JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH, VOL. 50, NO.

Underage College Students Drinking

Behavior, Access to Alcohol, and the
Influence of Deterrence Policies
Findings From the Harvard School of Public Health
College Alcohol Study
Henry Wechsler, PhD; Jae Eun Lee, DrPH;
Toben F. Nelson, MS; Meichun Kuo, ScD
Abstract. Underage drinking is a major problem at American
colleges, but little is known about the extent of alcohol use in different student groups, in different colleges, and in states with different control policies. We used data from the 2001 and 3 previous
Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Studies that
compared responses of underage students with those of their
2123-year-old peers. Underage students drank alcohol less frequently but were more likely to drink to excess when they drank.
College educational efforts and deterrent policies were limited in
their outreach, and half of underage students obtained alcohol very
easily. Underage students in states with extensive laws restricting
underage and high-volume drinking were less likely to drink and
to binge drink. A majority of underage students supported increasing efforts to control underage drinking. The results suggest that
additional policy efforts to control underage drinking may be
effective and feasible.

College students consume alcohol at the 5-drink level

more often than age-matched peers who do not attend college.11 Research evidence suggests that environmental factors common in college settings, such as low prices and
easy accessibility to alcohol, contribute to this high rate of
alcohol use and related problems.1214
Although drinking and heavy drinking among underage
students on college campuses are widespread, in an analysis of the 1999 Harvard School of Public Health College
Alcohol Study (CAS) data, researchers found that college
students drinking differs from that of their peers who are of
legal drinking age.14 Underage students drink less often, but
they have more drinks per occasion when they do drink.

Key Words: alcohol, automobile accidents, binge drinking, minimum legal drinking age, underage drinking

Legal Steps to Control Underage Drinking

Minimum drinking age laws are one set of tools that have
been used to combat heavy alcohol use by college students.
In 1984, the United States Congress passed the National
Minimum Purchase Age Act,15 which encouraged each state
to enact a minimum legal standard of 21 years for purchasing alcohol. The minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) law
may be the single most effective method to combat alcohol
use and its adverse consequences among young people.1517
The authors of several studies have noted that this law was
associated with a significant decrease in traffic fatalities
involving drivers 18 to 20 years of age. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates that since 1975
the MLDA of 21 years has saved more than 19,000 lives in
collisions involving drivers in this age group, and the proportion of youth traffic fatalities involving alcohol dropped
from 63.2% in 1982 to 35.1% in 1999.9,18 Studies of highway fatalities in the 1970s, when the MLDA in some states
was lowered, revealed a similar increase in deaths during
that time period.16 In addition, the authors of a recent review
of literature from 1960 to 200017 found that the MLDA law
was associated with reduced alcohol consumption in under21-year-olds, fewer alcohol-related traffic fatalities, and

he Surgeon General of the United States1 has

established reducing heavy episodic, or binge,
drinking among college students as a major health
goal for the nation. Approximately 2 in 5 college students
engage in binge drinking.28 This style of drinking is associated with serious negative consequences, including academic difficulties; antisocial behavior; health and psychosocial problems; high-risk sexual behavior; and other risky
behavior, such as drinking and driving. Accidental injury is
the leading cause of death among older adolescents and
young adults.9
Heavy alcohol use also affects students other than the
drinker. Students at schools with high rates of binge drinking experience more secondhand effects of alcohol use such
as verbal, physical, and sexual assaults, and property damage than do students at schools where the rates are low.10
All of the authors are with the Department of Health and Social
Behavior at the Harvard School of Public Health in Boston.
223

WECHSLER ET AL

fewer social and other health problems. The authors of that

review also found a dearth of high-quality studies specifically evaluating the effects of MLDA laws among underage
college students.
Whereas the MLDA law has played a role in reducing
alcohol-related morbidity and mortality, underage alcohol
use is still a serious national problem. Enforcement is often
lax, and the agencies charged with upholding these laws are
underfunded in many states.15 Underage individuals use of
false identification and others provision of alcohol to
underage persons compound enforcement problems. A
study of alcohol retailers shows wide variability in compliance with MLDA laws and indicates that compliance needs
to be improved.19
Other Limits on Alcohol Purchase
and Consumption
In addition to the MLDA law, other laws govern the use
of alcohol by persons under the age of 21 years. These
include prohibitions on attempts to purchase or consume
alcohol and on individual use of false identification to purchase alcohol by someone under the legal drinking age.
Laws also exist in some states that require those who sell
alcohol to be 21 years of age or older. In addition to the laws
restricting alcohol sales by age, a series of laws aimed at
limiting purchase of alcohol for high volume sales and consumption, such as happy-hour sales, keg registration, and
pitcher sales, are in effect in some states. These legal controls have received less attention in research on alcohol use
among those below the legal drinking age. Furthermore,
although laws may be on the books, those who are targeted
must be aware of the laws and they must also be enforced to
be meaningful deterrents.
Colleges are mandated to address underage drinking and
comply with the MLDA law. In 1989, the US Congress
passed the Safe and Drug Free Schools Act, which requires
that colleges and universities publish information about
laws that regulate drug and alcohol use, including the
MLDA; acquaint students with the consequences of breaking those laws; and periodically evaluate the effectiveness
of the institutions policy.20
In the present study, we used a national sample of colleges and universities to extend previous work by examining the drinking behavior of underage students, the relationship of place of residence to underage students
alcohol-use patterns, the means by which underage students
obtain alcohol, and their perception of efforts on and off
campus to prevent them from obtaining alcohol. We compared the reports of underage college students in 2001 with
their student peers who are over the minimum legal drinking age and with data on underage students from previous
surveys by the CAS in 1993, 1997, and 1999. We also considered the policies and programs that schools have put in
place to combat heavy drinking and underage drinking.
Finally, we examined the impact of 2 sets of laws: those that
target underage drinking and those that are aimed at limiting high volume sales of alcohol.
224

