an d fortify

a city i n which to defend hi msel f against his Saxon
foes Afte r t ravellin g far an d wide he cam e to a
certain m ou ntai n (Snowdon ) which seemed adapted
t o his p urpose H e then collected togethe r work
men and materials but the whole o f the latter d is ap
a t h i rd ti me
a re d in one night
A
second
and
e
p
m at e ri als were collected b ut th e se vanished in like
manner The n the wise m en advised Vorti ge rn to
nd a child born without an earthl y fathe r to p ut
him t o death and to sprinkle with h is blood the site

on w hich the p roposed citadel w as t o be bu ilt

M essengers were accordin gl y despatch e d throughou t
Britain in search o f the requ ired child a n d at l ast
o n e was fou nd and taken to the king
h y have

thy men dragged m e h ither ? inqu ired the y outh

whe n brought i n to t h e presence o f the king
That
thou may e st be put to d eath and that t h y blood

m ay be sprinkled arou nd the site o f my citadel

repli e d the king
Who did S how thee this thin g ?

a sked the youth

My wise men said Vortigern

L e t them be su mmon ed int o my presence

said
the mysteri o us child
So they were brought in

N ow said the youth I ask these thy wise men

what there is und e r the soil i n this S pot

They

answer e d
We know not
I know r e plied the
boy ther e is a pool in t h e m idst o f the grou nd ;
of

W
.

T he

166

A rt h u r i a n

E pi c

d ig an d y e sh all n d it
Accord i n gly they d u g an d
fou n d as the bo y had predicted A gain he spok e :

T h e wis e m e n
Disclose t o m e what is i n the pool

were silent
There are two v e ssels bu ried withi n
said the proph e tic child Th e n they searched an d
fou n d the vessels
W hat is th e re e n closed i n the

vessels ? asked the you th Agai n the wise m e n

w e re silent
There is a tent i n the m idst o f the m
sai d A m brose ; separate the vess e ls an d ye shall

nd it
The n the vesse l s at the ki n g s com m and
were separated and there th e y f o u n d a t e n t rolled

up
What is there withi n the t e n t ? asked the
child bu t n o o n e cou ld tell
T w o d r a go n s are in

o n e red an d
it said the you ng prophet
one

wh it e
So th e y opened the t e n t an d there they

fou n d t w o d rag ons asleep

N ow said t h e bo y

watch a n d O bserve what the dragon s will d o

Th e n the dragons aroused fro m their torpor beg an
each t o attack the other an d exp e l h is f e llow fro m
the tent At l e ngth after a protract e d and o fte n
doubtfu l b attle the re d d ragon e xpell e d the white

T o me
an d took sole possession o f t h e eld
one
s a id t h e y outh is this m ystery revealed The pool
is an e mblem o f the world ; the t e nt is a gu re o f
t h y kingd om O Vortig e rn ; the red d ragon is t h y
d ragon bu t th e w hit e d ra gon has occupied m a n y re
gions in Britain and e re lo n g shall hold al m ost from
.

T he

168

A rt h u ri an E pi c

it is the en chanter wh o especially becom es a myt h o

logic he ro H e was supposed t o kn ow the past the
present an d t h e fut u re an d to be able t o assu m e the
form of any being an i mat e or inan imate Before
hist ory began he ru led in B ritain then a delight fu l
islan d o f o w e r bedecked m eadows H is subj ects
were fairies an d their lives were a continu ed fest ival
of singing playing an d enj oym ent H e also pos
sessed a s u b l acu al kin gdom where everythin g was
o f the richest charact er the inhabitants bein g charm
in g little creatu res with waves o f lon g hair falling i n
m assive cu rls o n their sh ou lders and the only want
felt was t h e full so ft light of the s u n which com i ng
t o them through the water was bu t faint an d cast
n o shadow
H ere was the fam ou s workshop where
M erlin forged the enchanted sword Exc alibu r and
where alone the ston es were fou n d by which the
sword could b e sharpened It was t o this regi on
that Excalibu r was restored at Arthu r s dying
requ est an d where it wil l remai n u nti l his fut u re
retu rn At som e t im e n ot specied in history this
M erli n qu itted the earth H e was l ast seen by som e
I rish m onks sailing away westward in a ski ff o f crys
tal On e thin g is c u riou s : these poets state that it
was his blin d passion for on e who did n ot reciprocate
hi s devotion that cau sed hi m t o sail in the fatal
vessel
.

M e rl i n

an

d V i v i e n ne

169

The bardic poems which seem t o reprod uce very

ancien t t radition s revea l t o u s a fact as i nteresting
as it is i m portant viz : that many years be fore the
produ ction o f the Roma n d e Me r l i n the p ri ncipal
facts i n his history had already been related by the
bards I n respect t o Merlin the en chanter they
refer t o his mysteriou s bi rth ; h is t riu mph ove r th e
wise m en his attachment t o Ambros e th e kin g an d

they call him son of the Vestal virgi n Com man der
i n chie f o f the army o f Amb rose an d prin ce o f
prophets
With respect t o M erl in th e bard they m ake h i m
prophesy the adven t of Arthu r and the glorio us
futu re o f the Brit on s They represent h i m as eein g
t o the woods t o live there i n secl usion They speak
of a n ym ph o f the woods compan i on o f his solitu de
w h o cou ld render h erself invisible a t will an d wh o
was de e ply versed in the magic art who event ua l l y
made hi m capt ive an d who m they call V ivl ian a
n a m e which the romancers have converted i nt o
Vivienne I ndeed the palace o r ski ff o f crysta l was
doubtless the germ ou t o f which the later roman cers
fabricated Merli n s en chanted prison H en c e the
protot ype both o f Vivien ne and o f th e En ch a nter
o f the romance are ev ide n tl y t o be t rac e d back t o
the bardi c poem s
I n the late r Welsh t raditions M erlin a ppe a rs as
,

"

I"
Vv
~

The

1 0

A rt h u ri an

E pi c

a Ch r is t ia n character
Accordin g t o the Welsh
legend St Co l umba cam e from I reland an d presented
hi m se l f t o the u n happy seer The saint s mantle was
black his hair dark his complex ion swarthy an d he
was m ou nted o n a black steed
M erlin at once
recogn ised the great I rish saint an d after so m e
conversation con fessed that h e had once b u rned
a ch u rch
that h e had u n g th e holy Book int o a
river an d had don e othe r heterod ox thin gs H o w
ever as we might supp os e he repents an d after
absolution an d recept ion o f the H ol y E u ch a rist
be com e s a good Christian
The tale as re l ated by the Arm orican Ky m ry is
somewhat di fferent but ext re m ely beauti fu l
St
Cado e who previ ou sly had evi nc e d s o m u ch anxiety
fo r the salvati on o f Virgil bein g hi m self a poet t ook
the deepest i nterest i n the fu t u r e wellbei n g o f all o f
the p oetic fa m ily H earin g o f the deplorabl e condi
tion o f M erli n in th e wilds o f Caledonia he made a
pilgri m age thither an d su cceeded in his s e lf i m posed
m ission ; h e fou n d th e m aniac b a rd a n d restor e d him
t o reason and t o the bosom o f th e Chu rch The
sam e sto ry whether related by Welsh or Armorican
writers di ffers only a s t o the personality o f the m is
s i o n a ry ; the ci rcu mstances o f t h e reconciliation of
the poor bard or prophet to H oly Church being
n early the sam e i n both version s This l egen d o f
.

T he

17 2

A r t h u r i an

E pi c

king She sits a t V o rt ige rn s sid e when questioned

as t o her s o n and while t elling her story s h e hangs
down her head an d bends it t owards her breast and

covers her featu res

I nd eed i n th e period between
th e e arlier Welsh bards and the Chroniclers M erlin
the b ard and M erli n th e enchanter had becom e
ide n tical although the character o f e nchante r and
prophet seems t o have retain ed the pred om inance
So far as we have gon e all accou nts whether
Welsh or Breton whether o f Bards o r Chroniclers
agree in three importan t p oints : 1 M erlin s mi racu
lou s birth ; 2 H is possession o f supernat u ral po w
H is re t ire me ht to the woods and nal
e rs ; an d 3
capt ivit y although between thes e p oints the variou s
narratives d iv e rge widely
We n ow co m e to the Ro m ancers t o Walt e r Map
and Rob e rt d e Borron whose Roma n d e Me r l i n co n
tains th e fullest accou nt w e possess o f the achi e ve
m ents o f t he great seer
And h e re at the very outset we m ay state that
the M e rli n o f romance is a p u rel y poetic cr e ation
and thou gh still retain ing th e genera l ch a racteristics
which he possessed in previous poems legends an d
h istori e s is a gran der an d m ore perfect conception
than he was in earlier t i m e s The weird Kelt ic bard
prophet an d e nch ant e r subj ect t o m agnetic t ran c e s
had t o u n dergo a civilisin g process b e fore he was

M e rl i n

a nd

V i v i e n ne

17 3

dee med presentable t o N orm an lords and lad ies ;

an d as Malory s work gives but an imperfect re e c
tion o f the original romance we will go t o the
fou ntain head fo r ou r i n formation
As i n all the e a rliest t raditions the romance r
gives Merlin a spirit (i ncubus) for father bu t i n
a ddition he m akes him a gen u ine de m on of evil
I nnate wicked ness is howeve r driven ou t by bap
t is m and being aware at a very early age that h is
life would be one of wond ers h e makes the quaint
*
req uest of a holy hermit named Blaise with whom
he h ad beco m e acqu ainted that he would make a
book in which to write his life as it proceeds
Many o f those who shall read this book o r shall

hear it read exp l ains M erlin will be the bette r

The
fo r it and will be o n thei r guard agai nst s i n
saint complies bu t n o t u ntil he has mad e M e rlin
swear by the F ather t h e Son a n d the H oly G host
one God i n three P e rso n s by the blessed Vi rgin
M ary by the an gels apostles saints and al l who
se rve and love o u r L ord
to d o n othin g
cont ra ry t o t h e w il l of Jesu s Christ and Merlin

sware it ; whereupon the holy man went to the

woods of Northu mbe rl a nd there t o accomplish the
task u n m olested

T
a

hi p
s

os t l e

l at e d

to

nt o

e rs o n a

it i

Br

a n

is

n one o t h e r

i n t h e ft h

Bl aidd (

ro n o u n c e d

ihp
L ti
Wl h l g

t h an L u us ,

ce n t u r

w h os e

Bl ai z) i n t h e

Bs
a

e s

of

T ro

n am e
e nd

e s , an d

w as t ran s

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

17 4

Aft e r the death o f Vortigern M erlin j oins h is

biographer i n the forest but he has not been there
long before the kings Ambrose an d Uth e r sen d to
consult him
Merlin possessing the powers of a
magician n o sooner arrives at Co urt than he d iverts
hi mself by m ystifying those who had sent for him
At rst he assu mes the guise o f a wood man with a
long S haggy beard then o f an id iot tendi ng a ock
the n o f a wretched looking beggar an d nally o f a
charming little boy H e t ells them however in
what manner they may ban ish the i r Saxon foes an d
this don e su dden ly qu its the Co urt for h is favo u rite
woods
D u ring the subsequent battle in which Ambrose is
slain a terrible dragon appears i n the air vom iti n g
out s m oke and ame Al l the see rs are d u mb the
Saxons are d ismayed At this j u n ctu re M erlin ap
pears and addressin g himself to Uther exclaim s :
H a st e n O Uther attack th e enemy all th e is l an d

sh all subm it t o thee fo r tho u art the ery d ragon

Uther from this circu mstan ce nam e d Pen dragon
causes two wi n g e d serpen ts to be
o r Dra gonhead
cast i n gold an d o n e to be placed in the c athed ral
the other t o be borne at the head o f his forces The
p iou s Blaise havi n g chronicle d these events M erlin
annou nces the gr e atest o f h is e xtraordi n a ry d e eds :
I am going to speak a mystery that o f the Ro un d
,

T h e A rt h u ri an E pi c

17 6

J ust as the Archbishop had nishe d the break o f

day M ass there appears before the high altar o f the
cathedral a m arble stan d supporting an anvil and a
sword fast in the anvil while on the guard o f the
sword is t h e I nscr i ption
-

C e lu i

q ui

D e par

me

tir e r a

e
su
h
ri
r
s
r
s
s
t
i
a
C
o
e
J
re

A boy known to n o mortal m an but M erlin performs

the feat o f d rawing it o u t an d the Archbishop rais
ing him in his arm s s o as to be S een by all the people
com men ces to chant the Te De um Subseq u ently
at a gran d solemnit y cohv e n e d at Caerleon by the
Archbishop (by the advice of M erlin ) the boy is
crowned King ; bu t the barons an d chiefs break int o
open rebellion refuse to ackn owled ge his sovereignt y
an d besiege the you ng King in his fortress While
the siege is i n progress Merlin attempts to en d the
insu rrection by telling the con federate kings t hat
Arthu r is t ru ly Uther Pendragon s s o n and right fu l
heir t o the crown but they d eri de him and the siege
continu es At length the Archbishop e x co mmu n i
cates the rebels from the walls while M erlin at the
sam e time by h is enchantme nts rains S howers o f
re upon them from th e su m m it of a hi gh tower and
their overthrow is complete
I t is by M er l in s aid as we s aw i n the last chapter
,

M e rl i n

and

V i v i e n ne

17

m:

that A rthu r obtai n s Excalibu r from the L ad y o f th e )

L ake with its sc a bbard o f more pote nt valu e than
th e sword itself Even the King s marriage is brou ght 7 M
about by the d iplom ac y of M e rlin On e d ay the
King explains to h is t ru st y a dviser
My barons
will let m e have no r e st but n e e d e s they will have 7
that I take a wife an d I wil l non e take but by thy

I t is well don e
co u n s a il e an d by thi n e advise
A W
said M erli n that ye take a wi fe fo r a man o f y ou r
bo u n t i e and n o bl e n e s s e shou ld n o t be withou t a wi fe
N ow is there a ny faire lady that y e e love bette r

than another ?
Yes said kin g Arthu r I love
G u e n e v e r the kin g s daughter L e o d e gran ce of the
lan d o f Cam e l yard which L e o d e g ran ce holdeth in
his house the table ro u nd that ye t old he had o f m y
father Uther An d this d amos e l l is the m ost ge ntil
est an d fairest lady that I kn ow living or y e t that

ever I could nd
Sir said M erlin as o f her
b e au t ie a n d fai re n e s s e s h e is on e of the fairest that
live but and y o u loved her n o t s o well as ye doe I
wou ld n d e y o u a d a mo s e l l of be au t ie and o f good
nesse that shou ld like you an d please y o u an d yo u r
heart were n o t s e t But there as a mans heart is

set h e will be loth to re t u rn e

That is t ruth
said kin g Arthu r Bu t M erli n warned the king
,

Wh
e

ave

h e re

gi

ve n

ca us e o f t h e c h ar m o f

Mal ory s

i t s q ua

i g

re n d e r n

n t n e ss

of

t he

c o n ve rsa t o n

be

T he

17 8

A rt h urian E pi c

privil y that G u e n e ve r was n o t wholesom e fo r him to

take t o wif e fo r he warned h im that L an c e lot should
love h er and sh e e him again e
Th e n M er
l in d e sire d o f the king t o h ave men with him that
sho uld enquire o f G u e n e v e r
And s o the king

r
a
u
n
him
t
e
d
g
M erlin is accordingly d espatched as ambassador to
king L e o d e grau n ce t o as khis dau ghter Gu inevere in
m arriage The ki n g h onou red by th e requ est d e
livers his daughter t o Merlin t ogether with an escort
o f a hu ndr e d knights
O n the evenin g of the wed
d in g d ay Gu in evere havin g to cross th e palace gar
d en attended on l y by h e r m aid s o f hon ou r is attacked
by som e villains lying in wait behind a thicket
M erlin a ware o f their d esigns was waiting in am
bush attended by a superior force thwarts their d e
signs an d saves the futu re Q u een
We nd the patriot sage co ntin ually thu s gu ard ing
the interests o f h is Kin g I n hi s o w n fantastic fashion
H e is always Arthu r s adviser and th e rul ing spirit
in the cou ncils o f war s o that n othing o f importance
is ever u ndertaken without his approval an d sanction
H e p redicts
H e is also the p rophet o f the Cou rt
that L ancelot should love th e Qu een an d s h e him
again ; that he who should kill the King should be
born o n May d ay ; he warn s Arthu r that he keep
w e ll the scabbard o f Excalibu r since he shall los e
,

A rt h u ri an E pic

T he

18 0

the l and which I have reason to dread sweet an d

lovely as it is The fairy is there in th e forest She
will secu re m e with chains n either o f iron n or steel
n or gold n or silver n or t in n or lead n o r wood nor
anything p rodu ced by earth air o r water and s h e
will bin d m e s o straitly that I shall never b e able t o
stir
We next n d hi m in Brittany seated alon e at
the celebrate d fou ntain o f Bro ce l ian d e with the
cou ntenance o f a you th o f twenty and in the attire
o f a stu dent
N ear this fountain dwelt a n obleman
who was married t o a beau teou s fairy
Their
daughter the lovely Vivienn e a l so had received the
endowm ents o f a fairy at her bi rth While M erlin
tarried n ear the fountain the fair Vivi enn e ap
h
r
e
d
H
e
admired
he
r
grace
of
form
and
o
ac
p
m ovem ent while s h e in turn seemed captivated
by the manly beau ty o f the stranger
Cou rteo us
sal utes were exchanged the l ady an nou nced herself
the daughter o f a knight whose castle was in the
neighborhood ; the youth repr e sented himse l f as a
st u de n t in search o f a t eacher
What h ave y o u learn ed up to this t ime
asked

Vivienn e
Many things replied the seer
I
te a u before you r eyes an d ll it with
c a n raise a ch a
lad ies and knights ; I can p rodu ce lake o r river
where d rop o f water n e ver owed an d I can w alk o n

the sam e water without wetting my ancl e

Certes
,

M e rl in

V i v i e nne

a nd

18 1

are deeply learned

rej oine d Vivi en ne
I

wou ld give m u ch fo r su ch power

All this said
M erlin is but child s pl ay I ca n perform highe r
wonders than these to entertain m ighty kings and

barons
I n truth Sieu r stu dent exclaimed Vi
vi e nne I am d esirous o f witnessing you r powe r I n

retu rn I will g rant you my friendship

By my

faith fair lad y said M erlin you r speech is so gen

tle an d pleasing that I will freely S how you a p roo f
o f my art
For my trouble I claim you r friendship

alon e
I grant it said Vivien ne M erlin mad e
a circle on the grass an d then cam e and s at besid e
the damsel an d i n a few seconds they s aw troops of
kn ights an d ladies approachi n g from the neighbou ring
woods an d as they entere d the en chante d circle
danci ng to the so u nds o f variou s m u sical instr u ments
minstrels sang t o a soft m elody
u
o
y

99

Et

mour

rriv e

S e n re t o u

me

ch ant ant

l
ur
a
n
t
e
p

en

en

Behi nd the groups o f knights an d ladies were s een

the choicest plan ts an d owers an d fru it trees an d a
lawn o f softest verd u re an d a charm ing ch at eau
gentl y ari si n g at the rear o f this delight f u l garden
The rich foliage of the trees an d the harm oni ou s
b l en ding o f the thousan d hu e s o f myriad owers
,

A rt h u ri an

T he

18 2

E pi c

charm ed the sight and a swe e t od ou r expan ding o n

eve ry side reached t o the fo u ntain
When the
company were fatig u ed they reti red t o the gard e n
and refreshed themselves u nder the agreeable shade
At the approach o f even ing they
o f the trees
depart ed dan cin g an d singing an d as they d is ap
e
r
a
m
a
idst
the
forest
the
ch
t
eau
vanished
fro
a
e
d
m
p
view At Vivien ne s requ est th e garden remained
an en chanted sp ot
The grati cation o f Vivienn e was ext rem e bu t i n
expressing i t s h e r e m inded th e you n g sage that he
h a d n ot instru cted h er in the art o f produ cing any
wonder as yet H e re pl id that s h e sh ould be quali
e d to do these an d m u ch greater charm s when h e
was certai n o f possessing her a ff ection s M eantim e
it was n ecessary that he should depart t o Britain

o n a ffairs o f state
Bu t when wil l you retu rn ?

I n a year sweet friend said M erl in o n the vigil

o f St J ohn i n su m m er
; an d s o they parted
H aving don e the State good service du ring his
absen ce an d havin g received fru it l ess warnin gs in
n u merable from h is piou s biographer Merlin ret u rn ed
t o B rittany o n St J ohn s eve t o keep h is p rom ise
H ow long th e tim e had seemed t o Vivien ne
She
sat expectantly by the fou ntain whithe r s h e had s o
o ften gon e d u ring h is absence and n o w s aw her
you n g stu den t app roach j oy and earn estn ess p l ay
,

T he

18 4

A rt h u ri an E pi c

after m any advent u res h e hastened h om e t o the

w oods o f N orthu mberlan d and to his faith fu l cou n
s e l l o r agai n hopin g that he had o utstripp ed his l ove
i n his headlon g race I t was only a delusion ; he
awoke the next m orn in g t o n d his p assion as stron g
and imperi ou s as ever Making a virtu e o f n e ce s
s it y
he resign ed h im self at once t o that which he
k n ew was h is fate h e t ook a nal farew e ll o f Blaise
an d crossed the s e a fo r the last time I n the e n
chan ted garden o f Bro ce l ian d e he fou n d his Vivienn e
as lovely an d loving as ever
Before taking u p the nal scen e i n the rom ance
we will co m pare T e n nysbn s Vivien with her o f
the N orman trouv ere
I n fram i ng h is I dyll o f M e r l i n a nd Vi vi e n Ten ny
s o n had the altern ative before him either o f bu ilding
up an i ndepen den t an d original tale o n the weird
Keltic or Arm orican t radition o r o f resettin g the
ep isode as it stood i n th e Anglo N orm an roman ce o f
M erlin As a matter o f fact the p oet in this in
st an ce h as u tt erly ign ored p oems traditi ons an d
roman ces an d h as departed m ost widely from all
pre existin g version s o f the legen d I n fact he has
invented a Vivien ne u nkn own t o any previous
writer the creatu re an d invention o f his ow n brain
We shall n ow s e e the truth o f the statement before
made that his pictu res are decient i n be a u ty in
,

M e rl i n

an d

V i v i e n ne

18 5

proport ion t o his depart u re from a strict delity to

his o ri gin als
I n the roman ce the cu l m inatin g poi nt o f the who l e
st ory is o f cou rse the poss ess ion of t h e ch a r m lead
in g t o the nal captivity o f M erlin An d this is
t ru e of Tennyson s I dyll ; it is i n the possession o f
the charm that all t he interest o f the p oem cen tres
B ut apart from this bare fact the two versi ons have
little if anything in com m on
Vivie n n e o f the
rom an ce as we have seen is n ot a creatio n of the
N orman trouv ere on the cont rary sh e can be fou n d
i n the writings of the bards as far back as M erlin or
Arthu r But we are n atu rally led t o ask wh o an d
what is she as depicted by the Rom ancers ? I s she
m
the V ivl ian o f the Bards or is s h e (the high bo rn

f
Roman beau t y of the Chron iclers 9 She is n eithe r
bu t like Merl in s h e is simply a poetic creation sh e
is the L ady o f the L ake the q u een o f a sub l a c u al
kingdom the foster m other of L ancelot of the L ake ; N
an d her port rait as drawn by Walter M ap is on e of
love womanly parenta l love the p u rest the m ost M

arden t that the brain of m an could conceive H er

character is depicted as that of a female Galahad a
picture of chaste re ned ideally perfect womanh ood
with n o gross adm ixtu re n o rep ulsive traits o f char
acter o r action She talks t o M erli n at the fou ntain
as we have seen with all the open ne s s of an u n
.

an

The

18 6

A rt h u r i an

E pi c

S ophisticated nat u re an d expresses un reservedly her

,

adm irat io n and pleasu re in the s cen es which his

m agi c power creates Sh e has n ot a su spicion o f
m an s awfu l pe rd y and sits at the fou n tain o n St
J oh n s eve o r subsequ ently i n the e n chanted garden
with out doubti ng fo r an instant that her lover will
retu rn accord in g t o h i s prom ise ; an d by her secret
i nterviews s h e discovers a heart as y e t as t ru e an d
pure as the air s h e b reathes
N othing however can be plain er than the fact
th at Vivien o f th e I d y ll n o lon ger r e tai ns this char
acter She kn ows o f love only as a growth o f th e
rankest kind only as a hideou s m ask t o conceal a
en dish desire t o blot o u t the very na m e O f the great
seer o f th e t im e
I ndeed at a single glan ce o f th e I d yll we can see
The
h o w s h e degen erates i n Ten nyson s hands

poet s favou rite epithet is wily Vivie n o r lissom e

Vivien
H e speaks of her as Vivien sm ilin g

sa u cily
H e calls her a lovely ba l e fu l star even
a wanto n an d a harlot
an d th e whole o f the
p oem directly o r by i nn ue ndo is b ut the deve l opment
of Vivien s wile s
But l et u s descen d t o particulars The mainspring
of th e two versions being thus the two p oles of
hu man conduct namely ideal p u rity on the one
hand and th e l im it o f defor m it y o f character on the
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

18 8

An d

touchi n g B r e t o n

s an

Ev n

to the w

il d

M erl i n

A n d t h e n s h e f ol l ow d

ds th e y d is e mbarkd

oo d s

th e w ay,

al l

Bro c e l i an d e

of

*
.

An d afterwards when s h e reproaches h im fo r his

u nk n ightl y con du ct d u rin g the voyage s h e says
,

B ut ye s t e r day you

ne ve r o e n

E xc e pt i n d e e d to dri n k

d l ip,

n o cu p

h ad w e

l ad y pal ms I c ul l d t h e Spri n g
T h at ga t h e r d tric k li n g d ro pw is e fro m t h e cl e ft
A n d m ad e a pr e t t y c u p o f both m y h an d s
A n d o ffe r d yo u it k n e e li n g t h e n yo u dr an k
A n d k n e w n o mor e nor g a ve me one poor w or d ;
I n mi n e

ow n

An d w he n w e

h alt e d at th at other w ell

A n d I w as f a i n t t o sw o o n i n g an d yo u l ay
F o ot gilt w ith all t h e bl osso m dust o f th o s e
D e e p me adow s w e h ad tr av e r s e d did yo u k n o w
T h at V i vi e n b ath e d your f e e t b e for e h e r ow n
,

S ubsequ ently the Seer explain s his bru squ e beha

v i o u r b ut tells he r
,

You

A nd w h e n I l ooh d ,

ol l ow

a nd sa w

u
o
y

My m i n d i n vo l v e d yours e lf

d me

unash

ol l ow i ng s ti l l ,

th e n e a

r e st thi n g

I n t h at m i n d m i st
-

h i d th
d
t
l
i
g
i
p
g
i
i
i
l
w
d
l
l w i g h pt
y
w
ll
it li
p i l tt t i
d
d i mpl y t
d
di
i
m i mp t t p i t
I t is

so

s carce l
a

n e ce ss ar

e rs an

cs are o u r o

or a n

n,

to

s n

an

are

o n

un

er

s ay

or

at

n e s , or

s,

use

s cu ss o n .

e re ve r

in t

s an

ass a

e s are

o ca

es

ec a

c se

en

fol
th e

on

to

M e rl i n

V i v i e n ne

an d

I 89

I n t h e ro man ce it is Merli n who i m pelled by

the al l absorbing power of h is love follows Vivienn e
whithersoever s h e went ; b ut in t h e I d yll it is Vivie n
who u nwomanlike follows M erl in an d this i n spite
o f his evident wish to be alone
But this is only
on e an d that a very s l ight indication of her t ru e
P resently the poet gives a still fu rther in sight
s elf
i nt o the depravity of his h eroi n e
,

T h e w il y

V i vi e n

h at e d al l t h e k n i ghts an d h e ard i n th o u gh t
T h e ir l avish co mm e n t w h e n h e r n am e w as n am e d
Fo r o n c e w h e n A rthur w al k i n g al l alo n e
V e xt at a ru mour i ssu e d fro m herself
O f so me corru ptio n cr e pt amo n g h is k n i ght s
H ad m e t h e r V i vi e n b e in g gre e t e d f air
,

Wl
ou

d f a i n h a ve w r oug h t upon hi s

With r v
e

re nt

An d ut t e r d

Wi

th d a r h

moc k

e ye s

ad

or atio n

s w ee t

h i n ts

u po n

lo yal sh ak e n voic e
an d at l ast
,

some

h e r bl an k l y

I t ma de the l a ug h te r

T h a t Vi vi e n s h oul d

a tte

mood

w h o pr i ze d h i m mor e

T h a n w h o s h oul d pr i ze hi m mos t ;

H a d gaz e d

cl oudy

an d

at

hich

th e

Kin g

go n e by

t
e
r
n
n
o
o
f

an a

mpt th e bl a me l e ss Ki ng

D uring the j ou rn ey with Merlin this u nchaste

S ide o f her charact e r co m es out i n still bolder r e lief
I n the forest when they stop t o rest Te n nyson
tells u s :

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

190

l e n gth an d kiss d h i s f e e t
A s if i n d e e pe s t r e ve r e n c e an d in l o v e
a rob e
A t w i s t o f gol d w as r o u n d h e r h air
O f s amit e w itho ut pric e th at m o r e e xpre st
T h an h i d h e r cl un g ab out her li ss o m e li mbs
T h e r e l ay sh e

al l

he r

An d shortly afte r h e tells

us :

lisso me V ivi e n holdi n g by his h e e l

rith e d t o w ard h im S lid e d u p h is k n e e an d s at
B ehi n d h is an k l e t w i n e d h e r h oll ow f e e t
T o ge th e r curv e d an arm about h is n e c k
Cl ung l i he a s uabo an d l e tti n g h e r l e ft h an d
D roop fro m h is m i ghty S hould e r as a l e af
M ade w ith h e r ri ght a c omb o f pe arl t o part
T h e li sts o f suc h a h e ard as youth go n e o u t
H ad l e ft i n ash e s
An d

N or can we fail to n ote with what artistic skil l

Tennyson has m ade her words to correspon d with
her u n chast e action s I n the Anglo N orman ro
m an ce n o t a single word does the trou v ere p u t into
Vivien ne s lips which is n ot spotless and u n tainted
an d m ight n ot be uttered by the p u r e st h e art e d
Christian l ady I n T e n nyson h owever when Mer
lin u nwilling to disclose t o her the charm say s
-

A s k n o mor e

For t h o yo u

shou ld n o t prove it u pon m e

B ut k e e p th at o at h ye s w ar e ye mi ght pe rc h an c e
A ss ay it o n s o m e o n e o f t h e T abl e Ro u n d

An d al l be c au s e ye dre am they b abbl e o f yo u

T he

19 2

A rt h u ri an E pi c

N ow an d agai n even h e r consu m m at e a rt fuln e ss can

not conceal the an ger which is bu rn in g withi n h e r
bre ast Aft e r M erlin has t old he r that he has the
book in which t h e ch a rm is written
,

V ivi e n

m ili n g

s au c il y
Y e h av e t h e b o o k
t h e c h a r m is w ritt e n in it
t ak e t h y c o u n s e l l e t m e k n o w it at o n c e
G oo d
Fo r k e e p it li k e a puzzl e ch e s t i n ch e st
ith e ach ch e st l ockd an d pad l o c kd th irt y f o l d
A n d w h e l m al l thi s be n e ath as v ast a m o u n d
A s a ft e r furiou s b attl e turfs t h e s l ai n
an s w e r

W
I

ul d stri k e u pona su d d e n m e an s
T o d i g pi c k o pe n n d an d r e ad t h e c h ar m

T h e n if I tri e d it w h o s hould b l ame m e t h e n ?

h
s
o
e
t
y
,

And upo n M erlin expostu l ating

ang e r :

H av e I

sh e

a n sw e rs

or n
I a m n o t trust e d
We ll hid e it hid e it I shall n d it o ut
A n d b e i n g fou n d t ak e h e e d o f V i v i e n
n ot sw

tru e

in

G ood

B ut this is n o t all No t only d o e s Ten n yson m ake

her u n chaste an d u nlovely he actually proceeds to
depict her Medea like as a m u rderess at heart o n e
who wou ld have stabbed M erli n had s h e foun d the
weapon at hand After one o f her pe t u l e n t u n
lovely moods M erlin m utters u nutterable thin gs to
hims e lf
.

M e rli n

and

V i v i e n ne

spo k e in w ords part h e ard i n

H al f su ff oc ated in the ho ary f e ll
A n d man y w in t e r d eece of thro at
He

19 3

hispe r s

a
p

rt

chi n

an d

B ut Vi vi e n g a the r i ng some w ha t of his mood,

A nd h e a r i ng
mu t t e r d tw ice o r thric e ,
h a r l ot
,

fro m h e r s e ssio n o n h is l ap an d stood

S ti ff as a v i pe r froz e n lo ath som e si ght
H o w fro m t h e rosy li ps o f lif e an d l o ve
Fl as h d t h e b ar e gri n n i n g s k e l e to n o f d e ath
hit e w as h e r ch e e k sh arp br e aths o f an ge r pu tf d
H e r f a iry n ostril o u t
h e r h a nd h a lf cl e nch d

L e apt

W
Wf
e nt

a l te r i n

A nd f ee l i ng

d ow nw a r d to h e r be l t,

s ide w ays

g
h a d s h e f ound

dagg e r th e r e

but sh e fou n d it
H i s e ye w as c al m an d sudd e n l y s h e too k
T o bitt e r w e e pi n g li k e a be ate n child
Sh e w oul d h a ve

s t a bb d

h im

n ot

Strange cont rast this to the ethe real l ovely nymph

of the tale ! I n the latter Vivien ne i s perfectly lov e
able ; we meet with no repu lsive traits i n her chara c
ter n o repulsive act ions ; hers is a portrait of idea l
loveliness ; al l that divides the high born g e ntle
wom an from the bou rgeoise cou nterfeit is hers
H er n obility does not exist merely by compari
son ; she
i s n ot great sim ply beca use others are
small ; s h e i s essentially pu re an d therefore essen
t ial l y grand
An d what a contrast there is betwee n the M erlin
of the romance and the Seer of the I d y ll ! I n
,

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

T he

19 4

the romance his attachment t o Vivienn e is re pre

sente d as te n der almost to a fault ; it is the u tter
se l f forgetfuln ess o f rea l a ff ect ion De Borron tells u s
that M erlin had never l oved anyone but with a

pu re an d loyal h eart
an d s o i ntense was his love
fo r Vivien ne that he did n ot attempt t o concea l it
eve n from his con fessor and biographer fo r in spite
of the s a int s remonstrances M erli n tells the holy
man in reference to the charm s h e shall kn ow al l
that I know fo r though I m ight refuse her yet I wil l

n ot
B ut M erlin of the I dyll tho ugh at ti mes at
tract ed and l u red o n by the wily ways o f Vivien is
far often er d isgusted w i t lf her actions and expresses
in no m easu re d terms th e disdain fu l feeling o f his
heart I n deed at times h e m ust have e ven hated
her When s h e had been calu mn iating the knights
he m u tt ers t o himself :
,

[ w ell bel i e ve

sh e

te mpted th e m

B e i n g s o bitt e r

a nd

ail

fo r n e plots m ay

d,

f ail

h arlots pai n t their t al k as w e ll as f ac e

ith c o lors o f the h e art th at are n o t t h e ir s
I w il l not l e t h e r h now
n i n e tith e s o f ti m e s

F ace at t e re r an d bac kbit e r are the s am e

T ho

T ell h e r t h e

S o if
,

To

So

sh e

h ad

it

w ould

sn ar e t h e n e xt
w ill s h e rail
.

an d

ch ar m

r ail o n me
if Sh e h av e it n o t
sh e

h at di d t h e w a nton

s ay

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

19 6

you d esire t o keep m e as you r own I have n o t

stren gth t o resist Wil l ing or n o t I grant you r re

qu est
Sweet friend contin u ed Vivien ne throw
ing h e r arms arou n d his neck is it n ot j ust that
u
shou
ld
be
wholly
m
in
e
as
I
am
wholl
thine
o
?
y
y
H av e I n o t left father and m other fo r y o u ? Are
n ot y o u my o n ly desire my only thou ght ? H ave I
any j o y o r hop e but in yo u and since we lov e why

shou ld y o u n o t obey m e as I obey y o u ?

I t is

bu t j ust my sweet replied M erlin I w i l l d o i t

w i t h a l l my he a r t
I will
A s k what y o u will
said Vivi e n ne passionately that this garden n ever
b e d estroyed that we t w
o live here alway w i t h out
,

r ow i ng ol d or

a r t in

or ce as i ng

t o l ove

a nd

be h appy

I t shall b e as you wish said M erlin

Bu t I

m ust work the charm my self replied Vivien n e

teach it t o m e
So he taught her the charm a n d

th e substance of the spell

On e day as they were walking side by side and
ha n d in h and u nder the yo ung folia ge at Bro ce l ian d e
th e y fou n d a wide spreading bush o f white thorn i n
blossom I n the shade o f the owers th e y s at d own
and M erlin rested his head in
o n the green sward
Vivien n e s lap s h e lovingly ran her ngers throu gh
his white h air and p ut him asleep s h e then arose

T he

s ncere

au th or

f th e

ro

m an ce t e l l s

us :

e lle

ai mai t

m o ur

Me rl i n

an

d Vi v i e n n e

19 7

and wou nd he r scarf n i n e t i m e s aroun d the thorn

and n ine times whispere d the charm s h e had learned
She then retu rned and agai n placed his head on her
knee d oubt fu l as ye t o f th e power of the enchant
Bu t when M erlin opened his eyes an d looked
m ent
aroun d forest garden white thorn all had d is ap
e reposing on
H
e
was
in
an
enchanted
castl
e
a
re
d
p
4
a cou ch of owers love priso n er to Vivi e nn e
Ah

Vivienne h e cried
I will consider y o u f alsest o f m 7

A
lovers i f y o u ever forsake m e
My sweet friend A
cou ld
a nswered s h e to he r d ear volu ntary c aptive

ou ?
cou
ld
I
eve
r
leave
An
d
o u i magi ne it ?
y
y
Vivienne kept her word s h e d id n ot leave him
H ow conspicu ou sl y is this tend er pathos wanting
in the I dyll ! I n the poem this mot ive o f p ure i m
passion ed aff e ction is t ra n sformed t o o n e o f cruel
selshn ess
,

1
:

A n d Vi vi e n

eve r s oug h t

t o w or b th e

ch a r

Upon t h e g r e a t Ench a nte r of t h e T i me ,

A s f a n cy i ng t h a t h e r g l ory w oul d be g r e a t
A ccor di ng to hi s g r ea t ne ss w h om sh e gue nch d

I ndeed the artisti c delin eati on o f this ign oble p as

sio n i n its m any phases m asked thou gh it m ay b e by
craft an d wily art is on e o f the lead in g charact eristics
of the poe m from rst t o last At the very open in g
of the st ory as w e have j ust se e n the poet d oes n ot
,

T he

8
9

A rt h u ri an

E pi c

scruple t o dep ict Vivien as intent o n her own ag

ran d i se m e n t at the expense o f M erlin s great fam e ;
g
an d when the tale is n earin g its close the same
ign oble t rait i s eq u ally conspicu ou s
D u ring the
storm in the woods o f Bro ce l ian d e s h e st ood

U pri gh t
A

an d

ush e d b e for e

h im

irtuous gentl e w o man d e e ply w ron g d

bu t o n e thought ever upperm ost i n her m in d viz :

the i n am in g o f her o w n ambitiou s pride by the
con qu est of the great Seer
.

I w ill go (Sh e s aid )

I n truth bu t o n e t h i n g n ow
b e tt e r h ave di e d
T h ric e th an h av e as k e d it o n c e c o ul d m ak e m e s t ay

T h at pr o of o f trust
SO oft e n a s h d i n v a i n
,

w h at w as

Lo

M e r e ma tte r of
Th e

va s t n e ce s s i

once

to

me

t h e f a n cy , now h a th g r ow n

ty of h e a r t

a nd

l if e

F are w e ll
Every word every tho u ght every im age in these
many lines is bu t the artistic outp ou rin g o f a sou l
steeped i n self an d craft an d hate
We have n o t t o go far t o discover the exact i n
c e n t iv e which the p oet would have u s u nderstand
i ndu ced M erlin nally t o di sc l ose th e charm t o the

wily Vivien
,

T he

2 00

A rt h u ri an E pi c

A sk n o more

Fo r t h o yo u

should n o t pro ve it u po n m e
B ut k e e p t h at o ath ye sw ar e ye migh t pe r ch a nce

A ss ay i t
An d

al l

on s ome on e o

th e T a bl e

be c au s e ye d r e am

Rou nd

th e y b abble

of

u
o
y

T hu s rep ulsed Vivien i n dulges i n a graceles s

ti rade o f basest vituperation an d detracti on bu t
,

H e r w ord s h ad

i ss u e oth e r th an s h e w ill d
H e d ragg d h i s e ye br o w bush e s d o w n an d mad e
A s n o w y pe n th o u s e fo r h i s holl ow e ye s
A n d m u t t e r d in hi m s e lf
T e ll h e r t h e ch ar m
So i f s h e h ad it w ould She rail o n me
T o s n ar e t h e n ext

ill

let

n ot

he r k n ow

m w e ar y

of

h e ri

Th e qu estion recu rs what then was the irresistible

in cen t ive which compelled the Seer nally to disclose
th e secret ?
Ten ny s on gives u s l ittle m ore than dark hi n ts of
the f ata l truth which seem s t o lu rk beneath h is
words I n the open in g o f the I dyll the poet makes
Vivien exclaim :
,

O
T he

ch ar m

so

t au ght

w ill

M erli n t e ach it me
,

ch arm

us

bo th t o

r e st
.

Yi e l d my boon,
T i l l w h i ch I

s ca r ce ca n

e
l
d
u
o
i
y
y

a ll

A n d gr an t my r e r e i t e rat e d w i s h,
T h e gre at pr o of o f your lo ve
-

M e rl i n

an d

V i v i e nne

20 1

Subsequ ently after Merlin had been m utterin g

u n utterab l e thin gs
harlot twice or thrice
the
poet tells u s that Vivien
,

L e apt

fro m

he r

s e ssi on

h is l ap

on

and i n harmon y with th e f u ry o f the storm which at

that m omen t was gathering over the woodlan ds
broke forth into an i mpassi on ed sem i soliloquy i n
wh ich s h e cries
,

th at I h ad lov e d a s m all e r man

I should h ave fo u n d in h im a gr e at e r h e art

G od ,

Sh e pau s e d ,

sh e

turu d

aw a

y,

sh e

hu n g h e r h e ad

Sh e w e pt

fr e sh

M eanwhile M erlin s an ger

Withi
Fo r

slow l y di e d
n

h i m,

e a e of

till he l e t h is w isdo m go
h e art an d h alf b e li e ve d h e r tru e
,

While in this chan ged m ood the poet tells u s that

the Seer

to sh e lt e r in t h e h o llow

fro m t h e storm

C al l d h e r
Com e
T he n

thric e

oa

k
,

d , by t e n d e r e st touchi n g t e r ms ,

r u l e d
e
a
c
of
i
d
v
i
e
m
n
i
n
a
n
p
,

e ss ay

sl e e k h e r
A t l ast sh e l e t h e rs e lf be c o n q u e r d by h im
A n d as t h e c ageli n g n e w l y o w n retu rn s
To

T h e A rt h u ri an E pi c

20 2

T he

se e

mi n

n j ur e d s i mpl e h e a rt e d t h i n
i
g
g
h e r o l d pe rch b ac k an d s e ttl e d th e r e

C am e t o

At the very m om ent that S he was calling heaven t o

witn e ss that s h e had n ever schemed against M erlin s
peace

bolt
t h e m) struc k
a

(Fo r n ow t h e stor m w as cl o s e
F urrow i n g a gi an t o ak

ab o v e

B ut V i vi e n f e ari n g h e ave n
,

an d

O
Ye t

M e rli n
s av e

An d

c al l

th o

do

ou

me
d h im

d e ar pro t e ct o r

o ath

her

cryi n g o u t

l o ve

not

y
cl u ng t o h i m

he ard

h ad

a nd

me ,

sav e ,

h ugg d h i m cl ose

in h e r

fri gh t

N or ye t f org ot h e r pr a ct i ce i n h e r f r ig h t ,
B ut w r oug h t upon h i s mood a nd h ugg d h i m cl os e

T h e pal e b l o o d o f t h e w iz ar d
T o o k gaye r colour s

at

her

t o uch

l o rd an d li e ge
H e r s e e r h e r h ar d h e r s il v e r s t a r o f e v e
H e r G o d h e r M e rli n t h e o n e passio n at e l o v e
O f h e r w hol e lif e
Sh e

c al l

ad

s h oul d

n ot

ove r t a l h

e l de d , t ol d h e r
i
y

T h e w r te r
e rs onn e au t re

of

For M e r l i n ,
H

d h im

A nd w h a t

th e

h a ve be e n h a d be e n ,

a nd

al l

th e

m an ce t e l l s

ro

us

ove r w or n ,

ch a r m, an d s e p

me n t qu e d amo u r l oyal e

at

Me rl i n

ai t

ma

i m

T h e A rt h u r i an E pi c

20 4

with a lifelong experience o f that which makes for

vice ; but what a gloriou s poem wou ld the Anglo
Nor m an romance have p rodu ced had it passed
through the tender glowing an d chastened fan cy
o f th e au thor o f Elain e
I t m ight have rivalled the
nest of his poe m s and even have su rpassed them
all in its delineation o f ideal womanly love The
only way i n which we can assign t o Ten nyson a
n iche in ou r Pantheon o f p oets as the pee r o f Eng
land s n ob l est masters o f song is by m entally o bl it e r
atin g th e poem o f M erli n and Vivien from the I dy ll s
,

C HAPT E R V I I

L an ce l o t G u i ne v e re
,

an d

E la i n e

N a former chapter we called t he romances re

l ating to Arthu r an d his kn ights o f the Ro u nd
Table an epic c y clu s By t he com mencement o f the
fteen th centu ry at the latest these n ovels of ou r
fore fathers had reached their highest p oi nt o f de
v e l o pme n t and perfection
They were the prod u ction
of n o one man and o f n o one age L ike the classic
tales in the [E n eid an d the I liad they had existed
for ce ntu ries as oatin g traditions at rst ora l ly
t ransm itted and gaining add itions at the capriciou s
will o f subsequ ent narrators t ill at l en gth this or
that incident o r series of incidents was seized u pon
by so m e poetic imagination which transform ed the
origin a l crude con ception or plain historic fact i nto
the ai riest phantom of chivalric romance
Th us
simple n e u raLt in t i n cidents bec ame highly colou red
u nt il the original outlines o f the origina l gu res b e
cam e scarcel y recognisable u nde r the glowin g tints
of N orman pai ntin g
The central gu re though not the tr u e he ro o f
this cyclu s is Arthu r and revolving aro u nd him in
.

