TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.

ETAP New Features Brochure

2.

Creating a One-Line Diagram

3.

Load Flow Examples

4.

Short-Circuit Exercise

5.

Device Coordination (Star) Exercise

6.

Arc Flash Exercises

7.

Motor Acceleration Exercise

8.

Transient Stability Exercise

9.

Underground Raceway Systems Exercise

10.

Cable Pulling Exercise

11.

Harmonic Analysis Exercise

12.

Optimal Power Flow Exercises

13.

Optimal Capacitor Placement Exercise

14.

DC Exercises (DCLF, DCSC, BSD, CSD)

15.

Unbalanced Load Flow Exercise

ETAP Workshop Notes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

Page 1 of 2

STATEMENT OF LIABILITY
By registering for the Operation Technology, Inc. (OTI) ETAP seminar/workshop (seminar), attending
the seminar or making any use whatsoever of the material provided by OTI, the participant or user of
material acknowledges that the information and materials presented in the course of the seminar are for
information purposes only. Examples and data used in the seminar are just that, examples, which are
being used to help the participants to gain knowledge of product, materials and services available. OTI
makes no representation or warranties of any kind, whether express or implied, as to the correctness of
the information or materials provided. All title and intellectual property rights relative to these materials
remain those of the respective content owner and are protected by applicable laws and treaties. These
materials and information are provided for the sole use of the seminar attendee and are not to be copied,
printed or disseminated in a manner so as to be contrary to the limited rights granted by OTI.
In no event shall OTI, its subsidiaries or affiliates, or their respective officers, directors, employees,
representatives or agents (collectively called "OTI") be liable for special, incidental, consequential,
punitive, indirect, or other special damages, including but not limited to, loss of data, use, or profits,
however caused, whether for breach of contract, negligence, or otherwise.
Should a seminar participant or a user of the information or materials provided by OTI decide to purchase
any software, material, products or services referenced in the examples used during the seminar, in doing
so they acknowledge that no promise, representation, warranty, or undertaking has been made or given
by OTI in relation to the profitability of or any other consequences or benefits to be obtained from the
delivery or use of the software, material, product or services purchased and any accompanying materials.

ETAP Workshop Notes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

Page 2 of 2

Operation Technology, Inc.

Irvine, California

OTI Headquarters

Operation Technology, Inc.

OTI International

OTI
Headquarters

OTI Far-East

Over 70 Sales Offices & Support Centers

Operation Technology, Inc.

Who is OTI
Professionals with Advanced Degrees
Internationally Renowned Experts
Active in ANSI & IEC Standards Committees
Over 500 Years of Combined Experience

Operation Technology, Inc.

OTIs Mission
To p
provide state-of-the-art p
products and
superior engineering services by combining
cutting-edge technologies with the
highest standard in quality to
achieve overall customer satisfaction.
satisfaction

Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Enterprise Solution

Power Simulator
Device Coordination & Selectivity
Advanced Relay Testing & Transient Simulator
Data Exchange
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP RealReal-Time
Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Management System

Intelligent Load Shedding
Intelligent Substation
Operation Technology, Inc.

Electrical Transient Analyzer Program

ETAP

1986

Nuclear QA Program 1991

ETAP Real-Time
Real Time

1997

ETAP ARTTS

2004

ETAP iSub
S

2006
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Services & Support

Consulting
C
lti S
Services
i
Technical Support
Training Services

Operation Technology, Inc.

Consulting Services

Research & Development Projects

Conceptual Design

System Planning, Analysis & Optimization

User-Definable Dynamic
y
Models

Dynamic Parameter Tuning (Field Measurement)

Third-Party Data Conversion & Synchronization

Project Consultation & Training

Operation Technology, Inc.

Technical Support
An Extension of Your Electrical Engineering Dept.

Extensive Knowledge of ETAP

Expertise in Power System Engineering
Online Tutorials
Technical Webinars
Via E-mail, Telephone, Fax, FTP, Web
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Users World

World--Wide

Over
40 000 Li
40,000
Licenses
More Than
90 Cou
Countries
t es

Operation Technology, Inc.