METHOD
Sample
We drew the data in the present study from the 2001
CAS, a survey of students at 120 of the colleges selected to
be a representative sample of accredited 4-year colleges and
universities in 38 states and the District of Columbia. The
2001 study was a follow-up survey to a study originally
conducted in 1993 and repeated in 1997 and 1999. Following the methods described in the companion article in this
journal,2 we compared data from the 2001 sample with the
3 previous samples drawn at most of the same sites to examine trends over time. In the present study, we limited the
samples in each of the survey years to students aged 23
years or younger and compared underage students (< 21 y)
with other traditional college-age students (2123 y).
The 2001 CAS survey asked students a series of questions
about their alcohol use and associated problems, their lifestyles, and demographic and background characteristics.
Where possible, we adapted the questions from other major
large-scale national studies. The student responses were voluntary and anonymous, and the study received exempt status
from the institutional review committees on this basis. We
excluded data from 1 school because the response rate was
substantially lower than that from the other schools, which
left a sample of 119 colleges that represented a national
cross-section of students enrolled at 4-year colleges. Details
of the survey methods and the composition of the sample are
described in detail elsewhere.24
Measures
We defined students who were under the legal drinking
age on the basis of self-reported age (< 21 vs 2123 y) and
refer to them throughout this paper as underage students.
The 21- to 23-year age group provides the most appropriate
comparison group; these students are referred to as legal
age or of-age students or peers.
We defined binge drinking as the consumption of at least
5 drinks in a row for men or 4 drinks in a row for women
during the 2 weeks before the completion of the questionnaire. The CAS gender-specific measure, which is commonly used in epidemiologic studies,21 provides a measure
of equivalent alcohol-related problems for college men and
women.22 The details of how this measure is constructed are
described elsewhere.2 Frequent binge drinkers were students who had binged 3 or more times in the past 2 weeks,
whereas occasional binge drinkers were those who had
binged 1 or 2 times in the same period. Nonbinge drinkers
were students who had consumed alcohol in the past year
but had not binged in the previous 2 weeks. Abstainers did
not consume any alcohol in the past year.
In addition to defining the measure of binge drinking,
we assessed student patterns of alcohol use by asking
respondents who drank any alcohol in the past 30 days
about (a) the number of times they drank alcohol, (b) the
number of times they were drunk, (c) the usual amount of
alcohol they consumed when they drank, and (d) the
JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

UNDERAGE DRINKING

importance of drinking to get drunk as a reason for

drinking.
We calculated the volume of alcohol the students consumed through responses to 2 questions. The first asked
about the number of occasions the respondent had a drink in
the past 30 days. Response choices were 12, 35, 69,
1019, 2039, or 40 or more occasions. For analysis, we
used the midpoint of each of the response categories and 40
for the maximum answer of 40 or more. The second question asked about the usual number of drinks per occasion in
the past 30 days; the response choices were 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8, and 9 or more. We coded the maximum response
choice of 9 or more as 9 drinks. We multiplied these 2 values to determine the number of drinks consumed in 1
month. About one third of the students reported that they
did not drink in the past 30 days, including 12% to 15% of
the students who drank in the past year but not in the past
30 days. For those who did not drink in the past 30 days, we
assigned a value of 0 drinks. For this analysis, the possible
number of drinks in the past 30 days therefore ranged from
0 to 360. The results presented for the volume of drinking
analyses included students aged 24 years and older combined with the 2123-year age group.
We asked students who drank alcohol in the previous
year a series of questions about their experience of alcoholrelated problems, including 12 health and behavioral consequences of ones own drinking. Responses to the personal
harms questions ranged from academic difficulties (eg,
missing a class or getting behind in schoolwork), to physical and sexual violence, to serious medical problems such
as alcohol overdose. We also examined driving after consuming any alcohol; this analysis was limited to students
who had driven 1 or more times in the past week.
In addition, we asked all students 8 questions about their
experience of the consequences of other students drinking
(secondhand effects) during the current school year. We
used analyses of the secondhand effects of alcohol from a
survey conducted among students who did not binge drink
(ie, nonbinge drinkers and abstainers) and were residents of
on-campus residence halls and fraternity/sorority houses.
The details of alcohol-related sexual assault and unwanted
sexual advances we present are for female students only.
In addition to CAS survey data, we also examined 2 other
data sources for information on policies relating to alcohol
use. The first were state and local laws and policies related
to sale, use, and consequences of use. We gathered the state
alcohol laws and policies from a report by the University of
Minnesota (personal communication, AC Wagenaar, Alcohol Epidemiology Program, University of Minnesota
School of Public Health, 2000). The local laws and policies
were obtained directly from the city hall at each survey site.
We combined these laws into 2 groupings according to
their emphasis on underage access and high volume sales,
creating 2 aggregate measures that used a general criterion
of more than half of the laws in each group to examine the
relationship between presence of laws and underage binge
drinking. The laws examined had all been in effect for at
VOL 50, MARCH 2002

least 112 years before we conducted the 2001 student survey.

Underage laws we considered included local minimum age
to sell, prohibitions against using a false identification,
attempting to buy or consume for those under the legal
drinking age, requirements to post warning signs about the
consequences of violating alcohol laws, and laws restricting
the sales of alcohol by requiring a minimum age of 21 years
to be a clerk and a minimum age of 21 years to sell alcohol.
Laws pertaining to volume alcohol sales included keg registration; a statewide .08% per se blood alcohol concentration
(BAC) law; and restrictions on happy hour, open containers,
beer sold in a pitcher, and billboards and advertising. We did
not include laws addressing zero tolerance, prohibitions on
selling to underage persons, and possession by underage persons in the analysis because all or nearly all states had these
laws. When a law is in effect in all or almost all areas where
colleges are located, comparisons are not possible because
too few colleges are outside the purview of the law.
Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), a leading
activist organization, developed a rating of state efforts to
prevent and reduce drinking and driving. MADD, the
largest victim-assistance organization in the country, reported its findings in a publication entitled Rating the States
2000.23 This report provided a variable that rated each state
according to the resources devoted to the enforcement of
underage and drinking and driving laws (rating of A or better vs lower than A).
Data Analysis
We reported weighted percentages and directly standardized rates of alcohol use and other outcomes of interest for
all analyses. The details of the weighting and standardization
procedure are described elsewhere.2 We used chi-square
tests and logistic regression to examine comparisons of rates
of student characteristics and outcomes of interest. We used
the multiple logistic regression technique to assess the relationship among the outcomes of interest, adjusting for other
covariates. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals
(CIs) are reported. We used the generalized estimating equations (GEE) approach to fitting the logistic regression models to account appropriately for clustered outcomes arising
in our sampling scheme.24,25 All analyses were conducted
using the SAS statistical software package.26
RESULTS
Alcohol Use
In 2001, 43.6% of underage students were classified as
binge drinkers, a rate that was similar to the rate for all college students nationally and did not change over the 4 survey years. Underage students were significantly different in
their alcohol use from students aged 21 to 23 years. Underage students were less likely to drink any alcohol in the past
year (77.4% for < 21 y and 85.8% for the 2123 y age
group; OR = 0.56; 95% CI = 0.440.72; p < .001), drink any
alcohol in the past month (62.8% for < 21 y and 76.7% for
2123 y age group; OR = 0.51; 95% CI = 0.430.61; p <
225