20 5

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

206

an e ccentric orbit we observe the gu re of M erlin

whose history to the very last exerts s o palpable an
infl u ence upon that of the King that next t o Arth u r
he becomes on e o f the most important personages in
th e romantic system But m oving in outer con
centric circ l es we n d the kn ights of Arth u r s Cou rt
each of whose history seems t o keep the u n iverse o f
romance in a state o f u nstable equ ilibriu m O f these
n o knight (as the rom ances have d escended to u s) is
m ore famou s than L an celot d u L ac For although
Sir G aw ain e was the pet o f the old t raditions and
Ga l ahad the virgin knight of the world the mode l
o f p u re C hristianised chiv a
lry yet the heroic bravery
an d m anly character o f L ancelot have thrown a
charm over his eventf u l hi s tory that renders h im
the Achi l les t he H ector or the Sir Philip Sidne y o f
Arth urian Romance
M oreover the s ad story o f
Q u een Gu in evere and that gem o f bea u t y the ep i
sod e o f E l ain e the maid o f Astolat have been cut
an d s e t with su ch exqu isite skil l by the o l d romancer
arou n d that of L ancelot that the three form a clus
ter of remarkable brillianc y and beauty i n the diadem
of rom antic ction
Gu inevere or as the bards call he r G w e n h w yvar
was according to T al is s in
of a haughty disposi
tion even in her yo uth and stil l mo re ha ught y in her

womanhood
A bard of the tenth centu ry has left
,

T he

20 8

A rt h u ri an E pi c

m ent o f his kingdom t o his nephew M odred and

a l so qu een G uanh u mara and then proceeds to Gaul
where he conqu ers the Roman Emperor L u ciu s and
is abou t to proceed t o Rom e when he hears o f
Mo d re d s treachery an d attempt to carry o ff the
Q ueen who had been left in h is charge After
Arthu r s ret u rn an d su ccessive defeats o f M odred
the Qu een says Geo ffrey ed t o Caerleon where
s h e resolved to pass her life among the n u ns o f the
ch u rch of S J uli u s the Martyr and enter hersel f one

o f thei r ord er
I n Robert d e Bo rro n s Roma n d e Me r l in while the
young King and his sag aco u nsellor were rescu ing
L e o d e grau n ce from the attacks o f a terrible giant
and Arthu r was valiantly conten d ing with one o f his
colossal captains the princess Gu inevere looking
from a window adm ired his person and prowess and
whispered to herself
H appy the lady whose l ove
is sought by such a hero an d sham e on her who

gives h im refu sa l
Merlin who himsel f was p assing
through a love a ffair with Vivien ne
noticed that
Arthu r was far from indi fferent to the charms o f

Gu inevere and as he did not consider her o f su f

ci e n t l y high rank to be the Kin g s wife he per
s u ad e s Arthu r t o leave the castle an d go to the
assi stance o f his cousin the king o f L ittle Britain )
who was hard p ressed by enem ies
,

nh
.

ex

4w

1
1

if

d
,

L an c e l o t G u i n e v e re
,

an d

E la i ne

20 9

4w
Accord ing t o M
Arth u r infor m s M erlin that
his barons will let him have n o rest bu t imp ortu ne
him to take a wi fe H e consequently con f e ss e s to
Merlin th at he loves Gui nevere daughter of L e o d e
king
o
f
a m e l iard
the
possessor
of
the
r
a
u
n
e
c
C
g
m y stic Rou nd Table which this king had received
fro m Uther Pen dragon The sage warns Arthu r of
her tru e ch aracter but all being o f cou rse i n vain
he is despatched as ambassador t o the king of Came
liard t o as k the han d of his daughter The mon
arch feeling highly attered by the proposal
Gu ineve re is delivered t o Merlin t ogether with the
Ro u nd Table and an escort of a hu nd re d kn ights
Then was the high feast mad e ready and the king
was wed ded at Camelot u nto dame G u e n e v e r in the

chu rch o f Saint Stevens with great s o l e m n it ie

As we hear n o m ore of Gu inevere u ntil the ap
ra n ce o f L ancelot we will now tu rn to the history
e
a
p
of ou r hero
All the personages hitherto brought forward have
had historical prototypes ; in othe r words though
their charact ers as romantic heroes or heroines are
ctitio us and ideal still there is a germ of real fact
vi z : the ir historic existence u nderly ing the su per
stru ctu re of romantic creation But in the case of
L ancelot this is apparently wanting
I n t h e rst place the ve ry name is French while

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 I O

those we have before m ent ion ed are p ure Ke l tic

B ut M d e la V il l e marq u b e li e ves that h e has fo u nd
the origi nal o f M ap s L ancelot in a certain ki n g Mae l
who g u res conspicu ousl y in Welsh poems I n the
oldest Fr e nch man uscript o f the ro m an ce the nam e
is written L A n ce l o t where the rst letter re pre
sents the denite article The word An cel (L atin
A ncil l a ) m ean s a servant an d A n ce l o t is i t s d i mi n u
tive Also Mae l is Welsh for a servant L an celot
is therefore says the Vicom te t h e Welsh Mael
translated into the Romance tongu e a n d means a
d arling servan t
or knight B ut this is not al l
Kin g M ael is said to have lived in the sixth centu ry
an d is spoken o f as redoubtable for arms and gal
lantry though o f a barbaric kind On e writer actu
ally states that he c a rrie d o ff Gu in evere and was in
consequ ence besieged by Arthu r Mael is also said
l ike L ancelot t o have ended his day s in a m onastery
This wild hero who at tim es assu med the form o f a
sat y r was according t o this theory transmu ted by
the ge niu s o f Wa l ter M ap i nto an orn ament o f
spiritual chivalry an d brought into the world once
again generou s an d brave the v e ry sam e king Mae l
and like
o f Cambrian fame bu t in cou rtlier form
him closing his day s in the bosom o f the Chu rch
This theory though highly ingen iou s does n o t seem
o n critic al grou nds to rest on anything more soli d

I2

A r t h u ri an E pi c

he

pire s with grief H is distracted wife the L ady

H elen who h ad been the companion o f h is j ou rn ey
a band on in g fo r a m o m e nt the
care o f her in fant
s on
ies to t h e a ssistan c e o f her husband an d o n
her retu rn nds th e little L an celot in the arm s o f
the be a ut ifu l nymph Vivienne who had previously
S hown her deep womanly a ff ection by con ning
her lover M erlin i n an enchante d castle in ord er
th at h e m ight alway s b e near her O n the approach
o f the
m other the nymph su ddenly springs with
the child into a d eep lake and instantly disappears ;
an d hence her adopted child is aft e rw
as L ance l ot d u L ac

The fairy when her prot eg e had attained the age h

o f eighteen
takes him to Arthu r s Cou rt i n order
that he may receive the honou r o f knighthood At
the rst appearance o f the yo u th f u l n ovice i n his
whit e arm ou r which the nymph had expressly made
fo r him the graces o f his person and the m an ifest
bravery o f h is n at u re make an instantaneous and i n
d e lible impression o n the heart o f the Q u een ; while
her be a uty fascinates him in spite o f his nobler
feelings
According to another version it is L a ncelot and
not Merlin wh o is sent as ambassador to as k the
hand o f Gu in evere an d then commenced that fatal
l ove which though it appeared at rst only as a tiny
.

s,

L a n c e l o t G u i ne v e re
,

a nd

E l a i ne

2 13

clou d on the horizon o f romance afte rwards cast its

shado w over Arthu r s whole li fe an d darkened his
e nd
Accord ing t o Map s accou nt L ancelot is n o soo ner
kn i ghted than h e seeks advent u res t o p rove h im self
worthy of the honou r con ferred upo n him
D u ring o n e o f these advent u res he is assailed by
fo rty knights an d although n o t overco m e yields
himsel f t o the lady o f th e m anor who t raito rousl y
t reats him as a capt ive an d he p ines m iserably i n
the lady s custody While con ned i n her castle a
war breaks out between Arthu r an d a ce rtain king
Galiot Sir L ancelot hearin g o f this craves leave
of the lady to be allowed to take part in the next
batt l e an d his requ est is granted o n cond ition o f his
promise t o retu rn to his prison afte r the ght She
the n provides him with a complete su it of red
armou r in which he app e ars at the secon d battle

and is the head an d co m fort o f t he eld

He
then ret u rns t o his castle prison accord ing to
promise and h is fair captor well pleased at hearing
the reports o f his f am ou s deeds visits h im whe n
asleep ou t of curiosity t o observe his appearance
after the ght Again he obtains per m ission to be
present at the th ird battle choosing this tim e to be
arrayed in arms of black The black kni ght u tt erly
ec l ipses the red kn ight an d his d eeds of prowess ex
,

T he

2 14

A rt h u ri an E pi c

cite th e wonder and admiration o f all Towards

even ing as he is atte m pting to make his way back
to the castle secretly Galiot con fronts h i m an d com
p els him t o go t o h is tent t o rest
Subsequ ently L an celot brings abou t a recon cilia
tion betwee n the Ki n g an d Galiot though Arthu r is
not aware at the ti m e h o w o r by whom the re co n cil
D u ring the i nterview which takes
iat i o n is e ffected
place between Arthu r an d Galiot the l atter asks the
King what p rice h e would pay to have the black
kn ight s perpetual friendship t o which A rthu r rep l ies
that he would gladly shar e with him all he possessed
The qu estion is n ext p u t t o G aw ain e who replies
that he wo u ld wish to be the m o s t beauti f u l
wom an in the world s o as to be beloved by the
black knight N ext it is p u t t o Gu inevere who re
marks that Sir G aw ain e had anticipated all that a

lady could possibly wish an answer which is re

The Qu ee n then obtains
c e iv e d with m u ch laughter
a con ference with Galiot an d p rays him t o O btain
for her an i nterview with the black kni ght and he
prom ises t o d o his u tmost to e ffect it H e accord
i n gl y sou n ds L ancelot upon the subject an d nding
hi m agreeable he arranges that th e y shall me e t that
evening Galiot h is seneschal an d L ancelot arrive
At rst the Queen cann ot think which is the black
knight but o n e is s o m odest almost bashful that
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 16

served for a kni ght yet u nborn who shou ld s it i n the

siege pe ri ll o u s and be the best knight in the

world both in ar m s and p urity o f life
Du ring
L an celot s stay at the castle the king i s very de
s i ro u s o f arran ging a match between their guest and
his d a u ghter Elain e kn owing well that s h e w as the
desti n ed m oth e r of the p e erless hero who was to
achieve t h e Saint Graal : but as L ancelot takes bu t
little n otice o f the som ewhat violent love mad e to
him magic is resorted t o i n order t o e ffect s o de
sirable a m atch
Shortly a ft e r this adven tu re E l ain e visits Arth u r s
Cou rt an d her great beau ty add ed to the ru m ou r o f
L ancelot s previ ou s attachment to the daughter o f
ki n g Pelles arouses the passionate j ealousy o f qu een
Gu inevere
Un able t o bear the tempest of re
ro ach e s which the Q u een showers u pon him L ance
p
lot l eaves the Cou rt and fo r two years w anders abou t
th e l an d melancholy in mood an d st ud io u sly elu ding
the qu est o f sev e ral kn ights whom both King and
Q ueen s en d to seek him At last after a terrible
encou nter with caiti ff kn ights w h o wou nd him
h
e
though
sorely
pu
nishes
them
i
n
the
fray
h
e
(
)
rushes into a garden weary and bleeding and f alls
asleep The garden t u rns ou t to be that o f the
castle o f king Pelles whose dau ghter Elaine nd s
h im an d by her care he is restored t o health
,

L an c e l o t G u i ne v e re
,

an d

E l ai ne

2 1

Tired o f adventu res L ancelot retu rns to Cou rt

and when the t ime arrives joins the famou s Q u est
o f the San g raal I n this Qu est his fate is d i fferent
from th at of any o f the other more prominent
kn ights H e lik e the m is several times d is co mt e d
by foes h u m an and s uperhu man L ike them he
has visions a n d meets with several very plain spoken
hermits ; but u nlike most of the kn ights he repents
d oes penance and at length after a mu ltit u de o f
advent u res is vouchsafed a wond rou s vision o f the
Sangraal clothed in sam ite Upon his attempting
i n spite o f a warn ing voice to approach too near the
sacred Vessel a blast o f ery win d p rostrates him
and fo r twenty fou r days he remains unconscious
a nd e ntranced On awakening he asks where h e is
and l earns that it is the castle o f king Pelles and that
Elaine is dead
Before the Qu est is over he m eets and conve rses
long with his sai n tl y s o n Galahad shortly be fore his
death Then knowing that the achievement of the
Qu est o f the H oly Graal was n ot for him he retu rns
to Ca melot where he hears the details o f the nal
achievem ent o f th e Sangraal and the passi n g aw ay
of Galahad i n to heaven
The end glares on u s with such visible re from
the mom ent o f L ancelot s retu rn to the Cou rt of
Arthu r and Gu in evere after the achievem ent o f this
,

T he

2 18

A rt h u ri an E pi c

adventu re that we have scarce a thought fo r the

tale of E lain e la Bl au n ch Elai n e the m aid o f Asto
lat yet it m akes a belt o f pal e pu re light across the
deep red l u rid way that m ight have kept Sir L an ce
l o t within its rad iance as he hu rried o n t o t h e goal
o f ru in beyond
Poet and paint er have mad e u s
fam iliar with t h e story of Elain e the fay re s t mayde

that mygh t be fo u n d e
We cannot n o w follow her
through the whole of her tearfu l history but m u st
be content to trace the lead ing incidents o f the
episode as these will clearly show what we have be
fore stated that Tenn y so n s p ictu res are bea u ti fu l
only in proportion as h e cop ies in an u naltered
form the pathetic tou ches o f the N orman t rouv ere
Before comparing parallel p a ssages from the
romance of Map an d the I d y ll o f Ten n yson we m ay
state in passing that the poem o f L a nce l ot a nd El a i ne
in o u r estim ation is o n e o f the nest if n o t the
nest o f the whole o f the series o f Ten nyson s Ar
thu r i an poems
This estimate is based chiey o n the fact th at in
this instance the poet has followed strictly t h e lines
o f the original ro m ance
b ut in additio n t o this it is
based o n the fu rther fact that h e has reprodu ced the
tale with su ch exqu isit e beauty o f thought an d add i
t i o n al tou ches o f f ancy that we can imagine what
the d eli ght o f the Norm an ro m ancer would be cou ld
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 20

he bethought him that he wo u ld beare on of hers

that non e o f his blood thereby m ight kn o w him

And then hee said Faire d amo s e l l I wi l l grau n t

you t o weare a token o f you rs u pon my helmet an d
there fore what it is shew m e
Sir said shee it is

m
i
n
e
f

a r e d s l e e ve o

s ca r l e t ,

w e ll

mbr oa d e r e d

w it h

s
o
An
d
shee
brought
it
him
So
i
r
s
p
L a u n celot received it an d said : N ever or this tim e
d id I s o m u ch for n o d am o s e ll
And then s ir
L au ncelot be t o o ke the faire d am o s e l l his shield in
keeping and prayed her to ke e pe it u ntill h e c am e
e a rl es

t
rea
g

aga i n e

With what power do the full d eep strains o f

Ten nyson s verse resou nd t h e simpl e m u sic o f Map s
prose
,

stood
Rapt on h is f ace as if it w e r e a G o d s
S u dden l y ash d on h e r a w ild desire
T h at he should w e ar h e r f avour at t h e tilt
Sh e brav e d a riotous h e art i n ask i n g fo r it

F a ir l o rd w hos e n ame I k n ow n ot n o bl e it i s

n
e
s
I w e ll be lieve the obl t w ill you w e ar

Nay s a id he
My f avour at this tourn e y
F air l ady si n ce I n e ver ye t h ave w orn
F avour o f an y l ad y in t h e lists

S uch i s my w on t as t h o s e w h o k n ow m e k n ow

th e n in w e ari n g m i n e
s h e an s w e r d
Ye a s o
N e e ds mu st be l e s s e r li k e liho o d n obl e l o rd

A n d h e turu d
T h at those w h o k n ow shoul d k n ow you
Sh e

L a n c e l o t G u i ne v e re
,

H er cou n s e l

do w n w ithi n

u p an d

E lai ne

a nd

221

h is m i n d ,

fou n d it tru e an d an s w e r d T ru e m y child

f e tch it o ut to m e
e ll I w ill w e a r it
A r e d sl e eve
h at is it
an d s h e t o ld h i m

B r oide r d w ith pea r l s an d brou ght it th e n h e bou n d

H e r to k e n o n his hel me t w ith a s mil e
S ayi n g I n e ve r ye t h ave do n e s o much

Fo r an y m aid e n livi n g an d t h e blood

S pran g t o her fac e an d ll e d h e r w ith d e li ght

And

W
W

an d Sir Bernard s s o n S ir L ava in e then

start for the to urnament an d upon the ir arrival at
tract little or n o attent ion L ancelot weari ng as he
d o e s the u ne mblazon ed shield Bu t soon he enters
the lists and performs s u ch deeds of val ou r that

L ancelot

C o u n t b aro n w ho m
,

K i n g du k e
,

he

s mot e

he

rl
o ve rthre w
ea

At l e ngth a spear pie rcing his arm ou r enters h is

side and breaking o ff l e aves the spear head embedded
in the wou nd
Then the hera l ds by the King s
order blow the tr u mpets an d the pri z e is awarded
to the knight with the white shield and that b e are

the red sleeve

But forgetfu l o f the pri z e he had
won L an celot gallops from the eld an d having
reached the woods he tu rns to Elaine s b rother an d
beseeches him :
O gentle knight sir L avai n e helpe
m e th at this t ru n ch io n were out o f my side for it

s t ich e t h s o sore that it almost s l e e t h mee

O
y
,

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

T he

2 22

m ine o w n e lord said s ir L av ain e I wou ld faine

helpe you but it dreads m e sore and I d raw out the
I
t ru n ch i o n that yee sh a ll bee i n pe ri l l o f d e ath
charge y o u s a id s ir L au ncelot as y e e love m ee
d raw it o u t
an d forthwith s ir L avain e
d rew the t ru n ch i on ou t of his sid e ; an d s ir L au nce
l ot gave a great s h ri e ke an d a m e rvail o u s ghastly
grone and his blood brast o u t
that at the
l ast hee sanke down e
an d sow med paile and
deadly
H ere again the poet follows closely the very
word ing o f the o l d romance Sir L ancelot gasping
charges Sir L avai n e

Dr

the l an ce he ad

s aid L avai n e
A h my s w eet lord S ir L an c e lot

I dr e ad m e i f I draw it yo u w ill d ie
B ut h e I die alr e ady w ith it dr aw

D r aw
an d L avai n e dr e w an d S ir L an c e lot gav e
A m ar ve llous gr e at sh ri e k an d gh astl y gr o an
A n d h alf h i s b lood burst forth an d do w n h e s an k
For t h e pure pai n an d w holl y sw oon d aw ay
aw

Si r G aw ai n e is sent by King Arthu r t o seek t h e u n

known an d mysterious kni ght and after a fru itless
attempt he comes by chance t o the castle o f Asto
lat Then in conseque n ce o f El a ine s qu estioning
him abou t t h e champion o f the j ousts s h e discovers
that it is the u nknown knight who had worn h e r
,

A rt h u r i an E pi c

T he

2 24

T h at

t r n t o w e r an d e n t e ri n g b arr d h e r door
S tri pt o ff t h e c as e an d r e ad t h e n ak e d Shi e ld

e as e

After G aw a in e s d epartu re for the Court Elaine

obtains he r father s permissio n to seek Sir L ancelot
an d accordi n gl y goes forth accompan ie d only by her
ou
nger
brother
E
relong
they
m
eet
Si
r
L
i
n
a
v
a
e
y
who learning the obj ect o f th e ir j o u rney leads them
to the hermitage where Sir L ancelot is lying sick o f
his grievous wound An d when shee saw h im lie s o
si cke and pale in his bed shee m ight not speake but
s o d ai n l y shee fell u nto the groun d i n a sowne an d

there sh e e lay a great while

Nothing could su rpass t he power with which this
is told in the I dyll o f L a nce l ot a nd El a i ne
,

T h e re

Of

L an c e lot

s h e s aw

the

c as q u e

rl e t sl e e ve
T h o c ar ve d an d cut an d h alf t h e pe arls aw ay
an d i n her h e art s h e l a u h
St re a m d fro m it s till
g
B e c aus e h e h ad n o t loos e d it from h i s h e l m
Bu t me an t o n c e mor e pe rch an c e to tour n e y in it
A n d w h e n th e y gai n d t h e c e ll w herei n h e S l e pt
H i s battl e w rithe n ar ms an d m i ght y h an d s
L ay n ak e d o n the w olfs k i n an d a dre am
O f dr aggi n g do w n h i s e n e my m ad e th e m mo v e
T h e n sh e th at s aw h im l yi n g u n sl e e k u n shor n
G au n t as it w e r e t h e s k e l e to n o f hi ms e lf
U t t e r d a li t t l e t e n d e r dolorous c ry
on

th e w a

ll

r t
he r

s ca

An d

li pt li k e

w at e r t o

the o o r

d,

L an c e l o t G u i n e v e re
,

E l ai ne

and

22

After his recovery they all three bid ad ie u to the

good herm it and retu rn t o the old baron s castle
There L ancelot stays som e tim e bu t at l ast dete r
m ines to leave for the Cou rt and when abou t t o
depart Elain e says
My l ord s ir L au ncelot n ow
I s e e that yee wil l depart faire and cu rte ou s kn ight
have m ercy u pon m e an d su ff er m ee n ot t o die for

you r love
What would yee that I d id ? said
I wou ld have you u nto my h u s
s ir L au ncelot
band said the m aide E l aine
Fair e d am o s e l l I

said s i r L au n celot but ce rt ain e ly

t h an ke you
said hee I cast m ee n ever to bee m arri ed

Alas ! said she then m u st I n e e d e s d ie for you r

love
Ye shal l n ot said s ir L au nce l ot for wit
yee well faire d amo s e ll that I m ight have been e
married an d I had would bu t I n ever apply e d m e e
to be e m arried bu t because faire d am o s e ll that y e e
will love m ee as yee s ay y e e doe I will for you r good
love an d kin d n e s s e shew you so m e go o d n e s s e and
that is this : that wheresoever y e e wil l s e t yo u r heart
upon some good kn ight that will wed you I shal l
give yo u together a thou sand p oun d y e are l y t o y o u
and t o you r beires thus m u ch will I give you faire
maide for you r kin d n e s se An d alway while I live
to be you r o w n e knight
said the
Of a l l t h is

1 w ill n one
The n she sh riked
d amos e ll
shrilly an d fel l downe to the grou n d i n a sowne ;
,

xs

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 26

an d then gentlewomen beare her i nt o her chamber

an d there s h e made ever m uch sorrow

H ow ten derly an d faith fu ll y has Ten nyson de
scribed this s cene :

do n ot shu n
T o S pe ak the w ish m ost n e ar to your true h e art
S uch s e rvic e h av e ye do n e me th at I m ak e
My w ill o f yours an d P ri n c e an d L ord am I

I n m i n e ow n l an d an d w h at I w ill I c an
T he n li k e a ghost s h e lift e d u p her f ac e
B ut li k e a ghost w ithout t h e pow e r t o Spe ak
A n d L an c e lot s aw t h at s h e w ithh e l d h e r w i sh
an d

D l

lon ge r spe ak your w i sh

S e e i n g I go to d ay th e n out sh e b r ak e
G oi n g an d w e sh all n e ve r s e e yo u mor e

A n d I must d i e fo r w an t o f on e b o l d w ord

S pe ak th at I li ve to h e ar h e said i s your s
T h e n sudden l y an d passio n atel y s h e s po k e

I h ave go n e m ad I love you l e t me d ie

w h at is this ?
A h sist e r an sw e r d L an c e lot
A n d i n n oc e ntl y e xt e n di n g h e r w hit e arms

Y our l o v e
our
lo
to
b
e your w if e
s h e s aid
v
e
y
A n d L an c e lot an sw e r d
H ad I chos e n to w e d
I h ad b e e n w edd e d e arli e r sw e e t E l ai n e

B ut n ow th e r e n e ve r w ill b e w if e o f m i n e

An d

s aid

e ay n o

s aid
N ot to be w ith you n ot t o s e e yo ur fac e

A l as fo r m e th e n m y go o d d ays a re do n e
h n sw e r d
t e n ti mes
Nay n obl e maid
e a
An d

Sh e

n ay

T he

228

A rt h u ri an E pi c

her And when the l etter w as written

word by word l ike as shee had devised then shee
prayed her father that shee m ight bee watched u n
till she were dead
And while my body is whole
let this letter b e p u t into my r igh t h a nd and my
han d bou n d fast with the letter u n till that I bee
cold an d l et m e be p u t i n a faire bed with all the
richest clothes that I have abou t m e an d so let my
bed and al l my rich clothes be laide with m e i n a
chariot t o the n ext place where as the T h ams e is
and there let m e bee p u t i n a barge a nd but one ma n
w it h me such as yee tru st t o stere m e thither an d
that my barge be covered with blacke sam ite over
and over Thu s father I beseech you let m e be
an d
don e
an
on
shee
died
An
d
so
when
[ ]
shee was dead the corps an d th e bed and all was led
the n ext way u nto the T h am s e an d there a man
an d the corps an d al l were put in a b a rge on the
T h ams e an d s o the man steered the barge t o West

m in ster
I n the sole m n fu nera l m usic o f Ten n y son s verse
we read :
ra u n t e
g

S o w h e n the ghostl y m an

co me an d go n e
Sh e w ith a f ace bri ght a s for s in f o r gi v e n
B e sou ght L avain e t o w rit e as sh e d e vi s e d
A l e tt e r w o r d fo r w ord
an d w h e n h e as k e d
I s it for L ancelot is it fo r my d e ar lor d
,

h ad

La n c e l o t

G u i n e ve re

an d

E l a i ne

I b e ar it gl adly sh e r e pli e d
L an c e lot an d t h e Q ue e n an d a ll t h e

T h e n w ill

Fo r

22

wo

rld

B ut I mys e lf m ust b e ar it
T h e n h e w r ot e
T h e l e tt e r s h e d e vis e d
w hich b e i n g w rit
A n d fold e d
O sw e et f ath e r t e n d e r an d tru e

D e n y me n o t s h e s aid ye n e ve r ye t

D e n i e d my f an ci e s this ho w e v e r stran ge
My l ate st l ay t h e l e tt e r i n m y h an d
A little e re I d i e an d clos e t h e h an d
U po n it
I sh all gu ard it e v e n in d e ath
A n d w h e n the h e at is go n e fro m o u t my h e art
T h e n t ak e t h e littl e b e d o n w hich I di e d
Fo r L an c e lot s l o v e an d d e c k i t li k e t h e Qu e e n s
Fo r rich n e ss an d m e also li k e t h e Q u e e n
I n al l I h av e o f rich an d l ay m e o n it
A n d let th e r e b e pr e par e d a ch ariot bi e r
T o t ak e m e to t h e ri ver an d a b ar ge
Be r e ad y o n t h e ri ve r cloth e d i n b l ac k
I go i n st at e to court t o m e e t t h e Qu e e n
,

'

when h e r spiri t had own t o where th e weary

are at r e st he r brothers follo w the procession to the
waterside
A nd

bl ac k dec k s l aid h e r i n h e r b e d
Se t in h e r h an d a lil y o e r h e r hu n g
T h e s il k e n c ase w ith br aid e d bl a zo n i n gs
A n d ki s s d h e r q ui e t bro w s a n d s ayi n g t o h e r

S i st e r f ar e w e ll fo r e ve r an d agai n

Far e w e ll sw e e t sist e r part e d al l i n t e ars

T h e n ros e t h e du mb o l d s e rv itor an d t h e d e ad
O ar d by the du mb went upward w ith t h e ood
And

the

on

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

230

h
a
n
d
t
h
e
i
i
n
e
r
e
t
t
h
l
h
l
y
l ,
g
f

al l h e r bri ght h air stre ami n g

l e tte r

h er

Th e

ri

dow n

coverlid w as cloth o f gol d

D raw n to her w aist an d s h e hers e lf in w hit e
A l l but h e r f ac e an d th at cle ar fe atur e d f a c e
as l o v e l
r sh e did n ot se e m a s d e ad
f
o
y
B ut f ast asleep a nd l ay as tho she s mil e d

And

al l

th e

As the King an d Gu inevere (or accord i n g t o Ten

n ys o n as L ance l ot and the Q u een are talking a t the
)
pal a ce window over l ooking the river a barge is seen

slowly dri ftin g t o th e royal l anding

That faire

corps will I see said king Arthu r And then the king
tooke the qu eene by the ha nd and went thither
Then the king and the qu een e went in [to the barge ]
with certaine knight s with them and ther they s aw a
faire gentlewoman lying i n a rich bed
and
all was of cloth o f gold ; a nd s h ee l ay as t h oug h s h e
,

h ad

mi l e d

t
a
d
n
h
h
;
g

Th e n t h e que e ne

l
i
h
e
t
e
e
t
t
e
n
t
r
i
e
d
h
p

es

t ol d t h e

h i ng t he r e of

Then the king

tooke it i n his hand an d said N ow I am su re this
letter will tell what s h e was and why shee is come
hither
Then th e ki n g and the que e ne went out of
the barge ;
and S o when the kin g was com e
within his cha mber he called many knights abou t

him
Then the letter is opened and read as follows :
M ost noble kn ight my l ord S ir L au ncelot d u L ake
now hath death m ade u s two at d ebat e for you r love ;

ri

a nd

Vi de No t e P

T he

23 2

my

f
P r ay f or my

r ay

or

A s t h ou

art a

A rt h uri an E pi c

sou l , a n d
soul

e l d me bu r i a l
i
y

t h ou t oo, Si r L a nce l ot ,

h n zgh t pe e r l e ss

when s i r L au ncelot had heard it word by word

hee said : My lord king Arthu r wit you well t hat I
am right heavy o f the d eath o f this faire d am o s e l l ;
God knoweth I was n ever ca u ser o f her death by my
will
Shee was both faire an d good an d
m uch I was beholden u nto her bu t shee loved m e
ou t of measu re
Yee m ight have shewed her
said the qu eene som e bo u n t ie an d gentlen esse that
ye m ight have preserved h br life
E qually bea u tifu l is the d escriptio n in Tennyson
A nd

99

T hu s h e

r e ad

ver in the r e adi n g lords an d d am e s

e pt loo k i n g oft e n fro m h i s f a c e w h o r e a d
T o h e rs w hich l ay s o sil e n t an d at ti me s
So t o u c h d w e r e th e y h alf thi n k i n g th at h e r li ps
h o h ad d e vi s e d t h e l e tt e r mo ved aga i n
An d

fr e e l y s po k e S ir L an c e lot to th e m al l
My lor d li e ge A rthur an d al l ye th at h e ar
Kn ow th at for thi s mo st ge n tl e maid e n s d e ath
Ri ght h e avy am I for goo d sh e w as an d t r u e
B ut l o v e d m e w it h a l o v e be yon d al l lov e
I n w o man w ho mso e v e r I h ave k n ow n
T he n

T he n

sa

id

the

Q ueen

L a nc e l o t
Y e mi ght

F air l o rd
H

e r ai se d

an

d E l ai n e

233

l e ast h ave do n e her so much grace

w ould h av e h e l p d h e r fro m h e r d e ath

at

as

G u i n e ve re

hi s hea d, t h ei r eye s me t

a nd

h e r s f el l

L ancelot ,

afte r showing t o the satisfaction o f the

Queen at least that su ch was impossib l e
The n

said the king u nt o s ir L au nce l ot I t will be you r

worship that ye oversee that shee bee bu ried wo r

Sir said sir L au ncelot

that shall
sh ipfu l l y
bee don e as I can best d evise
An d so d id the
kni ght
,

N ot know i ng h e s h oul d die

h oly ma n

But

heaven was n ow shut to S ir L ancelot and

m u ch m ust happ en ere he can p ray again Throu gh
tou rney an d j oust the shad ow darkens o n Arthu r s
Cou rt Day by day Gu inevere s l ove and angry
j ealou sies bin d the falling knight in close r bands
u ntil eve n his world ly hon o u r is su llied in her cause
At last t he th reatening clou d breaks over the
Cou rt The Q ueen s disloyalty to her husband an d
L ancelot s part in it are m ade mani fest
Through the t reachery of Si r A gravain e and Sir
M odred a t rap is laid for the love rs which succeeds
b ut L an celot takes ste rn vengean ce on the spies who
d iscover his ill d oing and ou t of a party o f twe l ve
M od red alon e su rvives to tell th e tale
,

T h e A rt h u ri an E pi c

234

I n the I dy l l of G u i ne ve r e beautifu l as it is Ten ny

s o n has not kept strictly to the old romance
H ere
the Qu ee n exhorts Sir L an celot
,

the e h e n ce

if thou love m e ge t
A n d the n th e y w e r e agreed u po n a n i ght
e
n
n
n
h
the
ood
i
shoul
o
t
th
r
to
m
t
K
d
b
e
e
e
e
e
(
g
g
)
A n d part fo r e v e r
P assio n pal e th e y m e t
A n d gr e e t e d H an ds in h an ds an d e ye t o e ye
L ow o n t h e bord e r o f h e r couch th e y s at
S t amme rin g an d stari n g I t w as th ei r l as t hour
O L an celot ,

A madness

f f

a re w el l s

But i n the romance it is no t their last m eeting I n

the n ext lin es the poet is faithfu l to his ori g inal :
,

An d

36
.

AM A
.

M odre d brou gh t

cr e atur e s to t h e b asem e n t o f t h e to w e r
Fo r testi mo n y an d cr yi n g w ith full voice

a r o us e d
T raitor co me out ye are tr apt at l ast
L an c e l ot w h o rushi n g out w ard lio n li k e
L e apt o n h i m an d h u rl d h i m h e adlo n g an d h e f e ll
St u n n d an d hi s cr e atures too k an d b are h i m o ff
H is

Arthu r s fu ry at this in format ion of the t ruth o f

the report is u nbou nd ed H is Q u e en h e d eclares
shall have the law She is d oom ed to be b u rned and
few kn ight s will attend to witness her exec ution
Many sid e with Sir L ancelot an d j oin h im in the
rescu e of the Q u een She m u st have been a s igh t to
,

T he A rt h u ri an E pi c

23 6

siege and return t o England The cau s e is Mo d re d s

treachery The t raitor had n ot only u surped regal
p ower but had even insolently proposed m arriage to
qu ee n Gu inevere and had laid siege t o the tower o f
Finally
L on don t o which s h e had ed for safety
Arthu r is slain an d the prou d passion fu l Qu ee n
stru ck t o the grou nd by remorse bows her head low
*
i n A l me sbu ry Convent
I n the romance the Qu een d oes not e n t e r t he con

u n t il

s he

h e ars

h e r h us ba nd

d ea t h ;

f
an d hence in n either chronicle nor romance is Ar
thu r ever represent ed as visiting his Quee n after her
retirement
This e pis o d h which forms t h e ch ief
e ve r e
in
the
l
f
t
u
r
e
I
d
l
o
G
u
i
n
is
the
invention
o
ea
f
f
y
Ten nyson s own imagination
Still m u ch o f the

p oem especially that which describes her reception

by the n u ns is s o natu rally beau tiful that it m ay

ve n t

t
r
e
f

be taken as a faithfu l p ictu re o f her convent life

N o soon er had Arthu r raised the siege of J oyous
Gard than L ancelot hearing o f the King s distress
hu rries to England not however to contin u e the
ght but t o su ccou r his lord I t is too late ; he
nds co nsu mmat ed the ru in he himself had entailed
on those he loved best an d learns that even Arthu r
is dead L eaving his kings an d kn ights he rid e s in
.

Th

Be n e d

i ti
c

w as th e fam e d A bb e
n e o rd e r ,

hi h w
c

as

at

in h

A l m e sb u ry,

igh put
re

a n abb e

i g th

d ur

o f n un s o f

Mi d d l e

th e

es

L an c e l o t G u i n e v e re
,

E l a i ne

a nd

23

s e arch of her who had been the false li ght of his

event fu l li fe
We will fol l ow the langu age o f the o l d romance to
d escribe thei r l ast m eetin g
And at t h e last hee
Si
r
L
ance
l
ot
cam
e
to
a
n
n
ry
An
d
then
was
u
[
]

q u een e G u e n e v e r ware o f s ir L a u ncelot as he e walked

in the cl oys t e r ; and when shee s aw him there shee
And when sir L au nce
s o w n e d three times
I
A
lot was brought u nto her then shee said [t u rn in g to
Me
the n u ns]
Through this knight and mee all these
d
w arre s were wrou ght an d the death of the m ost
n oble knights o f the world ; for through ou r love
that wee have loved together is my m ost n oble l ord
Then tu rning t o Sir L ancelot s h e
exc l aims
Therefore s ir L au ncelot I requ ire thee
and beseech thee h e art e ly for all the love that ever
was be t w e e n e u s two that thou n ever l o oke mee
m ore i n the visage
For as well as I have
loved thee s ir L au nce l ot now m in e heart will n ot
once serve mee to see thee ; for through mee and
thee is the o u re o f kings and knights d estroyed
Therefore s ir L a u ncelot goe goe thou u nto t hy
re al m e and there take thee a wi fe and live with her
in j oy and blisse And I beseech you h e a rt e l y p ray
for mee
Nay m adame said s i r L au nce
lot wit yee well that I will never while I live for
I shall never bee s o false to you o f that I have prom
.

I!

T he

238

A rt h u ri an E pi c

ised bu t the same d e s t e n y that yee have taken you

And s o they
u nto I wil l take mee u nto
d eparted B u t there was n ever s o hard a hearted
man but hee wou ld have wept to s e e the sorrow that
they mad e fo r there was a lamentation as though
they had been e s t u n ge n with speares and many
tim es they s o w n e d and the l ad ies beare the qu een e
t o her chamber an d s ir L a u ncelot awoke an d went
an d tooke his horse and rode al l that day and al l

S
f
that night i n a forest weeping
m
L ancelot an d seven of his knights i n f u llment of
his promise remain for s ix years in penance as pos
t u l an t s an d then he took th e habit of p riesthood
and for twelve months he san g the Mass
An d
thus up on a n ight there cam e a vision u nto s ir
to has t him
L au ncelot and charged him

towards A l me s bu ry an d by that time tho u com e

there thou shalt nd e qu een e G u e n e v e r dead
an d bring you the corps of her and b u ry it by her
l ord and hu sband the noble king Arthu r
He
started ere it was day but his fellows were weak and
weary an d when he reached her bedside Gu i n evere
had been d ead a half hou r H er constant p rayer for
two long days before her d eath being that s h e m i ght
be spared the trial of another m eeting with L ance
l ot
I be s eech Almight y God that I may never
,

Vi de No t e

T he

2 40

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

an d courtesy an d forgetfu lness of self bu t i n pu rit y

i n hu mility i n obedience h e fails Which o f o u r
nove l ists w ould l eave their hero a feeble and stricken
beggar a t H eaven s porch withou t at least su rrou nd
ing him with the halo o f religiou s oy N o theatrical
deathbed scen e makes u s almost rej oice in the crime
which requ ires su ch a d isplay of redeeming grace I n
s ombre shade L an celot creeps to his grave hidden
from the wonder o f men No light is granted t o him
t ill D eath draws asid e the vei l Death the evening
star that rose on his n ight when al l other lights o f
m orta l life were qu en ch ed
The roman ce is an en nobling stu dy teaching the
gran d truth of ou r incapacit y to fu ll o u r highest
aspir ations i f they are not hallowed by those virtu es
which form the Christian s crown
,

C HAPT E R VI I I

G al a h a d

and

t he

Que s t

of

H o l y G raal

t he

S we ascend the steps and enter the p ort als o f

the amphitheatre of Arthurian Ro mance the
leading obj ect that st rikes the e y e is the H oly Graal
There in the m idst raised high above the concou rse
o f noble kni ghts and peerless lad ies high above the
arena where armed warriors i n the prid e o f m anly
s tren gt h tou rney an d j ou st high above the th rone
wher e Ki ng and princes s it hovers the mystic Vessel
c l othed in white sam ite t in ged with a roseate h u e
and ref ulgent with the shee n o f its own glo ry
Ben eath the won drous cu p stands Galahad h is
eyes raised from the brillian t assemblage beneath
an d xed i n be at ic rapt u re upon the heave n ly prize
which he h as won As we ga z e upon the holy youth
he looks like a second St M ichael a conqu eror y e t
passionless in the hou r o f triu mph piercing the
dragon Evi l yet u nsu llied by its endish breath
There is no shadow upon him of com ing d eath H e
wears his imm o rtalit y with the calm o f pe rfect faith
Th e re is n o dint of con ict o n h is white shield n o
,

16

2 41

T he

2 42

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

blood stain s o n his glisten i n g armou r an d i f he has

fought with Satan n o soilu re mars the p e rfection of
his form an d as he stands there his whole bod y is
enwrapped i n t h e m ellow rays which dart d ownwards
from the H oly Graal
B ut this subj ect o f Galahad and the fam ous Q u est
of which he is the hero is bes e t by inn u merable d if
I n this p a rt of the tale we nd ou rselves
cu l t i e s
wandering am id the phantoms of an epic al l egory
At ti m es as we r e ad it is difcu lt to dispel the il l u
sion that we are being l e d into som e hitherto u n
explored r e g ion o f the Fa e r ie Q uee ne s o ideal s o
ethereal are the scenes which surrou n d u s Bu t this
alle gorical garb in which the rom ance is clothed
presents but slight di fcu lt y There are other and
wei ghtier ones lu rking behind
We have seen that this Graal ro m a nce h as no ex
i s t e n ce i n the Cam brian version an d that it is u n
known t o the Armorican story I n other words it is
pecu li ar t o the N orman epopoiia and is the prod uc
t ion o f W a lter Map wit poet scholar priest an d
theolo gian We m ight therefore expect a pr ior i
that this romance wou ld contain a great d eal which
only hard patient stu dy cou ld u n fold And s uch
we n d t o be the actu al case To u nderstan d this
rom a n ce in all i t s fulness and depth o f meaning it is
necessary t o have read t h e apo cryph al gospels ; t o be
-

'

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

2 44

t ive as told by the trouv eres I t permeates e very

part it colou rs every in cid ent and it gives sou l to
every S cene from the adve nt o f M erlin to the trans
lation o f Arthu r ; and the qu estion arises what o b
j c e t cou ld Map have had i n th u s spirit u alising the
tale in thus chan g ing s o essentially its whole scop e
motive or aim as t o ren der it a d istinct and inde
pen dent version
A glance at the origin o f the En glish dram a will
at o nce give a clu e to this apparent anomaly I t is
a cu riou s fact that the oldest English pl ays known
to u s were written d uri n g the sam e cen t u ry in
which Walter Map wrote his rom an ces though
som ewhat ear l ier in that centu ry They are what
are t echnically kn own as M iracle plays i e some
Script u re narrative s ay the Ra is i ng of L aza r us was
taken from the N ew Testament thro w n into the
form o f a dialogu e with additional touches s u g
ge s ted by the fan cy of the write r an d s o modern
ised as to su it th e customs and habits of thou ght o f
an u n ed u cated aud ience On the day o f the per
fo rma n c e the town chu rch was turned i nto a tempo
rary theatre an d the c l ergy into amateu r actors
The sli ghtest acquaintance with twelfth centu ry life

ren ders it certain that the clergy assu m ed the r ol e

o f pl ay righ t s an d actors n ot simpl y fo r the a m use
me nt o f the peo pl e bu t fo r th e ir instr uct ion Wh at
.