User Services
Webinars
User Groups
Seminars
User Symposiums
ETAP Nuclear Utility User Conference
C f

Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Workshops / Training

Over 1,000 ETAP Engineers per year

Open Workshops
Irvine, Houston, Philadelphia, Canada,
China, Saudi Arabia, India, Indonesia,
Singapore, Thailand, Bahrain, Abu Dhabi,
Dubai, Venezuela, Peru, Chile, Colombia,
T k
Turkey,
France,
F
England,
E l d JJapan,
On-Site
On Site Workshops
Customized Training

Project Training
OTI Corporate Offices

Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Events

Operation Technology, Inc.

Who Uses ETAP?

Consulting Firms
Industrial Facilities
Generation Plants
Wind
Wi d F
Farms
Distribution Systems
Transmission Systems
Operation Technology, Inc.

Consulting Firms

Operation Technology, Inc.

Generation Plants

Operation Technology, Inc.

Government

Operation Technology, Inc.

Manufacturing

Operation Technology, Inc.

Metals & Mining

Operation Technology, Inc.

Nuclear

Operation Technology, Inc.

Nuclear Non
Non--Utility

Operation Technology, Inc.

Oil & Gas

Operation Technology, Inc.

Distribution

Operation Technology, Inc.

Transportation

Operation Technology, Inc.

Education

Operation Technology, Inc.

Top 10 Design Firms

T 10 D
Top
Design
i Fi
Firms b
based
d on El
Electrical
ti lC
Construction
t ti & M
Maintenance
i t
(EC&M) M
Magazine
i

80% Have Standardized on ETAP

100% Rely on ETAP
Operation Technology, Inc.

Quality Assurance Standards

ISO 9001:2000
Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Production,
Installation and Servicing - Registered Certification Number A3147 UL

Title
Titl 10 CFR 50,
50 A
Appendix
di B
United States Code of Federal Regulation
Quality Assurance Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants and
Fuel Reprocessing Plants

Title 10 CFR 21
United States Code of Federal Regulation
Reporting of Defects and Noncompliance

Operation Technology, Inc.

Quality Assurance Standards

ANSI/IEEE 730.1 - 1989
IEEE Standard for Software Quality Assurance Plans

ANSI/ASME N45.2 - 1977

Quality Assurance Program Requirements for Nuclear Facilities

ASME NQA-1 (includes Subpart 2.7)

Qualityy Assurance Requirements
Q
q
for Nuclear Facilityy Applications
pp

CAN/CSA-Q 396.1.2 - 1989

Q
Quality
y Assurance Program
g
for Previouslyy Developed
p Software
Used in Critical Applications

ANSI N45.22 - 1972

Packaging, Shipping, Receiving, Storage, and Handling of Items for
Nuclear Power Plants
Operation Technology, Inc.

Quality Assurance Program

9 QA Program Since 1991
9 Over 4 Audits per Year
9 Complete V&V Software
9 Complete V&V Library

Operation Technology, Inc.

Quality Assurance Standards

Title 10 CFR Part 21
United States Code of
Federal Regulation

Performance Reporting
Zero Part 21 Reported Since QA Established in 1991

Mandatory Access to Defects & Discrepancies

Defines Possible Impact on the Facilities
Informative, Minor, Substantial, & Safety Hazard
Reports
Software & Libraries
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Library
Cable
Cable Fire Protection
Fire Coating
Fire Stop
Fire Wrap

HV Circuit Breaker
LV Circuit Breaker
Trip Device

Transmission Line
Phase Conductor
Ground Wire

Motor

Nameplate
CKT Model
Characteristic Model
Load Model

Fuse
Relay
Overload Heater

Solid State
Thermal Magnetic
Electro-Mechanical
Electro
Mechanical
Motor Circuit Protector

Harmonics
Interruption Cost
Reliability Index
Battery Characteristic
C t lS
Control
System
t
D i
Device
Control Relay
Solenoid
Contact
C t t
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Library Pass/Fail Criterion

Library
Fuse
Points-Based Relay
Equation-Based Relay
Low Voltage Solid-State Trip (LVSST)
MV Solid-State Trip (MVSST)
Thermal Magnetic (TM)
Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)
Electro-Mechanical (EM)
Overload Heater (OLH)
All Other Libraries

% Deviation
Data
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

TCC Curve
1
3
0
3
1
3
3
3
3
N/A
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Release Documents

ETAP 5.0
9 Certification Documents
9 QA Documents
Over 100 3 Binders of Specs, Reports, Audits,
9 V&V Documents
1000s of Test Cases (4 GB of Electronic Files)
Operation Technology, Inc.