WECHSLER ET AL

.001), and engage in binge drinking in the past 2 weeks

(43.6% for < 21 y and 50.2% for 2123 y age group; OR =
0.77; 95% CI = 0.690.86; p < .001). We found this relationship in each of the 4 CAS surveys.
We found significant decreases in the percentages of
underage students who drank any alcohol from 1993 to
2001 (81.0% in 1993 and 77.4% in 2001; OR = 0.80; 95%
CI = 0.720.90; test for linear trend, p < .0001). Most of this
decrease occurred among men (82.3% in 1993 and 76.2% in
2001; OR = 0.69; 95% CI = 0.590.80; test for linear trend,
p < .0001). At the same time, an increase occurred among
underage students who engaged in frequent binge drinking
across the survey years (21.3% in 1993 and 23.5% in 2001;
OR = 1.14; 95% CI = 1.051.23; test for linear trend, p =
.0002). We observed this increase among both men (23.4%
in 1993 and 25.9% in 2001; OR = 1.14; 95% CI =
1.001.30; test for linear trend, p = .0140) and women
(19.6% in 1993 and 21.7% in 2001; OR = 1.14; 95% CI =
1.001.30; test for linear trend, p = .0093).
Among students who consumed alcohol during the past
year, underage students drinking style differed from that
found in of-age students. Fewer underage students drank on
10 or more occasions in the past 30 days (underage = 20.0%,
2123 y = 26.6%; OR = 0.69; 95% CI = 0.610.79; p <
.0001). However, more underage students (34.2%) than
2123-year-old students (28.6%) reported that they were
drunk on 3 or more occasions in the past 30 days (OR = 1.30;
95% CI = 1.151.47; p < .0001), and more underage students
(55.8%) than 2123-year-old students (46.8%) reported that
drinking to get drunk was an important reason for drinking
(OR = 1.44; 95% CI = 1.311.59; p < .0001).
Underage students were more likely to report that they usually drank at binge levels when they drank. For men, 57.8%
of those who were underage reported that they usually had 5
or more drinks when they drank, compared with 41.9% of
their legal-age peers (OR = 1.93; 95% CI = 1.592.34; p <
.001). We found a similar relationship among women at the
4-drink level (32.4% for underage and 20.5% for of-age students; OR = 1.85; 95% CI = 1.552.21; p < .001).
When underage students were compared with all students
responding to the survey who were of legal drinking age,
about half (48.1%) of all the alcohol use reported was con-

sumed by underage students for the 2001 survey year in the

30 days before the survey. We obtained a similar finding in
the three previous CAS surveys (see Table 1).
Alcohol-Related Problems
Among students who drank any alcohol during the past
year, the underage students differed significantly from their
peers aged 2123 years in their experience of problems related to alcohol use. The underage students were more likely to
do something they regretted (38.9% for < 21 y and 35.6% for
2123 y age group; OR = 1.16; 95% CI = 1.041.30); forget
where they were or what they did (30.9% for < 21 y and
27.0% for 2123 y age group; OR = 1.22; 95% CI =
1.101.36); cause property damage (12.8% for < 21 y and
10.3% for 2123 y age group; OR = 1.40; 95% CI =
1.151.70); get into trouble with the police (8.4% for < 21 y
and 5.7% for 2123 y age group; OR = 1.66; 95% CI =
1.242.21); and to get hurt or injured (15.1% for < 21 y and
12.7% for 2123 y age group; OR = 1.22; 95% CI =
1.041.43) related to their alcohol use.
At the same time, underage students were less likely to
have certain alcohol-related problems. Notably, they were
much less likely to drive after consuming any alcohol
(26.0% for < 21 y and 46.9% for 2123 y age group; OR =
0.34; 95% CI = 0.290.39). They were also less likely to
miss a class (29.5% for < 21 y and 33.4% for 2123 y age
group; OR = 0.85; 95% CI = 0.750.96) and to engage in
unprotected sexual activity (ie, no prophylaxis) because of
their alcohol use (9.6% for < 21 y and 12.1% for 2123 y
age group; OR = 0.75; 95% CI = 0.640.88).
We noted slight increases in all measures of alcoholrelated problems among underage students over the 4 surveys, and these increases were statistically significant in all
but 2 cases (getting behind in school work and not using
protection during sex).
Place of Residence and the Secondhand
Effects of Alcohol
Underage students housing arrangements tended to be different from those of their of-age classmates. Underage students were more likely to live in on-campus residences such
as non-substance-free residence halls [40.6% for underage

TABLE 1
Total Number of Drinks Consumed by Underage and Legal-Age College Students, 1993, 1997, 1999, 2001

Year
1993
1997
1999
2001
Total

226

N
Underage Legal age
6,838
6,956
6,881
5,413
26,088

8,255
7,254
6,833
5,368
27,710

% drinking in
the past month
Underage Legal age
66.1
62.6
62.3
62.8
63.5

73.6
69.6
69.3
73.6
71.5

% of sample
by age group
Underage Legal age
45.3
49.0
50.2
50.2
48.5

54.7
51.0
49.8
49.8
51.5

Total drinks
consumed
Underage Legal age
152,753
147,639
148,870
112,688
561,950

163,701
145,313
150,420
121,567
581,001

% of total
drinks consumed
Underage Legal age
48.3
50.4
49.7
48.1
49.2

51.7
49.6
50.3
51.9
50.8

JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

UNDERAGE DRINKING

and 16.9% for of-age students, 2(1, N = 8,933) = 601.6; p <

.0001], and substance-free residence halls [17.9% for underage and 4.2% for of-age students, 2(1, N = 8,933) = 394.8;
p < .0001]. Underage students were less likely to live offcampus with their parents [17.8% for underage and 20.7%
for of-age students, 2(1, N = 8,933) = 7.0; p = .0082], and
independently of their parents [20.9% for underage and
55.3% for of-age students, 2(1, N = 8,933) = 1013.0; p <
.0001].
Drinking by both underage and of-age students was related to their living arrangements (Table 2). Students who
lived in controlled settings were less likely to binge drink,
whereas students who lived in fraternity or sorority houses
were more likely to binge drink than students in any other
type of residence, regardless of age. We found that the lowest rates of binge drinking were among students living in
substance-free dorms or off campus with their parents.
Underage students were less likely to binge drink when they
lived with their parents than their legal-age peers were.
We also examined the secondhand effects of alcohol use
among underage students according to their place of residence (Table 3). A consistent pattern in the experience of secondhand effects emerged across each of the negative effects.
Fewer students living off campus with their parents experienced secondhand effects of alcohol use. Similarly, fewer residents in substance-free residence halls than in other tradi-