T he

Q ue s t

f t h e H ol y G raa l

2 45

a u dience that had ever witnessed a M iracl e play

could fail t o carry away a n i nd elible remembrance
of the facts thu s represented ? What ora l in s t ruc
tion could eve r equal this p ictoria l teaching of th e
r ude ignorant ceorls and villei n s ?
N ow what the secular c l ergy endeavo u re d to ac
complish on beha l f o f the u n l ette red m asses by
means o f M i racle p l ays that d id Walte r Map the
Un ivers ity Archdeacon attempt to accomplish o n
behal f o f the warri or c l ass by m eans of the tales o f
chivalry There was this d istinction however that
while the M iracle plays taught p ri ncipally th e f act s
of the H oly Gospel the rom ance d ea l t chiey with
the d oct r i nes o f H o l y Ch u rch The obj ect of each
was to fam iliarise the truths of religion an d t o i n
st ru ct the people O n the one hand t o instruct the
mass es in the facts o f Script u re by means o f plays ;
an d on the other t o i nstruct th e hnzgh t ly cl ass in
the d octrines of Christianity by m eans of the ro
ma n ce s o f ch ivalry I t was a shrewd far sighted idea
of this witty priest ; a grand idea for that age and
carried ou t with the artistic nish of geni us H ow
delighted the c l ergy mu st have been as they met
with the old fam iliar dogmas o f the Chu rch d ecked
out i n all the pomp an d glitt er o f knighthood for
the d electation of the barons ; and how big with
importance the knights m ust have felt when they
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 46

saw m embers o f thei r own O rd e r re pre s e nt e d as the

heroes o f an advent u re which eclipsed even the
highest possible g l o ry of the Crusades L ittle did
th e noble lord s and gentle l adies d ream as they
followed with breath l e s s i nterest the fort u nes of
Galahad and the q u es ting knights that they were
listen ing to a serm on o n the
Q u est o f Eterna l

L ife
An d yet that s u ch is the fact will appear in
a very clear l ight as we advance in the exam ination
o f the romance itse l f
On the vigi l o f the feast o f Pe ntecost which
Arth u r a l ways celebrat e d with roya l magn icence
there entered int o the hall o f the palace at Cam elot
a fair gentlewoman who desired to s e e Sir L an ce l ot
and when that famous kn ight is pointed ou t t o her
on king Pelles behalf t o fol l ow
s h e req u ests him
he r on an adventu re i nto a n eighbo uri ng fore s t
L ance l ot accordin gly accompanies her n ot knowin g
why or whither h e is going til l they com e to an

abbey of nu ns and the two enter within the

sacred en closu re N o sooner has the knight rested
himself than there enter int o the room where he is
awaiting them three of the sisters lead in g by the
hand a you ng sq u ire of nob l e m ien and bearing and
e ntreat Sir L ancelot to make him a knight The
req u est is granted and at the hou r o f prim e n ext
morning th e yo uth who proves t o be Ga l ahad re

T he

2 48

A rt h u r i an E pi c

din ne r there e nters the palace an old man an d

an ancient clothed in white bu t n o m ember of

the Rou n d Table knows his nam e or whence he
comes Accompanying him is a y o u n g knight i n red
arm ou r bu t witho u t s hi eld or sword ; only an empty
scabbard dang l es at h is side Then the old man ad
d resses King Arthu r : Sir I bring yo u h e e re a y o u n g
knight that is of kings lin eage an d of th e kindred
of J oseph of A ri mat h y whereby the me rvai l e s o f
thi s cou rt and o f strang re al me s shal l be fully ac

complished
The King welco mes him an d then
at the biddin g of h is compan ion the you th p l aces

himsel f i n the siege pe rill o u s to the aston ish ment

o f the assembled knights who fear lest his temerity
b e p u nished by su dden m alady o r d eath N o evil
however befalling him a whisper passes arou n d the
board that the u nkn own yo u th is d oubtless he whom
M erlin had l ong before foretold shou ld ach ieve the
adventu re o f the H oly Graa l and ll th e l ong vacant
seat All d oubt o n this p oin t is soon s e t at re s t
The d inner ended th e King rai s es the silken cover

ing o f the siege pe rill o u s and there written in

letters o f gold is seen the name o f Galahad

The
King then takes the you thfu l knight by the han d
an d accompanied by the Cou rt leads the way to the
river t o S how Sir G a lahad th e mystic sword N o
s oone r d oes the latter tou ch the weapon than it l n
,

Q ue s t

T he

of

H o l y G raal

t he

24

yie l ds t o h is hand and m ore wond erfu l yet

it is fo u nd upon t ria l to t exactly the empty scab
bard which dang l es at his sid e The report sp reads
light ning l ike over C ame l ot that the ho u r has ar
rived for the adventu re o f the Sangraal and that
the long expected hero who is t o achieve the ad ve n
t u re h as at l ength m ade his appearance The hal l s
of Came l ot ring with excitem ent an d merriment
The Q ueen hearing the comm otion en qu ires the
ca u se an d is told o f the s trange things that are o c
cu rrin g On his retu rn from the river the King bids
the kn ights of the Rou nd Tab l e to assemble i n the
meado w to j o ust an d t ou rney an d t o s e e Gal ahad

roved
The
Q
ueen
s
c
riosi
ty
is
excited
she
u
;
p
attends the to u rn am ent and whe n the yo u ng kn ight
h as
won his sp u rs by overthrowing al l of the
noblest warriors save two Sir L ancelot and Sir
Percival he is su m mone d into th e presence o f queen
Gu i neve re t o receive the gu erd on o f praise from her
own lips
That very n ight i n the banquet h a ll is revealed t o
Arth u r s Cou rt the mystery wh ich Galahad is com e
to so l ve As the knights are sitting at su pper there
i s heard a m ighty blast and the n ext m oment a beam
o f heaven l y l ight d arts ath w a rt the hall d isclosing
the p resence o f the H oly Graal clothed i n white
sa mite while delicio u s odo u rs d i ffu se themselves o n
s t a n t ly

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

25 0

eve ry S ide an d the tables are spread with t h e choi e

est of earthly gifts I t appears bu t fo r a second
then vanishes a n d the hall deserted by the super
natu ral light looks dark an d d rear The King is the
rst t o break the death like silenc e which succeeds
an d utters in tremblin g tones an ascript ion o f praise
t o God

G aw ain e next spe aks

I will make heere avow
he exclaims in ringing t o n es that t o m orrow with
ou t any longer abiding I shall labou r i n the q u est
of th e s an cgre al l that I shall hold m e o u t a t w elve
m oneths and a day o r more i f need e bee and never
shal I re t u rn e again e u nto the cou rt t i l I ha ve s ce ne
the Graal] mor e ope nly t ha n i t h a t h bee ne s ce ne
it [
and if I may n o t speed I shall re t u rn e again e
hee r e
as hee that may n o t bee against the will o f o u r L ord

J esu Christ
The maj ority o f the knights p resent when they
hear G aw ain e s resolve j oin i n th e avo w Arthu r is
greatly displeased at this su dden resolve and t u rn
i ng sharply upon h is n ephew G aw ai n e h e exclaims
Alas ! yee have nigh s l ain e m e with the v o w an d
promise that yee have mad e ; for through y o u yee
have be e re ft m ee o f the fairest fellowship and the
truest o f knighthood that ever were seen e t ogether
in any re al m e of the world For when they shall de
part from hence I am su re that all sh a ll neve r me e t e
,

T he

25 2

A rt h u ri an E pi c

And s o the Quest o f the H oly Graal is begu n

One p oint we may notice before passing on I t
m ust be borne in m ind that th e presence of the
sacred Vessel in Britain i n Apostol ic times is re pre
sented by the rom an cer as having prod uced s o pro
foun d an i mpression upon the national m ind that
when it was seen n o m ore by m ortal eyes the story
o f its wonde r working power still su rvived as a vivid
tradition handed d own from generation to gen er
ation bu t n ever for a moment absent from the
national imagi nation ; and that the hope o f its re
appearance and nal realisation retained its hold on
the national heart t h ro ughbu t all the vicissitu des o f
its history This t rad itiona l expectation m oreove r
is r e present ed as having taken a m ore tangible form
after M erlin s famous p red iction : By the m that
shall be fellowes o f the ro u nd t able the truth o f
the s an cgre all shall be kn o w n e
an d when asked
how m en might know them that shou ld best d o in

the ach i e v e in g of the s an cgre al l he said

there
shall be three white bu lls that shall achieve i t and
the two shall be m aidens and the th ird shal l be
chaste ; and one o f the three shal l passe his father
as m u ch as the lyon passeth his libbard both of

strength and of h ard in e s s e

But that which is
depicted as havin g raised national expectation t o
the h ighest possible pitch was the fact that on many
.

Q ue st

T he

H o ly G raa l

t he

25

occasions t h e Sangraal clothed i n sam ite had a c

t u al ly appeared t o som e o f the knights before the
Quest began an d that m ore th a n one m iracle had
be e n performed by its instru mentality
These considerations will rend er i ntelligible the
othe rwise inexplicable fact that Arthu r and his
knights should at once id entify the vision which
appeared in the ban qu et hall with the H oly Gra al
a n d should have entered upon the Qu est with a n
e agerness that brooked n o d elay
We sh all pause h e re at the end o f this i nt ro d u c
tory s e ction and con side r Ten nyson s v e rsion of this
part of the romance
The form in which the poet has thrown his I dy ll
that o f a d ialogu e is pardonable si n ce t o have given
it i n the narrat ive form of the romance would have
requ ired dramatic p ower o f a high ord e r ; a powe r
consp icu ously absen t in Te n n y son as his d ram as
clearly prove The p arties t o this dialogu e are Sir
Percival afte r his retireme n t to the m on astery and
a brother m onk ; a most u n fortu n ate selection as
we shall n ow s e e I n no ve rsion with which we are
acquainted is Percival represented as retu rn ing to
Arthu r s Cou rt after the terminatio n o f the Quest
O n the contr a ry w e are distin ctly told that he

e
e
l
e d him to an hermitage oute o f the city
d
y
Sarras
im
med
iately
after
the
Q
e
st
wherea
Ten
u
s
(
)
,

25

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

depicts him as accompanying Sir Bors back

to Britain visiting th e Cou rt and relating to the
m onk what had happened at that tim e With re
gard t o the monk himself we are at a loss t o know
where Ten nyson fou nd his prototype This worthy
i t seems had sc arcely s o m u ch as heard o f the H oly
Graal and when it is m entioned by Perciva l he
e xclaims :
ny so n

H ol y G r ail I trus t

T he

n
i
n
n
e
s
u
r
H
a
s
e
h
r
e
e
e
v
e
b
t
e
e
t oo
g
y
We mo uld e ras t o thi n gs w ithout I me an
Y e t o n e o f yo ur o w n k n i ghts a gu e s t o f our s
T o ld u s o f t h i s in o u r r e f e ctor y

e are

much

hat i s it t

Th e ph a ntom

comes a n d

h
at
t
p

a cu

o
e
s
g

it n ot stra n ge that a monh shou ld b e represent e d

as hearing fo r the rst t ime o f this eccl e siastical
l e ge n d from a kni ght ? M oreover what cou ld Ten
n y s o n m e an wh e n h e m akes the monk s ay respect
i n g t h e Gr a al :
Is

4t

F ro m
T h at

Fo r

so

our ol d

bo o k s

o s e ph c a m e o f o l d

to

th e y s ay t h e s e bo o k s

M u te of

th is

mi r a cl e , f a r

as

I k now

G l a s to n bury,

o f ou s,

I h a ve

but

se e

r e ad

when every abbot m onk and hermit i ntroduced in

this romance is re presented not on ly a s p e rfectly
,

25

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

c l ear by s e ave n time s than eve r they s aw day

and all they were alighte d o f the grace of the holy
Ghost Then began every knight t o behold other
and either s aw other by their seeming fairer then
ever they s aw afore n ot for then [neverthe l ess] there
w as n o knight that might speake any word a great
while and s o they l ooked every man on other as
they had beene dombe
Then there e n t re d into
the hall the ho l y gra l e covered with white samite
m ore

bu t t h e re w as

none t h a t

m ig h t

see

it

nor

w ho be a r e i t

and there was all the hall ful lled with good od ou rs
and when the holy grale had beene born e
thro ugh th e hall then the holy vessel departed s u d

e mly that they wist not where it becam e

So in Tennyson
.

o n ce as there w e s at w e h e ar d
A cr a c k i n g an d a rivi n g of t h e ro o fs
A n d r e n di n g an d a bl ast an d o ve rh e ad
T h u n d e r an d in the thu n d e r w as a c ry
A n d i n t h e bl ast there smot e alo n g t h e h al l
A b e am o f li ght sev e n ti m e s mor e cl e a r th an d ay
A n d do w n t h e lo n g b e am stole t h e H ol y G r a il
A l l ov e r c ov e r d w ith a lu m i n ou s cloud
A n d n o n e m i gh t s e e w h o b ar e it an d it past
B ut e ve ry k n i ght b e h e l d h is f e llow s f ac e
A s i n a glory an d al l the k n i ghts aros e
A n d st a ri n g e ach a t other li k e du mb me n

Stood
A nd

a ll at

T he

Q ue s t

f t he

H o l y G raal

25

the rom ance as we have seen it is G aw ain e who

rst takes u pon h im s e l f the avow ; but i n Tennyso n
this d istinction is claimed by Perciva l :
In

I sw ar e a vow b e fore the m al l that 1

B e c aus e I h ad n o t se e n t h e G r ail would rid e
A t w elve mo n th an d a d ay in q uest of it
U n til I fou n d an d s aw it as t h e n u n
,

My sister

s aw

it

an d

G alahad

sw are the

vo w

Accord ing t o Tennyson th e King is absent when

this vi s ion appears ; he had been called away t o
avenge a maiden who had been assa u lted by band its
and ret u rns only j u st in tim e to witness the comm o
tion ca used by the vision and to learn the s ad n ews
o f th e vow which the knights had taken upon them
selves d u rin g his ab s ence
As we have be fore
observed the moment Tennyson leaves the beaten
path of the old romance the beaut y u nity and
consist ency of th e epic imm ed iately s uffer I t is
M
di fc ult t o s e e w h y Arthu r who is now represented M t
as Em peror o f the civilised world shou ld go in
person
,

to s mo k e

the

sc an d alou s hiv e of those w ild bees

,

a band it stronghold not far from Camelot

What
skilful narrator wou l d have m ad e the King absen t
not only on a fest ival which Arthu r always kept with
.

25

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

regal sp l endou r but o n that grandest of all festiva l s

which was to reveal the crown ing g l ory of h is reign
an d to be th e c u lm in ating poi nt of knightly ad ve n
t u re ? H owever the King ret u rn s and expo s t ulates
with the knight s for t heir discourtesy in not awaiting
his ret urn before taking the vow After his some
what bitter reproof an d whi l e Sir Pe rcival is relating
very cou rteo u sly a ll the fact s connected with the
vi s ion the King br us qu e l y i nterr upt s him and with
marked petulance exclaims :
,

[
W

A rt

thou

so

bold

ha st

an d

not

Ye a, ye a,
seen the G r ail

lord I he ard t h e sou n d I saw

B ut si n ce I did n ot s e e t h e H ol y T hi n g
I sw are a vo w to follow it till I s aw
Nay,

the

li ght

us k n i ght by k n i ght if an y
th e ir an sw ers w ere as o n e
th e r e for e h ave w e s w orn ou r vow s

T hen , w hen h e

s e e n it al l
Nay lor d an d

H ad

s aw

the sudden
h all to A rthur

on

Si r A r th ur ,

th e H

oly

0 G a l a h a d,

S hrilli n g alon g t h e
,

kd

T he n G al ahad

B ut I

as

G r a il

a nd

an d
c al l

in

voice

d,

th e H oly G r a il ,

sa w
a nd

h ea r d

a cry

0 G al aha d, f ol l ow

me
.

I n the romance t o s e e th e Graa l i s tantamou nt to

the achievement o f the Q u e st ; for as w e shal l s ub
,

A .

w
h

T he

2 60

A rt h u ri an E pi c

Etern a l l ife before he had s o m uch as s tarted

on the Qu est Ga l ahad simply does what al l the
knights d o ; he s wears t o go on the Q u est o f the
Graa l beca us e it has n ot bee n seen and to p u rs u e it
till i t is revea l ed i n th e fu ll e ff u l gence o f the Tr ue
Blood which it e nshrin e s
Tenny s on had before him in this allegorical ro
m an ce on e o f the m ost exq u isite con ceptions and
m ost artist ic p rod uction s in li teratu re which he
m ight have rend ered stil l more beau tif u l by the
grace o f his poetic ski l l ; bu t u n fort u nately he mi s sed
the allegory and has produ ced the tale shorn of its
u niqu e fascination and bereft of i t s deep spiritual
m eaning
The on ly rem aining p oint that we need n otice is
the start from C ame l ot
And then they put on their helmes an d departed
re co mman d e d them al l w h ol y u nto the qu eene an d
there was weeping and great sorrow Then the
q u eene d epa r t e d i n t o h e r cha mbe r so that n o man
p erceive her great s o rrow e s
When s ir
s hould
L au ncelot m issed the q u een e hee wen t into her
chamber and when shee saw him s h e cried alo u d
O s ir L auncelot ye have be t raie d me and put mee

to de a
th fo r to leave thu s my lord
A ! madame

I p ray yo u bee n ot disp l eased

s aid sir L au nc e lot

s ee n

Vi de No t e S

The

ue s

f t he H o l y G raal

2 61

for I shall come again e as soone as I may with my

worship
Alas s aid shee that ever I saw y o u
bu t he that s u ffre d d eath upon the crosse for all
mankind bee t o you good cond u ct and s afe t ie an d
all the whole fellowship
Right so d eparted s ir
L au ncelot an d fo u nd his fellowship that abod his
co mmi n g ; and so they m ou nted u pon their ho rses
and rode through the s t re e t e s o f Came lot and there
was weeping o f the rich and poore and the king re

t u rn ed away an d m ight n ot speake for weeping

I n Te nnyson the cavalcade passes rich galleries
lady lad en who shower owers u po n t hem an d in
the streets

me n

bo ys astrid e
O n w yvern li o n dr ago n gri f n s w an
A t al l the cor n ers n am e d u s e ach by n ame
but i n t h e w ays b e l o w
C alli n g G o d s peed
T h e k n i ghts an d l adies w e pt an d rich an d poor
e pt an d the K i n g hi mself c o uld h ardl y s pe ak
Fo r gri e f a nd all i n mi ddl e s t r ee t the Q ue e n
,

an d

W
Wh

by L a nce l ot, w a il d
mad n ess h as co me o n

o r ode

T his

a nd s h r i eh

a l oud ,

si n s
S o t o t h e G at e of the three Q uee n s w e c ame
here A rthur s w ars are re n d e r d mystic all y

A n d th e n c e d e part e d e v e ry on e h i s w ay

us

fo r

o ur

To o u r way o f thinking the simplicity o f the

romancer s chambe r scen e and a qu een ret iring

thither a l one to hid e her great sorrows is far m ore
,

T h e A rt h u ri an E pi c

2 62

art istic and far t ru er to n atu re th a n Te n nyson s pic

tu r e o f a shrieking qu e en riding by the sid e o f Sir
L ancelot in m iddle street
The n e xt section of the roman ce covers the who l e
period fro m the b e gin n ing o f the Qu est to the re
tu rn t o Arthu r s Cou rt o f G aw ain e an d the rest o f
the noble kni ghts with the except ion o f Galahad
Percival BO 13 an d L ancelot To g ive an analysis
o f this part o f the tale is simply impossible
Every
page contains som e kn ightly adventu re beau tifu l in
idea and exqu isitely n arrated ; o r some str an ge
drea m o r fantast i c visi on t o o ethereal to allow o f its
be ing taken o ut of its ofigin al sett ing As the ad
ventu re proceeds we follow noble knights over a
kin d o f d ream land o f forest an d meadow hill and
valley m ountain an d plai n we see them entertained
at fair castles and rich abbeys and lon e l y hermit
ages ; we watch th e m in th e brilliant t ou rnam en t o r
j ou stin g in single combat in un frequ ented spots ; we
hear o f them taki ng up the gauntlet in d e fence
and restori n g the d is in
o f oppressed g entlewom e n
h e ri t e d t o their estates ; we nd them battling with
ends who attack the m in hu man shapes o r allu re
them by their blandishments from sol e m n vows ;
we see th e m at con fession and at M ass o r listen ing
t o the advice o f plain spoken herm its ; the whole
that n o analysis will d o
s o delicately i nterwoven

T he

2 64

A rt h u ri an E pi c

of

the best knight of the world ; an d accordingly

when Galahad appears it is at once taken from its
hiding place behin d the altar an d presented to him
Armed with this shield an d with the mystic sword
w o n at C amelot the maiden knight proceeds on the
Quest accompan ied by a you n g prin ce as h is so l e
attendant They have n ot j ou rn eyed far when they
see facing them a h u ge cro ss which m arks the p oi nt
wh ere the road branches o ff into two path s I n
scribed o n the cross they read the fo ll owin g warn
in g : Yee knight s arrau n t the which goeth for t o
se e k
e advent u res s e e here two w ai e s that on e way
d e fe n d e t h thee that tho u goe n ot that way for hee
shall n ot goe o ut o f that w ay again e bu t i f hee bee
a good m an an d a worthy kn ight ; an d i f thou goe
on t he left hand thou shalt not there lightly win
ro
for
tho
sha
l
t
in
this
way
be
soon
e
w
e
s
s
e
u
p

assayed
T he yo u n g p ri nce Ga l ahad s atte ndant eage r t o
S how his p rowess obtain s Ga l ahad s re l uctan t per
m ission t o t ravel this peri l o u s path an d so they part
Soon th e youth com e s t o a fair m eadow where he
espies a shady bower and a rich ban qu et spread
upon the grass and n ear by lyin g on a thron e of
boughs a crown o f g old T he n ovi ce da zz led by
th e sp l en do u r of the j e w el sei z es it an d rides o ff
bu t scarcely is he ou t o f sight when two knight s
,

T he

Q ue s t

f t h e H o ly G raa l

65

who are the owners o f the t reasu re pu rsue hi m an d

give him batt l e The novice is worsted l eft o n the
eld apparently dead an d m ight have perished had
n ot Galahad at that m o m ent come t o his s u ccou r
van qu ished his assailants and carried the wo u nded
man o ff t o a neighbou ring c onvent The h oly her
m it who there u n de rt akes t o cu re him of his wo u nd s
admi nisters at the sam e t im e s om e who l esom e ad

I m e rv ail e
vice
said the good m an h ow ye
d u rst take up on you s o rich a th in g as the high order
o f knighth ood w ith ou t cleane con fe s s ion ; an d that
was th e cau s e yee were s o bitterly wo u n ded
He
the n p roceeds t o exp l ain the mystery of th e two
roads
The way on the right han d be t o kn e t h the
h ie w ay of o ur L ord J e s u Christ an d th e way of a t ru e
and good l iver and the other way be t o kn e t h the way
of sin n ers an d m isbe l e e v e rs
and p rid e is the
head of all deadly s in n e s that caused yo u to depart
s ir Galahad and where thou tookest th e c ro w n e o f
gold tho u sin n ed i n cove t e o u s n e s s e and in theft an d

these were n o kn ights deeds

L eavin g his comp an ion to the care an d blu n t re
proofs o f the h oly m an Galahad proceeds on the
Q uest a l on e an d m eets with m any an d st range ad
ve ntu res At on e t im e he com es to a s tron g cast l e

s t rongly guarded
called the Castle o f Maiden s
As he approaches it bent on destroyin g the wicked
,

T he

2 66

A rt h u rian

E pi c

c ustom s o f the place he is attacked by seven armed

kn ights at once But he overthrows them single
han ded an d s o en ters the fortress u n opposed A
st ran ge sight n ow m eets his eyes The cou rt o f the
castle is lled with a m ultit u d e o f p eople and the
d u ngeons crowded with captives who hail hi m as
thei r deliverer an d wh om he releases from t h ral
dom
We h ave n oti ced this adven t u re s imply beca u se it
is allegorical o f th e m edi aeval legen d known as the

H arrowin g o f H el l
The castle o f Maidens
says a herm it wh o is int rod u ce d here as elsewh ere
t o explai n the allegory
be t o ke n e t h the good
sou l es that were i n p rison afore th e incarnation of
Christ ; an d the s e av e n knights betoken the s e av e n
deadly sin n es which reigned that t im e i n the world
An d I may liken the good knight s ir Galahad u nto
the sonn e o f th e high father that
brou ght

all the so ules o u t o f t h ral d o me

I n this p art o f the roman ce althou gh the alle gory is
neve r dropped fo r a n y length o f time yet w e occa
s i o n al l y m e et with a plain matter o f fact adventu r e
which forms a kind o f link between the roman ce
proper and the all e gory Thu s : shortl y a ft e r the
preceding adventu re Sir Galahad m eets Sir L an celot
and Sir Percival the t w o most f am ou s knights o f the
Rou nd Table but th e y failing t o reco gnise the
,

W
Iv

T he A rt h u ri an E pi c

2 68

c u lt t o see where t he reality end s an d the d ream l and

begins I ndeed so perfect is the ill u sion that i n
readi ng the Romance o f the Qu est for the rst time
on e often fails to recognise the t ransition from real
adventu re to dream advent ure u ntil by some acci
d ent the knight is awakened from his d ream and the
whole scen e van ishes i nt o air What increases the
il l usion stil l m ore i s the allegorical nat u re of these
d ay dream s o r phantom adventu res ; for dream s
though they be they form an essentia l p art of the
ta l e they have a d irect bearing on the character of
th e kn ights an d possess as subtle an d spi ritua l a
m ean ing as any other p ortion of the legend
As Sir Bors is riding
L e t u s take an example
th rough the cou ntry he overtakes a man clothed in
a religiou s habit and mou nted on a strong black
horse A S they are going in the same d irection the y
j oin company an d soon knight an d monk becom e
absorbed in an all engrossing conversation
At
length they come t o a castle with a high towe r an d
the monk invites Sir Bors to enter Wearied with
the day s j o urney he accepts the pro ff ered hospi
tality and on entering nds there a brilliant assem
blage o f kni ghts and fair ladies who give him a
hearty welcom e an d assist him t o u narm Presently
knowing that he is hu ngry they make him such
cheer that he forget s all his s o r rows and angu ish
.

Q ue s t

T he

t he

of

H o l y G raa l

2 69

an d obliviou s of all besides aband on s hi mself to

the delights an d dainties p l aced before him Whi l e
th us engaged the lady of the cast l e app roache s
more riche r be s e e n e then ever he s aw q u een e

G u in e v e r and by her he is treated with all the co n

s iderati on which pertains to a knight o f the Rou nd
Table
Bu t d u ring the evening this l ady makes
s uch vio l ent love to Sir B ors that at last the knight

was right e vill at ease and wishes himse l f well

away
Finally seeing that all her m ore d elicate
man oe uvres are lost upon t he stu rdy knight s h e te ll s
hi m point blank : Ah s ir Bors
I have
loved you for the great be aut ie I have seen i n yo u
and the great h ard i n e s s e I have heard o f y o u the re
fore I pray you grau nt it m ee [his
B u t Si r
Bors whose s oul is wrapped u p in the Qu est of the
Sangraal co u rteo usly exc u ses himself Therewith
wou nded i n pride S he leaves the company goes up
into a high battlement taking wit h h er her twe l ve
gentlewome n an d when they reach the s u m mit o f
the tower one o f the lad ies cries : Ah ! sir Bors
gent l e kni ght have me rcy on u s al l and su ff er my
l ady t o have her will an d i f yee d oe not wee m u st
su ffer death with o u r lady fo r to fal l d own e from

th is high tower
Sir Bors raises his eye s to the
battlement and there sees these gentlewomen on the
point o f being dashed to the gro u nd
H e pities
,

'

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

0
7

them bu t is inexorable and the next moment they

are hu rled from the tower an d fa ll to the earth dead
Filled with horror at su ch a dee d the knight makes
the sign of the cross o n his forehead when instan tly
he heard a fu ll great moyse an d a great crie as
though all the fe e n d s o f hell had beene about hi m
an d therewith he s aw neither tower nor lady nor
gentlewom en
Then h e heard a cl o cke sm ite
on his right han d an d thither hee came t o an abbey
on h is right han d closed with hi gh walls an d there

h e e was let i n
This is evidently a day dream or phantom ad v e n
t u re w hich has n o existence outside the brain o f the
knight At the same ti m e it is an al l egory as the
write r himself expou nds it o f the temptation s o f

the world the esh and the devil which a saintly

knight must overcome i f he would attain to the
commu nion o f the Sangraal an d hence essentia l to
the u nfold ing of the character o f the tru e Christian
knight and to the u n it y of the story
O n a similar occasion when Sir Perciva l is
grievously t empted the fi na l e is m ore striking y e t
The knight had been wan dering three whole days
withou t food o r rest his whole being absorbed in
the sanct ities o f the Quest ; ever toiling ghting
striving t o aid the right and p u nish wrong when he
nds himse l f i n a rich pavilion su rrou n ded by a l l
,

8W

T he

2
7

A rt h u ri an E pi c

noticed have bu t one en d or aim viz : to S how in

the clearest p ossible light the Catholi c doctrine of
J us tication
I n the previous s ection we had an al l egory of P r e
ve n t i ng Gr ace ; the appearance o f the Graal i n the
ban qu et hall being an image o f the d i vine Ca l l t o
Sa l va t i on ; the eager start on the Q u est being an
emblem o f the feverish thirst in the heart of m an for
Eterna l L ife an d m an s Fr e e
i l l being m irrored
forth i n the start ing o f a hu ndred an d fty knights
while only three attain the obj ect o f the Qu est
I n this secon d d ivis i p n of the romance u nd er a
complexity of adventu res lies hidden the d octrine o f
I n every case the knights are requ ired to
P e na nce
evince tru e contrition t o con fess an d to seek abso
l ut io n as a p r e requ isite t o su ccess and to make
satisfact ion as a condition no less necessary Then
the cu re of the so u l is attend ed t o Chas tity an d
al l Christian virtu es are he l d forth as essential
and advent u re is cu m u lated upon adventu re on ly t o
bring out in stron g relief th e n ecessit y o f s an ct ica
tio n an d good works that m an throu gh the in nite
s atisfaction o f the Cross may becom e really j ust in
the sight o f God
This section s o distinctly marked in the romance
as one most i mportant stage i n the Q uest of
Salvation h as scarcel y any cou nt erpart i n Tenny
.

Q ue st

T he

of

t he

H o l y G raal

73

son s I d y ll The reason o f this is readily seen

Tennyson either failed to recognise o r i ntention ally
ign ore d the spiritua l m eaning u nd erl ying the ro
mance and hence it wou ld have been super u ou s
to reprod u ce advent u res essential only to the per
The Q u est of the Sangraal
fe ct io n o f the allegory
i n Walter Map s hands is n ot only the cu l mi nat ion
of all p reviou s knightly advent u res it is a re e c
tion of the highest spiritual aspirat ions of man and
m ortal con ict with the powers of dark
o f his
ness I t is impossible however to read the I dyll of
the H oly Gr a i l withou t feeling that Tennyso n m ust
have viewed the romance simply as a quaint m edi a:
val conceit without any organic connection with the
rest o f the epic an appendage so t o speak an d i n
s e rt e d becau se
for som e inexpl icable reason the
kn ights o f the Rou nd Table gu re in it I n t he
I d y ll the H oly Gra a l itself is little more than a
poetic will o the wisp I n the openin g o f the poem
th e King asks Si r Percival

JI A

Wh t g
a

H av e

e
y

i n to

s e e n a cl oud
w ild e rn e ss to s e e

the

e
y

and h e t ell s th e kn ights that the

C h an c e

of n ob l e d e e ds w ill co m e an d go
U n ch all e n ge d w hil e y e f ol l ow w a nde r i ng r es
L4
L os t i n th e quag mi r e
M
M
,

aw

fi h

T he

74

A rt h uri an E pi c

Tru e to this view o f the tale Tennyson has left

u n notice d the phantom a d ventu res in the romance
an d has supplie d their places with creations of his
own We shall now s e e whether h e h as improve d
upon the st ory
,

then beh o l d a w o man at a d oor

S pinnin g an d fair the h o u s e w h e r e by s h e sat
A n d k i n d t h e w o man s eye s an d inno c e nt
A n d al l h e r be arin g gra c io u s
an d s h e ro s e
O pe nin g h e r arms to me et me as w h o s h o ul d say
R est here bu t w h e n I t o u ch d h e r 10 s h e t o o
F e l l into d u st an d not h in g an d t h e h ou s e
B e c am e no b e tt e r th an a b rok e n sh e d
A n d i n it a d e ad b ab e
an d al so t h is
F e l l into d u st an d I w as l e ft al on e
An d

ro d e on an d fo u n d a m i gh ty h i l l
t h e spi re s
A n d o n t h e t op a city w al l d
P ric kd w ith inc re d ib l e pi n n a c l es i n to h e av e n
an d t h e s e
A n d by t h e gat e w ay s t i rr d a c row d
C r i e d to m e c l i mbin g W el co me P e rc i v al e
T h ou m i gh ti e st an d th ou pure st amon g m e n
A n d gl ad w as I an d c l o mb bu t fo un d at t op
N o m an n o r any v oic e A n d th e n c e I past
Far t h ro a ru ino u s c ity an d I s aw
T h at m an h ad on c e d w e l t th e r e bu t th ere I fou nd
O n l y o n e m an o f an e xc e e d in g age
W h e re i s th at goo d l y company sai d I
T h at s o c ri e d o u t upon m e P an d h e h ad
S carc e an y v oice t o ans w e r an d ye t gasp d

An d I

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

6
7

a s l e n d e r m ai d en al l my h e art
W e nt a ft e r h e r w ith l on gin g ye t w e tw ain
H ad n e v e r ki s s d a k iss o r vo w d a vow
A n d n ow I c am e u pon h e r onc e a gain
A n d o n e h ad w e d d e d h e r an d h e w a s d e a d
A n d al l h i s l an d an d w e al t h an d st at e w e re h e rs
A n d w h i l e I ta rr i e d e v e ry d ay s h e s e t
A ban q u et r ic h e r th an t h e d ay b e fore
B y me fo r all h e r l on gin g an d h e r w i l l
a s to w ar d m e as o f ol d
ti ll o n e f air morn
I w al k in g to an d fro b e si d e a stre am
T h at ash d a c ross h e r orch ard u n d e rn e ath
H e r c astl e w al l s s h e sto l e u pon my w al k
A n d c all in g m e t h e gr e atest o f al l k ni gh ts
E mb rac e d me an d 5 6 ki s s d me t h e fi rst ti me
A n d gav e h e rse l f an d al l h e r w e al t h to m e
T h e n I re me mb e r d Arth u r s w arnin g w or d
T h at most o f u s w ou l d fo l l ow w an d e ri n g re s
A n d t h e Q u est f a d e d i n m y h e a rt
An d

sh e

brot h e r bu t o n e ni gh t my vow
B u rn t m e w ith in so th at I ros e an d e d
Bu t w ail d an d w e pt an d h at e d m in e o w n s e l f

A n d e v n t h e H o l y Q u e st an d al l bu t h e r
0 m e , my

H ere there is no temptatio n t o s i n f I t is simply

a com monplace a d vent u re charmin gly tol d that
mi ght o r mi ght not e n d in Perci v al s aban d onin g
the Qu est Bu t in the romance it is a weird an d
terrible tem ptat ion showin g the p o w er o f t h e princ e
,

I ,

T he

Q ue s t

f t he H oly

G raal

27

of d arkness an d the sti l l m i ghtie r p owe r of Faith in

vanquishin g his wiles a n d pro d u cin g chastity an d all
d
oo
works
g
O r a gai n compare the so u l lullin g expressions o f
Tennyson s velvet mouthe d hermit who alm ost sin g s
the penitent to sleep with the bu rn in g word s o f
Map s outspoken herm its Ten nyson s twelfth cen
tu ry con fessor exclaim s
,

Oh
T he

t h o u h ast not t rue h u mi l ity

h i gh e st v i rt ue mo t h e r o f t h e m al l
so n,

T h ou h ast n o t l ost thys e l f to sav e t hys l f

As

G al a h a d
.

What a m arke d contrast is this t o t h e stern reproof

wh ich Map s i d eal herm it a d m in isters to Sir Lance
lot :

Se e ke it [H oly Graal ] ye may

says the hermit
bu t thou gh it were here ye shall have n o power to
see it n o m ore than a blin d man shou l d see a bri ght

sword an d all throu gh you r sinne

Shortly after his recovery from th e e ffects of ap
ro ach in
d
the
Saint
Graal
u
nbi
en
in
the
castle
o
f
d
p
g
C arbo n e ck Sir Lancelot bemoans his fate as a qu est
i ng kni ght :
When I sou ght worl d ly a d ventu res
an d
worl d ly d esires he si ghs
I ever
an d n ever was
achieve d them
I d i s co m

T he

8
7

A rt h u ri an E pi c

t e d

i n no q uare l
m ee the a d ventu res of
u nd e r s t a nd i nn !

and

now

I take upon

h o l y t h i n gs

s e e a nd

mi ne ol d s i nne ki nd r e zn me e

Then hee d eparte d

i nto a w ild forrest
so by prime
he fou n d an herm ita ge
an herm it e therin which was g oin g to masse
So w he n mas s e w as d one

mit e

ki rn

a nd

r a ie d

s ir

h im

L a u nce l ot

ca l /e d

e /za r i t i e

i lze

an d
,

an d

ne r

ne r e or:

confe s s ion
; a n d when the kni ght h ad con fesse d
the hermit tells him :
For you r p resumption t o
take u pon y o u i n d ea d ly sin ne for t o be e in h is
presence where his e sh a n d his bloo d was that
cau se d you yee m i ght not see it [the H oly Graal ]
with you r worl d ly eye Fo r h e will n o t appe e re
A n d there is n o
where su ch sinn ers bee
kni ght livi n g that ou ght for t o give u nto G o d s o
r
reat
thanks
as
yee
hee
hath
iven
u
nto
you
f
o
;
g
g
be au t ie s e e me l in e ss e an d great stren gth above all
othe r kni ghts a n d therefore yee are the m ore be
hol d in g u nto G o d than any other man t o love and to
d rea d him fo r you r st ren gth and m anhoo d will little
Ens ur e
availe yo u an d G o d be against you
to

or

to

mee

Ma t y e e

w il l

me i n t h a t gne e ne s f e l l ow s /zip

n e ve r co

then sir Lau ncelot prom ise d the herm it

by h is faith that hee woul d n o more com e in her com
pany
L o o ke that yo u r heart an d you r m outh a c
cor d
sai d the goo d man H e the n procee d s t o tell
A nd

A rt h u rian E pic

T he

2 80

when a gentlewoman (w h o proves to be Percival s

saintly sister ) comes there kn ocks at the d oor an d
t ells the hermit that s h e m ust see Galaha d When
the kni ght appears s h e bi d s him arm hi mself at
on ce an d follow her
I wil shew you
she ex
plains
within these three d ayes the h ie s t a d ventu re
that ever any kn i ght s aw
Galaha d accord in gly
starts with the mai d en in the d ea d o f n i ght o n this
mysteriou s j ou rn ey an d they t ravel to gether stop
p in g only at o n e castle t o rest till they reach the
sea shore H ere they n d a ship awaitin g them
whe rein are Perci v al an d Bors who warmly welcom e
their lon g lost companion
N o soon er are they all
safely on boar d than the ship moves slowly from the
lan d an d bears them away T h e next mornin g by
d awn they com e into a narrow g u lf with high pre
cipi t o u s rocks on either si d e an d as the d arkness
clears away they s e e another ship which gra d ually
n ears them an d at len gth com es alon gsi d e At the
s uggestion o f the holy Mai d they all leave th e ves
sel they are o n a n d pass t o the o n e which has s o
mysteriously neare d them A s they ente r they s e e
n o livin g bein g o n boar d bu t a warn in g inscription
catches their eye Thou man which shall enter into
this ship bewar e thou be i n stea d fast be e l ie fe fo r I

am faith
On lookin g arou n d they n d the ship
ri chl y furn ishe d an d stan d in g i n the mi d st they s e e

T he

Q ue st

G raal

f t h e H o ly

28 1

o f cu ri ous workmanship hu n g wit h rich silks

an d on the be d a crown an d by the crown a swor d
half d rawn from its sheath Then at the bi dd in g of
the mai d e n Galaha d takes the sword bu t can not
wear it for stran ge to s ay it has n o gird le Bu t the
holy Mai d comes to his assistan ce She has a cas
ket which s h e n ow opens an d takes therefrom a
d
d
ir
d
le
of
her
own
hair
wrou
ht
with
ol
threa
s
g
g
g
This s h e faste ns t o
an d s e t with preciou s stones
the swor d and bin d s about the waist of Sir Galaha d
This bein g d one they l eave the ship and pass back
to th e on e which h ad brou ght them thither
N othin g o f m om en t henceforth occu rs till the
ship nears lan d an d the three kni ghts and thei r fair
compan ion leave the ship Then a stran ge ad v e n
tu re be falls them As they pass a certai n cas tle
they are stoppe d by a kni ght who d eman d s thei r
observance of a st ran g e cust om H e i n form s th e
kni ghts that there is a sick la d y in the castle who can
be heale d only by bein g anoin te d with the bloo d
of the virgin d au ghter o f a kin g ; an d hen ce this
tax o f bloo d is d eman d e d of every mai d en who passes
the castle The d eman d is in d i gnantly refuse d by
Percival an d h is companions an d a erce battle
takes place i n which the three Rou n d Table kn i ghts
by the ir superh u man valou r overcome n u merou s
ban d s o f kni ghts that s u ccessively attack them O nly
be d

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

282

when n i ght approaches d oes t h e sla u ghter cease for

Galaha d is d etermine d t o root out this nest of
recreant barons The n ext m ornin g however the
holy Mai d d eaf t o all r e m onstrances resolve s t o
i
v
e
her
life
s
bloo
d
f
o r the healin
th
e
sick
la
y
o
f
d
g
g
a n d accor d in gly s u bm its t o the operation
Bu t the
sacri fi ce p roves fatal Tim e a n d a gain s h e swoons
while bein g ble d an d ere th e wo u n d can be stau nche d
it is evi d ent that d eath i s u pon her Before she d ies
s h e assu res the t hree kni ghts that as soon as they
be come t o the city o f Sarras to achieve the H oly
Graa l they w ill n d her al rea d y there awaitin g them
Then s h e asks fo r her Sa v io u r an d when s h e has
receive d H im s h e d ies in the arms o f her brother
Percival I n accor d an ce with her d yin g requ est she
is borne to the water s e d g e ; t h ere lai d i n a barge
cover e d with black si lk an d t h e barge is allowe d t o
d rift away across the oo d th e kni ghts w atchi n g it
i n silent sorrow till it d isappears from v iew
Sir Lancelot w h o is n ot pres e nt while these events
are happenin g n o w appears upon the scene H e is
stan d in g o n the s e a shore alon e when h e sees a ship
w itho u t sail o r oar app roachin g him an d is tol d by
a mysterio u s v oic e to e nter t h e v esse l which h e d oes
A n d when hee awoke he
a n d lies d own t o sle e p
fou n d there a faire b e d an d thereon lyin g a gentle

woman d ea d the which was si r Percivals sister

,

T he

2 84

A rt h uri an

E pi c

lions he d raws his swor d i n self d efence but bein g

chi d e d fo r his want o f faith by a v oic e from heaven
he ret u rns it to its sheath The lion s m ake a feint
as tho u gh they wo u l d tear him bu t he fears them
them u nh u rt
As he enters the
not
an d passes
fortress a stran ge si ght presents itse l f The cast le
d
o f banq u et hall
ates
stan
wi
e
open
the
oors
d
d
;
g
an d arm ou ry are open
the d oors of all the chamb e rs
stan d op en H e ascen d s the gran d stairway bu t go
where he will the castle see ms tenantless an d d e
se t te d thou gh f u rn is h e d with all the magn i cenc e o f
a p alace At len gth h e com es to a chamber the
H e attempts t o op e n it
d oo r o f which is close d
H e listens a n d
bu t it resists h is stron gest e fforts
hears a voice within sin gin g s o sweetly t h at it seems
n o earthly voice Convinc e d that the H oly Graal
m u st be there he kneels d own an d i n all hum ility
prays that he may be grante d a vision of the sacre d
With that the chamber d oor ies o pe n an d
V essel
instantly a d azzlin g li ght perva d es the whole castle
bri ghter than i f all the t orches of the worl d h ad

beene there
H e is abou t to enter bu t is warne d
t o keep aloof H e looks in an d there sees an altar
o f silver
a n d u pon the altar the San graal cove r e d
M any an gels are rou n d abou t it
w i t h r e d s a mi t e
on e o f w hom hol d s a gol d en can d lestick with a
bu rn in g taper an d another a cr u cix
Befor e
-

Q ue s t

T he

of

t he

H o l y G raal

285

the altar stan d s a pri e st as tho u gh sacrin g the mass

it seem e d u nto si r Lau nce
a n d while s o d oin g
l ot that above the p ri est s han d s there were thre e
persons whereo f the t w o p ut the yo u n gest (by like
nesse ) be t w e e n e the p riests han d s an d s o hee li ft

it up on hi gh
Then at that m oment it seems t o
Si r Lan celot that the holy m an overpowere d by
what he hol d s in his han d s will fall to the earth
The kni ght involu ntarily crosses th e portal of the
chamber to support the fallin g priest an d is abou t
to approach the altar when he is sm itten by a e ry
blast which fells him to the gro u n d O n the m orrow
the in mates o f the castle n d Sir Lan celot lyin g be
fore the chamber d oor as he h ad fallen an d bear him
m ore d ea d than alive t o a room an d there place
hi m on a rich be d For twenty fou r d ays he lies i n
a critical state bu t at len gth he revives a n d as he
O pens h is
eyes as k m o u rn fully why they have
arou se d him from the rapt u re of h is t ran ce A s
soon as he is wholly recovere d he takes his lea v e o f
the lor d o f the castle an d knowin g well that the
Q u est is n ot for him retu rns t o Camelot t o Kin g
Arthu r s Cou rt an d to Gu inevere the false star o f
his bli ghte d life
I n this section the alle go ry is excee d in gly beauti
ful there is the ship which receives the kn i ghts a n d
the holy mai d en evi d ently an ima ge of H ol y Chu rch
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 86

which p rotects her chil d ren from th e perils an d d an

gers an d storm s of the worl d There is the ship of
Faith t o which they can go when I n d e lity on the
o n e han d a n d H eresy on th e other like gian t rocks
which impotently threaten heaven itsel f menace
their d estru ct ion an d the shipwreck o f their faith
Then there is the alle gory of Martyrd om where the
worl d i s s e t forth as a sick la d y for whose healin g is
A n d lastly
requ ire d the bloo d o f the martyrs
there is Lan celot the i ma ge o f the brave n oble
too weak in faith t o
s i n staine d man o f the worl d
attain t o comm u n ion wi th the T r u e Bloo d prou d ly
tr u st in g in h is own stren gth want in g i n tru e h u m il
ity an d s o failin g in the heavenly Qu est
T o show what T en nyson m i ght have d one i f on ly
his p oeti c vision h ad taken in th e ful l gran d e u r o f
this romance we will n ow t u rn t o the p oet s ren der
i n g o f the last scene i n Lan celot s q u est o f which
we have j ust given the prose analysis
.

an d

fo l ly t o

th e n I

me

ca

n ak e d s h o r e
W i d e ats w h e re n oth i n g bu t c o a rs e grass e s
Bu t s u ch a b l ast my K in g b e gan to b l o w
So l o u d a bl ast al on g t h e s h o re an d s e a
Y e c o u l d n o t h e a r t h e w at e rs fo r t h e bl ast
T h o h e apt i n m o u n d s an d r i d ge s all t h e s e a
D ro v e l i k e a c at arac t an d al l t h e s an d
S w e pt l i k e a ri v e r an d t h e c l o ud e d h e av e n s
A l l i n my

th e

re w

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

288

sweet voic e si n gi n g in t h e topmost tow e r

u p I c l i mb d a t h o u s an d s t e ps
T o t h e e astw ard
W ith pain as in a d re am I s e e m d t o c l i mb
Fo r e v e r at t h e l ast I r e ac h d a d oo r
A l i gh t w as in t h e c ranni e s an d I h e ard
G l o ry an d j o y an d h ono u r t o o u r L o r d
A n d t o t h e H o l y V e ss e l o f t h e G rai l
T h e n in my mad n e ss I e ss ay d t h e d oo r
I t gav e an d th ro a sto rmy gl are a h e at
A s f ro m a s e ve n t im e s h e at e d fu rnac e I
B l ast e d an d b urnt an d b l in d e d as I w as
W ith su c h a e rc e n e s s t h at I s w oon d aw ay
O ye t m e th o ugh t I s aw t h e H ol y G rai l
A ll pal l d in c ri mson sam it e an d arou n d
G re at a n ge l s aw f u l s h ape s an d w i n gs an d e ye s
A

A nd ha t

or all

my madness

and

my

s i n,

A nd th e n my sw oon i ng , I h a d s w or n I s aw
ha t w h a t I sa w w as vei l d
Th at w h i ch I s aw

A nd

cooe r

a nd

th i s

Q uest

w as

not

or

me
.