Qualified Supplier Internationally

9 Government Facilities
9 Nuclear Utility Plants
9 Military
9 Atomic / Research Laboratories
9 Consulting
C
lti Fi
Firms

Operation Technology, Inc.

US Nuclear Utility Plants

56 out of 64 Sites Use ETAP

88% Have Standardized on ETAP

Operation Technology, Inc.

US Nuclear Plants Using ETAP

Alvin W
W. Vogtle
Arkansas Nuclear One
Beaver Valley
Braidwood
Browns Ferry
Brunswick
Bryon
Calvert Cliffs

Catawba
Clinton
Comanche Peak
Crystal River
Davis-Besse
Diablo Canyon
Donald C. Cook
Dresden

Duane Arnold
Fermi
Fort Calhoun
Grand Gulf
Indian Point
James A.
Fitzpatrick
Joseph M. Farley
Kewaunee
LaSalle
Limerick
McGuire
Mill t
Millstone
Nine Mile Pt.
North Anna
Oconee
O t Creek
Oyster
C k
Palo Verde
Peach Bottom
Perry
Pilgrim
Point Beach
Prairie Island

Quad Cities
R.E. Ginna
River Bend
Robinson
San Onofre
Seabrook
Sequoyah
q y
Shearon Harris
South Texas
Project
St Lucie
St.
L i
Surry
Susquehanna
Three Mile Island
Turkey Point
Vermont Yankee
Waterford 3
Watts Bar
Wolf Creek

Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Success
TVA Saved
$12.8 Million in
System Upgrade Costs
Case Study
TVA Watts Bar Nuclear Plant

Over 10,000 pages of electrical calculations

superceded byy a
81 page ETAP Study Report
Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP Enterprise Solution

Operation Technology, Inc.

ETAP
P d t
Product
Overview

Operation Technology, Inc.

AC Network

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: AC Network

ETAP Overview
One-Line Diagram

Mode Toolbar

Toolbar Format

System Toolbar

Dumpster

Study Case Toolbar

Project View

Message Log

Project Toolbar

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 2

Select Mode
Edit Mode: Drag/Drop &
Connect Elements
Study Mode: Load Flow,
Short-Circuit, etc.

Project View

Edit Toolbar
AC Elements
DC Elements
Instrument
Devices
System
Toolbar

One-Line Diagram
In Edit Mode

Help Line
Displays the
description for
every entry field.

Message Logger
View the latest
messages related to
ETAP Projects.
It can be expanded
or reduced.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 3

Mode Toolbar Format

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 4

Analysis Toolbar Format

Analysis toolbars have the following sections:

1. Run the Calculation

2. Display Options
3. Display Alerts
4. View the Generated Reports
5. Stop the Calculation
6. Get On-Line Data
7. Get Archived Data
All ETAP analysis toolbars follow this general format.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 5

Pointer
2W XFMR
Cable
Reactor

Bus

Trans. Line

Wind Turbine Gen

Impedance
Generator
MG Set

Induction Machine

Synch. Motor

Power Grid

Lumped Load
Static Load
Panels
Remote Connector
SVC
Composite Motor

Fuse
HVCB
Recloser
Overload Heater
SPST

Pointer

3W XFMR

Cable

Impedance

Converter
Battery

MOV
Capacitor
Harmonic Filter
Phase Adapter

Bus

Motor

Static Load

Lumped Load

Elementary Diagram

Composite
Motor

Composite Network

HVDC
Composite Network

CB

Contactor
LVCB
In-Line Overload Relay
SPDT

Instrumentation

Ground Grid

Display Options

Schedule Report Manager

SPST
UPS
Charger

Fuse
SPDT
VFD
Inverter

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 6

Current Transformer
Voltmeter

Potential Transformer
Ammeter

Multimeter
Voltage Relay 27 / 59

Reverse Power Relay

Frequency Relay 81

Solid State Trip Relay

Motor Relay
Overload Heater

Overcurrent Relay 50/51/67

Multi Function Relay

Taglink
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 7

Run Load Flow Calculation

RCAS
Display Options
Load Flow Alerts
Load Flow Report Manager
Stop Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Load Flow Comparator

Load Flow Result

Analyzer
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 8

Run Unbalanced Load Flow

Display Options
Load Flow Alerts
Load Flow Report Manager
Stop Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
Load Flow Comparator