tional campus living arrangements reported experiencing

secondhand effects. Students living in fraternity or sorority
houses were most likely to experience these effects. In fact,
nearly every resident of a fraternity or sorority house experienced at least 1 secondhand effect of others alcohol use.
Alcohol Use by Venue
Attendance at places where alcohol is likely to be served
changed over the 4 CAS surveys, and underage student
alcohol use reports differed according to drinking venue.
We noted shifts in the patterns of attendance and heavy
drinking at each of these venues over the 4 survey years.
Table 4 reports the prevalence of drinking at each of 4
selected drinking venues and shows the comparison of
behavior between underage students and those in the 21- to
23-year age group.
Off-campus parties and off-campus bars were the locations where students were most likely to report drinking and
heavy drinking. We noted no changes over time in attendance at on-campus or dormitory parties but found a significant increase in any alcohol use (17.9% in 1993 and 22.3%
in 2001; OR = 1.31; 95% CI = 1.111.55; test for linear
trend, p = .0001) and consuming 5 or more drinks at that
venue over time (7.4% in 1993 and 9.9% in 2001; OR =
1.39; 95% CI = 1.121.73; test for linear trend, p = .0018).
We found a significant decrease in attendance (52.4% in

TABLE 2
Binge Drinking for Underage and Legal-Age Students,
by Living Arrangements, 2001
Underage vs legal age
OR
95% CI
p

Living arrangements

Total

Underage
(n = 4,231)

Off campus with parents

Substance-free residence
hall
Off campus without
parents
Non-substance-free
residence hall
Fraternity/sorority house
Controlled living
arrangements
Uncontrolled living
arrangements

29.9

24.9

35.7

0.58

0.44, 0.77

.0001

35.5

35.8

33.8

1.14

0.73, 1.76

.5656

53.9

49.6

56.2

0.79

0.65, 0.95

.0132

49.9
76.0

50.7
69.9

47.1
83.4

1.12
0.52

0.89, 1.42
0.25, 1.08

.3411
.0800

32.0

30.3

35.4

0.78

0.63, 0.96

.0188

53.1

51.1

55.5

0.86

0.74, 1.00

.0556

Uncontrolled vs controlled
OR//
2.26
2.33
95% CI
1.97, 259 1.95, 2.78
p
< .0001 < .0001

Legal age
(n = 4,547)

2.17
1.77, 2.66
< .0001

Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval. ORs were adjusted for gender, race, and response rate.
OR > 1 if underage students are more likely to binge.
Controlled living arrangements included substance-free residence hall and off campus with parents.
Uncontrolled living arrangements included non-substance-free residence hall, off campus without parents, and fraternity/sorority house.
//OR > 1 if students are more likely to binge in uncontrolled living arrangements than in controlled living arrangements.

VOL 50, MARCH 2002

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WECHSLER ET AL

TABLE 3
Secondhand Effects of Alcohol Among Underage Students, by Living Arrangement, 2001

Secondhand effect
Been insulted/
humiliated
Had a serious argument/
quarrel
Been pushed, hit/
assaulted
Had property damaged
Had to take care of
drunken student
Had studying/sleeping
interrupted
Experienced unwanted
sexual advance
Been victim of sexual
assault or date rape
Experienced at least 1
of the above problems

Live off
campus with
parents
(n = 933)

Prevalence of secondhand effects (%)

Live off
Live
Live in
campus
in nonsubstance-free
without
substance-free
residence
parents
residence hall
(n = 938)
(n = 1,096)
(n = 2,128)

Live in
fraternity/
sorority
house
(n = 150)

Test for linearly

differential trend
of secondhand
effects in living
arrangement
p

17.9

31.0

32.4

36.4

45.0

< .0001

18.7

24.6

29.9

27.8

46.9

< .0001

8.2
8.0

13.1
15.2

13.1
23.0

14.8
19.1

20.5
28.3

< .0001
< .0001

34.7

55.9

60.1

64.6

83.7

< .0001

16.3

55.9

50.1

62.4

77.0

< .0001

15.0

25.1

30.6

29.9

34.5

< .0001

0.8

2.1

1.4

2.5

6.8

< .0001

48.3

78.1

77.3

86.5

98.0

< .0001

Living arrangements were coded as 1 (off-campus with parents), 2 (in substance-free residence halls), 3 (off-campus without parents), 4 (in nonsubstance-free residence hall), and 5 (in fraternity/sorority house). We used multiple logistic regressions after adjusting for gender, race, and response
rate. Significant p means that there was a significant trend that residents in fraternity/sorority house were more likely to experience secondhand effects
than off-campus residents with parents or residents in substance-free residence halls.
Analyses are based on responses of women only.

1993 and 44.1% in 2001; OR = 0.72; 95% CI = 0.640.80;

test for linear trend, p < .0001), drinking (42.6% in 1993 and
37.3% in 2001; OR = 0.80; 95% CI = 0.720.90; test for linear trend, p = .0001), and heavy drinking at fraternity or
sorority houses (21.6% in 1993 and 17.5% in 2001; OR =
0.77; 95% CI = 0.670.88; test for linear trend, p = .0011).
On the other hand, we observed a significant increase in
attendance at off-campus parties (75.1% in 1993 and 79.6%
in 2001; OR = 1.29; 95% CI = 1.101.52; test for linear
trend, p = .0004), drinking (66.2% in 1993 and 72.9% in
2001; OR = 1.37; 95% CI = 1.201.57; test for linear trend,
p < .0001), and heavy drinking (31.2% in 1993 and 37.1%
in 2001; OR = 1.30; 95% CI = 1.161.46; test for linear
trend, p < .0001). Attendance at off-campus bars showed a
slight decrease (57.7% in 1993 and 54.8% in 2001; OR =
0.89; 95% CI = 0.791.00; test for linear trend, p = .0175).
However, we found no change in drinking and an increase
in heavy drinking at off-campus bars (17.8% in 1993 and
22.7% in 2001; OR = 1.35; 95% CI = 1.161.59; test for linear trend, p = .0018).