N o d escription coul d be n er than this ; and the

only tho u gh fatal d rawback t o the passa ge is
that it stan d s alon e I t is exqu isitely beautiful
bu t i n Tennyson s I d yll it is o u t of place I t is a
solitary ge m w renche d from its settin g i n a royal
d ia d em
We n ow come t o the last secti on
After the d epart u re of Sir Lan celot for the Cou rt
Galaha d Percival an d Bors come t o the castle o f
Carbo n e ck an d while there have a vision of the San
,

Q ue s t

T he

f t h e H o ly

G r aal

28

raal
similar
t
o
that
which
as grante d t o Lan celot
w
g
n ot lon g before in the sel fsame castle
We may ima gine the same scene the silver altar
the holy V essel a n d the an gels B ut n ow it is a
Bishop who performs th e sacre d f u n ction an d as he
raises the consecrate d wafer a gu re i n likeness o f a
Chil d with the visage as bri ght as any re smites
H imself into the brea d a n d the brea d becom e s a
The wafer is then place d in the San
e s h l y Man
raal
t
b
u
s t i l l t h e h oly Ve ss e l is n ot r e vea l e d t o t h e m
g
At the
a n d the Bishop van ishes from their mi d st
sam e m oment t h e for m of a M a n appe a rs before t he m
,

as

fr om t h

r is i ng

t h oug h

s a cr e d

Ve ss e l w i t h
,

e s us Ch r is t
y
f

a ss ion o

the

a nd

al l

t he

h im

r e ve a l s

p
f
i
My kni ghts an d my servants and
s e lf t o t h e m
my tr u e chil d ren w hich be come o u t of d ea d ly life
into spirit ual l ife I will now n o lon ger hi d e mee
from y o u
recei v e the hye meat which yee
have s o m u ch d esire d
Then tooke hee h ims e l fe
the holy vessell an d came to s i r Galaha d an d hee
kneele d d owne a n d there hee r e ceive d his Savi ou r ;
a n d s o after him receive d all his fe l o w e s
Then hee sai d Galahad sonne w o t e s t tho u what I
hol d between my han d s
This is the holy
A n d now
d ish wherein I e at e the lambe
s

s o
n
g

h as t t h ou

s ee ne

has t t h ou

not

t ha t t hou

s ce ne

it

d es ir e s t mos t t o

s o o e n ly a s

t h ou

see ,

s ha l t

bu t y e t

see

it

in

Nov}

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2 90

the cit ie o f Sarras in the s piri t u al l place Therefore

thou m ust go e hence an d beare with the this holy
o e yee three t o m orro w u nto the
vessell
g
s e a where as yee shall n d you r ship rea d y
a n d n o m ore
with you but s ir Percivale an d s ir
Bors
Then gave hee the m his blessin g a n d van

is h e d away
Accor d in gly o n the m orrow they
j ou rney to the s e a an d there n d the ship a n d i n
the m i d st of it the altar o f silver and the San graal

The voyag e to
hut s t il
cove r e d w i t h r e d s a mi t e
Sarras is soon accomplishe d O n arrivin g they s e e
the barge which enshri nes the holy mai d en Sir Pe r
She h ad ma d e goo d her d yin g
cival s saintly sister
promise an d was there awaitin g them They then
take the altar an d the sacre d V essel ou t o f the ship
an d bear them i nt o the city ; a n d the bo d y of the
mai d e n they bu ry as richly as a kin g s d au ghter
ou ght to be
At the e n d of a year the three
kni ghts repai r to the palace where the San graal h ad
been enthrone d a new covenant in an ark of gol d
i n an inner sanctuary
h il e t he r e t h e mys t e ry
.

t he

H oly Gr aa l is

a nd

ful ly

r e ve a l e d

ly
Ga l ah a d an d in trembli n g accents he prays that
n ow h e m ay d epart in peace H avin g taken an
a ffecti onate farewell o f Percival an d Bors su d d enly
f

na l

to

h is

s ou l

v ie w o

d epa r t s , hor ne hy

h is t w o

a ng e l s

mpa nions ,

co

w hil e

to
a

H ea ve n, i n

ful l

mys t ic h a nd hears

T he

2
9

A rt h u ri an E pi c

commu nion o f the Tr u e Bloo d an d relapses in to

lifelon g rem orse ; while G aw ain e a n d others soon
row
weary
o f shrift a n d penance an d retu rn to a
g
life o f self a n d s i n
When we remember that Walter Map was a man
o f exq u isite aesthetic taste a workman of co n s u m
mat e genius who while labou rin g t o instru ct in the
d eepest mysteries of Christian ity st ill looke d to the
art istic n ish of his romances it is n o won d er that
his work is a marvel o f perfection both in u nity o f
d esi gn an d beauty o f execut ion o r t h at it has live d
fo r seve n hu n d re d years a n d is to d ay as d eeply
appreciate d by every lover o f t rue literatu re as it
was i n the twelfth centu ry
The epi c is national property We cannot think
that the poet h ad the ri ght to take any part of this
ancient p ossession of En glan d which h ad en d eare d
itsel f t o the national m in d by cen tu ries of existence
and
presen t it t o the present gen eration i n the
shattere d form in which he has repro d uce d the
spirituali s e d roman ce o f the Ques t e d e l Sa i nt Gr a a l
,

IX

C HAPT E R

K i ng A rt h u r

N a previo u s chapter we trac e d t h e Arth u rian epic

th ro u gh the three d istin ctiv e ly marke d versions

of the story the Cambrian the Breton an d the
An glo N orman t h e last name d formin g as we saw
a contin u ou s tale of marvellou s epic power ; an d we
th u s t raverse d the whole el d o f Arthu rian Rom ance
from the sixth cent u ry d own t o the t im e of Si r
Thomas Malory I n present in g the An glo N orman
version we gave a r es u me o f the t w e l ft h an d thirteenth
centu ry roman ces with t h e in ci d ents arra n ge d as far
as possible i n chron olo gical or d er I n that stu d y we
nec e ssari l y t ou che d u po n the lea d in g events in the
life o f Kin g Arth u r ; a n d all that we p ropose t o d o in
the p resent chapte r is to examin e m ore closely the
on l y two points in his career which Tennyso n repro
d u ce d in his I dy l l s of t h e Ki ng viz
t he Comi ng an d
the P a ss i ng o f Arth u r ; a n d we shal l then close with
a comparative stu d y of the Arthu r of the romances
a n d the Arthu r o f the I d ylls ; the h ero o f Walter
M ap an d the hero o f Tennyson
,

2 93

T he

2 94

A rt h u r i a n

E pi c

With the hi st or ic Arth u r we h ave n o concern at

present The cycle o f rom antic ction si mply a d opts
Arth u r s n ame a n d repro d u ces the d i m tra d itions of
his story as a s keleton t o be clothe d with the esh
a n d bloo d o f kn i gh tly life wearin
the
costu
m
e
o
f
g
the Planta genet Cou rt a n d a d orne d with the i d eal
races
o
f
chivalry
g
As we have alrea d y seen the epic cycl u s o f Walter
Map opens with the history o f that mystic vessel the
e rst hear of it at the instit u tion of
H oly Graal
the H oly E u charist i n t h e u pp e r chamber at Je ru s a
lem wh e n it is intro d u ce d in the Roma n d a Sa i nt
Gr a a l as the cu p o r d ish u se d by o u r L or d at the last
atherin
of
the
Ap
ostolic
fello
ship
p
revi
ou
s
the
w
t
o
g
g
Cr u cixion Shortly after we n d it i n the posses
sion o f J oseph o f Arimathea an d u se d by him as a
r e ceptacle for the sacre d bloo d which owe d from the
w o u n d s o f o u r Saviou r d u r i n g the d escen t from the
Cross While in the keep in g of J oseph we n d i t
s u pportin g m iracu lously that apostolic kni ght when
cast i nto prison an d k e epin g him ins e nsible to the
pan gs o f h un ger an d thirst Upon his release we
fo l low him o n h is j o u rney int o Britain ever g uar d in g
that V essel as a sacre d t r u st O n his arrival we s e e
it caref u lly hi d d en away am on g t h e re galia in the

treasu ry o f the Fish e rman Kin g

We catch si ght
o f it n o w an d a gain as it appears o n i t s m irac u lou s
.

A rt hu ri an

T he

2 96

E pi c

boar The scen e chan ges ; th e g reat Uther is d yin g ;

the nobles stan d aro u n d his d eath be d ; Me rlin o n a
su d d en stan d s am on g them and re gar d less o f Cou rt

etiquette abruptly asks :

Sir shall yo u r sonne
Arthu r bee kin g after yo u r d ayes of this re al me
with all the app u rt e nan ces ?
The d yin g kin g

repli e s with solemn bre v ity :

I g ive h i m Go d s
blessin g an d mine an d bid him pray fo r my soule ;
a n d ri hte ously
n
u
i
e
worship
f
lly
that
h
e
a
d
l
a
m
c
g
the cro w n e upon forfeit u re o f my blessin g
A nd

therewith hee yiel d e d u p the ghost

The n obles
hear the stern com man d o i their soverei gn They
learn n ow if they n e v e r knew it b e fore that the
d yin g kin g has a son an d that that s o n is to su ccee d
him o n the throne o f Britain This accomplishe d
th e Co u rt proph e t vanishes to p u t his p l an into
ex e cut ion
I t i s n ot enou gh for M erlin simply to brin g the
yo u th forward as the ri ght f u l heir an d cause h im t o
be crown e d Kin g This mi ght lea d to anarchy an d
?
A mysterious swor d fast in the bo d y o f an
w ar)
anvi l appears o n e S u n d ay i n the Cathe d ral chu rch
at Lon d on an d an inscription in gol d en letters t ells
that non e sa v e t h e l awf u l heir to the throne can d raw
it forth from its rest A tou rnam e nt is at once pro
claim e d The chivalry o f En glan d assembles t o essay
the ad vent u re an d Arthu r till then an u nk nown
.

K i ng A rt hu r

297

youth becom es the hero of the h ou r Eve ry kin g

who is p resent every kni ght who h as t aken part in
the a d ventu re sees the su ccessfu l compet ito r The
barons may refuse obe d ience but they cann ot d eny
that Arthu r alon e has accomplishe d the feat They
were present ; they saw i t ; they h ad all been chal
len ge d ; they h ad all accepte d the challen ge they h ad
all been d e feate d They may entert ain m u r d erou s
thou ghts so that a g u ard o f hon ou r has to be ap
pointe d to protect the life o f the youth bu t n ot one
of them d ares d eny that the hono u r is fairly won
I n si ght o f the assemble d chiefs the solem n co ron a
t ion service of the C h u rch is performe d th e crown is
place d u pon Art h u r s hea d by th e han d s o f th e holy
D ubrici u s the I e D e um i s chante d a n d the kn i ghtly
thron g d isperses
Some of the d isappointe d kin gs frown an d become
r e bels They vow bitt er war an d with d raw wrathfu l
a n d re v en e fu l to their own lan d s
But
act
as
t
hey
g
m ay there was not a kin g n o r a baron o f any note
i n En glan d but h ad see n the you n g Kin g ; or at least
knew from those who h ad see n him that Arthu r
h ad been proclaime d by the barons an d crowne d by
H oly Ch u rch as the ri ght f u l su cces sor of the mi ghty
Uther Pen d ra gon Accord in gly the barons i n the
romance d o n ot attempt t o d eny that Arthu r h as
been d u ly m a d e Kin g o f the realm y t h e y simply re
.

Ut h e

D
r

"

'

'

4 he

'

o in

yn

A rt huri an E pi c

T he

2 98

fuse

reco gnise the bear d less yo u t h as the ir so ve r

e ig n or as the heir o f s o d rea d e d a warrior as Uther
N o sooner have the n obles d eparte d t o their s e v
eral hom es than the treason which h ad been s mo u l
d erin g i n the breasts of som e few bu rsts fort h into
open rebellion Six o f the d iscontente d kin gs g ather
to gether thei r forces an d attack Arth u r in his fortress
at Caerleon I nstan tly M erlin is o n the gro u n d an d
con fronts the rebels They rej oice to s e e the great
Se e r an d ask Fo r what ca u se is that be ard l e s bo y

Arthu r m a d e yo u r kin g ?
Sirs sai d Merlin I
shall t e l l y o u the ca u s e Fo r he is kin g U t e rpe n
d ra g ons sonn e born e in w e d lock
an d w h o
soever s ai e t h n ay he sha l l be e kin g a n d overcom e
all his enemies a n d o r that he e d i e h e e sha l l be lon g
kin g o f all En glan d an d he shall ha v e u n d er his
I relan d an d Scotlan d an d many
o be y s an ce Wales

A parley is
m o e re al me s than I wil n o w re h e rs e
accor d in gly arran ge d between Arth u r an d his s u bj ect
tho u gh rebellio u s kin gs The yo u th is e scort e d by
M erlin an d the Archbishop o f Cant e rb u ry an d many
barons an d when they were m et to gether ther e w as
but littl e m e e ke n e s s e fo r there was stou t an d har d
word s o n both si d e s Bu t a l w ay e s kin g Arth u r an
s w e re d them a n d sai d he w o u l d make them t o bow

I n the batt le w hich ens u es the Kin g

a n d he li v e d
m akes goo d his wor d fo r he u tterly ro u ts th e m
to

T he

0
0
3

A rt hu ri an

E pi c

kin g U t h e rpe n d rago n was thy father an d be gat thee

on I graine
The Kin g d isplease d with the in t ru
Bu t a
sion ord ers the chil d t o leave the palace
chain o f anxio u s tho u ghts arises i n the Kin g s min d
Then there enters the
an d h e sits s ad a n d pensive

pavilion an o l d man o f f ou re score y e e re s o f age

an d en q u ires why the Kin g is so s ad an d d ej ecte d
Arth u r looks u p in s u rprise ; bu t seein g an a ge d man
stan d in g before h im he relates what the chil d h ad

Ye s
j u st before sai d
sai d that o l d m an
the
chil d t ol d y o u the t ruth an d more wo u l d hee have

tol d yo u an d you wou ld ha v e s u ffere d him

At
these wor d s the o l d man c h an ges t o Merlin an d the
Seer stan d s before the Kin g in his o w n person
I t seems that Arthu r h imself at t h is time i s har
asse d with d o u bts as t o h is real parenta ge fo r n o
soon e r has M erlin d isappeare d th a n h e i nq u ir e s o f
Sir H ector an d Sir U l as what they kn ow in refer
en ce t o h is lin ea ge They tell h im that Uther
5
1
+
P e n d ra gon was his fathe r an d ( q u e e n I graine his j 3
m other Even then n ot feeli n g thoro u ghly assu re d H
h e comman d s M erli n t o brin g the q u een into his
p resence a d d in g : I f shee s ay s o her s e lfe then will

I b e l e e v e it
I n al l haste the qu een is bro u ght an d
up on her arrival s h e asserts i n the presence o f Merlin
Sir H ector an d Si r Ul has
Merlin knoweth well
a n d y o u s ir U l as h o w k in g U ther
wed
.

Ki ng A rt h u r

1
0
3

me an d by his comman d ement w h en the chil d

was borne it was d eli v e re d to M erlin an d n ou rishe d
by him ; an d s o I saw the chil d n ever afte r nor wot
not what is his name fo r I never kn ew him yet
Then Merlin tooke the kin g by the han d
A n d t h e rw i t h s ir
sayin g This is yo u r mother
Ector bare w it n e ss e how he no u rishe d him by kin g
U t h e rs comman d ement an d therewith kin g Arthu r
tooke his m other qu eene I graine i n both his armes

a n d kisse d her a n d eithe r wept upon other

The repo rt of this public ackn o w le d gmen t o f
Arthu r as her s o n by q u een I gerna sprea d s far and
wi d e over the cou ntry an d henceforth n ot a sin gle
whisper o f d oubt is hear d as to his bein g the ri ght f u l
heir to the thron e the Kin g d e f a re as well as d e
fa ct o an d every breath of slan d er is hence fort h
d ispelle d
All d o u bts on this hea d bein g forever
set at rest an d Arthu r s soverei gnty bein g wi d ely
acknowle d ge d throu gh his brilliant victori es M erlin
is sent t o Came l i ard t o ask the han d of Gu ineve re
the beautif u l d a u ght e r o f L e o d e grau n ce i n mar
ded

Tll t
C

ria

e
g

Arth u r is n o lon ger a beard less youth n o l on ger

an u nt rie d kn i ght H is p rowess has been p rove d in
many a hard fou ght battle ; h e has force d h is ene
mies to lay d own thei r arms a n d d o hom ag e to him
as Kin g ; he is moreov e r th e ackn owle d ge d s o n o f
.

T he

2
0
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

Uther ; an d L e o d e g ra u n ce cheerfu lly an d u n h e s it a

t in gly compli e s
S uch in brief is the Comi ng of A r t h u r as tol d by
Walter Map
I t is generally u n d erstoo d that Tennyson s series
o f Arth u rian poem s was complete d when he wrote
the I d yll entitle d the Comi ng of A r t h ur p ro
fe s s e d ly as an intro d u ction t o the whole series a n d
we can therefore exam in e his work as a nishe d
whole
The rst point which strikes the rea d er of the
N orman romances as he opens Te nnyson s poem
is the stu d ie d silen ce o f the I d yll o n the subj ect
o f the H oly Graal
The m in or p oint of the parentage o f the Kin g
seems t o be the o n e point in the Comi ng of A r t h ur
that req u ires t o be ma d e clear This d one no other
i ntro d u ction is n ee d e d ; the Kin g s respectability is
establishe d in accord ance with n ineteenth cen tu ry
n otions an d he is hen ceforth a t person to be
presente d to socially o rtho d ox rea d ers The fact o f
the story bein g an epic o r o f th e H oly Graal form
i n g the point o f u nity i n this epic d oes not seem to
have e ntere d into the poet s conception of the story
Bu t this n ee d not su rprise u s since as we have
alrea d y seen Ten nyson s d esi gn was evi d ently to
paint a fe w g e ms as bou d oir a d orn m ents an d not a
,

T he

0
3 4

A r t h u ri an E pi c

su ccou r t o an u ntrie d an d alm ost u nknown youth

one wh o h ad d on e n o d ee d o f arms
I t is an in
consistency an d like many others d u e t o Tennyson
alone I n t he romance there is n o su ch in co ns ist
ency H ere Arthu r has alrea d y prove d himsel f a
m i ghty warrior on many a el d o f battle before
L e o d e grau n ce implores his assistance
I n the very
rst en gagement after his coronation Map tells u s
an d alway kin g Arthu r on horseback lai d on with
a swor d an d d id ma r ve l ous d e e d es of a r mes that
many of the kin gs h ad great j oy of his d e e d e s an d
h ard i n e s
an d kin g Arthu r w as in the for

m os t prees till his horse was s l ain e u n d er him

The
very pict u re this o f a warrior kni ght I n the famous
battle against the e l even con fe d erate kin gs who s ub
sequ ently d isp ut e d Arthu r s t itle to the throne the
Ki n g d istin gu ishe d himself above all his peers an d

kin g Arthur says the o l d roman cer in tru e Keltic

style
was s o bloo d y that by h is shiel d n o man
mi ght know him for all was bloo d an d brains on his

sword
So lon g a ti me d oes th e battle last an d
s u ch t errible execution d oes Arthu r perform with
the aid of his swor d Excalibu r that at len gth M er
lin appears su d d enly upon the scene i n tru e p ro
i
h
e
t
d
a
n
m
o
e
a
ressin
the
Kin
exclaims
c
d
d
:
d
p
g
g
Ye have n ever d one ? ha v e ye not d on e yn o u gh ?
o f three score thousan d ye have left on lyve b u t f
,

K i ng A rt h u r

0
3 5

In
teen e thou san d ; it is t yme for to saye H o
d e e d h ad it n o t be e n fo r the appearance o f the sa ge
Arth u r woul d d o u btless hav e u tterly exterm inat e d
the con fe d erate kin gs an d thei r traitorou s ban d s
I t was short ly a fte r the term ination o f this terrible
battle that the embassy arrives brin gin g word that
kin g Ry e n ce of N ort h Wales ma d e stron g warre
upon kin g L e o d e grau n ce of Came ly ard For the
which t h inge kin ge Arthu r was wrothe for hee lo v e d
him well an d hat e d kin g Rye n ce becau se hee was
Then kin g Arthu r
al w ay e s a gainst hi m
cam e withi n six d ayes into the cou ntrie
of C ame ly ard an d there re s ce w e d kin g L e o d e
rau n ce a n d s l e w e there m uch p eople o f kin g Ry
g
ence u nto the n u mber o f ten tho usan d o f m en an d
put him to i ght
A n d there h ad ki n g
Art h u r the rst si ght of G u e n e ve r d a u ghter u nto

kin g L e o d e grau n ce an d ever after he love d hir

What are we to think then whe n Ten nyson says :
,

A nd A r th u r y e t h a d done

Bu t

no

d ee d

ar

ms

.
,

there is an u nfortu nate consistency in T e nny

son s d epart u re from his ori ginal H avin g trans
forme d Kin g Arth ur i nto an u nknown an d u nt rie d
kn i ght what m ore natu ral than that L e o d e grau n ce
a kin g in his own ri ght sho u l d hesitate t o b e stow
the han d o f his d a u ghter G u inevere u pon a mere

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

6
0
3

potent ial hero ? Tennyson is therefore consistent

in his inconsi stency when he makes L e o d e grau n ce
ask with tr u e parental s olicitu d e :
,

sh ou l d I t h at am a k in g
H ow e v e r mu ch h e h ol p me at my n e e d
G i v e my o n e d au gh ter sav in g to a k in g
A n d a k i n g s son
H ow

Bu t

i n the romance Arthu r is the ackn owle d ge d lord

of the lan d and his soverei gnty is fou n d e d m ore on
his achievem ent s in war than on here d itary ri ght
Bu t fu rth er the accoun t which Map g ives of the
reception o f the ambas s aid o rs at the Cou rt o f L e o d e
ra u n ce d i ffers w i d ely from that o f the p oet
A
c
g
cor d in g t o Map M erlin is sent t o Cam e liard to
in form L e o d e grau n ce o f the Kin g s d esire t o have
his d au ghter Guinevere to wife
That is to m e
sai d Kin g L e o d e grau n ce when the wily seer h ad
the best ti d in gs that
d eli v ere d his cou rtly messa ge
ever I hear d that s o worthy a kin g o f pro w e s s e an d
A n d as fo r
o f n o bl e n e s s e will w e d my d au ghte r
my lan d s I will g ive him wisht I that it m i ght please
hi m bu t he hath land s enou gh he nee d eth none bu t I
shal sen d him a g ift t hat shal p lease h im m u ch m o re
fo r I shal giv e him t h e table ro u n d the whi ch Uther
p en d rag on g ave m e
A n d s o kin g L e o d e
rau n ce d elivere d h i s d au gh ter G u in e v e r u nto M e rlin
g
ith t h e hu n d re d kni ghts an d
an d the tabl e rou n d W
,

A rt h u r i an E pi c

T he

0
8
3

whe h e r

t h e re

w e re

t ru t h

th in g

in

an y

sai d by this kni ght th e re com es t o C ame l iard Lot s

wife of Orkney Be ll i ce n t althou gh nothin g in t h e
context cal l s fo r it an d althou gh h e r appearan ce in
its very up n atmal n egs shows to what straits Tenny
s o n was re d u ce d by his d epart u re from the romance
H o w ever her visit affor d s the kin g a n e O ppo r
t u n i t y to make fu rther enqu iries which Be l l ice n t
answers to his grati cati on bu t s o lon g a tale d oes
she tell that s h e thorou ghly wearies out the age d
m onarch a n d at len gth in d eance of all the laws
of kni ghthoo d h e act u ally goes to sleep in her

re s e n ce

Sh e

Bu t

i t

tL
,
we

w
r

Wj
N

'

i de

u t 73

'

spak e an d K in g L e o d e gran r e oi c e d
mu sin g s h al l I an sw e r ye a o r n ay

1
1

D ou hte d

a nd

d r ow s e d ,

nodde d a n d s l e

t
p

H is d rowse n o d an d sleep seem ho w ever t o have

h ad a m ost bene cial e ffect u pon his spirits for as
soon as he awakes his p e rpl e xin g d o u bts n o lon ger
d ist u rb him
,

o k e an d s e nt
U l as an d Bras t ias an d B e d i v e re
B ac k t o t h e c o u rt o f Arth u r answ e rin g ye a
A n d L e o d e gran

aw

crown all these inconsistencies Tennyson

plac e s the twelve g reat battles by w hich Arth u r
establishe d h is s overei gnty in Britain a fter the arri val
To

M
L

K i ng A rt hu r

0
3 9

of the Roman embassy I n other wor d s h e makes

Arthu r the Empe r or o f the civilise d w orl d be fore h e
is s o m u ch as Ki ng o f Britain So m u ch then
Tenny son s int ro d u ctory I d yll the Comi ng
.

A r t h ur

):

XI

events which comprise what we ha v e style d

the secon d s e ction o f t h e l e gen d viz : from the
arri v al o f the Roman embassy t o the b e ginnin g o f 3 A
the Quest o f the H oly Graal n d n o plac e w hatever
i n the I dy l l s of t h e Ki ng altho u gh they are re l ate d
both in the Armorican version as t ranslat e d by
Geo ffrey o f Monm outh an d i n the An glo Norman d !
versio n o f Walter Map This section therefore re yn
qu ires n o f u rther examination
The third sectio n containin g the Q uest o f the
H oly Graal w e consi d ere d in the prece d in g chapter
a n d ha v e n othin g left there fore b u t t o pass on at
once to the last scenes in the life o f the Kin g the
nal battle of C aml an an d his t ranslatio n t o the isle
o f Avalon which is the s u bj ect of Ten nyson s con
clu d in g I d yll the P a ss ing of A r t h ur
I n ord er t o paint these scenes m ore vivi d ly to the
m in d we m ust keep i n v iew th e circu mstance stat e d
h

i n e ye g ye rs mn of the story that M o d re d was

Arth u r s nat u ral son by his half sister ; a n d that in
conseq u ence of the d isclos u re o f the Kin g s n ear
e l at io n s h i
w
M
o r au s e
ith
h
e m akes a weak a nd
p
g

x m

T he

i t

T he

10

A rt h u ri an E pi c

cru el e ffort t o avert the mee d o f his s in pre d icte d by

M erlin (that he who shou l d d estroy t h e Kin g sho u l d
be born on May d ay ) by the m assacre o f all n oble
chil d ren born o n that partic u lar d ay Mo d re d escap
i ng to become as we ha v e seen his father s cu rse
that failin g to accomplish his obj ect h e afterward s
reposes in him the utmost con d ence a n d actu ally
leaves h is kin gd om an d wi fe i n Mo d re d s charge
while he attempts t o chastise Lan celot
M o d re d th u s left as r u ler of all En glan d causes let
ters t o be writt en as t h o p gh they cam e from beyon d
the s e a statin g that Kin g Arthu r h ad been slain in
battle a gainst Lancelot an d havin g sum mone d a Par
l iame n t h e causes h imself to be electe d an d crowne d
kin g H e then en d eavo u rs t o force qu een G u inevere
t o w e d him thinkin g in this way t o assu re the posi
tion which h e has u su rpe d Bu t the Q u een is too
shrew d t o fall i nto th e t rap
Shee d u rst not d is

cove r her heart says the o l d roman cer

bu t speake
faire an d a gree d t o s ir Mo d re d s will Then s h e d e
sire d o f s i r Mo d re d fo r to go e to Lon d on for to bye
all maner thin g that belon ge d u nt o the we d d in g ;
an d because o f he r faire speech s ir Mo d re d tru ste d
her well eno u gh an d gave her lea v e t o go e A n d
wh e n sh e e came t o Lon d on sh e toke the to u re o f
Lon d on a n d s o d e i n l y i n all hast possible s h e st u ffe d
it wi th all manner o f v it t ail e a n d well garn ishe d it
,

T he

12

A rt h u ri an E pi c

ri d in g f oyn in g an d s t rickin g an d many a g rim

word was t here spok e n either t o other an d many
a d ea d ly stroke
Bu t al w ay kin g Arth u r roa d e
throu ghou t the bat t ail e
an d
d id there

ri ght n o bly as a noble ki n g sho u l d d o e an d at all

times h e never fainte d
A n d t h us t h ey f oug h t
a l l t h e l ong d ay
a n d n ever sti nte d till the noble
kn i ghts w er e lai d t o the col d grou n d an d e v er they
fo u ght sti l l till it was n i gh ni ght an d by that tim e
was there an hu n d re d tho u san d lai d d ea d u p on the
d ou n e Then was ki n g Arthu r wroth o u t o f m easure
when he s aw h is p eopl e s s l ain e from him The n
the kin g looke d abo u t him an d then was hee w arre
that o f all his b oost an d o f al his goo d kni ghts were
left n o m o e ali v e bu t two kni ghts that was s ir L u can
his brother an d they w ere ri ght
a n d s i r Be d ivere
sore wo u n d e d
J es u m ercy ! sai d kin g Arth u r
where are all m y noble kni ghts becom e ? Alas that
ev e r I shoul d see this d o l e fu l l d ay
wo u l d to
G o d that I wist were that t ra it o u r s i r Mo d re d is
whic h hath ca u se d all this mis ch i e fe
Th e n w a s hi ng
A r t h u r w a r e w h e r e s i r Mod r e d l e a ne d upon h is s w or d

a mong a g r e a t h e e e o
Now
ive
m
ee
d
d
m
e
n
e
a
g
p f
my speare sai d kin g Arth u r t o s ir Lu can fo r y o n
d e r I have e spie d t h e t ra it o u r w hich hath wrou ght
all this w o e
Sir l e t him be ! sai d s ir L u can
a n d i f y e e passe this u nhappy d ay yee shall be e ri ght
an d

K i ng A rt h ur

13

well reven ge d upon him

Bet i d e m e d eath
beti d e m e li fe sai d the kin g n ow I see h im yon d e r
alon e hee shall never escape my han d s
Then kin g
Arth u r gate his speare in both his han d s an d ran ne
to w ar d s ir Mo d re d c ryin g T rait o u r n ow i s thy
A n d when s ir M o d re d hear d kin g
d eath d ay come
Arth u r hee ran u nto h im with h is swor d d rawen i n
his han d an d there kin g Arthu r sm ote s ir Mo d re d
u n d e r the shiel d with a foin e of his speare throu ghout
the bo d y more than a fad o m A n d when sir M o d re d
felt that hee h ad his d eath wou n d he thr u st h ims e l fe
with all the mi ght that hee h ad u p to the e n d o f kin g
Arthu rs speare and ri ght s o he sm ote his father
Arthu r with his swor d that hee hel d in b oth his han d s
o n the si d e o f the hea d that the swor d pe rce d the
helmet an d th e brain pan A n d t h e rw it h s ir M o d re d
fel d owne starke d ea d to the earth an d the n oble
kin g Arth u r fell in a so w ne to the earth an d there
he e s ow n e d oftentim es
A n d si r Lu can an d s ir
Be d ivere oftentimes heave d him up a nd so w ea hly
,

t h ey l a d
n ot

h i m be t w e e ne t he m bot h

fa r r e from t h e

s e a s id e

un t o a

l it t l e

ch a

el l

pp

N ext to the I d yll of L a nce l ot a nd El a i ne that o f

the P ass i ng of A r t hu r is without d o u bt the n est
of t h e series I n this I d yll Tennyson has kept
closely to his ori ginal both in his ch oice o f inci d ent
an d in the wor d in
many
passa
s
in
the
poem
o
f
e
g
g
,

E pic

A rt h u ri an

T he

14

But i n a d d ition t o this he seems t o have cau ght

fo r the time bein g the spirit o f weir d n ess which is
a marke d featu re in the whole o f Keltic literatu re
We d o n o t r e fer to the nake d w eird ness o f the o l d
bard s an d annalists bu t to that i d ealise d weird ness
the res u lt o f the Christ ianise d chivalry o f the age
which pro d u ce d it an d w hich throws arou n d the
simplicity o f the story a charm un iqu e in itself I n
all o f Map s pro d uction s this weir d elem ent is re
t ai n e d an d it is won d erf u l t o notice with what c o n
s u mmate skill h e has worke d it in with his own
N orman n otions o f kni ghthoo d bl e n d in g the two
i n su ch a d elicate m anner that the w e ir d gives
pu n gency to the c h i v alric an d the chi v alri c l e n d s
e the
o
f
race
t
o
the
weir
I
t
is
the
absence
this
d
g
real wei r d ness in his other I d ylls which ren d ers s o
m u ch o f Tennyson s d e scriptive p oetry tame an d
H is graphic d escription h owever o f the
i ns i pi d
last g reat battle o f C am l an p res e nts a pict u re o f
d esolation most impressi v e
,

fo u gh t a gh t
L i k e t h i s l ast d i m w e i rd b a t t l e o f t h e w e st
A d e at h w h i t e m i st sl e pt o v e r s an d an d s e a
W h e re o f t h e c h i l l t o h i m w h o b re at h e d it d re w
D ow n w i t h h is bl o o d ti ll al l h is h e art w as c ol d
W ith f o rml e ss f e ar an d e v n on A rth u r f e l l
C on f u s io n sin c e h e s aw n ot w h o m h e fo u gh t
Fo r f rien d an d fo e w e re sh ad o w s i n t h e m i st
No r

v e r ye t

h ad A rt h u r

A rt hu ri an E pi c

T he

16

T u mb l in g the h oll o w h

el

m e ts

of

th e

fal l e n

b ran d s t h at on c e h ad fo u gh t
A n d ro l l in g far al on g t h e gl oo my sh o re s
T h e v oic e o f d ays o f ol d an d d ays t o b e
An d

s h i ve r

ith R o me

Th e spectral lan d i n which the battle is f o u ght

th e spectral shapes about it the d arkness the c o n
f u sion the fear these things s o graphically por
t raye d in the I d yll are im me d iately p otent wit h
those who have experience d them w h o u n d erstan d
what a terrible conict is inten d e d by th e poet ; an d
they make a chor d vibrate even in the hearts o f those
who feel but have n e v er experience d a battle
A compariso n o f Malory s ren d erin g o f the a c
co u nt o f the re m oval o f the wou n d e d Kin g f rom
th e el d of battle an d the ret u rn o f Excalib u r to the
La d y o f the Lake will show in a very clear li ght
the stron g points i n Ten nyson s version o f the story
,

So

nois e o f b attl e rol l d

A mon g t h e mo u nt ains by t h e w int e r s e a
U n ti l K i n g Arth u r s T ab l e m an by m an
H ad fal l n in L yonn e ss e abou t th e i r l o r d
K in g A rth u r T h e n bec aus e h i s w ou n d w as
T h e bo l d Si r B e d i v e r e u pl i ft e d h i m
al l

d ay l on g t h e

A n d hor e h i m to

a ch a e l nig h

th e

el d,

A b ro k e n c h anc e l w ith a b ro k e n c ross

T h at stoo d on a d ark strait o f b arre n l an d
O n on e si d e l ay t h e O cean an d o n o n e
L ay a gr e at w ater an d t h e moon w as f u l l
,

d e e p,

K i ng A rt h ur

17

Then as the Kin g feels that d eath is upon him he

says to Si r Be d ivere (for Sir L u can meantim e h ad
My time b ieth fast t h e rfo re
d ie d o f his w o u n d s )
take tho u Excalibu r my goo d sword an d go e w ith it
unto yon d e r water si d e an d when tho u co mme s t
there I charge the e thro w my s w or d into that wate r
a n d com e a gai n e an d tell me what thou shalt s e e

there
My lor d sai d Si r Be d ivere you r com
man d e shall b e d one and li ghtly brin g you word
a gain
,

"

T h en spak e K i n g Arth u r to
I

Si r

B e d i v e re

s mitt e n t h ro t h e h e l m
T h at w ith o ut h el p I c annot l ast ti l l mo rn
T h ou t h e re fore tak e my b ran d E xcal ib u r
W h i c h w as my pri d e for t h o u re me mb e re st h ow
I n th ose ol d d ays o n e s u mm e r noo n an arm
R os e u p fro m ou t t h e boso m o f t h e l ak e
C l ot h e d in w h i t e s am it e mystic w o n d e rful

H o l d in g t h e s wor d an d h ow I ro w d ac ross
A n d too k it an d h av e w o rn it l i k e a k i n g
A n d w h e r e so e v e r I a m s un g o r to l d
I n aft e rti me t h is al so sh al l b e k no w n
Bu t n o w d e l ay n o t t ak e E xc al ib u r
A n d i n g h i m far into t h e m i d d l e m e re

W at ch w h at t h o u s e est an d l i gh tl y b rin g m e w o rd
a

so

d e e pl y

Speakin g a few kin d wor d s Sir Be d ive re d e parte d :

A n d by the way he behel d that n oble swor d w here
the p u mmell and t h e haft w e re all of preciou s stones
,

A rt hu ri an E pi c

T he

18

then hee sai d t o h i ms e lfe

I f I throw this rich
sword into the water therof shall never com e goo d
A n d then s ir Be d ivere h id
but h arm e an d losse
Excalibu r u n d er a t ree an d as soon e as hee mi ght
h e came again e u nt o kin g Arthu r an d sai d hee
h ad been e at the wate r an d h ad t h ro w e n the swor d
i nto the water
What sawest thou there sai d the

kin g
Sir sai d he I saw n othin g bu t waves an d
win d
and

S o s ayi n g f ro m t h e

ste pt
A n d in t h e moo n at h w art t h e pl ac e o f to mbs
W h e re l ay t h e mi gh ty bon e s o f an c i e n t m e n
O l d k ni gh ts an d o v e r th e m t h e se a w in d s an g
S h ri l l c h i ll w ith ak e s o f fo am H e s te ppi n g d ow n
B y z i gz ag path s an d j uts o f point e d roc k
C ame o n t h e s h inin g l e v e l s o f t h e l ak e
,

ru i n

sh rin e

he

The

bran d E xc al ibu r
A n d o e r h im d raw i n g it t h e w int e r m oo n
B ri gh t e nin g t h e sk irts o f a l on g c l o u d ran fo rth
A n d s park l e d k e e n w ith f rost aga i n st t h e h i l t
Fo r al l t h e h af t t w in k l e d w ith d i amon d s park s
M yri ad s o f topaz l i gh ts an d j ac i nt h w o rk
O f subtl e st j e w e l l e ry H e gaz e d s o l on g
T h at bot h h i s e ye s w e re d a zz l e d as h e stoo d
T h is w ay an d th at d i v i d i n g t h e sw i ft min d
I n ac t to th ro w bu t at t h e l ast it s e e m d
B e tt e r t o l e av e E xc al ib u r c o n c e al d
T h e re in t h e many k nott e d w at e r ags
T h at w h istl e d sti ff an d d ry abou t t h e m arge
So st rod e h e b ack sl ow t o t h e w oun d e d K in g
re

fo rth

d re w h e

th e

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

20

H ow exq u isitely this scen e is

d escribe d

in Tenny

12
$01

T h e n w ent S ir B e d i v e r e

secon d ti me
A c ross t h e r i d ge an d pac e d b e si d e t h e m e r e
C o u ntin g t h e d e wy pe bb l e s x d in t h o u gh t
Bu t w h e n h e s aw t h e w on d e r o f t h e h i l t
H o w c u r io u s l y an d str an ge l y c h as e d h e s m ot e
H i s pal ms to ge t h e r an d h e c ri e d al o u d
th e

i f in d e e d I c ast t h e b ran d aw ay
S u re ly a pre c io u s th in g on e w o rth y no t e
S h o ul d th u s be l ost for e v e r f ro m t h e e arth
W h i ch m i gh t h av e pl eas e d t h e e ye s o f m an y m e n
W h at goo d sh o u l d fo l l o w th is i f t h is w ere d o n e ?
W h at h ar m u n d on e
And