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 9

3-Phase SC Duty Calculation

1-Phase SC Duty Calculation
Cycle Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
to 4 Cycle Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
30 Cycle Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase

Arc Flash Analysis (NFPA 70E & IEEE 1584)

Short-Circuit Display Options
Short-Circuit Alerts for Buses & PDs

Short-Circuit Report Manager

Stop Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 10

3-Phase SC IEC Duty Calculation

1-Phase SC IEC Duty Calculation
909 Unbalanced LG, LL, LLG & 3-Phase
Transient IEC 363
Arc Flash Analysis (NFPA 70E & IEEE 1584)
Short-Circuit Display Options
Short-Circuit Alerts for Buses & PDs
Short-Circuit Report Manager

IEC 363 Plots / Export COMTRADE

Stop SC Calculations
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 11

Run Dynamic Motor Acceleration

Run Static Motor Starting
Motor Starting Display Options
Motor Starting Alerts
Motor Starting Report Manager
Motor Starting Plot Options
Stop Motor Starting Calculation

Get On-Line Data

Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 12

Run Harmonic Load Flow Calculation

Run Frequency Scan
Harmonic Analysis Display Options
Harmonic Analysis Alerts

Harmonic Analysis Report Manager

Harmonic Analysis Plots
Stop HA Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 13

Run Transient Stability Calculation

TS Display Options
TS Alerts (Future)
TS Report Manager
TS Action List
Transient Stability Plots
Stop TS Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 14

Create STAR View

Append to STAR View
Run / Update SC Clipping kA
Sequence of Operation
Display Options

Report Manager
Device Settings Report
Stop Calculation
Sequence Viewer
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 15

Run Optimal Power Flow

OPF Display Options

OPF Report Manager

Stop OPF Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 16

Run Reliability Assessment Calculation

RA Display Options
RA Report Manager
RA Plots
Stop RA Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 17

Run Optimal Capacitor Placement

OCP Display Options
OCP Alerts
OCP Report Manager
OCP Plots
Stop OCP Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 18

Run DC Load Flow Calculation

DCLF Display Options
DCLF Report Manager

Stop DCLF Calculation

Get On-Line Data

Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 19

Run DC Short-Circuit Calculation

DCSC Display Options
DCSC Report Manager

Stop DCSC Calculation

Get On-Line Data

Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 20

Run Battery Sizing

Run Battery Discharge
Battery Size / Discharge
Display Options
DCBS / DCBD Report
Manager
Battery Discharge Plots
Stop DCBS/DCBD Calculation
Get On-Line Data
Get Archived Data
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 21

Create a New Presentation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 22

Add Elements

Bus ID = (Default ID) + (A Unique Number) = Bus + 1 = Bus1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 23

Connect Element - Bus

Place the cursor over the pin of an element (pin
appears in red).
Drag an element and place its pin on a bus.
Drop a new element with its pin on top of a bus.
Buses are considered to be one long pin.
Connections are always made from elements to
buses.

Relays cannot be connected to buses.

Only one pin of an element can be connected to
the same bus.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 24

Connect Element - Element

Place the cursor on the pin of an element. Click
and drag the mouse to the element you want to
connect. When the latter elements pin turns red,
release the left button.
Drag & drop a protective device with its pin placed
on top of the pin of any branch or load element.
Drag & drop a protective device onto a connection.
Branches CANNOT be connected to each other;
PowerStation automatically inserts a bus between
them.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 25

Connect Element - Element

Branches CANNOT be connected to each other;
PowerStation automatically inserts a bus between
them.
Branches CANNOT be connected to loads, utilities,
composite motors, and composite networks.

Relays can only be connected to current

transformers (CT) or other relays.
You CANNOT directly connect two buses with a
connector or current transformer.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 26

Connect Element - Element

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 27

The Remote Connector

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 28

Insert Protective Devices

Example
A Circuit Breaker and Fuse are Inserted Between Bus1 and T1.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 29

Move From Dumpster

Elements can be moved from the Dumpster
into the one-line diagram with the same IDs
by two methods:
Right-click on the one-line diagram and select
Move From
Click on Edit on the Menu Bar and select Move
From

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 30

Move From Dumpster

Rules:
Move From Dumpster can be done only in
Edit mode when Base Data is active.
Move CANNOT be done if there are no
Cells (element groups) in the Dumpster.