Most underage students (71.6%) reported that they

obtained their alcohol from another student who was of
legal drinking age, although this decreased from 1993
(81.7%; OR = 0.56; 95% CI = 0.470.67; test for linear
trend, p < .0001). Obtaining alcohol from another student
under the age of 21 was the second-most-frequent source of
supply among underage students (42.2%); use of this source
decreased over time, as well (50.6% in 1993; OR = 0.71;
95% CI = 0.640.79; test for linear trend, p < .0001).
Relatively few underage students (20.9%) reported that
they obtained alcohol by themselves without using an ID or
by using a false ID (17.8%) or from a stranger of legal
drinking age (6.9%). The use of each of these sources
decreased significantly from the 1993 survey.
At the same time, increasing numbers of underage students reported that they obtained alcohol from a parent or
relative (16.8% in 1993 and 22.6% in 2001; OR = 1.44; 95%
CI = 1.301.60; test for linear trend, p < .0001). In 2001, this
was the third-most-used means of obtaining alcohol.

Student Perceptions of Accessibility to Alcohol

and Reported Sources of Alcohol

Underage students who lived in residence halls or in fraternities and sororities reported widespread exposure to
alcohol education materials. In 2001, some underage students said that they had experienced direct educational
efforts of their school (eg, lectures, meetings, or workshops,

One in 2 underage students reported that alcohol was

very easy to obtain (50.9%), and binge drinkers reported
even higher perceived accessibility to alcohol (56.9%).
228

Exposure to Educational Materials

JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

UNDERAGE DRINKING
TABLE 4
Location of Underage Students Drinking at
Select On- and Off-Campus Venues, 2001

Venue (%)
Dorm event or party
Attending
Having any drink
Having 5 or more drinks
Fraternity/sorority party
Attending
Having any drink
Having 5 or more drinks
Off-campus party
Attending
Having any drink
Having 5 or more drinks
Off-campus bar
Attending
Having any drink
Having 5 or more drinks

Prevalence (%)
Underage
Legal age
(n = 4,231) (n = 4,547)

Underage vs legal age

OR
95% CI

41.6
22.3
9.9

21.1
10.2
3.6

2.70
2.67
3.15

2.32, 3.15***
2.18, 3.18***
2.26, 4.39***

44.1
37.3
17.5

26.1
21.0
10.1

2.22
2.22
1.82

1.88, 2.62***
1.85, 2.27***
1.43, 2.30***

79.6
72.9
37.1

70.5
65.8
28.0

1.70
1.44
1.63

1.42, 2.04***
1.22, 1.70***
1.40, 1.90***

54.8
43.6
17.1

86.7
83.6
30.2

0.18
0.15
0.45

0.15, 0.22***
0.12, 0.18***
0.38, 0.55***

Note. Percentage is based on total students who drank alcohol in the past 30 days. OR = odds ratio; CI =
confidence interval.
ORs were controlled for gender, race, and response rate.
***p < .001.

or taking a special course on alcohol). The exposure of

underage college students to each of these educational
efforts increased from 1993 to 2001 (23.0% in 1993 and
29.9% in 2001; OR = 1.43; 95% CI = 1.211.68; test for linear trend, p < .0001 for lectures, meeting, and workshops;
6.4% in 1993 and 11.2% in 2001; OR = 1.84; 95% CI =
1.412.40; test for linear trend, p < .0001 for special courses). An even larger proportion of these underage students
reported having been exposed to indirect educational methods, such as mailings or handouts (51.1%), posters or signs
(78.0%), and announcements or articles (58.4%), although
we found no significant increase in the exposure to these
methods over the period of the study.
Most underage students who lived in on-campus housing
or in a fraternity or sorority house reported that their school
provided information to them about alcohol. For the results
for 6 separate pieces of information and the change over
time, see Table 5. Two in 3 (64.8%) underage students in
2001 reported that their college or university provided them
with 4 of 6 select pieces of information related to alcohol
use. Their exposure to educational materials differed
according to school binge-drinking level. Significantly
higher exposure to 2 in 3 indirect educational methods
occurred among underage students who attended schools
with high binge-drinking rates, compared with those who
attended schools with low binge-drinking rates (OR = 3.19;
95% CI = 1.626.31; p = .0008 for poster or signs; OR =
2.17; 95% CI = 1.413.31; p = .0004 for announcements or
articles). Similarly, students who attended schools with
VOL 50, MARCH 2002

high binge-drinking rates reported greater exposure to 5 or

more information sources the college provided, compared
with low binge-drinking rate schools (OR = 2.52; 95% CI =
1.414.50; p = .0018). We noted no differences between
level of binge drinking at an institution and exposure to
direct educational materials.
Student Experience of Alcohol-Related Sanctions
We found significant changes in experience of alcoholrelated sanctions among underage students across the 4 surveys (see Table 6). Fewer students reported receiving a
warning in 2001 than in 1993. On the other hand, we
observed significant increases in fines, mandatory attendance at alcohol education classes, community service, and
other disciplinary actions. Overall, very few students experienced these sanctions, yet students in the 2123-year age
group experienced larger increases in these sanctions over
time, compared with the underage students.
Student experience of these policies also differed according to the level of binge drinking at their school, although
the small prevalence in the rates of these imposed sanctions
reduced our ability to observe statistical significance in several cases.
Perceived Likelihood of Being Caught
for Underage Drinking
Many underage students thought that they were likely to
be caught for underage drinking in certain situations. More
underage students reported that they were likely to be
229

WECHSLER ET AL

TABLE 5
Percentage of Underage Students Who Received Specific Information Provided by College, 1993, 1997, 1999, 2001
Change
Prevalence (%)
Specific information
College rules for drinking
Penalties for breaking
rules
Where you can get help
for alcohol-related
problems
How to recognize
problem drinker
Long-term health effects
of heavy drinking
Dangers of alcohol
overdose
Any 4 of above

1993
(n = 6,900)

1997
(n = 7,047)

85.2

1999
(n = 6,979)

2001 vs 1993

Test for
linear time
trend p

2001
(n = 5,472)

OR

95% CI

83.3

83.3

0.87

0.74, 1.02

.0700

82.6

80.1

80.8

0.89

0.75, 1.05

.1306

68.9

72.0

75.7

71.5

1.13

0.96, 1.33

.0033

46.8

49.5

57.5

55.3

1.41

1.21, 1.64***

< .0001

45.4

47.5

57.7

56.5

1.56

1.35, 1.81***

< .0001

51.4
53.5

54.4
55.4

68.0

69.3
64.8

2.14
1.60

1.79, 2.57***
1.36, 1.89***

< .0001
< .0001

Note. Campus and fraternity/sorority residents only. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.
***p < .001.