So s pak e h e , c l o u d e d w ith h i s o w n
A n d h i d E xc al ib u r t h e s e c on d ti me ,
An d

so

st ro d e b ac k s l o w to
r

W h at

is

r,

it th o u h ast s e e n

o n e K in g

th e w u d d

T h n spo k e K in g A th u b
e

conc e it

th in g h e av i l y
o r w h at h ast h e ard
re a

bol d Sir B e d i v e re
I h e ard t h e w at e r l appi n g o n t h e c rag

A n d t h e l on g r i ppl e w as h i n g in t h e re e d s
An d

ans wer

m ad e t h e

h
n
ra
h
i
w
r
m
u
c
i
K
in
A
t
t
l
r
h
u
e
d
,
p
g
A h , m is e rab l e an d u n k in d , u nt ru e ,
T o w h om

U n k n i gh tl y,

re

t raito r
Au th o rity fo rge ts a

h e art e d

d yin g

oe

k in g

i s me

K i ng A rt h u r
I

21

th e e w h at th o u art
Fo r th o u t h e l at e st l e ft o f al l my k n i gh ts
I n w h o m s h o u l d m e e t t h e o f c e s o f all
T h o u w ou l d st betray me for t h e precio us h i l t
se e

t h e e h e nc e
Bu t i f th o u spare to in g E xc al ib u r

I w i l l arise an d sl ay t h e e w ith my h an d s
Get

Then Sir Be d ivere went the third t ime his heart

bein g melte d by the touchin g appeal of the d yin g

Kin g for thy lon g t ary in g sai d Arthu r p utteth

me in great j e o pard i e o f my li fe
So s i r Be d ivere
d eparte d an d went to the sword an d li ghtly tooke
it up an d we nt t o the wate rs si d e ; an d there hee
bou n d the gird e l l about the hilts an d then hee thre w
the sword into the water as farre as hee mi ght a nd
there cam e an arme a n d an h an d above the wate r
e it t h ris e a n d
a n d met it a n d cau ght it an d s o s h o o k
bran d ishe d A n d then th e han d vanishe d away with
the swor d in the water S o s i r Be d ivere cam e again e

t o the kin g an d t ol d him what he h ad seene

,

T h e n q u i k ly ros e
c

Si r

A n d , l e apin g d o w n t h e

B e d i v e re

an d ran ,

i d ge s l i gh t ly

n
l
u
e
d
, p
g

an d c l u t c h d t h e s w o r d ,

Amo n g t h e b u l rus h b e ds
A n d stro n gly w h e e l d an d t h re w it
T h e gre at b ran d
M ad e l i gh t n in gs in t h e s pl e n d o u r o f t h e moo n
A n d as h i n g ro un d an d ro u n d an d w h i rl d i n an arc h
S h o t l i k e a stre amer o f t h e n o rt h ern mo rn
,

T he

22

S een

A rt h u ri an E pi c

mo v in g

i n t er s h o c k
By ni gh t w it h nois e s o f t h e N o rth e rn Se a
S o as h d an d f e l l t h e b ran d E xc al ib u r
Bu t e re h e d i pt t h e s u r face rose an arm
C l ot h e d in w h it e s am it e mystic w on d e rfu l
A n d c augh t h i m by t h e h i l t an d b ran d i sh d h i m
T h re e ti m e s an d d re w h im u n d e r in the me re
A n d l i gh t l y w e nt t h e oth er to t h e K in g
w h ere t h e

isl e s

of

T h en spok e K in g Arth u r d raw in g th i k e breath

,

No w

S pe ak

se e

by t h i n e
w h at i s

o ut

yes t h at th is i s d on e
it th ou h as h e ard o r seen
e

answ er ma d e t h e bol d S ir B e d i v ere

Si r K in g I c l os e d m in e e ye l i d s l est t h e ge ms
S h o ul d b l in d my pu rpos e for I n e v er saw
No r sh al l s e e h e re or e l s e w h e re ti l l I d i e
Not t h o I l i v e th ree l i v es o f mo rtal m e n
So great a m ira c l e as yon d e r h i l t
T h e n w ith both h an d s I un g h im w h e el in g h im
Bu t w h e n I l o okd again b e h o l d an a rm
C l oth e d in w h it e s am it e mystic w on d e rful
T h at c au gh t h i m by t h e h i l t an d bran d ish d h im

T h re e ti me s an d d re w h im u n d e r in t h e m e re
And

Alas sai d the kin g help e m e from hence for

I d rea d m e I have t arie d over l on g
Then s i r Be d i
vere took kin g Arthu r u p on his backe an d s o went
with him to the waters si d e A n d when they were
at the waters si d e even fast by the banke hove d a
little barge with many faire la d ies in it an d amon g
them all was a q u eene an d all they h ad black e
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

24

b e ar m e t o t h e m argin
M y w ou n d h ath t ak e n c o l d

And

S l o w ly

I f e ar

an d

I sh al l

v e m e nt

h e h al

S o s ayin g f ro m t h e

e
t
y

a
p

d ie

f ros e

ith pai n re cl inin g o n h i s arm

A n d l oo k in g w ist f ul ly w ith w i d e b l u e e ye s
H im s i r B e d i v e re
A s i n a pi c t u re
w

too k w ith c are an d k n e e l in g o n o n e k n e e

O e r bot h h i s s h o u l d e rs d re w t h e l an gu i d h an d s
A n d ri s in g bo re h i m t h ro u gh t h e pl a c e o f to mb s
T he n

Bu t ,

as

h e w al k d ,

K in g Art h u r

a
p

nte d

h ar d ,

M utt e rin g an d mu rmu rin g at h i s e ar Q u i c k q u i c k

I f e ar it i s t oo l at e an d I sh al l d i e
Bu t t h e oth e r sw i ftl y stro d e f ro m r i d ge t o ri d ge
,

a su d d e n l o
t h e l on g gl o r ies

And

on

An d

The n s

th e l e
of

ve l

th e w

l ak e ,

int e r

moo n

th ey h ow th e re h o v e a d us ky barge
D ark as a fun e ral s c arf f ro m ste m t o st e m
B e n e at h th e m an d d e sc e n d i n g th e y w e re w are
T h at al l t h e d e c k s w e re d e ns e w ith st at e ly fo rms

l
a
l
c
e
l
a
r
B k sto d b c k h oo d e d l i k e a d e am by th e s e
T h re e Q u e e ns w ith c row ns o f gol d : an d fro m th e m ros e
A c ry t h at s h ive r d t o t h e tin gl i n g st ars
A n d as it w e re on e v oice an a gony
O f l ame ntation
aw

Ki ng A rt hu r

25

Arth u r P l ac e me in t h e bar ge
S o to t h e b arge th ey c ame T h e re th ose th re e Q u e e n s
P u t f orth t h e i r h an d s an d too k t h e K in g an d w e pt
Bu t s h e th at rose t h e t al l e st o f t h e m all
A n d f ai re st l ai d h i s h e ad u pon h e r l ap
A n d l oos e d t h e sh at t e r d cas q u e an d c h af e d h i s h an d s
A n d c al l d h im by h i s n am e c o m pl ainin g l o u d
A n d d ro ppin g bitt e r t e ars against a b ro w
S t ri pe d w ith d ark b l oo d fo r al l h i s f ace w as w h it e
A n d col o u rl ess an d l i k e t h e w it h e r d moon
S mote by t h e f resh b e am o f t h e sprin gin g e ast

T h en

murmu r d

S o l i k e a s h at t e r d co l umn l ay t h e K in g
Not l i k e t h at Arth u r w h o w it h l an c e in re st
F ro m spu r to pl u me a star o f to u rn ame n t
S h ot th ro t h e l ists at C am e l ot an d c h arge d
B e fore t h e eyes o f l ad ies an d o f k in gs

T h e n l ou d ly ri e d the bol d
c

m y L o rd

Ah

W h e re s h al l

B e d i v e re
s h al l I go ?

Si r

Arth u r w h it h e r
I h i d e my fore h e a d an d
,

my

ye s ?

R o un d T abl e is d issol v e d
W h i c h w as an i mage o f t h e m i gh ty w o rl d
A n d I t h e l ast go forth co mpanion l ess
Bu t

n ow t h e

w h ol e

As we have sai d elsewhere it is n ot ou r obj ect t o

enter into th e m erits of Tennyson except as the nar
rator o f an epic which is n at ional property We are
willin g to gran t that the early writer s style d oes not
rati
fy
the
ear
as
d
oes
the
rich
m
usic
of
Ten
nyson
s
g
,

T he

26

E pic

A rt h urian

verse ; sti l l the palm for con si st en cy un ity and

simplicity rests with the ol d er w riter an d his work
carries u s back as Te nnyson s sel d om d oes to
kni ghtly d ays
This is especially noti ceable in the d eli n eation of
the character o f the Kin g himself
The portrait o f Kin g Arthu r as it came from the
han d s o f Walte r Map is a masterpiece The group
i n g o f each pict ure in which it stan d s with it acces
is u napproachable
s o ri e s o f re gal or imperial pomp
These pictu res are d rawn by no u nskilf u l or u n
p ractise d han d an d n owhere d o they evince the
cru d e t ou ches of the tyro Y o u may exam in e the
portrait of the Kin g by itself an d it is a perfect
1
work o f art Y o u m ay take it as one gu re i n the W
roup
o f Rou n d Table kni ghts
an d still it is i n j ust
g
L
AW
p roportion t o the su rrou n d in g gu res a n d harmon ises
strictly with its settin g From the d eli v ery t o M e r
lin o f Arthu r as a babe wrappe d in a cloth of g ol d 6
at t he postern gat e of the castle u ntil his d is ap
aran ce in the sable bar ge to gether with the three
e
p
q u eens there are no in consistencies or breaks i n the
y
continu ity o f the character H is birth takes place in
the palace of a kin g ; h is p u b l ic a d vent is atten d e d
by mi racle ; his coronation is perform e d by the
;
L
Archbish op his prowess o n the el d o f battle is u n
surpasse d his Cou rt o f Rou n d Table kni ghts is
,

,9

A rt h u ri a n

T he

28

E pi c

Christian kn i ght w hose h u m ility shines forth pre

eminently is transforme d into a n [e got is t whose
vanity an d conceit m ust be d istastef u l t o any o n e of
rene d tastes that the character o f Pelleas is to say i M 1
th e least ope n to grave suspicions ; an d that Gala J ;
h ad himself the heav n ly kni ght an d Go d s kni ght
e
becomes a (mere d ay d re ame rl w h o follows wan d er

i ng res
an d who
lose s him self to save himself
I t wou l d n o t be su rprisin g therefore if even the
noble warlike kn i ghtly hero Kin g Arth u r himsel f
shou l d share a similar fate at the han d s o f the poet
an d this we n d to be t he case
Un d er Tennyson
Arth u r becom es a m ere statu e a lifeless gu re h e ad
at t imes enshrine d in a sphinx like myste ry briis q u e

even to his kni ghts pe e vish t o his Cou rt d is cdu rt e o u s

t o his fallen Q u een a n d nis h in g his career with a
d iscou rse which m ust d o u btless have been d eeply i n
t e re s t i n g t o the qu eens who were soothin g his pe d an
tic brow
We have sai d that the portrait of Kin g Arthu r as
it cam e from the han d s o f Walter Map is a master
piece Can we pro v e it ? We also m aintain that the
portrait o f Kin g Arth ur as it appears i n Tennyson s
I d ylls is by comparison cru d e an d inartistic Can
we make goo d ou r position ?
I n or d er to form a tr u e esti mat e o f the subj ect we
m ust never lose si ght o f the fact that the An glo
,

Ki ng A rt h u r

29

Norman romanc e rs s e t themselves the task of d ra w

in g not simply a series o f separate tales but a con
Consistency an d u n ity were t o
n e ct e d epic cycl u s
them therefore the very sou l o f their labou rs What
Arthu r was as a si mple squ ire in Sir H ector s Corn ish
castle that m ust he be as the d yin g hero of Cam l an
m o d ie d only by such chan ges of characte r as the
circu mstan ces of his life wou l d n atu rally brin g about
H e m u st be d rawn i n accord ance with twelfth cen
t u ry notions i d eal ise d as m atter o f n ecessity since
L
he was the hero o f a rom ance bu t nevertheless a

bein g with all th e passions an d failin gs of hu man ity

clin gin g to him H e m u st n o t in word thou ght or n 1
d ee d contra d ict the maj estic m ovemen t o f the s t o ry b 1
i
J
whether with respect t o the Graal Qu est or the work
H e m u st be t ru e Ki n g/
in g ou t of the tra gic c u rse
W
t r u e kni ght tr u e warrior tru e h usban d tru e man ;
a n d yet withal t r u e t o the hon est failin gs as well as
to the n oblest aspirations of poor frai l h u man ity I f
Lancelot is the i d eal o f earthly kni ghthoo d Ga l aha d 1, l
o f earthly pu rity M erlin o f w orl d ly wis d om Elaine fl cl
so Arthu r m u st be the
a n d V ivienne of h u man lo v e
i d eal Ki ng s u rpassin g n eithe r Lancelot i n kn i ght
hoo d Galaha d i n p u rity Elain e in love n or M erlin a"
in wis d om b u t su rpassin g all his kni ghts i n kin gly
characte r A n d we hol d that this d elicate balan ce
has been maintaine d in the n arrative o f the Norman m
,

f
i
.

j:
4

u-

W
.

A
b

LA

WW
.

i
I

f
.

AM

T he

0
33

A rt hu ri an

E pi c

trouv eres I n the An glo N orman versio n o f th e epic

there is a cu rse that d o gs the whole life o f Kin g
Arthu r an d which stan d s ou t as o n e o f the g ran d
proj ections o f th e pictu re ; an i d ea too v ast t o have
h ad its birth in the i magination of o n e man ; a
d ark overhan g in g sha d ow d oubtless cast by some
nat ional tra d ition of a t errible d isaster This tra gic
elem ent was seize d upon by th e N orm an roman cer
an d worke d into the le en d
Followin
ol
er
tra
d
g
g
d it i o n s Map h ad to brin g abou t the fall of the Kin g
in a n al battle the u tter ru in an d d esolation o f
which requ ire d the richest i ma gination to schem e
I t was to be the
a n d the broa d est g e n i u s t o d epict
na l e o f a kni ghtly epoch ; the closin g scen e o f a

cu rse ; the d eath o f Kin g an d kn i gh ts at the han d s

H o w coul d
o f an aban d one d an d traitorou s wretc h
the N orman romancer hei ghten the colo u rin g o f
the pict u re m ore e ffecti v ely than by a d opti n g the
story alrea d y in exist ence a n d d epictin g the wretch
whos e han d s were to be stain e d w ith th e bloo d o f his
sov e rei gn as the natu ral o ffsprin g o f t h e m onarch ?
A n d i f in a d d ition this miscreant shou l d be painte d
n o t on l y as a n at u ral s o n b u t as t h e res u lt o f a ter
ribl e s i n an inc e st o n t h e pa rt o f the Kin g himself
what co u l d possibly be wantin g t o r e n d e r th e en d in g
in the hi ghest d e gre e t ra gic ? Bu t the d e a d ly s i n o f
in ce st m u st be u nwittin gly com mitte d else t h e Kin g
-

The

2
33

A rt h u ri an E pi c

u nto thee kin g of Brit t ain e greetin g comman d in g

thee t o knowle d ge him for t h y lor d a n d to sen d
him the t ru age d u e o f this re al m e u nto the empire
which thy father an d other tofore thy pre d ecessors
have paye d as it is o f recor d an d tho u as a rebell n o t
kn o w m g hi m as thy s o ve raign e w it h h ol d e s t an d re
tainest cont rary t o the statu tes an d d ecrees ma d e by
th e n oble J ulius Cesar co n q u e ro u r o f this re al me an d
rst e mpe ro u r o f Rome A n d i f thou refuse his d e
man d an d com man d ement know thou fo r a certaine
that h e s h al m ake stron g warre ag ain st thee a n d thy
r e al m e s an d lan d s a n d shal chastise thee an d thy
subj ects that it shall bee an ensample pe rpe t u al l u n
t o all kin gs an d p rinces fo r t o d en ie their t ru age
u nt o that noble empire which d o min e re t h u pon the

u n ive rs al l worl d
A cou n cil o f stat e is then hel d at which are p res
en t the m i ght iest kin gs princes an d baron s of the
realm each ple d gin g him sel f t o brin g into the el d
a vast n u mber o f m en
A n d when kin g Arthu r u n d erstoo d thei r co u ra ge
a n d g oo d will he thanke d them h eartily a n d after
he let cal the e mbas s ad o u rs that they sh o u l d heare
thei r answer A n d i n p resen ce of all his n oble lord s

a n d kni ghts h e sai d t o them i n this wise :

I will
that yee re t u rn e u nt o you r lord an d pro cu ro u r fo r
the comm on weal e fo r t h e Rom ain es an d s ay t o him
,

Ki ng A rt h u r

333

of his d eman d an d com man d ement I s e t n othin g

a n d that I kn ow of n o t ru age n e t ribu te that I owe
t o him n e t o n on e earthly creatu re n or p rin ce chri s
tian n or heathen bu t I preten d t o have an d o ccu pie
the s o ve rain t ie o f the empire wherein I am e n t it u l e d
by the ri gh t of my pre d e ce s s o u rs som etim e kin gs o f
this lan d A n d s ay t o him t h at I am d elivere d an d
fu lly conclu d e d to go e with min e army with stren gth
a n d p ower t o Rome by the g race of G o d to take
possession i n the empi re and sub d u e them that bee
re be l l s ; wherefore I comman d hi m a n d a l them o f
R om e that incontinent they m ake t o m e thei r h om
a ge
a n d t o kn owle d g e me for their e m pe ro u r a n d
n o u r up on paine that shal ensue
o
e
r
v
g
I n this extract n ot only d oes the rom ancer ca l l
Arth u r a Kin g bu t i n a d d itio n t o this h e g ives u s
thou ghts an d wor d s an d acts wh ich are kin gl y A n d
this is what Ten nyson d oes not d o H e certain ly
tells u s o f Arthur s simple word s o f great au

th ority an d large d ivine an d com fort able word s

bu t what we m iss is the proof ; what was the m o d e
o f speech by which Arth u r s o a ff ecte d men as Ten
n yso n reports that h e d id
s o that :
,

S om e
W e r e pal e as
S o me u sh d
H al f b l in d e d

assin g o f a gh ost
an d ot h e rs d a z e d as o n e
at t h e co m in
i
t
o
f
a
l
h
g
g

at

th e p

who wa e s

A rt h u ri a n E pi c

T he

3 34

Arth u r as d rawn by th e romancers is on the con

t rary kin gly i n every thou ght an d wor d a n d act
from the hau ghty d e ance which h e thu n d ers forth
in the face o f the s ix rebel kin gs who d ispute his
title to the thro n e d own t o the last com m an d h is
I n d ee d i f there i s any
d yin g on e to Sir Be d ivere
fault t o be fou n d it is n o t that Arthu r is d ecient
i n the kin gly character bu t that he is d rawn too
m uch i n accor d an ce with n otions wh ich were cu rren t
d urin g the rei g n of H en ry I L when a m ere hint
from the soverei gn stai n e d the altar steps of Canter
bu ry Cathe d ral with a Car d inal s bloo d I n the R0
m an ce the kin gly character of Arthu r i s stampe d
upon every page
I n the Romance Arthu r is pre
No r is this all
sen te d n ot on ly as a Kin g bu t as a h n zgh t ly kin g ;
stau nch i n his loyalty ; pre
em i nent in his cou rtesy
an d g ran d i n his m u n i ce n ce
At the i nterview betwee n the K in g a n d the

twelve an cient m en who cam e as ambassa d ors

from Rome som e of the kni ghts o f the Rou n d
Table wo u l d have su m m arily resente d what they
consi d ere d an i nsu lt to their Kin g an d cou nt ry :
Then some o f the you n g kni ghts hearin g thei r
e mbas s ad o u rs
the
m
essa
e
wo
l
have
upon
u
d
s
e
t
(
)
g
them for t o have s l ain e them sayin g that it was a
reb uk e u nto al the kni ghts there bein g presen t t o
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

6
33

shoul d bee known o f what co u n t re y they wer e

A n d thus escorte d by three senators he com man d e d
that the bo d ies shou l d be borne i n state t o Rome
When on on e occasion the Kin g i s overthrown in
a j ou st by one of his own kni ghts who fo r goo d
reason fails to reco gn ise him his assailant exclaims
A n d bu t thou ye e l d thee as overcom e an d re cre au n t

thou shalt d i e (the cu stomary form of d eman d in g

su rren d er i n sin gle combat ) the Kin g instantly re
plies forgetf u l o i his royalty as fo r d eath welcome
bee it when it co mme t h but as to y e e l d m ee t o thee

as re cre a u n t I h ad lever d ie than to be s o shame d

At another time when on e of the kni ghts o f his
Co u rt h ad slain a la d y u n d er the excit e ment of stron g
Fo r shame s ir
provocation the Kin g exclaims
kni ght why have yee d on e s o ? ye have shame d m e
a n d all my cou rt
fo r this w as a la d y that cam e hith e r
un d er my safe con d u ct
there fore with d raw

you ou te o f my cou rt in all hast e that ye may

Bu t perhaps the noblest instance o f his loyalty to
the spirit of chivalry is seen i n Kin g Arthu r s stau nch
a n d heroi c d evotion to his Queen little thou h s h e
g
may have d eserve d it
When Sir Mo d re d with the tru e insti nct o f the
villain en d eavou rs to excite the Kin g a gainst Sir
Lancelot by insin u atin g that the l atter i s a traitor t o
his person in the matter o f qu een Gu inevere
Wit
.

K i ng A rt h u r

33 7

b u t I wou l d
well replies the Kin g
be loth to be gin su ch a thin g [suspicion of an in
t ri g u e between t h e Q u een an d Lancelot ] bu t i f I
m i ght have pro o ve s u pon it fo r I tell you s ir Lau nce
lot is an hard y kni ght an d all yee know hee is the
best kni ght amon g u s all
For kin g Arthu r
was loth t h e rt o that any n oise shoul d bee u po n si r
Launcelot an d his queen e fo r the kin g h ad a d eem
i n g but he wo u l d not here o f it for s i r La u ncelot
h ad d one s o m uch for him an d for his q u eene s o many
tim es that wit ye well kin g Arthu r love d him passin g

well
Even when Lancelot s gu ilt h ad been s o fully
prove d that the Kin g w as compelle d in hono u r to
resen t the t reachery of his kni ght still it w as with re
l u ct an ce that h e besie ge d the castle o f J oyous Gar d
an d when later h e was d yin g f rom the d eath wo u n d
of the wretch who h ad been f oremost in stirri n g u p
hostilities the Kin g bemoans Ah s ir Lau ncelot this
sam e d ay have I sore m isse d thee Alas that e ver

I was a gainst thee

Sir Lancelot h ad assu re d the
Kin g o f Gu inevere s innocence an d the n oble m in d e d
co u rteo u s monarch too late d e plores his over hast i
ness in ha v in g listen e d to what he now believes t o be
a cowar d ly l ie invente d an d worke d out by M o d re d
for his own selsh en d s Moreover in the romance
it m ay be rem embere d Kin g Arthu r d oes n o t see
t h e Q u e en afte r her retirem ent t o t h e convent a n d

e
e
y

32

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

8
33

even i f he h ad he wo u l d ha v e bee n the last man in

the worl d to have embittere d her o w n u nhappy
tho u ghts by s o b u rn in g a reproof as Ten nyson places
i n the mo u th o f her hu sban d Cyn ics m ay call the
Kin g a fool but tr u e men m ust a d mire the loyalty
with which in the romance he clu n g to Gu inevere
to the v ery last since her gu ilt h ad n o t been p rove d
except by h e r enemi e s True m en m u st a d mire a
love which was as stau nch when he fell m ortally
wou n d e d on the el d o f battle as it was when years
before h e h ad we dd e d h er a pu r e an d lovin g prin
cess i n the o l d Cathe d ral ch u rch
e look i n vain thro u h all these many hun d re d
g
lines o f Tennyson s fo r any p ortrait o f a kni ghtly
Kin g I n the intro d uctory lines the poet d e d icates
h is I d ylls t o the mem ory of the Prince Albert
,

'

S in c e

th e m d e ar
P e rc h an c e as n d i n g th e re un cons c io usly
S o m e i mage o f h i ms e l f
a nd

the poet a d d s

he held

Inde e d

S c a rc e

s e e m s to me
oth e r th an my k in g s i d e al k ni gh t
H

I n oth e r word s Kin g Arthu r is painte d t o t h e poet s

o w n min d in accor d anc e with nineteenth centu ry no
t idn s as a
seless gentleman an d n ot i n accor d
,

ti

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

0
34

vere in answer t o his heart ren d in g appeal Ah ! my

lord Arthu r what shall becom e o f mee n ow ye
from
m
e
m
e
here
alone
amon
my
a n d leave
o
e
g
g

enemies ?

Comfort thy sel f e sai d Kin g Arthu r an d d o as

well as thou mai e s t fo r i n m ee is n o tr u st for t o tr u st
i n fo r I w il i n t o the vale of Avilion fo r to h e al e me
wou n d an d if thou nev e r heere
o f my gre v i o us

more o f me e pray fo r m y so ule

I t is n ee d less to give in fu ll Tennyson s e l abor
ate farewell t o S ir Be d ivere The followin g extract
will be suffi cient
-

C o m fo rt thys e l f

h at co mfo rt is in m e
I h av e l i v e d my l i f e an d th at w h i ch I h av e d on e
May H e w ith in h i ms e l f mak e pu re ! bu t t h ou
I f th o u sh o ul d st n e v e r s e e my f ac e agai n
P ray fo r my sou l M o re th in gs are w ro u gh t by praye r
T h an t h is w o rl d d re ams of W h e re fo re l e t t h y v oi c e
R is e l i k e a fo unt ain fo r m e ni gh t an d d ay
Fo r w h at are m e n b e tt e r th an s h eep o r goats
T h at no u rish a b l in d l i fe w ith in t h e b rain
I f know i n g G o d th e y l i ft n ot h an d s o f praye r
B oth fo r t h e m s e l v e s an d th ose w h o c al l th e m fri e n d ?
Fo r s o t h e w h o l e ro u n d e art h i s e v e ry w ay
B o u n d by go l d c h ains abou t t h e feet o f G o d
Bu t n o w f are w e l l
I am goin g a l on g w ay

h
h
h
e
u
W it t es t o seest i f in d e e d I go
F
r
a
l
l
m
o
(
y m in d i s c l o u d e d w ith a d o u b t )
T o t h e i sl an d v a l l e y o f Av i l ion
W h e re f al l s n ot h ai l o r r ain o r an y s n ow
w
,

Ki ng A rt hur
N or e v e r w in d b l o w s l o u d ly
D e e p me ad ow d h appy fair

1
34

it l ies
w it h o rc h ard l aw ns
A n d bo w e ry h o l l o w s c ro w n d w it h s u mm e r s e a

W h e re I w i ll h e al m e o f my gri e v o us w o un d
S o s ai d h e an d t h e b arge w it h o ar an d s ai l
M o v e d fro m t h e brin k l i k e so me f ul l b reaste d sw an
bu t

stoo d Sir B e d i v e re
R e v ol v in g many me mo ri e s ti ll t h e h u l l
L o o kd o n e b l ac k d o t a gainst t h e v e rge o f d aw n
A n d o n t h e m e re t h e w ai l in g d i e d a w ay

L on g

We pre fer the sim ple ten d er expressions i n the

romance t o this elaborate sermonisi n g excel lent
thou gh the sentiments m ay be since the forme r is
far more natu ral as com in g from a d yi n g m onarch
Th e sermon i s n oble i n its way ; bu t the way is the
way of the poet an d not o f the warrior Kin g
,

C HAPT E R X

G e ra i nt

a nd

E ni d

N ord er to make th e analysis which we have given

of the Arthu rian Epic as complete as possible
we p ropose in the presen t chapter to gather up som e
of the loose threa d s which we have left in ou r brief
su rvey su ch for example as the romance o f Ge r a i nt
a nd En i d the Roun d Table le gen d an d on e or two
m inor points of interest
Before passin g o n to these subj ects however it
may be a d visable t o recapit ulate in brief the point s
which we have hitherto en d eavou re d t o establish
We have shown that the series o f An glo N orman
tales which relat e t o Arthu r an d his kni ghts forme d
at the time when Ten nyson took the s u bj ect i n han d
an e pic cyclus They d o n ot form what is u sually n u
d e rs t o o d by the term epic as they are n ot cast i n the
shape of a continuou s narrative nor d o they exist as
a continu ous an d complete p oem At th e sam e t ime
the s t ory i t s e lf is complete There is the i n t ro d uc
t o ry ro man ce o f the H oly Graal th e sto ry of Uther
,

3 42

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

3 44

then h ad ma d e the entire series t o revolve arou n d

its point of u nity the rape of H elen
N or is the tragic element an other essential of the
classic epic wantin g in this Arthu rian cyclus U m
d e rly i n g the whol e story there is the existence an d
workin g out o f a cu rse a Kym ric Ate s e t in m ot ion
by the Kin g himself an d han gin g equally over the
m onarch the Qu een an d the kni ghts from the high
est t o the lowest ; a cu rse which perva d es every ro
m ance an d is seen to be workin g itself ou t as each
in d ivi d ual kni ght by h is own m is d oin g hastens o n
the nal catastrophe
Finally the characters intro d uce d are perfectly
nishe d p ort raits the y are d rawn by a master han d
an d there is n ot on e bu t is worthy to ll a n ich e in
the Arthurian Epic
To these points we have hitherto stea d ily conne d
ou r attention for th ey form the criterion by which
to j u d ge of Tennyson s m etri cal version With re
l
d
I
d
l
s
ar
to
T
ennyson
we
have
seen
that
in
his
y
g
of t h e Ki ng he lost si ght of the fact that these tales
existe d as an epic cyclus a n d accor d in gly he has
left u s simply a few fra gments of the epic ; om ittin g
at t i mes large portions of the tales an d at others
a d d in g an inci d ent o r series of inci d ents from the
storehouse of his own fan cy I n other wor d s he has
n o t r epro d uce d the epic as a whole
an d

"

G e rai nt

an d

E nid

3 45

H e has omitte d the Graal r man ce the po i nt o f

q
u n ity of th e epic ; the British wars an d the Roman
wars ; the tra gic e n d in g which follows the d eath o f
th e Kin g ; and by his wish to make Arthu r stan d
well with the respectabi lities of the worl d he has
eliminate d the s in of the m onarch and therefore the
t ra gic cu rse
Moreover he has m a d e important a d d ition s t o
the sto ry H e h as a d d e d the visit o f Arthu r t o th e
Qu een after her retirement to the convent besi d es
other m in or i nci d ents H e has remo d elle d the Com
i ng of A r t h ur ; the attachm ent o f Me r l i n a nd Vi vi
e nne ;
a n d the Q ues t of t h e H oly Gra a l ;
a n d nally
h e h as given a d i fferent complexion to the charact ers
of all b u t one o f the Rou n d Table kni ghts
I n a d d itio n to all this the chast e fantasy o f Ten
n ys o n has often taken a cru d e i d ea from th e trou
v eres an d has in fu se d into it a subtle p oetic charm ;
or he has ren d ere d it m ore ra d iant by the re o f his
en
iu
s
as
in
the
scene
where
Elain
e
enters
the
cell
g
in which Sir Lancelot is lyin g sick ; or as i n th e ne
d escription of the batt le o f C aml an
At the same t ime h e n ow an d a gain h as m arre d
the beauty of a passage by the int ro d uction o f his
own fancies as when he places the lette r in Elain e s
left han d so as to leave the right han d free for h is
or he h as d estroye d the
ow n con ceit of the lily ;
,

M
,

Th e A rt h u ri an E pi c

6
34

force of a passa ge an d even of a tale as in the case

of the Qu est by makin g Galaha d boast that he h ad
s e e n the sacre d V essel before ever the Q u est h ad
begun S u ch bri e y state d are the results o f o u r
inq u i ry thu s far
The rea d er has d oubtless rem arke d that h itherto
we hav e ma d e n o ment ion whatsoever o f the story of
,

Ga r e t h

a nd

L ione s

or of

P e l l e as

a nd

Et a r r e

or o f

Tr is

perhaps he has alrea d y ant icipate d

the reason o f this om ission Th e fact is these ro
man e es d o not form an essential part o f the epic
They are simply episo d es beau ti fu l in themselves
a n d intimately connecte d w ith the epic
bu t still
strictly speakin g n ot organ ic parts o f t h e tale They
d o n o t stan d on the sam e level as the story o f El a i ne
l a Bl a unch which is o n e o f those bri ght li ghts i n the
pictu re which brin g ou t in bol d er relief t h e d ark
t ra gic sha d ows o f t h e work an d is there fore essen
tial t o the perfection o f the epic Even if we were
to su pp lement the prece d in g st u d ies with an analysis
of T e nnyson s version o f these tales the resu lt woul d
simply subst antiate more f u lly the conclusions at
which we have alrea d y arrive d I t wou l d present
only a d d itional instan ces of the stron g an d weak
points i n T en nyson s metho d At t imes we shou l d
s e e th e brilliant ima ination o f the poet castin g an
g
imperishable ra d iance over the scenes which he re
tan

a nd

I soud e ,

an d

A rt hu ri an

T he

3 48

E pi c

a d ventu res of this kni ght sim ilar to those o f Merlin

La ncelot etc I n other word s the story o f Geraint M
an d Eni d n ever seems to have fou n d favou r wit h the
Norman writ ers an d hence n ever fou n d its way into M

the castles of N orman En glan d I t was the o ffsprin g L, 3;

o f Wales ; it was d evelope d in Wales ; an d h ad it n ot
been for Chrestien it mi ght never have b een heard of
beyon d the bord ers of the lan d wh ich pro d uce d it
e mu st therefore now bi d a d ieu to the Planta enet
g
Cou rt an d the trouv eres who have been entertainin g
u s hitherto ; we m u st take ou r leave of Malory an d
honest William Caxton an d m ake an excu rsion into
Wales and Brittany
I n that noble an d spirite d poem by L l yw arch H en
parts
of
which
we
have
qu
ote
in
previou
s
chap
d
(
ters ) viz : the Ele gy on the d eath o f Ge ra i nt a h Er bi n
we have d irect gen u ine an d contemporary evi d en ce
to the fact that Geraint actu ally li v e d an d was a
note d warrior at the time when the Britons were
e n ga ge d in their erce stru ggle with the Saxons for
the possession of thei r an cestral lan d s
,

ort al s o f
T h e C h rist grant e d t h e praye rs o f me n
P rosperity an d gl o ry to B ritain

Whe n

G e raint w as

born

th e p

v en o pene d

he a

G e raint,
T he

T he

b l oo d st ain e d is c e l e brat e d by all

w arrio r c h i e f an d I t oo sin g o f G e rai n t
fo e o f t h e S axons, t h e f ri e n d o f t h e S aint s
-

an d

G e rai nt

E nid

3 49

B e fo re G e raint t h e t e rro r o f t h e foe

I s aw st e e d s f al l in t h e toi l o f b attl e
A n d a f t e r t h e s h o u t o f w ar a d r e ad f u l o n s e t
,

B e fo re G e r aint t h e sco ur ge o f t h e e n e my
I s aw st e e d s w h it e w it h fo am
A n d a ft e r t h e s h o ut o f b attl e a f u rio u s to rr e nt
,

At

L on gport

A n d myri ad s

s aw

of

th e

the

agin g o f s l au gh t e r

d e ad

Wa rrio rs b l oo d st aine d f ro m
-

At

L on gport w as G e raint

v al iant

T he

S l ayin g t h e

the

s l ain
w oo d l an d s

G e ra int

i f of the

e ne my in h i s f al l
ch e

ss au l t o f

of

D vo
e

n,

I n the Welsh Tria d s Geraint appears as o n e o f

the three g reat n aval com man d ers with twice three
score ships u n d er his ord ers a n d each ship man ne d
by twice th reescore seam en
I n the life of St T e il iaw secon d Bishop o f Llan
e l s h Sa i n t s we n d
d a ff given i n the L i ves of t h e
a qu aint me d i ae val le gen d respectin g o u r hero The
Bishop u pon the breakin g o u t of a pestilence in
Wales e d t o Armorica an d on his j ou rn ey was e n
t e rt ain e d by Gerain t kin g o f Cornwall from whom
h e receive d the hi ghest marks o f d istinction When
abou t to d epart the saint p romise d that the kin g
shou l d n ot d ie u ntil he h ad receive d the H oly Sacra
Many years after
ment at the Bishop s own han d s
,

Vi de

Not U
e

T he

0
5

A rt h u ri an E pi c

this Geraint was take n with a m ortal illness an d the

Bishop warne d miraculou sly of the fact took ship im
me d iately for Cornwall The sailors u nable t o carry
on b oar d a hu ge sarcophagus which the saint wishe d
to take with h im as a trib ute to the m emory of his
f ormer frien d he p erforme d a m iracle a n d the ston e
co f n oate d at the ship s p row an d arrive d safely
at its d estinat ion On his arrival the Bishop n d s
the kin g i n e xt re mis a d m inisters the last rites o f the
Chu rch an d thu s f u llls his previou s prom ise
Subsequ ently a still hi gher honou r awaite d him
I n a history o f H ereford o f the last centu ry there
is an accou nt of o n e o f the chu rches there o f which
the record s prove that it was ori g inally d e d icate d to
Geraint as its patro n sain t M oreover in a list o f
Welsh saints p ublishe d by M r Ritson are the
names o f two sons o f Geraint J estin ap Geraint ap
Erbi n an d Sil w e n verch Geraint ap Erbin
I n the Cambrian bar d s of the M i d d le A ges Ger
aint appears as the husban d of En i d d au ghter of
Y nyw l This heroine o f th e Welsh is hon ou re d in the
Tria d s as o n e o f the three fairest la d ies o f Arthur s
Cou rt i n beau ty the p eer of the Q ueen herself an d
as re markable for her gentleness as was Gu inevere
for her hau ghty d isposition
Bu t the rst co nnecte d accou nt w h ic h we possess
o f the cou rtshi p an d s u bsequent history o f Gerai nt
,

35

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

the y are canterin g alon g the roa d they h ear the

clatter of hoofs behin d them an d on lookin g aro u n d
s e e a you n g kni ght mou nte d o n a horse o f m ighty
size a nd hastenin g t o overtake them The ri d er is
a fair haire d yo u th o f princely m ien a gol d en hilte d
swor d d an g les at his si d e he wears a robe o f satin
an d across his shou l d ers is a scarf o f blu e pu rple
ornam ente d at either e n d with a gol d en apple The
kn ight salutes the Queen A n d why d i d st thou not
en
qu
ires
Q
ueen
Gwenh
o with thy lor d to h u nt ?
g
Bu t Geraint like the Q ueen h ad slept late
w y va r
U nwill
an d was has tenin g to overtake the Cou rt
i n g however to leave h is royal m istress he ri des
on at her si d e chattin g pleasantly till they com e to

the outskirts o f the forest

From this place ex
claime d the Qu e en we sh all hear when the d o gs

are let loose

Scarcely has s h e d one speakin g when
a sou n d o f approachin g horsemen breaks u pon the
air an d the n ext m om ent they s e e a d warf m o u nte d
on a foam in g horse stron g an d spirite d an d hol d in g
in his han d a hu ntin g whip Followin g c l ose behin d
is a la d y clothe d i n a garment o f gol d broca d e seate d
u pon a white palfry while at her si d e is a kni ht
g
arm e d an d riding hi s war horse The Q u een asks
Gerain t whether he kn ows the stran g e kni gh t bu t

he d oes not
Go mai d en sai d G w e n h w yvar t o h e r
lad y i n w aitin g an d as kt h e d warf w h o that kni ght
As

G e rai nt

an d

E nid

353

The d warf ref u ses to d iv u l ge the nam e o f his

master an d u pon the la d y s a d vancin g t o ask it i n
person the villai n strikes her across the face with
his whip s o that the bloo d streams down her cheek
Geraint seein g this cowar d ly attack this ins u lt to
his Qu een p uts spu rs to his horse rides u p to the
Bu t the ch u rl re
d warf an d renews the d em an d
peats the i nsult an d n ow strikes Sir G aw ai n e across
the face d rawin g the bloo d an d stain in g his scarf
I t was not allowable fo r a kni ght to battle with any
but one o f his own or d er nor cou l d he bein g u n
arm e d battle with the stran ge kn i ght H e accor d
i n gly ri d es back to the Qu een an d exclaims
La d y
I will follow him yet with thy p ermission ; an d at
last he will com e to some inhabite d place w h e re I
m ay have arms
s o that I may enco u nter

The Qu een g rants him permission an d

t h e kn i ght
Geraint d ashes into the forest an d is soon o u t o f
si ght
Keepin g t h e kni ght an d his companions in si ght
Geraint follows them till they come to a t own at t h e
ext remity o f w hich stan d s a fort ress a n d a castle
where kni ght la d y an d d warf enter am id the re j o ic
in gs of the peopl e Geraint watches for a while to
s e e whethe r the kni ght will remain in the castle a n d
w hen h e is certai n that he will d o s o he looks aro u n d
him an d at a little d istan ce f rom the t own he sees
is

23

T he

354

A rt h uri an E pi c

an o l d palace in ru ins
As he comes near the pal
ace he sees a hoary hea d e d man upon whom are
tattere d garments an d by him he is heartily wel
com e d to the humble cheer of the place
H ere
Geraint learns that the obj ect o f his p u rsu it is a pow
ef fiil f
ban d it] kni ght who lives near by an d who will
appear the n ext d ay in a tournament which is hel d
yearly an d at which withou t exception he has bith
erto carrie d o ff the hawk the p rize o f the conqu eror
Each combatant in this t ournament however has t o
appear accompanie d by his la d y who is requ ire d t o
place her han d u pon the bir d an d then the champion s
ght fo r it Geraint has n o la d y for whom to d o battle
bu t at that palace he m eets the beautifu l Eni d
d au ghter o f his host and with her when the t ime
arrives he enters the lists I n the sin g le combat
which ensu es Geraint nally overpowers h is an t ago
n ist an d compels him to swear on pain of instant
d eath to present himself at Cou rt a n d be g par d o n of
the Qu e en fo r the insu lt o ff ere d to her atten d ant
S u bsequ ently having m arrie d En i d Geraint con
d u cts her to Caerleon where the Q u ee n robes her in
on e o f her royal d resses a n d the Kin g at Gu in e
vere s request presents her w ith the hea d o f the
white stag which he has m eantim e won in the hu nt
Let it be given to Eni d the d a u ghter o f Y nyw l

t he most illustriou s m ai d en , sai d the Q u een

an d
.