When you move a Dumpster Cell to the

one-line diagram, the desired cell needs to
be active and it gets deleted from the
Dumpster after being moved.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 31

Move From Dumpster

Move any Dumpster Cell you desire by making it
active from the Dumpster presentation
Entire contents of a cell are moved
Move any Dumpster Cell into any Composite
Network (cannot move cells that contain buses and
branches into a composite motor)
Sections 1 and 2 of the Remote Connector must
be moved from the dumpster at the same time
IDs of the moved elements, along with the
connections, status, and properties are preserved
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 32

Creating a Project
Enter four new elements into the one-line diagram and proceed
to enter the input data for each element

Power Grid
1250 MVAsc
X/R = 120

Bus kV Rating
Bus 1 = 13.8
Bus 2 = 4.16

Transformer T1
20 MVA
%Z=6
X/R = 17

Lumped Load
5 MVA
% PF = 80
Rated kV= 4
70% Motor Load

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 33

Once all the elements have been

connected and the input data has
been entered, you may proceed
to run a Load Flow Calculation.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 34

Enter four more elements into the

one-line diagram.
Extend the size of Bus2
Proceed to connect them and enter
the required LF data.

Cable
NEC EPR 133%
5.0kV Mag
3/C CU
Size= 4/0
Length=200ft

Transformer T2
MVA= 1
Typical %Z & X/R

Bus kV Rating
Bus3= 4.16
Bus4= 0.480
Lumped Load Lump2
MVA= 0.5
%PF=85
Rated kV = 0.46
50% Motor Load
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 35

Once all the elements have

been connected and the input
data has been entered, you
may proceed to run a Load
Flow Calculation.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 36

 Extend the length of Bus2

towards the right side.

Add a Generator Gen1

Rotate Gen1 180 using
<SHIFT+R>
Connect & proceed to enter
required input data for Load
Flow

Gen1
Rating:
5 MW
Voltage Control
%PF = 80
Generation Category:
Design
MW = 5
Qmax = 5
Qmin = 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 37

 Once the Generator has been

connected and the input data has been
entered, you may proceed to run a Load
Flow Calculation.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 38

1. Extend the length of Bus1

towards the right side.

2. Copy elements T1, Bus2,

Lump1, Cable1, T2, Bus4
and Lump2.
3. Move elements from
Dumpster and connect
them to Bus1.

4. Insert a normally open Tie

Breaker between Bus4 and
Bus5.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 39

 Rubber band both branches connected to Bus2 and

Bus7.
Cut all the highlighted elements.

Insert a Composite Network and connect between Bus2

and Bus7.
Open the Composite Network and move the elements
from the dumpster into the Network1 window.
Connect the cables back to their original buses.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 40

 Insert High Voltage Circuit Breakers at the indicated

locations.

Insert Low Voltage Circuit Breakers inside the

Composite network and place them before the
Lumped Loads.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 41

3D Database
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 42

Study Conditions
Different Operating Requirements

Generator 1 in Voltage
Control Mode

Generator 1 in Swing Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 43

Study Conditions
Different Loading Conditions

Summer Loading

Winter Loading

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 44

Study Conditions
Different Configurations

Configuration Normal

Configuration GenOFF

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 45

Study Conditions
Different Engineering Data

Revision Base

Revision Sub2a Mod

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 46

3-D Database
Configurations

Presentations
Symbol &
Annotation
Visibility,
Location,
& Size

CB, Fuse, Switch,

Load, & Motor
Status

Properties
Nameplate,
Rating, Loading,
Settings, Dimension, etc.

Base & Revision Data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 47

Presentations
Symbol &
Annotation
Visibility,
Location,
& Size

One-Line Diagrams
Impedance Diagrams
Relay Diagrams
Physical Diagrams
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Study Diagrams
Slide 48

Configurations
CB, Fuse, Switch,
Load, & Motor
Status

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 49

Properties
Properties
Nameplate,
Rating, Loading,
Settings, Dimension, etc.