TABLE 6
Changes in Underage Students Exposure to College-Imposed Consequences for
Drinking, 1993, 1997, 1999, 2001
Change

Prevalence (%)
Consequence
Received warning
Legal age
Underage
Fined
Legal age
Underage
Required to attend an
alcohol education program
Legal age
Underage
Performed community
service
Legal age
Underage
Referred to alcohol
treatment program
Legal age
Underage
Other disciplinary action
Legal age
Underage
Any 1 of above
Legal age
Underage

2001
(n = 4,231)

2001 vs 1993
OR
95% CI

Test for
linear time
trend p

1993
(n = 5,530)

1997
(n = 5,401)

1999
(n = 5,255)

3.2
10.9

2.0
9.8

3.4
9.4

4.1
8.5

1.28
0.77

0.91, 1.81
0.64, 0.93**

0.8
1.9

0.7
1.6

1.6
4.2

2.6
4.3

3.10
2.41

1.86, 5.17***
1.63, 3.57***

< .0001
< .0001

1.1
2.7

0.7
3.1

1.6
4.6

2.7
4.5

2.55
1.69

1.49, 3.67***
1.27, 2.25***

.0002
< .0001

0.7
1.5

0.6
1.5

1.5
2.8

2.2
2.8

3.20
1.98

1.89, 5.43***
1.27, 3.08**

< .0001
.0009

0.4
0.6

0.4
0.9

1.4
2.2

2.0
2.4

5.77
3.80

2.95, 11.31***
2.50, 5.76***

< .0001
< .0001

1.2
2.7

1.2
3.3

1.8
4.1

2.4
3.6

2.03
1.40

1.15, 3.58*
1.10, 1.78**

.0121
.0009

2.5
6.1

2.0
6.4

2.9
7.7

3.7
7.0

1.47
1.16

0.98, 2.20
0.96, 1.40

.0430
.0183

.1032
.0098

Note. Analyses were limited to students who drank alcohol within the past year. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.
Receiving warning was excluded from the measure.
*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

230

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UNDERAGE DRINKING

TABLE 7
Perceived Likelihood of Underage Students Being Caught Drinking, 1997, 1999, 2001
Change

Venue
Residence hall room
Residence hall party or event
Fraternity/sorority party
Intercollegiate home
athletic event
Intercollegiate away
athletic event
Off-campus party
Off-campus bar
On-campus event
Off-campus event
Any of above

1997
(n = 7,047)

Prevalence (%)
1999
(n = 6,979)

2001
(n = 5,472)

34.9
50.0
24.5

39.8
54.0
29.6

42.6
55.3
28.8

1.38
1.24
1.25

1.27, 1.51***
1.13, 1.36***
1.11, 1.40***

48.4

47.5

48.1

0.99

0.90, 1.09

39.1
18.6
40.9
71.5
62.1
82.3

38.9
22.4
40.0
71.4
52.8
80.9

37.7
23.0
38.5
72.8
51.2
80.1

0.94
1.30
0.90
1.07
0.64
0.86

0.84, 1.05
1.16, 1.47***
0.82, 1.00*
0.97, 1.18
0.58, 0.70***
0.77, 0.97*

2001 vs 1997
OR
95% CI

Test for
linear time
trend p
< .0001
< .0001
< .0001
.7292
.3099
< .0001
.0469
.2489
< .0001
.0102

Note. OR = odds radio; CI = confidence interval.

On-campus events included residence hall room events, residence hall parties or events, and intercollegiate home athletic events.
Off-campus events included intercollegiate away athletic events, off-campus parties, and off-campus bars.
*p < .05; ***p < .001.

TABLE 8
Percentage of Underage Students Reporting Perceived Consequences of Using Fake ID, 1993, 1997, 1999, 2001
Change

Perceived consequence

1997
(n = 7,047)

Prevalence (%)
1999
(n = 6,979)

2001
(n = 5,472)

2001 vs 1993
OR
95% CI

Test for
linear time
trend p

When underage students use it on campus

Refused alcohol
ID confiscated
Official warning
Fined
Sent to education
program
Required to do
community service
Put on probation
Parents will be notified

57.8
61.3
30.0
21.6

61.0
70.0
35.1
29.2

39.8
48.5
21.7
21.9

0.48
0.59
0.65
1.01

0.42, 0.55***
0.51, 0.69***
0.57, 0.74***
0.80, 1.28

< .0001
< .0001
< .0001
.5745

15.1

22.6

16.1

1.08

0.88, 1.31

.2082

9.6
19.6

13.6
23.6
17.5

10.4
15.2
15.1

1.09
0.73
0.83

0.82, 1.45
0.62, 0.88***
0.69, 1.00

.3869
.0130
.0547

0.83
0.98
1.25
2.08
1.67

0.74, 0.94**
0.89, 1.09
1.13, 1.38***
1.80, 2.41***
1.47, 1.91***

.0040
.9367
< .0001
< .0001
< .0001

When underage students use it off campus

ID rejected and sale
refused
ID confiscated
Local police notified
School notified
Parents notified

90.3
71.3
40.1
11.6
13.8

90.8
73.0
45.1
18.1
18.3

88.6
71.0
45.5
21.5
21.1

Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval.

Campus and fraternity/sorority residents only.
All underage students were included.
**p < .01; ***p < .001.

VOL 50, MARCH 2002

231

WECHSLER ET AL

TABLE 9
Laws and Policies Targeting Underage Alcohol Use and
Underage Student Binge-Drinking Rates at the College Level, 2001
Law/policy
< 21 illegal to have fake ID
No law
Law exists
< 21 illegal attempt to buy
No law
Law exists
< 21 illegal try to consume
No law
Law exists
21 minimum age to sell
No law
Law exists
21 minimum age to sell (local)
No law
Law exists
21 minimum age to be clerk
No law
Law exists
Warning sign posted
No law
Law exists
Underage laws
<4
4 laws
Restrict beer sold in pitchers
No law
Law exists
Keg registration
No law
Law exists
Restriction on happy hour
No law
Law exists
Billboard/ads restricted
No law
Law exists
.08 BAC is illegal
No law
Law exists
Open container law
No law
Law exists
Volume laws
<4
4 laws
Investment in law enforcement
Worse than A
A or better

% binge

Adjusted OR

95% CI

15
104

49.5
42.6

1
0.84

0.64, 1.11

12
107

52.6
42.7

1
0.72

0.45, 1.17

35
84

44.7
43.2

1
0.96

0.77, 1.19

90
29

46.0
36.5

1
0.67

0.52, 0.87**

87
32

45.6
38.6

1
0.72

0.58, 0.91**

108
11

44.9
30.8

1
0.53

0.27, 1.07

65
54

45.7
40.8

1
0.89

0.74, 1.08

86
33

47.8
38.7

1
0.72

0.59, 0.89**

111
8

43.8
41.6

1
0.90

0.43, 1.89

83
36

43.5
44.0

1
1.13

0.89, 1.45

47
72

45.3
42.4

1
0.88

0.69, 1.11

69
50

43.5
43.7

1
0.99

0.79, 1.24

70
49

46.3
39.2

1
0.83

0.64, 1.06

41
78

46.5
42.0

1
0.86

0.69, 1.07

97
22

45.7
31.7

1
0.63

0.42, 0.96*

103
16

44.9
33.9

1
0.81

0.63, 1.04

Note. OR = odds ratio; CI = confidence interval; BAC = blood alcohol content.