T he

6
35

A rt h u ri an E pi c

ou t all their romantic j o u rney t he h e art o f Eni d ever

yearns to w ar d s him an d in spit e o f h is harsh re
proofs in spit e o f his morose con d u ct s h e shows
hers e lf a t ru e wife till even Geraint is w o n back by
her ten d e r loyalty Thoro u gh ly ass u r e d o f her love
fo r him alone h e retu rns to his kin gd om a warrior
p rince as o f o l d ; his barons ret urn to thei r alle
d
from
Eni
s
co u n t e
i
n ce ; the sorrow vanishes
a
g
nance an d s o the romance ends
S u ch then is the o u tlin e o f the story o f Ge ra i n t
a h Er hi n as tol d by the nameless writer o f this Welsh
Mabin o gi At what d ate this tale was written we
have n o means of j u d gin g We may safely ass e rt
however that it was comm itte d t o writin g at least
a h u n d re d years b efore Walter Map s time since the
manu scrip t wh ich contains the romance is conclu
s i v e l y prove d to belon g t o the eleventh cent u ry
B ut d oubtless like the other tales o r Mabin o gion in
the Re d Booh of H e rg e s t the o n e in q u estion h ad
existe d fo r cent u ries as an oral tra d it ion relate d by
bard s in the castles o f the nobles an d by h u mbler
story tellers at cottage re s id e s till at len gth it w as
comm itte d t o writin g by som e unknown lover o f his
early nat i v e literat ur e No sooner h ad this plain
tive Welsh tale ma d e its appearance than it w as
seize d upon by the m instr e ls o f Britta n y and
rin g the twelfth cent u ry was translate d into
du
,

Ge ra i nt
French by
mentione d

E ni d

an d

l e hon per e Ch r es t ie n

35 7

whom we before

I t will not be necessary to analyse the Frenc h

romance since the lea d in g in ci d ents are the sam e as
in th e Kym ric tale ; bu t there are c e rtai n points o f
d i ff e r e nce bet w een t h e two versi ons both i n m atte rs
o f fact a n d moti v es o f action as well as int erestin g
a d d itions intro d u ce d by the trouv ere which we shall
lance
at
in
passin
g
g
I n the Welsh story Arthu r hol d s his Cou rt at
Caerleon on U s k (Monm outh ) j u st as he d oes i n the
An glo N orman romances H e is now represente d as
an E mperor as well as Kin g an d what m ore nat u ral
than t o make his capital the City o f Le gions in im i
t at io n of that northern Caerleon w here real Roman
Empe rors h ad d welt from wh ich they had iss u e d
their imperial d ecre e s a n d wh ich even in afte r t im es
showe d by the remain s of palaces amphitheatres an d
temples the gran d eu r to which it had once attaine d
But Chrestien states that the Kin g hel d his Co u rt at
Car d i gan an d not at Caerleon The point is cu rious
for althou gh Ch r s t ie n s m otive in makin g the chan ge
is not apparent yet before the t im e o f Geo ffrey we
d o n ot n d that Caerleon hol d s the d istin g u ishe d po si
t ion w hich it a fterward s d id I n the ol d est tra d itions
o f A rthu r we n d that his permanen t resi d en ce
chief palace was at Ke l l iw e g in Devonshire an d this
,

C
i

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

8
35

perfectly accor d s with the ol d est accou nts which stat e

him to have been a petty prince of Cornwall an d not
a Welsh Emperor I n the Tria d s however we are
tol d that Arthu r h ad three chief palaces his favou r
ite one bein g at Ke l l iw e g the secon d at Caerleon and
the thir d at Pe n ryh n in the N orth That Caerleon
even in early times h ad becom e the favou rite royal
city with writers o n this su bj ect is clear from the
fact that i n a late r tria d on e o f th e three great festi
vals o f Britain is sai d to be that which Arthu r an n u
ally held at Caerleon I t is n ot then su rprisin g that
Chrestie n shoul d have chan ge d the site o f the Kin g s
palace bu t that he shou l d have d one s o withou t any
assi gnab l e reason
{
9
With the Fren ch trouv ere Arthu r is Kin g n ot Em M y
r ; b u t whereas the Welsh writer simp l y says m
e
r
o
p
plain u nvarnishe d prose that he hel d his
M M
the Frenchman makes him a m ost mi ghty monarch
w hose Cou rt eclipse d in splen d ou r anythin g that the
worl d h ad ever known and as its hi gh est glory he
d raws the fellowship of Rou n d Table kni ghts as they
are d epicte d i n the An lo Norman roman ces
g
A n d here we are m et by a secon d c u riou s fact
Arth u r bein g a Kym ric hero we sho u l d nat u rally
expect to n d eith e r in the writin gs of the Welsh
bard s o r i n thos e o f the Bretons the rst m e ntion
o f t h is celebrate d or d er o f the Rou n d Table
But
,

A rt h u ri an

T he

6
0
3

E pi c

many stories abo u t it the Welsh Layamon repeats

the statement ; the French Chr estien avowe d ly copy
i ng from a Breton ori ginal has the le gen d i n its m ost
f u lly d evelope d form tho u gh withou t the spiritu ali
sation of Walter Map whereas n o extant Welsh tale
seems to know s o m uch as th e bare existence of the
Rou n d Table
I n the Kym ric tale m oreover o u r hero is calle d

simply Geraint s o n o f Erbin thu s a greein g with

the gen u in e an d ancien t acco u nts o f his g enealo gy ;
but Chrestien calls hi m E rec son o f a kin g the pow
e rfu l Lac an d n ot content with this h e u nblushin ly
g
makes Geraint say
M
A
i
4
A 1n 5 1 m ape l e n t 1
1 B reton
,

to
this
accou
n
t
he
becomes
i
n
tim
e
a

T
E
kni ght o f t h e Ro u n d Table is m ost hi gh ly esteem e d
a n d most d early belove d by Kin g an d Cou rt ; he is
han d some brave graceful an d genero u s ; altho u gh
bu t twenty ve years o f age yet in the wid e worl d
there were few kn i ghts t o be fou n d h is eq u al whether
on the el d o f battle o r in the t ou rnament
The ge ntle E ni d as we have alrea d y seen is cele M

a
brat e d in the Tria d s as on e o f the three most beaut i
fu l women at Arthu r s Co u rt ; the lat e r W e lsh ro
m an ce r calls her the m ost bea u tif u l in Britain ; the
Fren chman not to be out d on e intro d u ces her as the
g co rd i n g

Ad

W
M

G e rai nt

E ni d

a nd

6
1
3

most beautifu l that ever live d

She w as he says
perfectly beautif u l as nat u re can testi fy no fairer
has ever been seen in the w orl d
M oreover he
makes Q ueen G u i nevere (the hi ghest j u d ge o f fe
male beauty) a d orn Eni d with her own han d s
whereas the Welsh write r simply says an d the
choicest o f al l G w e n h w yvar s apparel was g iven t o

th e mai d en
T h rou ghou t the French version we nd all the
rou gh lin es of the Kymric p ictu re softene d d own all
that is weird transforme d an d polishe d an d nothin g
allowe d t o remain that m i ght in the sli ghtest d e gree
rate
u
pon
the
polite
ears
o
f
French
chivalry
The
g
d warf no lon ger carries in h is han d a ru d e h untin g
whip bu t a d elicate switch an d when the Qu een s
atten d ant attempts t o n ear the kni ght the d warf
bu rstin g with ra ge a i ms a Ne w a t h e r fa ce bu t she
raisin g her arm war d s o ff the blow a n d s o he strikes
her across the bare han d There is n o whip n o
brutal stroke across the face n o spu rt in g forth o f
the bloo d
So in the Welsh romance the prize at the chase
of the whit e sta g is the blee d in g hea d o f th e animal
Geraint says to the Emperor
Perm it that i nto
whose h unt soever the sta g shall com e that one be
he a kni ght or one on foot m ay cut o ff h is hea d
a n d g ive it to whom he pleases whether to his own
.

A rt h u ri an

T he

2
6
3

E pi c

la d y love o r to the la d y o f his frien d an d so it was

rante
u t in the French romance Geraint s re
d
B
g
qu est is chan ge d here he asks the Kin g :
Sire we
u n d erstan d that there is an an cient custom at the
chase o f a white sta g that he who kills th e stag shall

have the ri ght t o kiss th e fairest la d y of you r Cou rt

afte r the h u nt an d when Geraint
an d accor d in gly
has brou ght h is fair wife Eni d to the Co u rt Gu in e
vere tells her husban d the Kin g who has m eantim e
won the prize Sire you may kiss En i d as the m ost
beautifu l la d y of the Cou rt for s h e is the fairest of

the worl d
Thu s p erm itte d Arth u r replies She
shall ha v e t h e priz e o f the wh it e sta g fo r n o o n e
shal l ever acc u se m e o f n o t maintain in g th e ancient

custom s o f my real m
Then t u rnin g t o En i d he

a d d s : Sweet f rien d I g i v e y o u my lo v e an d em
braces h e r The priz e o f t he blee d in g hea d was t oo
prim itiv e t o o r u d e t o o weird fo r Chrestien to a d opt
I n h is eyes the la d ies o f Arthu r s Court req u ire d
one m ore d elicate m ore re ne d more gallant i n a
wor d m ore French a n d h e nce the blee d in g hea d i s
t rans f orm e d into a kiss
Bu t by f ar t h e m ost important o f these ren in g
to u ch e s o f t h e tro u v ere appears in t h e m otive
whic h he attribut es t o Erec fo r aban d on in g his life
o f eas e a n d l u x u ry
T h e W e lsh story teller ma k e s
G e raint to have be e n act u ate d by j ealo u sy o f som e
-

T he

6
3 4

A rt h u ri an

E pi c

episo d e in the life o f one o f t h e m ost d istin gu ishe d

kni ghts of the Ro u n d Table is o f interest i n su ch a
review o f the Arthu rian Epic as we are n ow takin g
At t h e sam e t im e o u r obj ect in intro d ucin g this
tale which has n o organic connection with the
cycl u s is chiey t o show the pictu resq u e wei r d n ess
of a Welsh Mabin o gi or romance an d the ren e d
an d d elicate manner in which the poet has reset the
tale
The romance o f Ge m zn t d Er i n opens as we
have j u st seen with t h e proclamation by the Kin g s
heral d s o f the chase o f the whit e stag an d the per
m ission grante d to G w e n h w yvar t o be present on
the m orro w at the hunt After narratin g these
inci d ents the Welsh romancer procee d s to giv e a
d escription o f the start o f Arth u r an d the Cou rt for
the Forest o f Dean an d G w e n h w yvar s late appear
an ce on the grou n d : A n d after Arth u r h ad gone
forth from the palace G w e n h w yv ar awoke an d calle d
t o her mai d ens an d apparelle d herself
Mai d ens
sai d she I h ad leave last n i ght t o go a n d s e e the
hu nt Go one o f y o u to the stable an d or d er hither
horses
A n d G w e n h w y v ar an d o n e o f her
mai d en s m ounte d them an d went thro u gh the U s k
a n d followe d the t rack o f the m en a n d the horses
A n d as they ro d e th u s they hear d a lo u d an d r u s h
in g s o u n d an d they looke d behin d them an d behel d
,

'

G e ra i n t

and

E nid

6
3 5

a kni ght u pon a hu nter foal o f m i ghty size a n d the

ri d er was a fair haire d yo u th
o f princely
m i e n an d a gol d e n hilte d sword w as at his si d e an d
a robe an d a su rcoat of sati n were upon him
at each
a n d aro u n d him w as a scarf o f bl u e p u rpl e
corne r o f w hich w as a gol d e n apple A n d h is horse
steppe d stately an d swift an d prou d a n d he over
took G w e n h w yvar an d salute d her
H eaven p ros

per thee Geraint sai d s h e

I knew thee when rst
I s aw thee j u st n ow A n d the welcome of heaven be
u nto thee A n d why d i d st thou not go wit h thy lor d
t o h u nt ?
Beca u se I kn ew not when h e we nt sai d
he
I too was asleep a n d kne w n ot when he

went [sai d G w e n h w y var]

it may be that
I shall be m ore amu se d with t h e h u ntin g than they ;
for we shall hear the horns when they so u n d an d
we shall hear the d o gs when they are let loose an d
be gin to cry
5 0 they went to the e d g e o f the F o r
est an d th e re th e y stoo d
From this place sai d
we shall hear when the d o gs are let loose A n d
sh e
there u pon they hear d a lou d noise
an d
they behel d a d w arf ri d in g u pon a horse
A nd i n t h e h a n d of Me d w a rf w as a w /zzjo
A n d n ear
the d warf t h e y s aw a la d y u pon a beauti f u l white
a n d s h e w as clothe d i n a
horse
arm
ent
g
o f gol d broca d e A n d n ear her was a kn i ght upon
a warhorse of lar ge size with heavy an d bri ght
-

T he

6
6
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

armo u r both u pon himself an d up on his horse A n d

truly they never be fore s aw a kn i ght o r a horse or
arm ou r o f s u ch remarkable size
Geraint
sai d G w e nh w yvar knowest tho u the nam e o f that

tall kn i ght yon d er ?

I know him not sai d he
a n d th e stran ge arm our that he wears prevents my
either seein g his face o r his featu res
Go m ai d en
sai d Gw e nh w yvar an d ask the d warf who that
kn i ght i s
Then the mai d en went u p to the d warf
a n d in q u ire d o f the d warf who the kni ht
g
I will n o t tell th e e he answere d Since thou
w as
art s o ch u rlish as not t o tell m e sai d s h e I will ask

him himself Thou shalt not ask him by my faith

sai d he
Wherefore ? sai d s h e
Because thou art
n ot of hon ou r su f cient to be t thee to speak to my
lord
Then the m ai d en tu rne d her horse s hea d t o w
ar d s the kn i ght u pon which t h e d w a rf s t r uch h e r
.

w i t h t h e w h ip t h a t w a s i n h is h a nd

a cr oss

the

for t h

ey e s ,

u n t il

t he

bl ood

ow e d

t he

fa

ce a nd

A nd

the

mai d en
ret u rne d to G w e nh w y var co m

plai nin g of the pai n

V ery ru d e l y has the d w arf

treate d thee sai d Geraint

I w ill go mysel f to
know who th e kni ght is
Go sai d G w e nh w yvar
A n d Geraint wen t u p to the d warf
Who is yon d er

kni ght ? sai d Geraint

I will not tell thee sai d

the d warf
Then will I ask h im himself sai d he
That wilt thou n o t by my faith sai d the d warf
,

A r t h u ri an E pi c

T he

6
8
3

A pu rpl e sc arf at e ith e r e n d w h e re o f

T h e re s w un g an appl e o f t h e pu re st gol d
Sw ay d ro u n d abo ut h i m as h e gal l ope d u p
T o j oin th e m gl an c i n g l i k e a d ragon y
I n s u mm e r s u it an d si l k s o f h o l i d ay
L o w b ow d t h e t rib u t ary P rin c e an d sh e
S w e e tl y an d st at e l i ly an d w it h al l grac e
O f w o man h oo d an d q u e e n h oo d an sw e r d h im

l at e r t h an w e
L ate l at e Si r P rin c e
s h e s ai d

h e an sw e r d
an d s o l at e
Y e a nob l e Q u e e n
T h at I but c o m e l i k e yo u to s e e t h e h u n t

T h e re fo re w ait w ith me s h e s ai d
Not j oi n it
Fo r o n t h is l ittl e kn ql l i f an yw h e re
T h e re i s goo d c h an c e th at w e sh al l be ar t h e h ou n d s

H e re o ft e n th e y b re ak co v e rt at ou r f e e t
,

An d w h il e

th e y l ist e n d for t h e d ist ant h u nt

A n d c h i e y fo r t h e b ayin g o f C aval l
K i n g Arth u r s h o u n d o f d e e pe st mo u th th e re ro d e
F ul l s l o w l y by a k ni gh t l ad y an d d w arf
W h e re o f t h e d w a rf l agg d l at e st an d t h e k n i gh t
H a d v i z o r u p an d s h o w d a yo ut h f u l f a c e
I mpe rious an d o f h au gh ti e st l in e am e nts
A n d G u in e v e re n o t m in d fu l o f h i s f ac e
I n t h e K i n g s h al l d e si re d h is n am e an d s e nt
H e r ma i d e n t o d e m an d it o f t h e d w arf
h o b e in g v icio u s ol d an d i rrit ab l e
A n d d o ub l i n g al l h i s m ast e r s v ic e o f pr i d e
M ad e answ e r sh arpl y th at sh e sh ou l d n o t k now

T h e n w i l l I ask it o f h i m s e l f s h e s ai d

Nay b y m y f ait h t h o u sh al t n ot c ri e d t h e d w arf

T h ou art n ot w o rth y e v n to spe ak o f h im

G e rai nt
And whe n

St r uch

at

sh e

u
t
p

and

h e r h o rs e

h e r w i th h i s w h ip,

E nid

to w ard

6
3 9

k ni gh t

the

an d s h e r e

t u rn

I n d i gn ant to t h e Q u e e n w h e re at G e ra int

E xc l ai mi n g S u r e ly I w i l l l e arn t h e n ame
M ad e sh arply to t h e d w arf an d askd it o f h im
Wh o an sw e r d as b e fore an d w h e n t h e P ri n c e
H ad pu t h i s h o rs e i n motio n to w ar d t h e k n i gh t
,

St r a ch

T he

hi m w i th h i s w h ip, a nd cut h is ch e e h
r inc e s b l oo d s pi rt e d u po n t h e sc ar ,
at

C au gh t

Dy in g it

at

h is

an d

it

the h l

Bu t h e , f r om hi s

q u ic k i sti ti v
,

as

nc

to abo l ish

e xce e di ng

h an d

h im

ma nf ul n ess

A n d pu re n obi l ity o f t e m pe r am e n t ,
W roth to be w roth at s u ch a w o rm ,

r e fra n

F ro m e v n a w o rd an d so re t u rnin g s ai d
I w i l l av e n ge t h is insu l t nob l e Q u e e n

D on in yo u

s pe rson t o yo u rs e l f
A n d I w i l l t rac k t h is v e rm in to t h e i r e art h s
Fo r t h o I ri d e u n arm d I d o n o t d o u bt
T o n d at so me pl ac e I sh al l c o me at arms
an d b e i n g f o u n d
O n l o an o r e l s e fo r pl e d ge
T h e n w i l l I gh t h i m an d w i l l b re ak h is pri d e
A n d o n t h e t h i rd d ay w i l l agai n b e h e re

S o th at I b e not fal l n in gh t F arew e l l

e

m ai d e n

I n one point in the abo v e extract it will be seen

t h at Ten nyson has fo l lowe d the French rom ance
rather than th e Welsh st ory for he tells u s that the
d warf
,

St ru ch

at

h e r w i th h i s w h ip

A rt h uri an E pi c

T he

0
7

The mai d e n was i n d i gnant as was natu ral b ut s h e

d oes not appear t o have be e n otherwise hu rt n o r is
th e re any m e ntion o f the spirtin g forth of bloo d
I n or d er t o pu nish the i nsu lt o ffere d to his Q u een
as well as t o himself by the d w arf who accompanie d
the ban d it kni ght Geraint followe d him the livelon g
d ay till at len gth he cam e to a town where the kni gh t
h ad his castle

At a little d istan ce from the town says the ro

he s aw an o ld palace in ruins wh e rein was
man ce r
a hall that was fall in g t o d ecay A n d as he kn e w
n o t anyone in the t own
he went to w ar d s the o l d
palac e ; a n d whe n he cam e n ear t o the palace h e
s aw bu t o n e chamber an d a bri d ge of marble ston e
lea d in g to it A n d u pon the bri d ge he s aw sittin g
a hoary hea d e d man upon whom w e r e tattere d gar
m ents A n d Geraint gaz e d stea d fastly u pon him fo r
a lon g time Th e n t h e hoary h ea d e d m an spoke t o

Y ou n g man he sai d
him
w herefore art thou

tho u ghtful ?
I am t h o u ght f u l sai d he becau se
I know n o t wh e re t o go t o ni ght
Wilt tho u com e
f or w ar d this way chi eftain ? sai d h e an d thou
shalt h ave o f the b e st that can be proc u re d for thee
S o Geraint went forwar d A n d the hoary hea d e d
man prece d e d him into the hall A n d i n the hall he
d ismo u nte d a n d h e left ther e his horse
Then he
went o n to the u ppe r cham ber with t h e hoary hea d e d
,

37

Of

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

o ut e d th istl e

s pr

H e l o o kd

an d s aw

H e re stoo d

b ro k e n sto n e s
th at al l w as ru i n o us
on

a s h att e r

A n d h e re h a d f all

th e

l
u
m
e
h
d
w
it
p
ar
f
a to w e r
t
o
p
,

arc h w ay

fe

rn

a gre at
Wh ol e l i k e a c rag th at t u mb l e s fro m t h e c l i ff
i l d in g ow e rs
A n d l i k e a c ra g w as gay w ith W
A n d h i gh abo v e a pi e c e o f t u rr e t st ai r
o rn by t h e f e et th at n ow w e re si l e nt w o u n d
B are t o t h e s un an d monst ro u s ivy st e ms
C l aspt t h e gray w al l s w it h h a i ry bre d arm s
A n d s u c kd t h e j oi n i n g o f t h e sto n e s an d l o o kd
A k n ot b e ne ath o f sn ak e s al o ft a gro v e

'

E nt e rin g t h e n
R i gh t o e r a mo unt o f n e w l y f al l e n ston e s
T h e d u s ky raft e r d man y c obw e b d h al l
H e f o u n d an anci e n t d ame in d i m b ro c a d e
A n d n e ar h e r l i k e a b l osso m ve rm e i l w h i t e
T h at l i gh tl y b re ak s a fad e d ow e r sh e ath
M o v e d t h e f ai r E ni d al l in f ad e d si l k
,

a mom e nt th ou gh t G e rai n t

H e re by G o d s roo d is t h e o n e m ai d fo r m e
Bu t n one spak e w or d e xc e pt t h e h o ary E arl
E n i d t h e goo d k ni gh t s h o rs e st an d s in t h e c o u rt
T ak e h im t o st al l an d gi v e h im c o rn an d t h e n
G o t o t h e tow n an d bu y u s e s h an d w i n e
A n d w e w i ll m ak e u s m e rry as w e m ay

O u r h o ard i s l ittl e bu t o u r h e arts are gr e at

H e r d au gh t e r

In

Earl Y ny w l after the f r u gal ban q u e t

m
spen d the evenin g hou rs talkin g o f the o l d palace
wherein they s at its h istory an d o f by gon e d ays an d
3
L
o f the castl e o n t h e hill the town and o f the kni ht
g
G e raint

an d

G e ra i n t

a nd

E nid

3 73

of t he Sparrow H awk an d of the tou rnament on the

m orrow ; an d then Gerain t recou nts his a d vent u re

Sir sai d Geraint

a n d the insult he h a d receive d
what is thy cou nsel t o m e concernin g this kn i ght
o n accou nt o f the insu lt which I recei v e d from t h e
d warf an d that which was receive d by the mai d en

A n d Geraint
o f G w e n h w y v ar the w if e o f Arth u r ?
tol d the hoary hea d e d man what the ins u lt was that
h e h ad receive d
I t is n ot easy to cou n sel thee
inasmu ch as thou hast n either d ame n or m ai d en be
lon gi n g to thee f or whom thou canst j oust

Ah ! Sir sai d he
A n d if when the ap
pointe d time shall com e t o morrow thou wilt p e rm it
m e Sir to challen ge for yon d er mai d e n that is thy
d au ghter I will en ga ge i f I escape from the tou rna
m ent t o lo v e the mai d en as lon g as I li v e

sai d the hoary hea d e d

G la d ly w ill I perm it thee
a n d thu s it was settl e d
man ;
A n d at n i ght

1
0 ! they went to sleep
I n the I d yll of the Ma r r iag e of Ge r a in t these
inci d ents are portraye d with remarkable d elity
H ere the hoary hea d e d Earl after he h ad heard
Geraint s vow to aven ge the Q u een tells him
-

to u rn am ent can no m an ti l t
l ad y h e l o v e s b e st b e t h e re

Bu t i n t h is

Exc e pt

the

Bu t t h o u , t h at h ast

no

l a d y,

c an

st

n ot

gh t
.

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

3 74

Then
G e ra int w ith

eye s al l b ri gh t re pl i e d
T h y l e av e
L e an i n g a l itt l e tow ard h im
L e t me l ay l an c e in rest 0 nob l e h ost
,

For th is

a ea r ch il a

i f I l ive
S o ai d m e H e av en w h e n at m i n e u tt e rmost

A s I w i l l mak e h e r t ru l y my t ru e w i f e
,

After the j oust an d overthrow of the Sparrow

H awk Geraint an d his frie n d s retu rn t o th e ruine d
palace an d after the kni ght h ad com e from the
anointin g o f his wou n d s
where sai d Geraint is
the Earl Y nyw l an d his wi fe an d his d a u ghter ?

They are i n th e chamber yon d er sai d the Earl s

arrayin g themselves
Let
C hamberlain
n o t the d amsel array hersel f
sai d he except in her
vest an d her veil u ntil sh e com e to the Cou rt o f
Arthu r to b e cla d by G w e nh w yvar i n such garments
as s h e m ay choose
So th e mai d en d id not array
hersel f
Then spoke Earl Y nyw l to Geraint
Chieftain sai d he behol d the mai d en for w hom
thou d i d st challen ge at the tou rnament ; I bestow
her u pon thee
She s h all go with m e sai d Ger

aint to the Cou rt o f Arthu r ; an d Arth u r an d

G w e nh w yvar they shall d ispose o f her as they will
A n d the next d ay they p rocee d e d to Arth u r s Court
a n d there was a watch s e t on the rampart s
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

6
37
h ad

never see n a mai d fairer t h an s h e A n d Arth u r

e rain t
a
v
e
away
t
he
mai
d
en
t
o
G
a
n
the
d
g
choicest o f all G w e n h w yvar s apparel w as g i v en to

the mai d en
I n the I d yll whil e E ni d is arrayin g hers e lf fo r t h e
j o u rney to Arth u r s Co u rt Gerain t
.

W o k e w h e re h e s l e pt in t h e h i gh h al l an d
Fo r E n i d an d w h e n Y n iol m ad e re po rt
O f th at goo d moth e r ma k in g E ni d gay

c al l

s u c h appare l as m i gh t w e l l b e s e e m
H i s pr in c e ss o r in d e e d t h e st at e l y Q u e e n
In

He

an sw e r

E arl e ii t re at

h e r by m y l o

ve

T h at s h e ri d e w ith m e i n h e r fad e d si l k
Y n i ol w it h t h at h ard m e s s age w e nt
it f e l l
L i k e aw s in s u m m e r l ayi n g l u sty c o rn
Fo r E n i d al l ab as h d s h e k n e w n o t w h y
D are d n ot to gl an c e at h e r goo d m oth e r s f ac e
Bu t si l e n tl y in al l ob e d i e nc e
H e r moth e r si l e n t t o o n o r h e l pi n g h e r
L ai d f ro m h e r l i mbs t h e c ost l y b ro i d e r d gi ft
A n d rob e d th e m i n h e r ancient s u it a gai n
A n d so d e sc e n d e d
.

Geraint

Th

s e e i n g c l o u d upon t h e m oth e r s b row

H e r b y bo t h h an d s h e c au gh t an d s w e e t l y s ai d

en

Wh e n

M ad e

l at e I l e
r

f t C a e rl e o n

o m i s e th at
,

our

t Q ue e n

re a

t e v e r b ri d e I b ro u gh t

wh a

G e ra i nt

an d

E nid

377

H ersel f w o ul d c l oth e h e r l i k e t h e s un in H e av e n
T h e re aft e r w h e n I reac h e d th is ru i n d h al l
B e h o l d in g o n e so b ri gh t in d ark e st ate
I vo w d t h at co ul d I gain h e r o u r f ai r Q ue e n
N o h an d bu t h e rs sh o u l d mak e yo ur E ni d b urst
S un l i k e f ro m c l o ud

"

so they bid a d ieu t o the ru ine d palace

st art for C aerleo n and the Cou rt
A nd

and

No w t h rice t h at mo rnin g G u ine v er e h ad c l imb d

T h e giant to w e r, f ro m w h os e h i gh c re st , t h e y s ay
Me n s aw t h e goo d ly h i l l s o f S o me rs e t ,

sai l s yin g o n t h e yel l ow s e a

Bu t n ot to goo d ly h i ll o r ye l l o w se a
L o o kd t h e f ai r Q u e e n bu t u p t h e v al e o f U s k
By t h e at m e ad o w ti l l sh e s aw t h e m c o me
A n d th e n d escen d in g m e t t h e m at t h e gat e s
E mb ra c e d h e r w ith all w e l co me as a f ri e n d
A n d d i d h e r h ono u r as t h e P ri n c e s b r i d e
A n d c l oth e d h e r fo r h e r bri d al s l i k e t h e s u n
A n d w h ite

Bu t

E ni d e v e r k e pt t h e fad e d si l k

R e me mbe rin g h ow rst

D st in th t d ss
re

re

an d

he

c am e

on

h ow h e l o

h e r,

ve d

her

in it

fool ish f e ars abo ut t h e d re ss

h i s j o u rn e y to w ard h e r as h i ms e l f
her

An d

al l

An d

all

H ad

tol d

h e r,

an d

th e i r co m in g to

th e

cou rt

We can n ot re frain from n oticin g on e inci d ent

amon g many in the I d yll of the Ma r r iag e of Ge ra i nt
where the poet s fancy h as a d d e d a ten d er t o u c h to
the Welsh story viz : where the m other d iscloses t o
,

A rt h u r i a n

T he

8
37

E pi c

an artless chil d th e fact that s h e is belove d by Geraint

ab Erbin prince of Devon
The Earl afte r En i d has g on e t o her chamber for
the n i ght speakin g to h is wife
-

An d

fon d l i n g all

M oth e r

h e r h an d

in

sai d

h is h e

m ai d e n

is a t e n d e r th i n g
A n d b e st by h e r t h at bor e h e r u n d e rstoo d
G o t h o u t o r e st bu t e re th o u go t o r e st

T el l h e r an d pro v e h e r h eart tow ard t h e P rin c e

,

So

spak e

th e

k in d ly h e arte d E arl
-

an d sh e

W ith f re qu e nt sm i l e an d n o d d e parti n g fo u n d
H al f d i s array d as t o h e r re st t h e gi rl
W h o m rst sh e ki ss d on e ith er c h e e k an d th e n
O n e it h e r sh i n i n g s h o u l d e r l ai d a h an d
A n d k e pt h e r o ff an d gaz e d u pon h e r f a c e
A n d to l d h e r all t h e i r c on v e rs e in t h e h al l
P rov i n g h e r h e art bu t n e v e r l i gh t an d sh ad e
,

C o u rse d

anoth e r mor e o n open gro un d

B e ne ath a troub l e d h e av e n th an re d an d pal e
Ac ross t h e f ac e o f E n i d h e ari n g h e r
W h i l e sl ow l y f al l i n g as a s c al e th at fall s
W h e n w e i gh t is a d d e d on l y grai n by grai n
S an k h e r sw e e t h e ad u pon h e r ge ntl e b re ast
No r d i d s h e l i ft an e ye n o r spe ak a w o rd
R apt in t h e f e ar an d in t h e w on d e r o f it
on e

These are the pict u res in which Ten nyson excels :

scenes in which t h e chasten e ss an d p u rity o f h is
e n i u s can n d expression
o
m
i
n
the
sin
l
B
e
c
u
t
g
g
bats w ith recreant kni gh ts an d ban d it earls h e falls
,

T he

8
0
3

A rt h u ri an E pi c

f rien d ship o f his n obles to gether with his hu ntin g an d

his amusements and lost the hearts of all the h ost i n
his cou rt ; an d there was m u rmurin g an d s co fn g con
cern in g him amon g the inhabitants o f th e palace on
accou nt o f his relin qu ishin g so completely their com
n d these ti d in gs
an i o n s h ip fo r the love o f his wife
A
p
cam e to Erbin A n d when Erbin h ad hear d these
thin gs he spoke u nto E ni d an d enqu ire d o f her
whether it was s h e that h ad cause d Geraint t o act
th u s an d t o forsake his p eople an d his hosts
Not
I by my con fession u nto H eaven sai d s h e ; there
is n othin g more hatefu l t o m e than this
A nd sh e
kn ew n o t what s h e sho u l d d o for althou gh it was
har d fo r her t o own this to Geraint yet was it not
more easy fo r her to listen t o what s h e hear d withou t
warnin g Geraint con cernin g it A n d s h e was ve ry
sorrowful
A n d o n e morn in g i n the su mmer t ime they were
up on thei r cou ch an d Geraint lay u pon t h e e d g e o f
i t A n d En i d was without sleep in the apartm en t
which h ad win d ows o f glass A n d the su n shone
upon the cou ch A n d the clothes h ad slippe d from
o ff his arms an d his breast a n d he was asleep
The n
she gaze d upon the m ar v ellou s beauty o f his appear
ance an d s h e sai d : Alas an d am I the ca u se that
these arms an d this breast have lost their glory a n d
the warlike f ame which they once s o richly enj oye d ?
,

G e ra i n t
A nd

an d

E nid

1
8
3

sai d this the tears d roppe d from h e r eyes

a n d they f e ll u pon h is breast
A n d the tears s h e she d
a n d the wor d s s h e h a d spoken awok e him ; a n d an
other thin g contrib u te d t o awaken him an d that was
the i d ea that it w as not in thinkin g o f hi m that s h e
spoke thus bu t that it was because s h e lo v e d som e
other man more than hi m an d that s h e wishe d fo r
other society an d ther e u pon Geraint was trouble d

in his min d
H ow n e ly is this tol d by the poet ! Geraint an d
Eni d
as s h e

st
t
h
i
r
w
n
l
an d
t
o
e
o
p
W h e re t h in k i n g th at i f e v e r ye t w as w i f e
T r u e to h e r l ord m ine sh all be so t o me
H e c o m pas s d h e r w ith s w e e t O bs e rv a n c e s
A n d w o rs h i p n e v e r l e av in g h e r an d gre w
F o rge t f u l o f h is pro m is e to t h e K i n g
F o rge t fu l o f t h e fal con an d t h e h u n t
F o rge t ful o f t h e ti l t an d to u rn ame nt
F o rge t ful o f h is gl o ry an d h is n ame
F o rge t ful o f h is pri n c e d o m an d i t s c are s
A n d t h is fo rge t f u l n e ss w as h at e f u l t o h e r
A n d by an d by t h e pe o pl e w h en t h e y m e t
I n t w os an d th r e e s o r f u l l e r c o mpani e s
B e gan t o s c o ff an d j e e r an d b abb l e o f h im
A s o f a pri n c e w h os e m an h oo d w as al l gon e
A n d m o l t e n d o w n in m e re u xorio u sn e ss
a

A n d d ay by d ay s h e t h o u gh t t o t e l l G e raint ,
Bu t c ou l d n o t o u t o f bas h u l d e l i c acy

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2
8
3

W h i l e h e th at w at ch d h e r s ad d e n w as
S uspi c io us th at h e r n atu re h ad a t aint

th e

mo re

it c h an c e d th at on a su mme r mo rn
r
h
h
u
n
ac
s
T
y
s
in
e
h
by
e
it
e
t
e
n
w
l
h
e
e
e
e
(
)
p g
B e at t h ro t h e b l in d l e ss cas e me nt o f t h e roo m
A n d h e ate d t h e st ron g w arrior in h i s d re ams
h o mo v i n g c ast t h e c o v e rl e t asi d e
A n d b ar e d t h e k nott e d co l u mn o f h i s th ro at
T h e massi v e s q u are o f h i s h eroi c b re ast
A n d a r ms o n w h i ch t h e st an d in g mu s c l e s l o pe d
A s sl o pe s a w i l d b roo k o e r a l ittl e ston e
R unnin g t oo v e h e me ntl y to b re ak u pon it
A n d E ni d w o k e an d sat b e si d e t h e c o u c h
Ad mi rin g h im an d th o u gh t w ith in h e rs e l f
as e v e r m an so gran d l y mad e as h e ?
T h e n l i k e a sh ad ow past t h e peopl e s t al k
A n d accus ation o f u xo rio u sn e ss
Ac ross h e r m in d an d bow in g o v e r h im
L o w to h e r o w n h e a rt pit e ousl y s h e s a i d
At

l ast,

O nob l e b reast an d al l pu issant a rms

A m I t h e cause I t h e poo r c au s e t h at m e n
R e pro ach you s ayin g al l yo ur fo rc e i s gon e 7
I a m t h e c au s e b e c aus e I d are n o t spe ak
A n d t e ll h im w h at I t h in k an d w h at t h e y s ay
A n d ye t I h at e t h at h e s h o u l d l in ge r h e re
I c annot l o v e my l o rd an d n ot h is n ame
Far l i e f e r h ad I gir d h is h arn e ss o n h im
-

i d e w ith h im t o battl e an d stan d by

A n d w at c h h i s m i gh t f u l h an d st ri k i n g great b l ow s
At c aiti ffs an d at w ron ge rs o f t h e w orl d
Far bette r w e re I l ai d in th e d ark e arth ,
An d

A rt h u r i an E pic

T he

8
3 4

Geraint tho u gh v ictoriou s is le ft o n t h e el d d an

wo
u n d e d a n d in a s w oon
ro u s l
e
g
y
Pi ercin g an d lo u d an d thrillin g w as t h e cry that
E n i d u tter e d A n d s h e came an d stoo d over hi m
n d at the so u n d
h
ad fallen
A
Geraint
here
he
w
]
[
o f her cries came the Earl o f Limo u rs a n d the host
that j o u rn e ye d with him whom her lam entations
bro u ght o u t o f their roa d A n d the Earl sai d t o Eni d
Alas La d y what hath befallen thee ?
Ah 1goo d
Si r sai d s h e the only man I have love d o r eve r
shall love is slain
The Earl tho u ght that
there st ill r e maine d some li f e in Geraint ; an d to s e e i f
h e y e t w ou l d live h e h ad hi m carrie d with him in the

hollo w o f his shiel d an d u p on a bier

A n d when
they arri v e d at the co u rt Geraint was place d u pon a
litter co u ch in fron t o f the table that was in th e hall
Then they all took o ff thei r t ravellin g gear an d the
Earl besou ght Eni d to d o the sam e an d to clothe
hers e lf in other garm ents
I will n ot by H eaven

sai d s h e
Ah ! La d y sai d h e be not s o sorrow

fu l fo r this m atter
I t were har d to persua d e me
t o be otherwise sai d s h e
I will act towar d s thee

sai d the Ea rl in su ch wise that thou nee d est n ot be

sorrowf u l whether yon d er kni ght live o r d ie Be
hol d a goo d Earl d om t o g ether wit h myself w i l l I
bestow o n thee ; be therefore happy an d j oyf u l
I
d e clare to H eaven sai d s h e
that hen ceforth I s h all
,

G e rai nt

an d

E nid

8
3 5

n ever be j oyfu l while I live

Come then sai d he

No by H eaven I will not s h e an

a n d eat
But by H eaven thou sha l t sai d h e So
s w e re d
he took her with him t o the table a gainst her will

I call H eaven
an d many tim es d esire d her t o eat

to witness sai d s h e that I will not eat u ntil the

man that is u pon yon d er b ie r shall eat likewise
T h ou canst n o t f u l l that sai d the Earl yon d er

man is d ea d alrea d y
I will prove that I can
sai d s h e The n he offere d her a goblet o f liqu or
D rink this goblet he sai d an d it will cause thee
t o chan g e thy m in d
Evil beti d e m e s h e an
i f I d rink a u ght u ntil he d rink also
s w e re d
Tru ly sai d the Earl it is o f n o more avai l for me
t o be gentle with thee than u n gentle
A n d he
ave
her
a
box
i
n
the
ear
Thereupon
s h e raise d a
g
lo u d an d pie rcin g shriek a n d h e r lame ntation s w e re
m u ch g reater than they h ad been before for s h e
consi d ere d i n her m in d that h ad Geraint been alive
h e d u rst n ot have str u c k h e r th u s
Bu t behol d at
t h e sou n d o f her cry Geraint re v i v e d fro m his swoon
a n d he s a t u p on the bier a n d n d in
his
swor
in
d
g
the hollo w o f his shiel d he r u she d t o the place where
t h e Earl w a s a n d str u ck him a e rce l y wou n d i n g
severe l y venomous a n d sternly sm itin g blow u pon
the cro w n of his hea d s o that he clove h im i n twain
u ntil h is sword was st ay e d by the table Then al l
.