Adjusted for gender, race, and response rate.
Underage laws included local minimum age to sell, fake ID, attempt to buy, attempt to consume, minimum age to be clerk, minimum age to sell, and warning sign posted.
Volume laws included keg registration, restriction on happy hour, restriction on beer sold in a pitcher,
billboard/advertisement restricted, 0.08 BAC law, and restriction on open container.
*p < .05; **p < .01.

232

JOURNAL OF AMERICAN COLLEGE HEALTH

UNDERAGE DRINKING

caught drinking at a party or event in a residence hall. Fewer

students said this would happen at an off-campus party or a
fraternity or sorority party. For the perceived likelihood of
being caught and the changes in these rates over time, see
Table 7. More students believed they were likely to be
caught drinking at on-campus venues over the 4 surveys,
whereas fewer students believed this to be the case for offcampus venues over time.
Perceived Consequences of Using
a False Identification
We noted significant changes in the perceived consequences of using a false ID between 1997 and 2001. The data
in Table 8 show these results for selected consequences both
on and off campus. We discovered significant declines in the
consequences of on-campus use of a false ID and significant
increases in 3 of the 5 consequences for off-campus use.
Underage Student Support for School
Alcohol Policies
More than half of all underage college students reported
that they supported or strongly supported efforts at
their college to crack down on underage drinking. This
represents a slight and nonsignificant increase since 1997
(52.7% in 1997, 54.7% in 2001; OR = 1.08; 95% CI =
1.001.18; p = .0644). However, these results differed
according to the level of drinking. In 2001, 77% of students
who did not binge drink supported efforts to crack down on
underage drinking, whereas only 29% of binge drinkers
expressed similar levels of support.
The Impact of Underage Drinking Laws
We examined the relationship of individual and combined sets of related alcohol policies that targeted underage
and high-volume drinking with underage students bingedrinking rates (see Table 9). The presence of each of these
laws appears to be associated with lower college rates of underage student binge drinking at schools in areas where the
laws are in effect, although the relationship was statistically significant for only 2 of the laws. The relationships were
statistically significant for colleges in areas where state or
local laws establish 21 as the legal minimum age to sell
alcohol. In some instances, the number of affected schools
was so small that statistical comparisons between colleges
with and without such laws are not possible.
A composite measure based on whether more than half of
these laws (4 or more of 7 laws) were in effect indicated that
the presence of a comprehensive set of underage drinking
laws is associated with less drinking among underage students. The presence of 4 or more binge-drinking laws was
also associated with significantly fewer underage students
use of any alcohol in the past year (73.0% for 4 or more laws
and 81.2% for fewer than 4 laws, OR = 0.64; 95% CI =
0.480.86) and with fewer using any alcohol in the past 30
days (57.5% for 4 or more underage drinking laws and
67.3% for fewer than 4 laws, OR = 0.68; 95% CI =
0.540.86).
VOL 50, MARCH 2002

We created a composite variable for laws related to volume of sales and alcohol consumption. Schools in areas
where 4 or more of these 6 laws were in effect were compared with colleges in areas with fewer laws. Colleges under
the jurisdiction of 4 or more of the laws had significantly
less underage binge drinking. We noted similar associations
with these composite variables of underage drinking laws
and restrictions on volume sales for outcomes of drinking
any alcohol in the past year (67.3% for 4 or more laws and
79.3% for fewer than 4 laws, OR = 0.62; 95% CI =
0.380.99) and any drinking in the past 30 days (50.7% for
4 or more laws and 65.0% for fewer than 4 laws, OR = 0.64;
95% CI = 0.430.96) among underage students.
MADDs rating of investment in law enforcement was
related negatively to the level of binge drinking among
underage students (ie, higher investment was associated
with less binge drinking). But the MADD findings failed to
reach statistical significance, perhaps because of the relatively few schools located in areas that have high investments in enforcement.
COMMENT
Despite the national prohibition on alcohol use by people
under the age of 21 years, significant numbers of college students in the United States drink and drink heavily. Although
the proportion of underage students who drink has
decreased, the rate of binge drinking has remained constant.
Of greater concern, frequent binge drinking and the problems associated with that style of drinking have actually
increased among underage students nationally. When they
drink, underage students are more likely to get drunk 3 or
more times in a month, to drink to get drunk, and to consume more drinks at an average occasion than of-age students. As a result of this increase in extreme drinking, our
survey found significant increases in reports of alcohol-related problems among underage students. These findings are
similar to findings among all college students nationally.2
Overall, underage college students consume approximately
half of all the alcohol college students report consuming.
Some observers have concluded from similar findings
that controls on underage drinking, such as minimum drinking-age laws, do not work for college students and that such
laws should be modified or rescinded.27 Although the
extreme drinking styles of some underage students may be
an undesirable effect of the MLDA law, it is also possible
that the constraints of that law may reduce the opportunities
for underage students to drink and limit this heavy drinking
style to fewer occasions. Further research should examine
the factors that help limit a heavy drinking style among
underage students. Despite this finding, we found strong
indications that laws regarding the minimum legal drinking
age may, indeed, limit the underage students drinking
behaviors.
More underage drinkers report some alcohol-related problems. Yet, in an analysis limited to those students who drive
1 or more times per week, we found that far fewer underage
students drink and drive. Zero-tolerance laws that set per se
233

WECHSLER ET AL

BAC limits at .02% for drivers under the legal drinking age
may be a factor in this significant difference between underage students and their legal-age peers. It may be that the fear
of losing their drivers license is a significant incentive for
underage students to avoid drinking and driving.
Underage students drinking differed according to their
living arrangements, with binge drinking lower among students who lived in residences that had greater controls,
namely, those who lived off campus with parents or in substance-free residence halls. These findings are consistent
with previous findings from the CAS28 and provide evidence for the possible protective effects of more controlled
living arrangements.
College campus authorities have changed their alcohol
prevention educational efforts and policies to some extent
during the past decade, increasing both educational efforts
and alcohol-related policies.29 Although students experiences of educational efforts designed to reduce underage
alcohol consumption increased from 1993 to 2001, many
underage students did not report being affected by these
efforts. In addition, more students reported experiencing
college-imposed sanctions for their alcohol use in 2001 than
in 1993, but the total number remained low.
The increase in imposed sanctions corresponded with
underage students reports of a greater likelihood of being
caught when drinking alcohol at on-campus events. These
changes were accompanied by a decrease in the perceived
consequences of being caught on campus with a false ID, or
off campus using a false ID to purchase alcohol, which
increased over the 4 surveys. However, the consequences of
being caught using a false ID may not be a significant deterrent to using one. Students may regard getting caught as
the undesired event and expend their energy on avoiding
apprehension rather than on altering their drinking behavior. It is difficult to evaluate the impact of educational, policy, and enforcement trends on drinking behavior when they
appear to be incongruent. It might be that lax enforcement
or weak consequences in one area compensate for strong
efforts in another, resulting in no change in the bingedrinking rate.
One sign that prevention efforts are addressing underage
drinking is the decrease in the percentage of underage students who attend and drink heavily at fraternity or sorority
parties, which are a primary source of alcohol for underage
students. The rates of heavy drinking at this venue remain
high, and efforts should continue to address the provision of
alcohol to underage students at fraternity and sorority parties. At the same time that attendance at fraternity and sorority parties is decreasing, we noted an increasing trend toward
attendance and heavy drinking at off-campus parties, where
successful enforcement efforts are more difficult.
The results of this study are consistent with an increase in
efforts by colleges to prevent underage drinking on campus
and to comply with MLDA laws.29 A similar decrease in the
likelihood of getting caught drinking off campus, the
decreased perceptions of consequences for using a false ID,
and an observed increase in heavy drinking at off-campus
234

venues suggest a decrease in off-campus and community

enforcement efforts. Campuses and communities should
consider collaborating on efforts to prevent underage drinking and to enact and enforce laws that target underage
drinking.
In other research, we found that communities surrounding colleges experience the negative effects of college students heavy drinking, and these negative effects are higher
in communities with many alcohol outlets.30 In addition,
student drinking taxes community resources (eg, police,
hospitals, and local courts). Campus efforts to crack down
on underage drinking may be associated with a shift in
drinking from the campus to the community, where
enforcement may not be rigorous.
Half of the underage students still report that alcohol is
very easy to get, a statistic that has not changed in recent
years. In previous research, we have found that easy accessibility to alcohol among college students is strongly associated with drinking and heavy drinking.14 The various
pathways underage students use to obtain alcohol should be
examined to develop further prevention efforts. In addition,
planners should recognize that underage students have
many sources, each of which may require different interventions to close.
Parents should be encouraged to examine their role in
providing alcohol to underage students. More students
reported that a parent or relative provided them with alcohol in 2001, compared with previous survey years, a means
that has become the third-most-frequent source of alcohol
for underage students. Although significant attention has
been devoted to strategies to reduce using false IDs to purchase alcohol, this method of obtaining alcohol is used by
fewer underage students than is obtaining alcohol from
peers of legal age or from another underage student. Additional attention should be directed at these informal
provider networks of peers and family members.
Although our findings regarding increased campus efforts
to control underage drinking are mixed, the study does provide some evidence for control strategies that might be effective in curtailing underage drinking. Lower rates of binge
drinking were found at colleges in areas covered by each of
the 7 underage laws we studied. In the case of local and state
laws that required persons who serve alcohol to be at least 21
years old, the findings were statistically significant.
In areas covered by 4 or more of the 7 underage laws, we
noted lower rates of annual alcohol use, drinking in the past
30 days, and binge drinking among underage college students. We found that laws that restrict high-volume alcohol
sales had significant effects on underage alcohol consumption. We also found that colleges in areas where 4 of the 6
laws restricting volume sales were in effect had significantly lower rates of (a) annual alcohol consumption, (b) drinking in the past 30 days, and (c) binge drinking.
Students who attended college in states that spent more
on law enforcement were somewhat less likely to drink at
binge levels, although this finding was not statistically significant, perhaps because of the very small number of
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UNDERAGE DRINKING

states with sufficient investment to test adequately for this

relationship.Readers should note the limitations of this type
of research as they consider the results of our study. The
data collected are cross-sectional and can be used to test for
association, but not for causality. Alternative explanations,
such as students selecting low- or high-drinking colleges,
or the presence of other factors in states with more laws
controlling drinking, may account for the findings. They are
not evidence of causality. Further study should be undertaken to evaluate newly implemented policy initiatives rigorously targeting underage drinking. In addition, the responses to the student survey are self-report data and should be
considered in context. The cautions regarding CAS data are
discussed in greater detail elsewhere.2
Enacting and enforcing alcohol-control policies on a
state or local level are promising prevention strategies for
reducing underage drinking. Although these data are crosssectional, the present results provide some evidence that
legal prohibitions targeting underage drinking may be
effective deterrents. Rather than rescinding the MLDA law,
or exempting college students from its purview, prevention
planners should renew efforts to examine and implement
policies that deter underage drinking. We have previously
noted the possible deterrent effect of the zero-tolerance law
on drinking and driving among underage students. Given
this result, it might be reasonable to expect that similarly
specific and meaningful penalties might be used as a deterrent to various points of access to alcohol and to alcohol
consumption. These deterrents should also consider additional actors beyond the underage drinker, including
providers of alcohol to those under the legal drinking age.
Whereas any single law may not have a significant impact
on underage drinking, the cumulative effect of several of
these laws may be strong. Controlling the ways in which
alcohol is sold in a college community will probably have
beneficial effects in curtailing excessive drinking and
drunkenness and limiting the numbers of underage students
who drink.
States and localities may want to experiment with establishing similar legal and enforcement strategies. These policies, if implemented, should be rigorously evaluated. Students, parents, and college administrators can be effective
advocates for these policy changes. In fact, a majority of
students under the legal drinking age nationally support
tougher actions to curb underage drinking. Three in 4
underage students who do not engage in binge drinking support stronger actions on underage drinking; this particularly high level of support may be the result of experiencing
the negative effects of their peers drinking. Policies that
address underage drinking and resources devoted to
enforcement should lead to reduced consumption of alcohol
among underage students.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by a grant from the Robert Wood
Johnson Foundation. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of
Dr Hang Lee for expert statistical consultation, the Center for SurVOL 50, MARCH 2002

vey Research of the University of Massachusetts-Boston and Dr

Anthony M. Roman for conducting the mail survey, Jeff Hansen
for the preparation of the data, and Mark Seibring for technical
assistance.
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