25

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

6
8
3

left the board and e d away A n d this was not so

m u ch thro ugh fear o f the livin g as throu gh the d rea d
they felt at seein g the d ea d man r i se u p to slay

them
I n the I d yll how faith fully has Ten nyson po r
t ray e d the brutal character an d d ispositio n o f the
Earl the ten d er heroic love o f En i d and the alm ost
superhu man stren gth that the assu rance o f her love
imparts to Geraint
.

at t h e point o f noont h e h u ge E arl Do o rm

B road face d w ith u n d e r f rin ge of russ e t b e ar d
B o un d on a fo ray rol l in g e yes o f pr e y
C ame ri d in g w ith a h u n d re d l anc e s up
Bu t e re h e c ame l i k e o n e t h at h ai l s a s h i p
h at is h e d e a d
C rie d ou t w ith a big v oic e
N o no n ot d e ad
s h e an sw e r d in al l h ast e
o ul d som e o f yo u r k in d pe o pl e tak e h im u p
A n d bear h i m h e nc e o u t o f t h is cr u e l s u n

M ost s u re am I q u ite s u r e h e is n ot d e ad
T h e n s ai d E arl Doo rm
e l l i f h e b e n o t d e ad
h y w ai l ye fo r h i m t h u s ye s e e m a c h i l d
A n d b e h e d e a d I co u n t yo u fo r a foo l
Y o u r w a i l in g w i l l n o t q u ic k en h i m d e a d o r n o t
Y e m ar a c o m e l y f ac e w ith i d iot t e ars
Y e t sin c e t h e fa c e i s co m e l yso me o f you
H e r e t ak e h im u p an d b e ar h im to o ur h all
An i f h e l i v e w e w i ll h av e h im of o u r ban d
A n d i f h e d i e w h y e art h h as e arth eno u gh
T o h i d e h im S ee ye t ak e t h e c h arger too

A n ob l e o n e
But

W
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

8
8
3

si c k l y noth i n g s u d d e nl y s e i z e d o n h e r
bare h e r by m ain v io l e nc e to t h e bo ard

th rust t h e d ish be fo re h e r c ryin g Eat

An d

An d

An d

N o no s ai d E ni d v e xt I w i ll n ot e at
T i l l yon d e r man upon t h e bi e r arise

D rin k th e n h e an sw e r d
A n d e a t w ith me

H e re '
h
rn w it h w in e an d h e l d it t o h e r
n

ll
a
o
A
d
d
(
)
I mys e l f w h e n u sh d w ith gh t o r h o t
Lo

h
r
m
o
s
u
r
se
w
it
an
e
o
f
t
e
n
I
ys
e
l
f
G d c
g
B e for e I w e ll h av e d run k e n s c arc e c an e at

D rin k th e r e fore an d t h e w ine w i l l c h an ge you r w i l l

s:

No t

so,

s h e

by H e av e n I

i
aris e

cr e d,

T il l

m y d e ar l o rd
A n d d ri n k w ith me

will

n ot

l oo k

T h n st o d e

at

w il l

bi d m e d o

it
an d i f h e r ise no mo re

w in e unti l I d i e
an d

n ot

br ut e E arl u p an d d o w n h i s
A n d too k h i s ru ss e t b e ar d b e tw e e n h i s t e e t h
L ast c o m i n g u p q u it e c l os e an d in h i s m oo d
C ryi n g I c o u nt it o f n o mo re av ai l
D ame to b e ge n tl e th an u n ge n t l e w ith yo u

T ak e my s al ut e u n k ni gh tl y w ith at h an d
H ow e v e r l i gh tly smot e h e r o n t h e c h ee k
r

d ri n k

th e

h al l ,

T h en E n i d in
,

he r

tt e r h e l pl essn e ss

sin c e sh e t h ou gh t H e h ad n o t d are d t o d o it

Exc e pt h e s u re l y k n e w my l o rd w as d e ad
S ent forth a su dd en sh arp an d bitter cry

And

G e rai n t
As

of a

an

d E ni d

t h i n g t ak en in t h e t rap
t h e t rappe r c o m i n g t h ro

w ld

W h i ch se e s

T h is h e

8
3 9

oo d

spi n g at h is s w o rd
h
a
h
l
l
eld)
h
I
t
l
b
e
si
e
i
m
in
h
e
o
o
w
s
i
d
t
(
y
M a d e bu t a sin gl e bo un d an d w ith a sw e e p o f it
S h o re t h ro t h e sw art hy n e c k an d l i k e a b al l
T h e r u ss e t b e ard e d h e ad rol l d o n t h e oo r
So d i e d E arl Do o rm by h i m h e c o u nt e d d e a d
A n d al l t h e me n an d w o m e n i n t h e h al l
R ose w h en th ey s aw t h e d e ad m an ris e an d e d
Y e l l in g as f ro m a s pe c t re an d t h e t w o
W e r e l e ft al on e to ge t h e r
ard

G e rai n t ,

the w

an d

ra
g

The rom ance o f Ge ra zrzt a h Er hi rz as we before

sai d d oes n ot form part o f t h e An glo N orman Epic
(1
I t belon gs to a gran d er cycl u s than even that o f
Walter Map I t belon gs t o the E u rop e a n cycl u s of
,
r
which Map s roman c e s form the heart t h e core t h e M
so u l I n the d ays when the secon d H en ry s at o n M ind
a
the En glish throne ; when Fre d erick Barbarossa w as
in the matu rity of his p ower as Emperor ; w hen the
rst t w o Cr u sa d es h ad arouse d the slu mberin g m in d s
of m en to the possibility o f heroes a n d h ad m a d e a
camp rom ance of Reli gion itself a n ew a n d so u l stir
rin g literat u re b u rst fo rth in eve ry Eu ropea n co u n
While En glan d a n d France were breakin g away
t ry
from the strict scholasticism of the cloister an d pant
i n g for the rise o f a wi d e r ran ge o f lit e rary tho u ght
Ge rmany t oo was arouse d an d as in the on e case the

fu

Th e

0
39

A rt h u ri an E pi c

national m in d pou re d itself o u t in heroic le gen d s

o f Arthu r an d other nati v e heroes so i n Germany o l d
oat in g tra d itions o f Si gfrie d an d C h ri e mh il d e s re
ven g e were knit to gether an d worke d into the N iche
We
can
not
stay
t
o
speak
o f the Spanish
n
i
e
d
l
lzm
e
g
P oe m of t h e Ci d o r o f the see d time o f Italian literat u re
The movement was general The Dark A ges were
past an d gone The rst half of the M i d d le A ges
h ad gli d e d away with its wholesom e monastic d isci
plin e an d n e ce s s arv priestly supe rvision The s e c
o n d hal f o f that perio d h ad be u n a n d E u rope h a d
g
arrive d at a d olescence when this s u dd en blossomin g
forth o f tr u e literature com men ce d
So far as the Arthu rian roman ces are con cerne d it
was not in En glan d alone that they seize d u pon the
i ma gination The chord stru ck by Walt er Map vi
brat e d thro u ghou t France Germany an d Flan d ers
I t penetrate d even t o Spain a n d I taly I t raise d an
echo i n its o l d Welsh hom e an d a faint response
came even from Constantinople I t was i n France
ho w e v er that we n d these Arth u rian legen d s taki ng
the rme st hol d an d receivin g the fullest for e ign
d evelopment
Bu t this is only natu ral
That lan d
seems marke d ou t by n at u re as the m eetin g poin t of
the vario u s streams o f t ra d it ion an d son g I n the
north t h e Franks bro u ght the o l d tra d itions o f t h e ir
German fath e rlan d ; t h e N orthmen t he w il d sagas
,

39

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

Percival The H oly Graal romance became tin ge d

w ith the g entle mysticism o f th e age an d the hero o f
the Kymry fou n d a place even i n the hearts o f the
race whose compatriots he h ad fou ht a n d con q u ere d
g
I n Flan d ers the Cou nt Philip i n his enthusiasm
fo r Arthurian Romance kept in his pay poets o f
Artois an d others to t ranslate into Flemish the
An glo N orman romances o f chi v alry I n this man
n e r the fam e of the Rou n d Table
t h e loves of
Lan celot an d G u inevere the prowess o f Tristan t h e
achievements o f Galaha d the ma gnicence o f Arth u r
w e r e recite d o r s u n g in every castle o f Christen d om
eclipsin g m ore p retentio u s works an d overs h a d owin g
e v en nati v e pro d u ctions It is d i fc u lt at this d ay
t o f orm any a d eq u ate i d ea o f the hol d which these
roman ces t ook upon the imagination o f E u rope
They forme d the chi e f recreatio n of barons in their
castles yeomen in the cit ies an d peasants in their
cotta ges Eve n after the i ntro d u ction of printin g
the presses both o f France an d E n glan d teeme d with
these romances Poets seize d with avi d ity u pon
the c h aste creations of the An glo Norman trouv er e
Painters transferre d chivalric le gen d s t o their canvas
Sc u lptors busie d themselves with Arthu rian heroes
or heroines I t was an age o f stron g i d e ality wh e n
kni ght errantry was a reality when real kin gs co u l d
be ca pt u re d an d ransome d when heroes live d an d
.

a nd

G e ra i nt

E nid

3 93

when the ri ghts of women consiste d in

b e in g p rotecte d love d and worshippe d Thro u gh
ou t the th irteenth fou rteenth ft e enth sixteenth
a n d seventeenth c e nt u ries these romances retaine d
thei r hol d u pon the a ffections o f m en I t was
n ot till 163 4 that the last black letter e d ition o f
Malory was issu e d in En glan d Bu t with the i n
comin g o f the ei ghteenth cent u ry they d isappeare d
The fact is instr u ct ive Si d ney s A r ca d ia w as fu ll o f
i d eality B u nyan s P ilg r i m s P rog r e ss m arke d at
once its culm ination an d eclipse I t w as the absence
of this i d eality in the ei ghteenth centu ry which
so u n d e d the d eat h kn e ll of Arth u rian Romance
M en settle d d own to the every d ay rom ance o f real
li f e with its hard prosaic inci d ents From 168 8 the
year o f t h e En glish revo l u tion to about I 7 89 the
year o f the French revolut ion both in Britain an d
over the civi l ise d worl d was a ce nt u ry bereft o f those
h i gh q u alities of heroism poetry a n d faith which we
d iscern i n the m in d o f p revio u s perio d s
This cen
t u ry was d istin gu ishe d by a critical an d m ockin g
spirit i n literatu re a supercial an d w i d e ran gin g
levity in spec u lation an d an absen ce of i d eality in
everythin g Take Defoe as an instan ce When the
host
of
M
rs
V
eal
appears
t
o
Mrs
r
e
at
ar
a
v
B
g
g

Canterb u ry it is i n a sco u re d silk ne w ly ma d e u p

a n d the apparition is seen
in the street i n t h e face o f
d are d ,

an d

A rt h u ri a n

T he

3 94

E pi c

the beast market o n a Satu r d ay bein g market d ay at

C anterb u ry at three q u arters after o n e in the after
noon
N o won d er that Arth u rian Romance was u n
rea d when s u ch prosaic d etails co u l d n d fa v o u r n o t
only with threa d bare apprentices but even with my
lor d Chatham N o won d er that Arthurian Romance
was u n rea d when Richard son s sickly m orality kept
noble la d ies from chu rch an d d rew t ears f rom their
eyes which even t h e si ght of a starvin g Magd alene
co u l d not excite ! Bu t the chan ge cam e at last A
hero arose an d the Wdrl d vibrate d at the to u ch of
Nap oleon Sleepy priests d u ll witte d statesmen
a n d the i gnorant m asses were fri ghtene d o u t of their
ctitio u s wits Napoleon revive d the truth that
life is a j o u rn ey o f force d march e s that m e n are
m or e than syst e ms a be a n s a br e u r than an i de a l og ue
D u kes once m ore became l e ad e rs an d a gai n was
seen in t h e worl d a Rou n d Table at wh ich each g u e st
ranke d by his achi e v e ments The I ro n D u ke stoo d
forth En glan d rubbe d her eyes shook o ff her leth
argy an d aw oke t o the fact that tr u e chivalry was
n ot antiq u ate d Great d ee d s followe d ; an d with
the n ational awakenin g retu rn e d the o ld i d ealit y o f
En glan d The rst d eman d aft e r the battle o f
Waterloo was fo r the lon g ne glecte d Mor t D a r t h ur
n o t fo r Swift n o t for Defo e n o t fo r Fi e l d in g Ric h
a rds o n or Smollett
bu t fo r Malory N o lon ger
,

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

6
39

crow d e d with competitors an d the worl d stan d s

rea d y t o crown the victor of whatever rank these
i
ran
d
o
l
d
le
en
d
s
teach
u
s
that
it
s
by
obe
d
ien
ce
m
en
g
g
are ma d e more than kin gs an d that faith is the s u b
stance the very present possession of thin gs hope d
for
N o won d er then that at ti mes when Christian
kni ghts can be fo u n d rea d y to d o an d t o d ie who
wou l d liefer sacri ce life itself than be recreant t o
the vows o f Christian chivalry these noble le gen d s
o f i d eal bravery i d eal
uld
u
rity
i
eal
love
sho
a
n
d
d
p
have re gaine d their hol d upo n the nation al heart an d
once a gain be rea d at t h e r e si d e o f palace hall an d
cotta g e
,

N OT E S

N O TE A

F
s d gh t of G i d o d Pol t l o d of R v
w
giv by h f th i m i g to L iotto
of M l t st l o d
of Ri mi i m of xt o d i y o g b t d fo m d i h i p
H i b oth
P ol o w h
h ppi l y poss ss d t h os g
s wh i h
t h h sb
d of F
s w t d g g d h ff tio s
d b i g
t k i d l t y t h y w both p t to d th by t h
gdL i
otto T oy l t s th t t h y w b i d tog th
d th t t h
t i s ft t h bo d i s w fo d t Ri mi i w h ith th y h d
b
mov d f o m P s o w ith t h si l k
g m ts y t f sh
T h is i i d t w
s i z d po by t h po w f l i m gi tio f
w it h t h sto y of t h f t l l ov b t w
D t
d b i g i t w ov
d L
l ot fo m s
of t h most p th ti to h s i
G i v
ran ce ca ,

en

er

son

en

an

er

arr a

ra r

n ar

nc

as

e n

an

f er no

an ce

ar

an

e n

ar

na

a a

ee n

uc

e r no ,

ran

a e

e v.

an e

re

re e

D t sI f
1 69 3 5 t
1
sl t d by t h R
C y M A
T h is p ss g is l l d d to by P t
h i h i T i mph
iii
E o q i h 1 t mpi d i sog i
L
i l t t T ist o gl i l t i
ti
i
O d
h l v l go
t gog i
V d i Gi v
I sott l l t m ti
E l o ppi d A i mi h i m

o f d o d o l o osi pi ti
V
Vi de

an c

er

er
c

er u

race

as

en

one

e r , an

ec

en

en

n er

a,

e e n ra

a a e

er a

ur e

ea

un

e re

a e

e re

e ar

en

en

e nn a,

son

ura e

an e

an c

e re

e n a,

o un

re a e

e re

e r,

e e n re

u ne

er

an e , an

ran ce ca

n a

ce n ur e

er

er

an

the I

au

e rarc

L ove ,

ue

cc

an c

e c on v e n c
ne

an n

'

a e

en

titl

ed

3 97

of t

an

e cus e

t h e Story

e rran

re a

an

rce an d ch ar

e rran e a

no c

ace n

L igh H t i hi po m
t h is piso d w it h t h fo
un

ra ,

a c

an

on

e c ar e e

f Ri mi n i

ru e

h as e xpan d e d

o
ti
g
i
s
p
e

en u

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

8
39

N OTE B

F o m h i L ti n po m to M so w itt t N pl s j st b fo h i
t
to E gl d d f o m h i Epi t ph i m D m i w itt i m
hi
t ( 64 ) it is p ov d b yo d d isp t th t
m d i t l y ft
I t l y Mi l to h d o iv d th otio of E gl ish pi
w h il i
h
d
h
o
t
h
s
bj
t
of
t
l
g
y
isto
y
of
B
it
i
i
l
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g
m
d
p
om s l ti g to A th
d h i k igh ts of t h Ro d T b l
th
so m ti m t l st ft hi t
th is i d sti l l f s i
d th t f
a

on

ec

re a

or

an

n at e d

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ea

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an

nc u

un

s re urn ,

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re

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an

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re u rn

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I n h is

it s

Ma n s a s

he wr

i i si m so s t l m
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Ph b
d o ass vi os q i t m b
6 it
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b i
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A t
mq
A t di m i
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t (0 m o d o s pi it s d sit )
m b M t ph l g s
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mh

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uan

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re voca

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mn am

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p 8 6, l l
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7 8 8 4,
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n

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M sso s

Epi taph i u m D a mon

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Mi l to s

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A r t h u r i a n E pi c

T he

0
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er

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ar

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N ote s

1
o
4

N OTE D
i
sig i s to b t
p
H
b gi
.

A gl o S xo
s pi
dp m
h p goo d b g i

to b y d
sto s spo k of goo d

h
m
h
d
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)
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p
wh
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th m
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b g i d t Ch p i d
Ch pm
th m
h ts q
t i Lo d o
Ch p i d w
d t h mo d

sl g E gl ish w o d Ch p is
bb vi tio of h pm
d i
o l d ti m s sig i d p d d l
t v lli g m h t To h p

d h g
is si mpl y to b g i d x h g T h h p h w
i xp siv boo k of pop l t l s sol d by iti
t d l
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n , an

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ea

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ou r

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ar e r ,

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as

an

ar a n .

or

r ce

e an

ee

n , ce a

oo

n e ran

as

e a e r,

er

N O TE E
N l y v y tio w h i h h p od
I m gi tio h ppl i d to th w it s f s
.

v s l it t of th
h l it
t
titl ig i
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Th G
k n n ns t h L ti
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k n m Im k
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d th i v to F h t
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Al i t l is t h m o d
w o km
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t
of f ts L ti g t m t h i g d o
y hi
h isto y
m
to y d h
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m
l
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po t
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n,

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re n c

r,

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en

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oze

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er

n ve n or .

or

er ,

u ce d

e rr

a n son s

er .

ra

e re r an

re

r er

e n ce .

N O TE F

i tio of th st d itio of th M bi gi to h
d M thy
h i ld
I vo
L d y G st s ys I
ot d d i t
t l y t h
mo
to y th s m mo bl l i s f i t l o
d I
I n th e
re n

de d

r an

an

re

26

ca

er

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r,

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re

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ca e

an

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

2
0
4

so i t h h op of i iti g y to l tiv t t h l it t of Gw yl l t
W l i i w h os b ti f l l g g y
b i g i iti t d d
w
bo
mo t i s y
m o gst w h os f
h iv l i
d x lt d s s
l y i mb d w ith t h
M y y b om
of h o o
f v t p t iotis m f w h i h its so s h v v
d th

l b t d
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do

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cu

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ou

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a e

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a r

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are

e re

ue

er en

ra e

ce e

ou

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ec

u r , an

een

nc

re e

or

en e

a e e

er

N O TE

W i l l i m f N wb gh most o mpl i m t y pith ts i s p k i g

f G o ff y
f b l to i l l
h o m o i ll
G y wo k
P
o mpl i m ts fo ll o w s
t
i l ib o
q m B it m
h
t
t q
m i mp d t
f
om
h isto i m vo t q m p t l
p
m i l ib m
t
m ig
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o

r a

u a

e u an e r e

i l l u m i n ci d e ri t ,

ua

re

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en e r

n aru s ,

s i n i t uf

mbi ge re

eo

s uo ,

ea

on u

e re

ne

er

ru

cu

o o il l d A t o t j
ib
ib
o st t
i t p ti m b i pso p ti m t b l i i
t
t
ss
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; siv
B
i
t
di
i
b
q o m pl i mi t m b ti ss f t t dh
l
p
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m t q m
t
di
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m xp t
t
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ib
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t
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p
p
And

co n

cun c t a ,

a n

u s s cr

ce ssor

gi

s or aru

ve e ru

ne

or

rae e re a ,

ua

e n ar

as

ca

a ur ,

en

en

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ur

are

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c a
r

r u ru

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ru

ra

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us

e s u c ce s sor

can ur,

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uc

eu

ue

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er

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to W il l i

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ne

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us ,

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roe n a a

on

ace n

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u ae

of N

e w bu rgh s

Re r n m A ng l i

H i s tor i a

N O TE H
Th
m us i pt w h i h
o t i s th No m F h R m d
l h
S i t G
tt h d to it th m of Rob t d Bo o ; b t
M P l i P is
of th most ompl ish d d l
d
iti s of
th
F
ol d st m s i pt of t h is o m
is p s v d)
(w h
b l i v s d d o bt l ss o tl y th t t h o igi l th o w
t d
Bo o b t M p I hi o pi io it w
k igh t
t
j gl
wh w
so w l l d i t h po yph l gosp l s th l g d s f th
st Ch isti
t i s bbi i l f i s d l d G k myth ol ogy
d th
is l l th is i t h R m
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S i t G
l
m f om
l si sti
fg i s
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f s
.

an

a n

r aa

au

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A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

0
4 4

L d y Ch l ott G st i
ot to h t sl tio of G i t b
P i
Opi io t h t h [G i t] w
of
xp ss s t h
E hi
D v o ] d f l l gh ti g v l i tl y g i st th S xo s
Dy
i t [

b
i t h b tt l of L l
d
A th
gb t h
ar

n,

re

an

ur s

n a n

vn a n

un er

ue

an

N O TE J

era n

or

-a

r n ce

as a

a n

on

e ra n

a nn e r

ran

er

iti g i t h t w l fth t y i fo ms u th t
if y
h
d i B t g
to d y t h f t t h t A th l iv d
w
w o l d h v sto
d hi m
H i w o ds
t
m ost sig i
th p o pl
ith
C mb i
B to
d th y s h o w i s pit
h w
of th hyp bol of t h p ss g th t l y i th t w l fth
t y
xist d
l l y b l i v d to h v
H
g
l h isto i A t h
w
w it s
Wh t pl is th w ith i th bo d s of th mpi f C h isti
xt
d d t h w i g d p is
f t h A th
of
i t y to w h i h h
t
th
B ito s ? w h is th
I k w h d o s t sp k of B itt i
A th w h is b t l ittl l ss k ow to t h p o pl of Asi th to t h
w
B ito s
i fo m d by
t f om th
pi l g i ms w h
l so d t h
o t i s of t h E st ? T h E t
s p k of h im
W st s th o gh t h b d th of t h w h ol
th l i s b t w th m
Ro m t h Q
of iti s si gs hi d d s d h i w s
t
k ow i h fo m omp tito C th g H i xpl oits
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l b t d
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d P l sti
p is d i
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th
mo t h s of th p opl
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d hi

l t th m
A l an us d e I us ul i s , w r
one

an

as

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er a

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e,

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ur ,

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s,

can

c e n ur

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ur

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ar

r,

ne .

ar

are

are

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as a

ee

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un

as

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are

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e

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as n o

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as

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ur

n or a

en

r an

ce n ur

ne ,

re a

ne

r c

a e

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e ar

as

W o d s l i k t h p io s m t l s b o m t ish d w ith
l os
th i p isti b il l i y d d to h v t h i st tio s of mo d
th o gh t s l d ff if w w o l d th i t b ty d po ti fo
A
ty mol ogy p h ps i d t l l y st mbl d po i som l d
th o w i l l o ft
st p f t l y l t i l igh t po m y p ss g i
mo d
l it
t
si g t h e th o s m i g to st d t i bol d
l i f wh
s b fo w f i l d to d t t i it yth i g sp i l l y
d
st i k ing T h w o d s b l
t m yb t k
oo
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i
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au

arn

au

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N ote s

Sh k s p

In

s
so

e are

of h igh t

cus e d

re a

e a

de e

n , e xcl a

i ms i

race

'

e ac

ea

ac

ba

an d

an d e r

re e n ce

isg d i mp h d
d to t h so l w it h sl

md

e rce

ra

h e re

ve n o m

d pe ar

"
.

f th is p ss g
s p h ps pp i t t h f l l fo
t
h
b
of
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w
o
d
w
s
gg
stiv
of
th
h
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g
f
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y
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m
ti
g
to
t
t
f
m
I
n
l
d
l
l
p
p
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pi w

But fe w
In

Mow b y D k of No fol k
th p s
of th Ki g

Ri cha r d

0
4 5

re ad e r

a r

re c a e

e r,

n a

c a

T ur

er a

an

as

a e

ea

re a

rc e o

e re a

t i f mi
g po t
H by t h h l s h i m h
A d b d so t h t l l w h i h p ss ed by

T h pi t
of h i i f mi migh t
And

ft

e r al l

c u re

n a

n a

un

n a

re a e r

ee

for

re e

se e

f b f i g
is p ss g giv s l to th t of th d isg
to t h sto ms of h iv l y d s ib d by H l i g h d
b t if w t

B l li g
sh l l g t
i sigh t y t
s ys th is w it
w
l
is g t d isg
ish m t of p j d k igh ts d w h
th p
k igh t is op l y p j d t h y m k f h i m i m g p i t d
v s d w ith h i h l s pw d s w ith h i m w o d i g yi g d
b l o w i g t of h i m w ith h o s i t h m ost d spit f l m
th y
to k th t h is to b xi l d t h o mp y of l l goo d
t
i

u
s
i Q
boo k
to 3 w h t h po t d s ib s
S i th F
d
ish m t of T l s w
th p
F i st h hi b d d id sh v d fo ll y sh t
Th
f o m h i m ft h i sh i l d d it v st
t hi
A d b l ott d
m w ith f l s h oo d b l t
A d h i ms l f h l d
d hi
h st
ms

A d b ok h i sw o d i tw i
d ll hi
mo
s p st

Th

race

re

ar

e e

er n

an

e c

e r,

re

cr

en

a n e

an

an n e r

e u

an

e,

an

s na

e o

cr

e r u re

rn

en

en

ou

can ,

ee

un

u r ure

en

er e

race o

as

a r

c e are r

e n a ure

e cu

re a

a c ue

urn

c re a

o,

un

u ee n e ,

ae r e

a u

en

can

e re

e cr

e re a

a e an

e ar

en

'

en

ou

ts i
is o

n
n

T he
w

ith i

cr a ve n

isti

s ar

an

an

re n

er

en

un

s ar

a n an

er

s ar

ur

er

fo of t h is w o d b f w h i h Sh k sp
to t h mo th of t h D k of No fol k h stood d isg d d
o d b fo h i Ki g
t is
t m
ot h of t h w o d s w h i h h v i mb d d d
fossi l is d
th m
li
of h iv l y W l l o w d
b t h w d i d t h s t w w o d s o igin l l y
d tymo l ogi l l y
t iv t th is o
ss of m i g ?

e can n ow

pu
d h

re

nc

u re

arr

rce

er

the

se e

re

r e cr e a n

as

e are
an

race

an

er

re

e e

e a

n e ne

a r

e an n

an

ca

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ar

ca

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

6
0
4

of F o d s pl ys t h d m tist m k s
of h i h t s
Co m Si st d to yo t kl i g if y p ov
I 11
y

q i kl y S o i S h k sp s Cymh l i w h I m
m k y
h
d
w
h
w
h
h
s
sb
d
s
s
v
t
t
gg
it
i h to st i k h
d
h
h
g
d d h s ys
Ag i st s l f sl gh t
Th
is p oh ibitio so d ivi

my w k h d
Th t
In

sa

on e

ou ru n

en

an

ea

u c

e r an

on e

en

ne ,

er

arac e r

e cr a ve n

e are

s c

ou

ac

an

ur

er

ra

an

r,

e,

er

a n

cr a ve n s

er

e re

au

ne

an

ea

om s f om
ld F
h v b sig ifyi g

d
d is
d i v tiv of t h A gl o
b t
t

E
h
Sx
v
w
i
h
s
si
m
l
y
to
k
m
)
( g
p
I th
l
h
om
of Yw i
d G w i
E
g
is
d i g of
(
li
i g w h i h tt h d to t h w o d
t h Ch
L i ) th f l l m
t
t
i th
usto ms of h iv l y is d ist
l y pp
i
T h i y i K igh t th ou m st
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t of t h is pl

t
l
O y l d t h to
is w o d
to b w o st

Th

e n cr a

e va

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ea en,

cra

on

e c

sa

e an n

nc

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er n

re n

ac

are n

ne

ace

u s a s cr a va n

an

o u n ou

er

a ne

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er

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no

e an

re n c

an

an ce

er an

an

or

an

e r

cra

d
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is w o d w
w
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i
h
t
h
o
l y k ig h t w h
ov o m
y
w i l l i g to fo f it h i l i f to h i
fo d to tt
w
l ss h w
t h sig
k ow l dg d h i d f t d b gg d f
l th t h
q i h
w o t h y of
h i l if
t
f g t l bi t h
d ob l b l oo d
t is b t
wo d
T h mo d
oth fo m of t h is s m y
i t o th t k by th k igh t b fo si gl o mb t
th s
Th
t l
d
o ps o t l si
J s is p st d l p o v d m

t
t ve
m
g
g
mo t
y
9
omb t f th is ki d w h t h v q ish d k igh t b gg d f
I
h i l i f Si G w i
s ys

Th

as a

u s

er

na

an ac

e an c e n

re

en

u er

o u r e cr e a n

n a c

e,

on c

a ne

er

e c

n re

an

or

e,

s van

re

on

en

an

e rc

an

el

e ea

an

en

r ecr e a n

en

r e

on e o

e ac

ar

as

un

e rn

e r un e

r ce

as

cr

e cr

ran

e n, e

e re n

re

or

Ig

t it t h
I f th t th o w i l t h i s l v y
T h t th o
th is d y
t
m
H s id I g
t w ith o t f i l
m
I m
i b t il
u ar

o
sig i

th e

d e e pr

rd

e ca

can ce

me

th

e n sa

o ve rco

en

Fo r pu r at ayn t
Thu

an c

ow

er

u en

a a

an d r e cr ea n t .

ard .

of

en

raun

o ve rco

raun

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t most d isg

race

an d

of

far

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e n e ce

s i as t i cal

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

8
0
4

ss y it w g d th t s
th o iti s of th d io s
ar

au

re e

as a

an d

ce e ,

sh o l d b to t h
t h t th i d isio sh o

u ch appe al

e r

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ul d

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n al .

o t
y
b h of t h T
o mp is d
d x o m m i tio
m o y s b f i g b ish m t
T h is w is f s i g syst m too k its is i t h S o t h of F
At Sy o d h l d t T l g i th Co mt d Ro ssi l l o (1 7 ) it w
T h e pe n al
ne

ne

ti s

d e cre e d

so

Pe r

es

n att aqu e rai t

nne

an

e nn e m

d e pu

is

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u n ca

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02

l h e u re d e

as

du

ne

d p i m po
L d i al h
Di m h
d
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tt q
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of T l g t h i stit tio of l p ix t l t e h d b
d o pt d
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d th
sp d pi dl y i to G
d
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At l gth
m y I t l y Sp i
d ft
th
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visio s of t h T
G
i
t
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f
l
l
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l
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m
h
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f
p
o m d by s v l l o l Co i l s it
iv d t h sol m pp ov l
of t h Co i l of C l mo t ( 0 95 ) wh Po p U b I I p o l i m d
its iv s l xt sio th o gh o t Ch ist d o m
W ith t h g d l o sol i d tio of th k i gl y i mp i l pow
d i g th
t w l fth d th i t th
t i s l l ov E op t h
C ow by d g s ss m d m y of t h p ot tiv f tio s w h i h t h
C h h h d h ith to p fo m d I t h is w y l p ix t l t e d
i
Di
d
by
i
stit
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ogo
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i
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ts
its
w
l
l
p
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d i its ff ts b t w h i h m
t d f o m t h Ki g d t
t
h
f om th Ch h T h is syst m l l d th P
d T
f
Ki g {L p ix t l t e d R i ) i t h pl
of th l d f m i l i
m w
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w
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ame d

ij

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e , ou

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en

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an

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ve

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ea

er

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r c a

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ec

ve

an

e O

e c er

e a

no

r u ce o

eace a n

een

n a

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ace

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er

an a

ca

or

ec

er

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er

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an

ce n u r e

ra

ec

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en

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er

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r een

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ua

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N o te s

0
4 9

ti m s Wh v
of t h w io l ss d i d d to h v
o s to p iv t w f f t h d ss of h i w o gs l
p
q i d to d l
fo ty d ys b fo
h i i t tio
pos d h w
th
d
b gi i g of h osti l iti s so to ll o w ti m f
bit tio
of th p so s
mi b l s tt l m t of d is p t s
T h p ot tio
d p o p ty of
d
o mb t ts w p ovi d d f
st i tl y
th C h
b h of t h o d itio s of
h syst m
d th p
l ti s f
th T
w
q l l y st i g t d s v
T h mo
t
h
Ki g p
st i tl y s l ol o i g of th P
f
d s p i l l y i t h p ovisio s f
t m i tio of h osti l iti s
th
p
m
d
b t w t h p ti s to p i v t w f
ti
i
g
h
If t
y
t il i t i
ith of t h o mb t ts d si d p
q i d to
h w
m k
fo m l q st to t h h tj ti i to s
s hp
hi b h l f ;
d it w
th
d ty of t h l tt
to o mp l t h oth
h
ty
to
t
w
to d sist f o m f th h osti l iti s w h th by
pt
p
i g
st t d s ttl m t
i d m i tio
by o s ti g to
t d
m t i
to
g m t th t h w o l d s sp d h t i l i
ti s p d i g t h
g m t f s ttl m t W h h osti l iti s w
t mpo i l y d is o ti u d d
m t t h p titio
b gg d
f
j dg m t s t
igh t to d m d
d by so d oi g h d t h
t h p ot
tio of hi f d l l o d sh o l d hi
k th
my b
m t
d
o mm
By t h m t l g m t to th is
th w
m t t h p ti s to t h w f
w
s i d to t i to t h P
T o b g i l ty of b
h of t h is so l m
f t h K i g ( l p ix d R i
d
w
l
m
h
m
T
g
t
t
o
t
to
k
i
g
i
g
i
s
f
m
w
t
h
K
l
h
p
b o
f d l l o d w h f i l d to p ot t h i f d to y w h h d
d h i ms l f
h
l

d
th
P
t
K
i
w
l
i
b
to
d
pl
f
g
oth p l ti s of mo
h
t
l ss s v
N xt t t h i m of l e m ye t!
so t h
h igh t
most
s v l y p ish d w th viol tio d t i t/ d p i x d
m t
T h p ty to it h
of th s g g m ts w h w g i l ty of
d
d h i ms l f l i b l to d g d tio
d
viol tio of th T
th
o s tio of h i st t
Vi d L P i x t [ T e d D i
is
h
P
8
w
S
m
i
h
5
7
)
(
th
is f t h m o d m i i p l ity
o mmu i t d to th sso
i ti
o f i s f l P ix
of

the

ur e

re c

ca

an

n on - c

ur c

ru c e

ec a

een

e s,

en

er

an

e re

a e

re

n an

ra

er

as u n

r c

er

na

e ace

ur n

as

an

e ace o

er

re

ar are

or su

e c

or

a e

re a

or a r

re ac

ur n

a an

or

or as

ec

as

e cu ar c

ar

r n

e na

ua

r c

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an

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r n

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er

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a e

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e c

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ec

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an

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en

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an

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a

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an

en

n,

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a es .
r

ve

un c
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ar

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A rt h u ri a n E pi c

The

1
0
4

N OTE M

fol l ow i g is M l o y s

The

th

And

si r

a ne

h i ng to

re ce

s en d

And

th e d e a

un

th

b i

an d

of

ur al

so k i g A th ; d th
t y w k d both t h k i g m d

o ur

ur

L a u n ce l ot

th e h

at

an

S vio

his

sir

or

so
i to t h h d s of
h pp l l w ith i

h n ig h ts

o t of

G aw ai n e w e p an d
h
And w h e n h e

en

s r

acc

M or t D a r t h n r

th y so w m d bot
i G w i
to
iv
e

G aw ai n e i n t h e

Lo

rd

and

G od

sir

en

hove

all

ot h e r
.

so

G aw ai n e be t ooke h i s

n e sir

ki g

ul e

b y h im i
to t h is d y
y t
th
s m w o d is

A n d h e n th e

an

Ga w a i n e pr ay e d t h e

h im

ch e r i s h

to

ur

A n d th e n

of oo

u re

al

let

ur

st l of Dov ; d th
d
ll m
m y
s k l l of i G w i
th

th t i L
l ot g v hi m i b t t i l
L l d (C l l t
l iii p 5 6) t l l s
th t t h bo s of Si
w
sh ow to h i m w h h visit d Dov
b t th y h v
G w i

si d is pp d
h p l l l d d to w
d o bt
s ys M
Th
i
W igh t th v y i t b i l d i g tt h d to t h Ro m ph

Dov
stl
A o d i g to t h
tiv i M p s M t A t G w i
bo d y
t k to C m l ot to b b i d by t h si d f h i b oth G h t
w
O th v sio s of t h o m
giv v y d i ff t o ts both of
t h pl
of G w i d th d th t of h i b i l
a

a c

en

se e

s ce n e

n ce
r

e are

e r ca

as

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ac

un

us

an c e n

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an

as , n o

ace

a ne s

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er

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ea

r ns ,

or

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en

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cc r

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a ne

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s r

e c a n e a , vo

a ne

an

er

ca

au n c e

s r

e an

th e

N O TE N
I
y
om
to m g ify h i
th
1 89
wh
h d b g
h
h
A
t
s
f
m
h
i
bo
d
y
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l
ig
t
y
so
g
h
t
f
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Abb y f
w
l
t
[
]
G l sto b y
Th
i mst s tt d i g th is s h giv
th
d
st l
d h isto i l
t i ty bo t th is l b t d m
th fo w o th d t i l i g T h y h v b
t s mitt d to
by
Gi l d
C mb
i wh
s d t h i s i ptio
w bot h t h bo
w ll
by mo k of t h bb y ; d t h s m f ts
l l d d to
by \Vil l i m of M l m sb y o t mpo y d by oth s
T h s bst
f th
o t f Gi l d is th is H y th S
d wh
t w i visit d W l s h d h d f o m B itish b d th t
A th w i t d t G l sto b y d th t som py m i d s m k d
th pl
T h Ki g o m m
i t d t h is to t h Abbot d mo k s f
th
m o st y w ith t h
d d itio l i fo m tio
th t th bo d y h d
b n b i d v y d p to k p it f om th S xo s
d th t it w o l d
.

ur

ur

ra

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A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

1
2
4

id s t b t
t
i q ib s l it
q dm x t
s t d ob imi m b b i m t d f mi t t m l gi
t
p t
i v t s t t m h o sio d m i t p di t py mi d s
t
t ut q
d m m
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p
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t
; q
p i
oss vi i l i
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t
q
t ti m d b p imis bt p it m i x pl mb
i
t
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t i q x t mf t
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p lt
Lo s im i l l p l dib i l s s i s l A l l i v t
t
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i m mo o m sol o i t
l i m su m [
G l sto ] mo h i ol l o
R gi
u t
P i m m t m l m di
t f iss
Gw h
xo is j s d m A t h
d
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H
O
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A
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i
t
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A
H
p
p
p
g
p
l ii pp 10
d 9
un

y
p

s a

se

ram

d uee

un

en a

e rra

se

s arc0

ce rn e

er

e ra

vo

r nc

cu

cru

uo

ra u

n ve n e r n

en es

u c n c rru

a va

s se

an ce

us

e a su

os

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ne

re

ara u

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ca na

s or a

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an a .

on s

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ra

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s arc0

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uo

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ac

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ar

an e

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an

cr

or e s ,

T r a n s l a ti on

bo s of th
ow d A th fo m l y Ki g of B it i w
d is ov
d i
v y i t s oph gus
w h i h stoo d t w py
mi d s
i s ib d som l tt s ; b t w h i h
o t
whi h w
Th o
d
of th i b b o s d o th fo m o l d t b
sio of th i b i g fo d w th is W h i l st som p so s w d iggi g
th
th b tw
fo s i d py m i d s i o d to b y
t i
th
mo k w h h d p
th y fo d
h s d p missio to b b i d th
i w h i h th y obs v d w h t pp
d to b th bo s
ph g
of w om w ith t h h i sti ll u d y d ; w h i h b i g mov d
th y fou d oth l i d b
th i w h i h w th bo s of m
tw
d h vi g m ov d th t l so th y fo
d th i d b l ow t h oth
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H
l i s b i d th
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Av l l o
F th t pl
b i g s ou d d by m sh s is l l d t h I sl d
i
l
l
d
l
f Av l l o
th t is th isl d of ppl s b s
is
pp
l Th
op i g th is s oph g s th y fo u d th bo s of
B i tish
The
c

ne

n a

e re

on

ar

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n

a s arco

re

n.

or

a e

as

ace

ra

no

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e ca e

ea

e n cr

e re n

on

ne

ur

re

er

n cr

an

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ne

as

e n

un

a ce r a n

ur

e re ,

e re

cca

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er

ra

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ac c un

on

er

ur e

un

e re a

er

a n,
o

er

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e ne a

a r

ur e

e r,

arc

re

an

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u rc

an ,

ur,

as

e a

un c u

un

a us ,

an

an

een

e n

e r

n cr

e re

ar

ne

an c e n

er

e r

e re n

o,

an

n,

a va

e n

a ce ,
a

en

urr
an

en n

arc

ar

a u

ca

e cau e an a

an

ca

ne

N o te s

1
4 3

fo s i d p i
v y l g d l o g w h i h th mo k s pl d w ith
d
ho o s i
m b l to mb w it h i t h i
h
of Gl sto b y ]
h [
T h st g v is s i d to h v b
th t f Q
v th w i f
G i
of t h s i d A th
o d th t of Mo d d h i ph w
th s
d th
th i d th t of A th h i ms l f
M tt h w of P is u d d t of 119 1 d i gn o f Ri h d
m k s si m i l
st t m t
Ro d m
o i v t s t oss f mi i imi R gis B it i
A th i i q d m
t
t i im
o d it
i q od d
ph g
t i q i i m py mi d s t b
t
t
i q ib s l it
t ;
t x
d ob i mi
b b i m t d f mi t t m l gi m i i me p t
t
I v t s t t m h a o sio
D m
i m ibi d m ff d t t
m
h m q md m p li
t q ui h u
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h
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B it
m R x A th u i i s l a A l i
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a sua

re n

an

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er

os

a e

ne .

nc

nc

us

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ra

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ann ae

o , c rca

u ae

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en

cu

ua e

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urae , v e

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re

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ar

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re

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er

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ae

se

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ur

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e r c

en

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ec

een

ar

ur

ur

ar

e an

ar

er

n a

ra

r n ce

re a

n u a

en

s ar c0

e ra

vo o n s

is F d
N ot q od
t s bi i t d s

fol l ow i g ot to th s m ff t
o Do mi i 5 4 A th
i b l l o l th l i t
l
d v l
l gi m
i i sul m A l l i
i
d
m
di
i
i
d
q
i
l
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m
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st
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l
b
t

u
t
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y
q
p
ss t m l t
m h j m d i pi t ph i
i
m d p s s ibi d m
d im
d v s s
t A th
R x q o d m R xq f t rus
Hi j
i m q id m d g
B it
m
m f t
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C d
t

b
d
d
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m
os
q
T H O MA S G AL E S
t
t
l
d
v
i
t
w S pt
l iii p 63 7
H i t i A g li
an n

uo

ne

an n

au an

sav

us , u n

s or a:

na

e r v u n e ru

as

n on

on s

er a

ec

o , s c cu

e e

va

u ru s ,

us ,

en

rae

ur

er

u e

se r

u ru s ,

en

un

re

u us

u a n e cc e

se

u n e ra

er u

ace

u a us , c u

cre

h as t h e

a,

a a

un

or

ca n

onu

e re

T r a n s la ti on

u uru

eu

uce re

re

u u

ue

ue

ore s , vo

cr i

e n e re

er a e

Not th t i t h y 5 4 A th b i g m o t ll y w ou d d i b t
t to b h l d of h i w o d s to t h I sl d of Av l l o W
w
tl
h is s i d to h v b
b idi
t k ow h w h d i d
b t
d
Abb y h h of Gl sto b y w i th
so
th
pit ph i t h is m
m i th
sti l l w h
th l i
w b l i v h i m to
l i s A th
Ki g t h t W
H
d
Ki g to b
f t h B ito s b l i v t h t h w i ll l iv
so m of t h
gi d
f
st t of s vit d to l ib ty
e sto e t h m f o m
a

e,

en

a e

er

e n ce

er

een

ur e

an n e r ,

ne

as . an

an

an e

e re

as

r a

ur

ur a

e race o

e n

un

a n

ur

re

u rc

e re

or

ea e

2,

e ar

o no

e a

"

a n an

A rt h u r i an E pi c

T he

1
4 4

N O TE
A

i tio of th m s of th v io s p so s d
h
M
s
i
t
o
i
to
t
h
A
t
i
E
i
by
W
l
t
i
ll
s
o
w
d
d
h
w
l
p
p
p
b yo d so b l d o bt th t t h l v C h pl i to H y I I f l
d i g of K l ti
h
l s i
hi F
l ow d
f w v y si m pl
o
m
s
h
t
h
C
m
b
i
B
to
H
i
i
v
i
b
l
ti
w
p
p p
l
s
to
h
v
b
it
h
to
t
k
h
K
ti
fo
m
of
h
o
d
t
t
w
()
pp
ly
g w h t v p ovi d d it w s f i tl y
w ith s
y h
d
i
t l i k l y to g t
F h s f x m pl th
ph
m of t h Ki g A t h
;
(2) to m k so m sl igh t h g by
th
t sl it tio of K l ti l tt s so d s i to th i q iv l ts
h
i F
B d w y i to B d i
(3 ) t o l y to t sl it t
b t to l oth t h
m i F
to m k it both p
h g b so
d
so
d
i
k
tiv
F
w
o
d
h
w
i
to
l
h
w
G
y
p
ll
d Vi l i
i to Vi i
s th t w
G i
I
do s M p t
l t
m i to its F
h
C mb i
B to
q iv l t
B t b si d s th is 2 p i i
so f j ti g t h th o y of M d
l Vi l l m q th
s m s to b
i s p b l d i ffi l ty i d i v i g
m L
l t f o m th
l l t h o gh t h L ti
th
ld F
h
m

care ful e xa

e ar

an

o n o u s , an

re n c

as

e ar an

un

a en

na

v en ne

r an

or

eu

an

a en

e ra e

var

e c an r e ca

en

as

n na

re

n n o ca e

ran

ce

as

re n c

ar

na

ar

ra c

e r e

no

c en

or e

as

or

re n c

as

un

or

ar a

e ar

er n

re n c

ver e

re n

re n c

an

e nr

er

an

r an s a e

na

e r,

er

or

u n e ve r e , an

ur

e ra

ra e o n

re

a e

re n c

er

a n

r an or

er

er

ar

e c e

ru e

an

no

ran

er

een e

c arce

na

u r an

er

e r na

na

re a

u ce

n r

ace

e na

na

e re

a n ce o

r or

o r re e c

e an

ee

re a

n u

a n ce

er

cu

e ra

re n c

ill
L ti
is t o l y f m i i fo m b t is
tu l
f mi i l i k t h L ti g i
q
d h
o spo d i g
l
m s li
fo m
N
w
ll
si gl i st
i whi h
ll
s ppos d m s l i fo m of
is s d by y of th l d
th
F h w it s
I t h E g l ish t
sl tio of t h M g f t t h s t

F H h th g d d th l o w l i ss f H i h d m i d
is
d mi b l
d i g of t h L ti

Q i p xit h m il it t m ill
Th
ld F
h po ts
l l j st
th w o d
t h L ti w it s
d
il l
to d sig t f m l s v t
Nos i s poet s m
h
m
bl
bl t voi p is pl isi a t
i
s
d
d
l
t
l
i
m
p
p
e ig t i
v l q l l l S i t Vi e g o s tit ad i i me
F i l l d Di me t
ll
M y oth d iv tio s of L l ot s m l i k t h t of P l d
dd l l t (s pl i t
t
v
b
o
os
s
st y
d sp
h
b
w
h
l
d
l
t
)
p p
to dis uss th e m h e e

T he

n ne

a cu

ne

re n c

ran

or

an a

en

r s

na

a,

ec

er

er

ra

rr e

an c e

na

a n ce

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er

eu

n
,

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en ,

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as

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a n ce

ar cc

a n e

ca

n,

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a e

nz

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re race r

e ar

an c

u se

n e re

no

u e

ne

a e

ue

e,

an

as

e,

er n

na e a

on a

ar

a n ce

re n c

e o

an

ue e n ,

e r e ca

re

e re n

u a re s

o anc

ra

n ne

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na,

re

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se

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re

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no

I
V
1

a t/ t l e

a te

Q st of th S i t G l Th is b i g th s it is d i ffi l t to
iv l G l h d o l d h v b p s t w h th
h w it h
P
h d th
o ps of t h m i d f Astol t
oy l l d i g
P
iv l
dy
ti d to mo t y d G l h d h d b t sl t d
h d l
to h v
ue

W
m

raa

een

re ac

an

a a

n as e r

cu

e ca e ,

re

re

a re a

a a

e n

or

e rc

er

a n

J;

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

1
6
4

an

se e

en

re

en

as

e rc

ran

een

a e

ea en.

N OTE R
F i

Wh v s l d y th t T yso h w i d l y d p t d f m l l
A gl o No m v sio s f t h sto y ) i m k i g Q
G i v
ti to o v t b f th d th f th Ki g ; d (2) i d pi ti g
A th
visiti g t h o v t d h l i g w ith i g b k t h i
f ll Q
F mo
to h i g d t l is th o m
s
to t h o v t f t h i g
d s i ptio of th igh t of t h Q
d t h po t y l of h
t
t
i
t
v
i
w
f h h h d d th
p
Th
s
i i t h I d y l l of G i v
s
ts
t
h
w it h L
l ot
p
yth i g b t
g tl m
w h i l th
o spo d i g s
Ki g
om
sh ow s L l ot to b v y i h
o tl y d
i th
g tl k igh t
F iv ll i t h P f to h i Q t d l S i t G l
M F
d it d f
R xb g h Cl b xp ss s v y f
kl y h i l it y
th
ff tio f t h l t Po t L
t w h h s ys T yso
is to m p so l l y m o th l l t h oth E gl ish po ts p t tog th
s v l o Ch
d y t
th is q stio of T yso s pi t

d to
of Ki g A th
st i l ss g tl m
h is bo
k wl
dg

w
i
l
To
k
o
i
g
k o w i g t h t A th s w
h
M
y
th
s of th b k i g p of t h Ro d T bl
d G i
i w
v s th m s o l y t h o gh w h i h th t s w o k d its l f t
h vi g f l t A th
s l most p pos d f s l to
wh t w
goi g
d
w
hi
y s b tw hi q
d L
to s v
l ot so
q
l w it h h i b st k igh t ti l l it w
fo
h i m ; h vi g
d
w t h d w it h w h t
s s of l i f it w
A th w it d f h i
w if to b b
t h s o d
s l th f
so p i m d to
M T
om
yso s p s t tio of th Ki g i p f t w o d s
w it h t
d
w
st p th os h si g to h i p ost t q
obl
hi
ss d h d isg
v l sio f f l i g w too g t ;
; th
w
l l y di d t h is y u
fo d to y to t h F l o w f Ki gs i f y
w e t t h e P k s i ff of t h p io d
.

a c

re

en

an ce

en

ec

or

er

na

a e

ea r n

n er

ce n e

en

re

rre

nc

er

an ce r

er

e re

e a

e re

e n an

u ne

an

en

re

e r re

en

an a

re

an

c ur

an

a n

r aa

a n e

ue

e nn

e r,

un

e rar

an ,

e nn

er

en

ran

er

on

ue s e

re

au re a e

u r as a

re ace

au c e r

ne

ur

c u re

no

ac

e :

an

s n

on un

ur

er

n e

s o

a c

urn

e on

r.

en

e re

ne

an

as

e nn
a

sa

ec

re

race

er

rce

er

re

re

e ar

en a

er

ur

ou

on

or

on e

er ec

as

ou re a

a e
n

en

ue e n

as

as

ur

u ne

an ce

an

ee

se e

ra e

rce

n o

cau e

e re

as

er o

a ccu a

e re

un

as

re

ec

re u a

en e

ue e n an

een

ur

on

re a

a e o re ,

uarre

e an

on e

e cau e

as

e re

n a ura

e c n

r ra

er n

u ne

an

an

an ce

or

ue e n

en

ro

ue e n

ur

ce n e

u rn

uc

an

ar e

a e a

ea

an

re

an ce

en

as

as an

ea

us an

er

ar

e cr

or e

ue e n.

en

e nn

er

ur as

an

re

e e n a re a

a e

or

s o

nn

one

re a

N o te s

1
4 7

N OTE S
d S g l
T h si mi l ity of so
d b tw
th w o d s S
l
g
h
b th o io of g t d l of o f sio of th o gh t mo g
d mo d
w it s
th is s bj t both of fo m
ti m s T h S i t
s d d ish
l i of
G
l
S g
l w
th
p w hi h h l d
S g
T
B l oo d i
b l ood of
S vio
I t w th
l
th
t
h
S g l
i
O
bj
t
of
Q
st
S
g
w
h
h
w
t
h
d
t
t
h
p
sh i d A l l t h t t h q sti g k igh ts
l w h i h th S g
l
h o p d to
w
th S
g l th h m
d
m t i l p t
t th
t h d ivi
S g l
d i
Th I
tio i d of t h
p t
d ivi
dh m
i
P so w h i h
d l i s th w h ol
f th d g
m ti
d s
m t l t
h i g of t h C th o l i C h u h is h
sh d
o w d fo th u d t h i m g of t h S i t G l
.

een

as
r

un

ar

on

er

raa

c cas

an

or

ee n

ea

re a

raa

as

e rn

or cu

acre

an

an

raa

n u

e r an

ec

an

a n

r e

a re

an

re e

or

an

raa

o r cu

rue

e.

as

ou r

ec

u r.

ue

an

as

no

an

'

re e

an

see

as

or

ne an
c an

raa

en

an

raa

an

n on e

en a

er

r ne

un

a e

an

no

ea

e o

rc

raa

ar

n carn a

er

a n

a er a

ue

e ac

ar

er

an o r

n ne r

n e an

ac ra

an

e re

N O TE T
I t s ms p ob bl th t i l t y s v t h po t h i ms l f t
d
h h d d pi t d h i m i t h
s spi io t h t Ki g A t h
t i

I d yl l w
t l tog th
s l ss m
st i l ss g tl m
th

d
d s i m gi
h i m to
i d l k igh t th t h w o l d h v h i
h v b
I th
l y d itio s f M l i
d Vi i
T
yso
t ll
F o
wh
A th w l k i g l l l o
.

ee

a ne

e e n.

e ar

en

er

s re a

er

c e

a n e

an ,

e n er

a e

en

ur, as

er

e ar

a er

ea

as n o

an

an

ne

v en

an

e nn

us

n ce ,

or

Vext

en

at a r u

mou r

ivi
t d itio s th s l i s
F o
A th
wh
n

er e

n ce

or

Vex t
0f

en

at a r u

me

so

e n, e tc

ne

e e

e a bou t

ri

H ad me t h e r , V

But i n l a

ur ,

the

ne

Q ue e n

t
l ki g

are al e re d a n d re ad

ur

wa

al l a l

ne

mou r i ss ued f r om h e r s e lf ,
t
on
i
p

cor r u

t
p

cr e

mong hi s h n ig h ts

ivi
t
T h is o
tio is sig i t T h p ss g w d o bt l ss l t d
to sh i l d t h h ra t of t h Ki g I t is v i d t t h t t h
i o d
tio w
t m d f
t h p pos of d k
i g Vivi
s h
lt
t
T
yso h d t l ft h
t to d k
I t o ld
y h
ly h v b
h
s
g d to sh i l d t h Q
b s t t h ti m
th
wh
is s ppos d to
pisod of M l i s tt h m t to V ivi
d
h v o
l t d
v y l y i t h sto y
mo s

T h mo
by t h o m
i f bo t th Q
h vi g b
H ad m e t h e r, V

r er

e nn

c c urre

e r

no

an

an ce r as

er

ur

e ar

een

en

e a

e nn e

en n

ru

no

ue e n

ar

ur

e cau e a

e n ne

e re

e n.

ar

ue e n ,

en

arac e r

as

ar

ac

e r an

er

e.

c er

or

can

een c

a e

ca rce

as n o

ac e r, as

a e

e ra

en

rre c

e n , e c.

a re re a e
e

re

A rt h u ri an E pi c

T he

1
8
4

h
x
ob
b
s
ositio
is
t
t
T
yso
g
d
t
h
o
igi
ss
g
l
l
p
p
pp
p
f om th I dyl l d s bstit t d th t w h i h w t k s its pl
f om
to ff th sl igh t st sh d o w of s pot po t h h t of
d si
to pp o h
th
h o of h i I d y l l s so t h t h m igh t pp
ly
m
w
h
h
d
h
l
l
K
h
h
ossib
b
ss
i
g
i
is
s
i
to
v b
It
l
t
p
th i o g o s th t
bl m l ss Ki g
h
l w ys s m d
d
st i l ss g tl m
sh o l d b p s t d
b i g v xt t

mo s
if bo t h i w i f T h t
g tl m
t h o gh t

b l m l ss
s l ss w o l d s
l y l l o w h i ms l f to b v x d
mo s
v if h s h o l d so f ll o w h i ms l f to b
t m
oy d w o l d h v t h i i it tio
o q tt w h m d y s t
b l kl y d p ssi g by I t h d d i tio f
h i m by g z i g t h
mo g h i m y i
th s I d yl l s to t h m mo y of obl P i
w h i h bov
t s w h i h th po t so j stl y l b t s is
l l oth s
is th sp i l m k of th os f g tl bl ood th P i
S pak sl d
li t
d t it
I t h I d y ll of G i
v w m t w ith oth i st
of h g
h
d itio s of t h I dy l l
t
Ki g
io sl y
m d i th l t
d
f
o gh t h v s
li
h
i s t d l so l t s to Vivi
I
th
l y d itio s of t h I d yl l w
d th t t h Q
d Si L
r

er

as

as a

a n e

ru

or

e e

ec a

e e

en

a er

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38
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39

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22
4

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s to B it i 45
f mo s k igh ts d mitt d to
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50 ;
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tiv p t i
th
dv t
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I 4S
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h i v m t of th Q st
54
mo s
bo t th Q
15 5 ; A th
b si g s L
l ot s
stl of Joyo s G d
d
5 6 ; l v s hi Q
k i gd om i M d d h g
t so d
lL f
56 3
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A th
is s t h si g d t s to
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tt k s o ts
d p s s Mo d d
58 3 1
th
b ttl of C ml
58

15 9 3
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3 13
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d d
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59 3 3 ;
th
h p l
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L k 5 9 3 7 3 2 ; hi t s
l tio to I sl of Av l o
w ith
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Co mi g of A th
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Th
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325
l igio s
A th i E pi th
its
l
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;
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th M t A t
84 ; w o g i m
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43
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I n de x

2
4 4

A th i E pi C ti d
th o gh o t Ch ist d o m 5
h
s t of pop l ity
tt t d g t po ts
d Not s A
d B;
l g
l d f o mp tiv st d y 2 3
88
w its t h po t of th f t
A th i st z 9 Not U
b i q t f G o ff y of
A t
Mo mo th 13
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7
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52

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of M l i
s 7 3 foot

n,

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ra n

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cl e r c ,

n ot

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om
l to of M p s L ti
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t
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4 hi
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14

an c e

s
s

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no

an ce

s r

O15

Bo s

c e r c,

ur

visio of H ol y
d
l 2 8 8 ; ph to m
G
t
ys to S s
2 68 ; jo
t s to Co t 2 9
2 90
B tg
i d A mo i
B itt y id A mo i
t h fo
t i of 8
B
li d
B t s l g d y fo d
f
B it i 49 5 ; Mi l to s po m
ure

en

in

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A th i
a

an

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on ,

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un

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a n,

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ve n

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1 0
o

s i pt f
fo d i B itt y 68 ; t s
l t d by G o ff y 69
B y Joh o igi l ity f t h

B r u t y B r e n h i n e d m an u
-

un

un

an

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re

n,

cr

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na

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al l e

40 ; c o m

o f P i l r i m s P r og r e s s
g

go i
iso

P r og r e s s ,

r cal

wr

it

25

26 ;

e r,

n
par

a n d L e P e le r i n ag e d e l homme ,

27, 28

2 19

re urn

re

Si r , h as

raa

re

39
of

ra ,

r,

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rr n ,

ur

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Si l o d
l m t

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b ttl of C ssy

biog ph
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n ce

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17 3

3
3 21
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11

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t m xpl i d Not K
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k i g giv s id to A th
i g d by Cl
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2
39 b
f th of L l ot 2
d th
of 2
B d s th W l sh 6 63 ; A
m i
65 66
h isto i
s
o t f
9 5 ; tt h d to t h
w
io h i fs 9 5
B d s y isl of W l sh s i ts 63
B d th V
bl H i t i
E l i ti
do s
t
95
m tio
A th
w
ot
5
9
t h h d d y s ft A
t h s ti m 97
B d iv Si
i s A th f o m
l d f b ttl
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59 ;
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itio

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25

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106,

at ,

c i t y.

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357

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12 3 , 12 4

ch e f

mun i ce n ce

ori

68

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n ame ,

of

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68 ,

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5 ; hi s pr l u e
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8 3 84
ame

to s

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3 8 ; hi
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w
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l
39
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C h iv l i Ro m
th
4 3
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Ch iv l y xpl i tio of t m
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26
15
7
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5;
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d
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d
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7
9
f sq i
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;
tio d ti s d p ivi l g s f
k igh t 2 2 3 ; l oy l ty
th
-

au ce r ,

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11

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Co mp tiv t h m th o d of
st ud y 2 2 ; x mpl s of C d mo
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25
y 27 28
d B
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re

ara

y R H F t
D t Not A
C xto W i l l i m iss

C ar

an c

ar

an ce r

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124, 12 5

12 5

foot ot ;
b o gh t m s i pt f o m B it
t y 68 ommitt d m
s i pt to G o ff y 69
C l ib
i d E x l ib
C mb i l it t u vi d Lit
t
C m l ot t h st t f o m 2 5
C ml
b ttl of tol d by t h
C h o i l s 109
tol d by
t h Ro m
s 15 9 3 1
3 3
k C st l of 2 8 8
C b
C l ovi gi y l of o m s
i
n
g

c ur e

i to t h A th
by G off y 113
Ch e ti d T oy s th o of
E
d E i d 3 47 3 48
C h i sti ity t h t mosph of
A th i Rom
54

6
h
o
i
l
s
o
t
of
8
C
72
b si g s k i g B 2 1
Cl d
C l gy t h A gl i
w it s
of tio 13 4 ; t h i i
t
l it
4
Co mi g of A th
tol d by t h
Ro m
s 2 943 0 M p s
v sio
yso s m
d T
n

W lt

o t sy

Ki ng

2
4 5

ur

n,

ae r e

3 5 7 ; Pe n ryh n . 3 5 8
ur e s , vi de
h al r

Co t y
C iv y
Cy l s of th o m
of h iv l y
C l ovi gi
Al x
4o 4
d i
o S xo 43
42 43 ; D
A th i 43
Cy l s A th i its pl
i
l it
t
o l sio 44
D
D t pisod of L l ot i
c e

ar

r ne

an ,

an

ur an ,

e ra u re , c

an e

a r

an

n,

ur an ,

c u

an ce

e r

nc u

n,

an ce

t ro d uce d i n t h e

Not A

a ce

er n o,

11

2
4

I nde x

D oS
an

43

of o m

c cl e

axo n

an ce

Q i

De

33
p os po t
L d i s of S o ow Not

u n ce

T h re e

e-

rr

C
Dov C stl b i l pl of G
w i
Not M
D m E gl ish 244 2 45
D m ti l it t
vi d Lit
t
D b i i
A h bish op p s ts
A th i t h C th d l 7 6
o w s A th Ki g 1 7
2 97
t s th
x o m mu i
7 6 2 97
b ls 76
s s Mo d d
er

ra

a,

ra

ur a

e,

a ne ,

ace

e ra ure

e ra

u re

t 2 2 8 229 b ge s by
Ki g 2 3 0 t h l tt 2 3 0 2 3 ;
i m g of w o m l y l ov 3 2 9
E l o of P ov
d W
de a h

r c us ,

rc

ur

cr

re

n ca e

ra

ur

c ur e

e an

an a

oi

o s

Er hi n

i t

e ra n

E id

th e

vide

ah
re c

al

i t

r st i e n s

an d

o y

Ge r a i n t

3 61 ;

an

so

an d

e ra n

E id om
of i d
d E id
E pi th l ssi 3 7 ; th
an ce

an

d au h

21

er o

re

er

ea

au n c

ee

a ne

er

ava n e

u rn a

ce

an c e

22

c,

i t
n

t 54 4
yl s M

ra

c u

ele

1 2

un

ssi
ity i

cl a

oi
t
of
p
t gi
7 6 ; th

38 ;

75,

c,

tio s

pr d u c

fo m
8
8
2 5
E pit ph A th s tomb 5 9
Not N
E x l ib m tio d by B d s
2 ; by C h o i l
s 6 ; by
s 3 94
Ro m
s d by
A th w ith g t ff t 7
t d to L d y f h
3 4;
L k 5 9 3 7 3 22
0,

an ,

on

1,

ur

ur

ca

en

10

ne

ar

r n c er

an ce r

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1 1

ur

10

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ec

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er

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22

en

ee

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er

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e,

22

me n

el ,

er

ara

ov
pi

er

e ar

e nn

an ce

e ar

a a

e c a

au

ea

an

e rn ar

an ce

re

21

a ne

er

g t of k i g P l l s
6 ; m oth
f G l h d
2 5
sto s L l ot to h l th
2 47
6 h
d th
17
E l i l Bl h omp tiv
st d y of M p d T yso
2 9 23 3 ;
d gh t
of Si
d 2 9 ; f ll s i
B
l ov
w ith L
l ot 2 9 b gs h i m
to w h s l v 2 9 2 2 ;
t k s h i sh i l d i k pi g 2 2 ;
h
s bo t to m t f o m
G w i
3 ; d is ov s th t
h
k igh t is L l ot 2 2 3 ;
s ks L l ot
omp i d
by L i
4 d s h im i
h m it s
ll
t
to
4;
Astol t 2 5 d is l os s h l ov
L l ot 2 2 5 2 2 6 ; h
f
or

r a

of

ne

of C h

an d

E id

an d

Mabi n ogi

ua e

an

he r

er

ra e

3 50

ua e , v

au

ce e

Ea r ly P r os e Roma n ce s 3 9

ace ,

e ra ure ,

an , 10

an

c,

e,

e an

a ne

E l i z b t h g d l it t 8
E mb ssy Rom
7
43
E gl ish l g g i d L g g
E i d d gh t of Y ywl 3 5 ;
l b t d i
W l sh t i d s

El i

e r,

e n ce an

3 11

een

an

re

ar

7r

re e n

i g

man K n

th e H

ran ce ca

ol y G
da

the

raal ,

Ri mi n i

u ard an

77
,

I I

Not

I nde x

2
8
4

i tC ti d
i t b E bi i M hi gi
of k i g
3 6 ; styl d E
L
by C h t i 3 6 ; k igh t
of A th s Co t 3 6 m i s
E i d 3 7 4 ; t k s h to o t
t s to hi w k i g
375
a n

n ue

on

e ra n

re c , s on

ur

ur

arr e

er

re urn

d om , 3 63
e ra n an d

en,

r s

ac ,

on ,

no

ur

s o

no

no

a e

na

anu cr

oc

er

ran

an

re c

ara

er e

re n c

en,

re

a e

en

es

e u

ca

n,

ue

a e

ran

ar

on ,

an

un

on e

e ra n

an ce

e,

an c e

n n

e ea

e ea

e ra n

re urn

ur

arr

un

arr

re e

e nn

an

s,

ec

an

er

d e ri n gs , 3 7 9 3 8 9
re n ch
the

v sio of
s bst ti l l y t h
Ch t i
sm
t h W l sh sto y 3 5 7
b tw
poi ts of d i ff
th F
h
d t h W l sh v
r s

en,

as

un

er

an

e re n c e

re n c

an

een

er

1,

an

ur

re c s

an

a e

er n

a e

as

au

ur ,

as

r an ,

er

ar

ca e

a e

e r,

re

e n ce

o r,

en

no

acc

re

u ce

an n a

e
,

e s ou r s , e

ur

re

e en

e r r,

c ur

no

e ra

i t
E id om
of
t fo
d i
3 46
piso d
M l o y 3 47 ;
of t h t l s
i t h M bi g i
s
3 47 t
l t d by L d y C h l ott G st
th
W l sh sto y l l d
3 47
G i t h E bi 3 5 1 ; o igi
l m
s i pt titl d L lyf
s
v
C h 0H g t 35
d
p
i J s s Co l l g O xfo d 3 47
t sl t d i to F h by
C h esti
styl d E
357
d E id 3 6
sy opsis of t h W l sh
sto y 3 5 1 3 5 6
o mp tiv st d y of t h
W l sh o m
y
d T
so s I dyl l 3 63 3 8 9 ; th
s tio s ( ) F o m th b gi
i g of t h h t to t h d f t of
th
S p o w H w k 3 643 7 4 ;
( ) F o m t h d f t of t h
Sp ow H w k to G i t s
t to Co t tog th w ith
E i d 3 7 43 7 9 ; (3 ) th W
e

h
sio s 3 5 7
1
t
3 63
p iz
()
of t h h t 3 6 3 6 th
wh ip
A th
d bl ow 3 6
Ki g
t E mp o
3 58 ; A
m
th s o t 3 5 7 ; E
tiv i th w d i gs 3 62
d i g 3 63
3 63 ; t h
G l d of W l s h i sti m t of
G o ff y 7 o
G t
tym ol ogy of t h w o d
Not E
mi st l s 44
G il d s
th o of D Bx i di
i
o
s
t
m
B it
d
5
9
tio A th 9 5 ; h i si l
oun t d f 96 sti m t of
h isto i
96
st
Rob t E l of
Gl o
G o ff y d d i t s h i H i t y
to hi m 69
l S i t m
i g f th
G
t m Not S t d itio f
s or

raa

a n

er

ra

7 61

e an n

Ro man ce

of th i t d
to y om
of th A gl o
No m
yl s
E pi 7 7 ;
t h L ti o igi
l th w o k f
M p Not H
t sl t d by
Rob t d Bo o 8 ; o
of th A th i k igh ts i t o
r

an ce

an

or

er

ran

rr

n,

u r an

c,

na

c u

uc

n ro

ne

a e

n r

d uce d , 7 7

of t h Q st of
of M p 2 4 ;
th
p o d tio
m
C
b
i
h
l
i
p
B to v sio s 2 4 ; w itt
f
l igio s
st tio of
io l ss 2 45 2 46 fo ms
w
s p t s tio i t h E pi
b
3 5 ; f l l s i to t h
tio s 48
Ro man ce
r

as

no

re

or

ara e
a

c a

in

or

en

ru c

ec

r an

er

ace

re

arr

uc

ue

re e

su

c,

se c

I nde x

Si t

G raal ,

a n

Ro man ce

of

th e

Q st of sy opsis of 2 46
v
ts
i
i
t
y
mm
d
l
9
( )

d
i
g
t
h
Q
st
2
6
4
53
p
o mp tiv st d y 2 5 3 2 6
( ) t h Q st its l f by l l of
th
Ro d T bl k igh t
2 6 7
o mp tiv st d y
;

i
v
t
t
h
h
m
7
7 9 (y )
of t h Q t 2 7 9 9 ; m

t
i
st
d
y
8
6
2 88
p
l l go y t h s bj t
b s t by d if l ti s 242 43
A ll go y of J sti tio
P v
ti g
27
59
73
G
Wil l 7 ;
7 ; F
P
Co f ssio 65
7
l Lif
77
7 8 279 ; Et
6
25 9
63 ; s h i p of F ith
85
8 6 ; M ty d o m 2 8
H
o w i g of H l l
66 ;
to m d v t s 67 7
ph
sl to
G st L d y Ch l ott t
of th M bi gi 64 ; d d i
tio of t h vol m Not F
G i l il l
G i ll m d
l i
sy opsis of L P l i g
5
ue

1.

re ce

ue

ue

ue s

e n a n ce

2 0, 2

e n ure
ar

no

ae

l homme ,

u ne

e re

au

ar

e ar

her

2 06

;
ard

e,

c e r c,

c e r na

me n

tio

by

ne d

t
tio

in la

er

by t h
h o i l s
of
h m
G
d
Ro m
t 2 7 ; by R
m
d gh t
G
of L d g
f C m l
y d 7 8 s s A t h f st
ti m 3 9 2 08 3 5 m i g
t
A th
s s
2 9
78
n c er

me n

an

e s ce n

ar

ee

ur ,

ara

raun ce

ue n e ve r,

an ce rs as

eo

ne d

u an

as

ur

ea

re

on

ue

e n e n ce

urn e

ou

an ce

ur o n

re a

an

ar

ca

e nn ,

n c

ur

en

ur

10

a n ce

ur e

es

ee

n,

ae r e

ee

ur

an ce r

ar

on

c are

c e rs

re c u e

an ce

e n ra

re

er

ee

re u rn

12

e,

er

or

s on

ea

arc

n,

en

ur ,

au

er

or

arr a

ee

H ave l ok t h e

an e

om

o f,

an ce

43

A th u s fost f th
b oth
Si K y s fost
37
h om g
to
38 ; wo ld d
A th
Ki g 3 8
k wl
d g s t h t h is
t A th
s
w
f h
3 8 ; t l l s A th
of h i l i g 3
H l
L d y w if of k i g B
2 2
m ot h
of L l ot 2 9
l m t i t h A th i
H isto i
E pi 48
id G
H ol y G
l
l
Ho
k i g om
f 43

Hec

to

Si r,

ch arac e r

20 7

a n ce

G w e n h w yvar,

as

L l ot f st ti m 2
giv s h i m h l ov 2 15 h
j l o sy 16 m ts Ki g
hi
t
f o m o q st of
I t l y 45 t pp d by M d
d
23 3
s t d to b
b d 234
s d by
L l ot 2 3 5 ; l ft i M d
d s
by A th
b k
i g
t of Ro m
W (Ch o
i l
A th s si g
) 10 7
of L l ot s st l of Joyo s
G d (Ro m
s) 15 6 3 ;
s to C l o 2 0 8 ; t k s
th
v i l t Al m b y 2 3 6 ;
l st m ti g w it h L
l ot
di s i
2 3 7 23 8
o v t 238
b i d t G l sto b y b si d
t h Ki g 2 3 9
of L l yw h H e
Gw
d th
of 93 m tio of
A th 9 3

27 , 28

ue e n ,

ran

G i v
Q
l y b ds
b

on ,

e,

e,

'

n,2

ev

ca

en

e rn a

ar

n,

ca

n e

an

ec

re

arr

ue

re e

co

en

2,

race ,

cu

e e

s,

ac

an a

an

ve

ara

ara

a e

un

en

ara

2
4 9

e r-

e e n,

e r,

ne a

rn ,

an c e

ur

c,

raa

no

en

ur

00

er

r c e e

ac

no

e r,

at

e r,

u r as

e r- a

raa

an ce o

an ,

ur an

I nd e x

0
43

oss

oss sso of t h
H ol y G
l
st i to
iso
m
d
ig
t
to B it i
7
7
p
t st d G l to
77
of F ish m Ki g 7 7
th e

Cr

2 63

raa

I de al ity

t w l fth
t y
l
m
P
i
i
of
i
d
l
ity
2
3
g
g
9
d
its l mi tio
P g
of th
l i ps
th
3 93
R fo m tio
d of t h C m
m w l t h d voi d of i d l ity
6
igh t th
tu y
9 ; th
d voi d f i d l ity 3 93 ; h iv l y
i
d is p t w h
i d l ity is
ti g 1 6 o m s of
w
hiv l y
viv w ith tio l
h ois m 8 7 ; N po l o
87
W l l i gto 3 94
3 94 3 9 5
C im
3 95 ; h o s of t h
mp ig
3 95
Ig
w if of G o l ois
6 13 6
m
i d to Uth
6 13 6 ;
moth
of A th u 3 6
Ig i
id Ig
I f
D t s Not A
I o ts sl gh t of bibl i l
l m t
A th i
R
i
m
A th sl ys l l i f ts
bo
M y d y 52
I o D k h i mp ig
d
viv l of A th i Ro m
a

the

ea

ec

cu

on

re

er

ea

an ce

na

er e

ca

e rn a ,

arr e

en

an ce

re

e an

10

ur

ca

ur an

n an

ca

n,

ur an

e,

er

10

au

rn o n

e rn a

an e

ce n

e e

r, 1

e r no,

nn

e r,

er
,

n.

an

er

ca

a n,

care

t y k ow to
i t Ky m y 1 3 i t o d d
i to th A th i E pi by t h
No m s 14
K igh th oo d i d Ch iv l y
Kn igh t

an

an ce ,

87

un

e rran r

c en

an

uce

n r

u r an

an

n,

ra n e

na

n,

a r

en

ce n

u e

a r

een

ea

re

an

ea

raa

ra e

e n ru

n an

ea

e ra

n,

n an

na

an

r ess ,

ro

ce n ur

; p
76

a r

L
L

ot Si th
h
m F
2 09
th o y of M d l Vi ll
m q z
th o s o l
;
d Not 0
sio 2
of
k i g B 2 11 ; fost
f
L d y of t h L k 2 12 t k
to Co t 2 2 x it s l ov of
th
2 2 ; s
Qu
t
m
b
d
to L d g
2 2;
d i b tt l
gh ts
2 13
pt
t s l ists
d k igh t 2 13
bl k k igh t 2 4 ; m ts
G i v
o f
t
2 4
t t i d by k i g
2 15
2 5
d gh t
P ll s
hi
E l i 2 16 th Qu s j l
o sy o s d 2 16 ; h s of
E l i s d th 2 17 joi s t h
Q st 2 17 o f ss s h i si s
2 7 7 27 9 ;
t s sh i p b i g
o ps of P iv l s sist 2 82
m ts G l h d f
l st ti m
o m s to stl e of C
2 83

an ce l

r,

ar

na

au

11, an

n,

1o

so n

ure

ca

as re
as

u ne

Jo s O w
ne

6o , 62

biog ph i l sk t h
o mpi l of My y i

e n,
c

ra

ca

e c

n e re n ce

as

ue

sto y t
r

e ll e r

44,

Not F
Jos ph of A i m th
g tl
k igh t w h took u Lo d f om
e

a ne

en

e a,

een

n e

e rc

ee

a a

ea

e ar n

en er

er

e ar

ea

au

ar u e

a ne ,

v r an

er

A r ch a i ology , 62

7 mg l e u r s

ee

e n e r a ne

as

en er

e re

en

raun ce

ac

en

eo

or

ass a

c nc u

e,

e en ,

e r- so n

an ,

ur

re n c

or

ca

e r,

e,

ar

I nde x

43

L l yw arch H en

on t i n ue d

e e

a,

en

a a n

ur

e re

en

t i on e d , 9 3

L i s E mp o
A
t
f
h
g
uc u
a

d e man d

e r r,

for w ar ,

n,

D e G uil e vil l e

E gl ish
n

t ru

sl t d
g i to

ran

P el er i n a

a e

26

ra

c n

e nc

sl t d by L d y
Ch l ott G st 63 64 ; d d i
t d to h
h il d
Not
F m i g of th w o d 63
o igi l i W l sh m s i pt
J s s Coll g O xfo d R d
,

ue

er

ar

ca e

na

re n ,

B ooh

i
M
M

e,

s th A thu i
xt
ts f o m G

n cl u d e

64 ; e rac
Er bi n , 3 64,
acaul a

351
T al e

e t c.

35

o igi l of L l ot
o d i g to M d l Vi ll
m q 2
iti
; hi th o y
i d 2 1
d Not 0
M l o y Si T h o m s h isto y
k ow 8 6 h i M t D t h
vi w of 84 8 5
5 82
M p W lt
(G ti ) l i
13 ; biog
73 ;
ph i l s k t h
h i w o ks 7 4 7 8 ;
w it
of
o m s 7 5 ; d v l op d p
xisti g t l s i to E i
8
8
p
acc

ar

c se

th e

10

e r,

an ce

a e

au

er

ca

e c

c e r c,

ur ,

ar

un

or

ra

er

n,

an

re

an ce

na

er

c,

re

0,

an d

de

Me r l i n

an d

r u

n,

7 4,

re a

cr

e ra u re , 1
n

en

nc

n,

a e

ec

er

ce n ur

na e

er

ca

c,

n e

nc r

u r an

ea

ue n ce

ur

e a,

er

c,

ar

ca

Myrth i n or Myrdh i n 162 ; a

Ro man k i ng 162 164 ; a ma
,

gi ci an
c al l e d

an d

e n ch an e r ,

164

A mb os 167 ; l i st
o t of A mb os t h
h t
164 167 ; w h y
ll d
67 ;
M li
myth o l ogi
h
68 ; h i f f ts i
t
hi
h isto y
l t d by t h
B d s 169 ; C h isti h
t
hi
o v sio by S t
7
Co l mb 17 ; by S t C d
d pi t d by t h C h o
7 ;
i l
17
y mph hi
7 ;
o mp io 169 ; M l i f
om
67
7 ; U th
d vis
17 4 ; fo
ds o d
f
Ro d T b l K igh ts
75 ;
ff ts m
i g of Uth
d
c

e ar

an e r,

e r, 1 0

an ce ,

e r,

ec

er

c e

arr a e

oc,

1 2
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er

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n,

un

1, 1 2

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an c

a,

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ac

s c

as

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1 0

en

arac e r ,

ca

n,

ar

un

er

ae l ,

Sa i n t Gr a a l

acc

an

er a i n t- a h

itio of po t y

de

r an

re e

64,

H e rg e s t ,

anu cr

e u

e an n

a e

ar

Not H h i i
sp d
th o gh o t E o p 4 5 3 9
M sso P of D vi d d s iptio
of t u l it t
7
M d l d i g i i d ts i o
t e d i A th
i E pi 5 2
p
M l i i m g of i t l l t of t h
w o l d 161 st p so
g i
h o ol ogi l o d
E pi
i
13 3 16
W l sh h d of th
si xth
t y 162
ll d
e

ran

da

ora

Roma n
Roma n

e ce

un

er

ara c e r

n,

n,

s c

an ce

ca

M a bi n og i on

ua

s r

uce d
s

au

a n , 144

Dan

a e,

; pre pare

is sl i
Joh t

143

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143

ur ,

e nn ,

son

on

au

ar

oi t of u ity 7 5
spi it l is tio 7 8
7 6 ; hi
8 0 hi o m
s m st pi s
2 92 3 8
hi
h
t s tis
ti l l y d w 3 2 6 ity d
o sist y th o gh o t 3 29 ;
th o of t h L ti of t h
n r

st z 92 ; l gy st p t
giv i f l l Not U
th o
of po m
Gw
hi
A th is g i m
wh
an

i t od

er s

er o

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I nde x

M l i C ti d
Ig
of
3 6 7 5 ; gu d i
A th 17 5 ; h A th
k owl dg d Ki g 17 6 ; b
t i s E x l ib u f o m th L d y
of th L k 17 7 ; l t tl y
ff ts t h Ki g s m
i g to
G i v
17 8 ; d is l os s h i
s t to B l is 17 9 ; oss s
th
180 ;
is m d l ov
by Vivi
19 7
p iso
d Vivi
om
of
sy o psis 180 84 19 5 97 ;
o mp tiv st d y 18 4195
n ue

on

er

e rn a, 1

a n

ca

ec

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arr a e

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e nn e

an

9 7 20 3

an ce

ara

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cr

ne r

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se a ,

e cre

ac

e,

u ne

ur

as

an

ar

ur,

itio of po t y 3 4
P
di
L t 24 A th
th
th m of h i p opos d pi 8
Not B ; h i t sl tio of
G off y s l gi s 49 5 0
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Not E ; th l v mi st l
2 2 ; hi p
gy i s 9 5
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of A th
d M
h
s
2
t
t
i
m
t
l
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;
g
g
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d i tio
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of t h I o ts
5 2 m ss
s p 5 2 ; l ys
52 ; M d d
s
f
L l ot 2 3 3 ; l ft
h g of Q
i
d ki g
d m (C h o i l s) 10 7 (R
ara

se

os

re

re

e e

re

ar

ur

man ce rs)

s e ca

man ce rs),

'

re

nn

ce n

e,

15 6,

236 ;

15 8 ,

s)

r n cl e r

15 6,

n c er

15 8

10 8 ,

h is

(R0

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ea

rc

ur

15 9 .

3 13
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Mo mo t h
o y f id
G off y
Mo Si T h o m Ut pi 4
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A th 5 2 5 3
M g
A th s h l f sist
42 ; w i f of Ki g Lot 142 ;
o m s to A t h s Co t 42 ;
m ot h of Mo d d 42
ompil d by Si
M t D th
T h om s M l o y 8 2 ; p i t d
by C xto 8 l st bl k l tt
d
d itio
f 6;
b
l
is
h
by
p
S o th y I 1
M i
i d C h iv l y
My y i A h i l gy o mpi l d
m
by O w Jo s 6
62 ;
m
is
s
i
s
b
i
m
f
C
p
l it
t
62 63
u

re

re

r an

ur ,

o r ause

ur

ur

er

or

a o o

ne

e ra ure ,

a n

re

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rc

en

er

v r an

ac

re

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r n e

c e n ce

n,

un

ur

ur , c

e r,

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ar

a,

as ,

co

r an

it

e ra ure

an

eo n ,

arra

e n ce o n

a r

3 94, 3 9 5
u re , vi de
,

e ra

Lit

e ra

ure

of H i t i
m 99 ; st h isto i l
B it
m tio (i p os ) of A th
o t of A m
100 ;
l i st
b os t h
h
t
d V ti
g
16467
N w b gh W i l l i m of iti is m
of G y of Mo mo th 69
d Not G
70
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l m t of
4 ; i fus d t h
e nn us ,

au

on u

en

11

ac c un

an e r an

re

an

an

ur

eo

r ca

or

ur

s or a

e e nc

e ar

an

N pol
i u
of h i v l y 8 7
N tiv l it t
t
N
i
th o

e rn ,

by th A h bish o p
s l di g
3 1 o ppos s A th
(C h o i l s) 1 8 (Ro m
s) 15 7 ; d th of Mod e d
mun i cat e d

ce r

en

u e e n an

so (Ch o i

Ge t s

R
( o man

109 ,

or

re a

an ce

or

re

c e e

er

ac re

ra

n are

s)

r n cl e r

c,

n c

u r an

er

r c

so n

ac

an e

c e

au e

ran

c, 1

re

ur

e r

(Ch o i

d e n

n,

43 3

cr

a rac e r

e e

en

I nd e x

43 4

No m s C nti u d
d v tu
k igh t
ty
i to t h A t h i n E pi 1 4
an

e rran r

en

ur a

or

the ,

os

r
p

12 6

N ov e l

re

c,

er

g
C h iv l y
P ssi g of A th
tol d by th
Ro m
s 3 93 3 ; M p s
v sio
yso s m
d T
e

ur, as

an ce r

er

d
r
a
e
,
p

an

e nn

3 2 5

God ,

Not L

co

e xpl a n e d

12 5

Ki ng

t he

12 5

ex

Not L
k
A h bish op i j
tio s to h i d io s 5
sy opsis
P el i g d l h mm
of 2 7 2 8
P l l s ki g
t t i s L l ot
d s e d
2 5
t of Jos ph of
A i m th i hi d
P ll s
d Et
iso
d
p
l
n
d
a
e
p
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rc

an ce

an

e a,

arre

an

m of k i g Uth
go
17 4
o igi of m 7 4
P
i v l Si joi s i t h Q st
25
62 ; jo sts w ith G l h d
d is ov th o w
2 66
m ts
G l h d
sh i p 2 8 ; visio
of S g l t stl of C
b
k 2 88 o d
d to g to
S s 2 89 p s t t h i v
m t of t h Q st 2 9
t s
m o st y
ity of S s
n , na

e rc

na

r,

0, 2

er

on e c

n,

re

na

er

ar

e re

en

ue

ca

ee

ue

a a

raa

en

ac

n e ar c

e r

iv l s sist
a

an ce ,

nc en

ty mol ogy of w o
s o- call e d

3 4, 3 5
u
r
l
a
p p

oe r

de

ot b
y l s of

can n

N ot e

rd ,

itio s of
d d 35
n

ne

o
23
l
i
tio i 3 5 3 6
P o o pi us
hi
d s i ptio
of
B it i i th sixth
tu y

6
5
58

P os
d v s
33 35
Py m i d s ov
A th u s tomb
N ot N
r

n o

a n

c ass

ce n

er e

ra

e cr

e an

c e

er

Q
Q st f H ol y G
Q ixot D 2 43
ue

raal , vi de

raal

on ,

en er
arra

Re al l ife ,
Re cre an t

er

oy

th e h l

m a d)

om
of 3 8 3 9
t m us d i h iv l y
ty mol ogy of Not K

12 3

an ce

n c

er

a r

Re d Booh of H e rges t 64 3 5 6
Re fo rmatio n i n n gl an d d e cay

of i t st i o m
l it
6
t
R l i q s P y s d w of ti
n

n e re

an ce

e ra

ure ,

ue

e rc

an

uari an i s m , I o
q

Re storation
e st

ia

Ri e n ce

291

P e rc

on

an

arra

e r,

an

a a

arra

o s, r

Pe n d ra

an

ea

e,

en er a n

e c n

e,

ce

n un e

e r na

oty

ca

P e ace

es o

14

P eace

oe t

a r

se e

e rc

an

10

P
Pa

ar

e r c va

e rc

a a a

e rc

ee

36 38

e e p c,

s G l h d to th sh i p
to joi P iv l d Bo s 2 8o
h
m ty d o m 2 8 2 p o mis s
to m t P iv l t S s 2 8 2
i
l l G ll i
P
om
39
P
y R l i gu f A i t P t y
l e ad

2 80

3 05

y of i t
om
t 9
l it
k i g of N o th W l s
L d
m k e s w ar
,

t h e , d e ca

an c e

e ra ure
r

on

n er

a e

eo

I nd e x

6
43

Sp s

go i l w iti gs 4
q ot tio f o m Not K
Spi it l is tio l m t i A
t h i Ro m
7 6 80
o s 2 2 Bl k
Sp s to w i
2 3 ; G l h d 2 49
P i
i d C h iv l y
Sq i
s Si J d itio f
St ph
Po t y 3 4
Sw ift D
2 43
e n e r , al l e
a

ua

ur

r n ce

u re

en

ne

e r

a a

en

e e

an ce

u r an

ac

a r

ty mol ogy

th e w

of

n,

r ca

T r u ce

God ,

Not L

12 5

Not

rd ,

e xpl a ne d

T r u ce

Sh o

T u rn e r

ur,

isto i
Not I
b y
th
d to mb f A t h
ar

A th

Ki ng i bi d

th e

on

i ng pl ace

Not N

th e h

on

n,

an

r c

ur

ur ,

e an ,

Ui

C mb i

r e n,

My vy r i a n A r ch a i ol ogy

T al i ss i n

un

to Co t of U i
Ut
go t w w ith

6
i
gy
i
s
U
i
i s Ig
h
G o l ois
36; m
9 ;
p
2 06
g g s to d l iv A th
l b t s G i v
06
94
T
i

6
s
d
o
l
i
l
b
t
s
h
w
bo
to
M
l
i
3
;
p
f
A th
1
A th bo
3 6 ; d th
Ut h
o igi of
T
yso
l y i po t 8 9 ; h i
2 96
37
A th i po ms
v
29
m P d go
74
g sp d th E pi
w h ol
89
d foot ot
it io
V
j d gi g t h I dyl l 8 8 d i
f
t t d h
t of A th i
V l t vi d Ch iv l y
h o s 3 7 3 8
o of iti V s i d P os d V s
id G
i m 2 9 18 4 18 5 ;
d th
l
V ss l S
pi t
l tio of T
yso s m th o d Vill m q L Vi o mt H
t
its m its d d f ts 3 44
so m
o t of 65
d
l
f
o it of t h l i l y
h i w o k s 66 h i t h o y
3 46 ; h i
Not P h d st oy d t h ym
of t h m L
t h o igi
m t y of t h E pi
th is t h o y iti is d
l t 21
92
T h o s E ly P
Rm
Not 0
of t h C mb i b d s
V ivi
39
85
T ist
st pp
Si
69 ; of t h Ch o i l s
t
Co t 5 1
of W l t M p d D Bo o
l ot
d I
d
Ro m
of
m ot h of L
8 5 fost
tt h m t
L
d
2
an
; h
d
f
m
to
M
i
otiv
o
ts
l
1
T o b do s l y i
6
5
7
;
9
p
62

tt

T al i ss i n , 94
h e r P e n d ra

i f s g by

ch e

r an

ach e d

an e

eu

u ne

ss n

r en ,

on

r c

ra e

ce e

ur

r e

e re ,

en

ra e

ce e

u r, 10

e nn

n,

r c

ur an

ra

or e

er e

c s

an

as

e r

r os e

en

an ,

ur

r,

er

er e

ec

e,

a,

e aran ce

an c e

ur

r c

raa

e rsar

e na

an ce

cr

er e

acc u n

a n ce s ,

e an

a r

acre

ar

er

e r-

12

ac ,

er

n,

r an

n c er

r u

n, 1

ra

e s

sou

an

ea

e nn e ,

c, 2

ar

a e

rn ,

n,

er

ur

n ce

na

u r an

r e ca

e nn

can

rn

e r,

er

er

er

s,

er
e

cr

rn

arac e r

ne

c as a

an

or

2 1,

ur

e rn a ,

arr e

en

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n,

an

rr

n,

an ce

er

er a

ar

en

ac

or

I nd e x

C n ti d
ivi
si i g t h k o wl dg of th
h m 19 5
i m g of
96 ;
m
1
0
o
y
ov
w
l
l
8
2
5
3
p
T
yso s d isto tio of h
h
t
86
o mp tiv st dy of M
li
d Vivi
8 7 9 3
Vo l t i
hi ph i l oso ph i l
m
s 2 43
Vo tig
b i l d s d f s g i st
th
S xo s 64 165 ; sto y
f
d
d w h it d go s 65

e n ne

r n

ar

an

e nn

e,

12 9

er

n an
a re

e n ne

re

ro

ca

e e n ce

an

167

ace

e rn

an e e

er

a a n

ra

Rob e rt

n ot

cl e r c ,

t is om

in h

an ce

st
r

7 1,

bi th pl of Wl
68 foot ot

rd ,

ace

t e r C al e n i us ,

W lt C l i id C l i
W b to Bish op d i t m
ti q i ism 9
Wb H y Mti l R
ot to p 42
m
W il l i m of N w b gh i d N w
b gh
Wo d sw o th d itio f po t y
a e n us , v

er

ar

ur

n,

c u

a n ces , n

e r ca

on

e nr

e r,

a e n us

uar an

an

ur

ur

35
14

ne d

W l l i gfo

tio

de Br u t ,

Ro un d T ab l e

12 8

7 1,

Roma n

Li

me n

th o of

a e

ara

au

an

arac e r, 1

ure ,

n ue

43 7

n o

e r