Base & Revision Data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 50

User Access Management

Group 1 Functions
Move Elements
Change Element Size

Change Element Symbol

Change Element Orientation
Edit Engineering Properties

Change Operating Status

Hide or Show Protective Devices
Autoroute Connections
Change Bus to Node Symbols
Purge Data Revisions

Merge Data Revisions to Other Revisions

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 51

User Access Management

Group 2 Functions
Add (Drop) Elements
Cut (Delete) Elements to Dumpster
Copy Elements from Dumpster

Paste Elements from Dumpster

Move Elements from Dumpster
Connect Elements

Purge Elements from Dumpster

Re-sizing Elements (UGS)
Merge Data Revision to Base Data
Graphical Adjustment of STAR
Views
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 52

User Access Management

Group 3 Functions
Change Phase/Ground mode in
Star View.
Compute Time Difference in Star
View.
View Alerts.
View Device Setting Reports.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 53

User Access Management

Project Editor
Can
Cannot
Change Change

User Access Management

Project Data / Defaults

Base Data

Revision Data

Group 1 Changes

Group 2 Changes

Group 3 Changes

Configuration Status

Library Data

Library Path

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 54

User Access Management

Base Editor
Can Cannot
Change Change
User Access Management

Project Data / Defaults

Base Data

Revision Data

Group 1 Changes

Group 2 Changes

Group 3 Changes

Configuration Status

Library Data
Library Path

X
X

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 55

User Access Management

Revision Editor
Can
Cannot
Change Change

User Access Management

Project Data / Defaults

Base Data

Revision Data

Group 1 Changes

Group 2 Changes

Group 3 Changes

Configuration Status

Library Data
Library Path

X
X

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 56

User Access Management

Checker
Can
Check

Cannot
Change

User Access Management

Project Data / Defaults

Base Data

Revision Data

Group 1 Changes

Group 2 Changes

Group 3 Changes Can Change

Configuration Status

Library Data

Library Path

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 57

Circuit Arrangements
Radial System
Loop System
Primary Selective System
Secondary Selective System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 58

Radial System
Simple or Expanded Radial
Inverted tree

No duplications
Least Expensive

Simple in operation
Easy to analyze

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 59

Loop System
Interconnected / Open Point
Loads are tapped of the loop
Loop could be open or closed
More difficult for analysis
Reliable

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 60

Primary Selective System

Each transformer is supplied by two sources
Normal operation is to supply half the load
from one source
Manual or Automatic transfer of load

Recommended

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 61

Primary Selective System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network
Slide 62

Secondary Selective System

Each load can be supplied from either one of
the transformers
The tie breaker is usually normally open
If one of the transformers is out of service,
the tie breaker is closed and the total load is
supplied by the remaining transformer

Very reliable system

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: AC Network

Slide 63

Load Flow Analysis

ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

System Concepts

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 2

Power in Balanced 3-Phase

Systems S V I
*

LN

S3

3
3

S1

V LL I *
jQ

Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.

Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor

Leading Power Factor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Current and Voltage

Slide 3

Leading & Lagging Power

Factors
ETAP displays lagging Power Factors as positive and leading Power Factors
as negative. The Power Factor is displayed in percent.

Leading
Power
Factor

Lagging
Power
Factor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

jQ

P - jQ

P + jQ

Slide 4

3-Phase Per Unit System

kVA B
3kVB

IB

ZB

(kVB )
MVA B

3VI

3ZI

IB

SB
3VB
VB2
SB

ZB

If you have two bases:

Then you may calculate the other two
by using the relationships enclosed in
brackets. The different bases are:
IB (Base Current)
ZB (Base Impedance)
VB (Base Voltage)
SB (Base Power)

I pu

I actual
IB

Zpu

Zactual
ZB

Vpu

Vactual
VB

Spu

Sactual
SB

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

ETAP selects for LF:

100 MVA for SB which is fixed for the
entire system.
The kV rating of reference point is
used along with the transformer turn
ratios are applied to determine the
base voltage for different parts of the
system.

Slide 5

Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. ETAP converts the branch
impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF reports show
the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio (N1/N2) is 3.31
and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by ETAP to determine the base voltage for different
parts of the system. Different turn ratios are applied starting
from the utility kV rating.

kVB1

To determine base voltage use:

1
B

kV
kVB2

N1
kVB2
N2

Transformer T7: The following equations are used to find

the impedance of transformer T7 in 100 MVA base.

Z pu
X pu
1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

X
R
X
R

R pu

x pu
X
R
Slide 6

X pu

0.065(12.14)
1 (12.14)

0.06478

0.06478
12.14

R pu

0.005336

The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.

Znpu

Zopu

o
B
n
B

V
V

% Z 100 Z pu

n
B
o
B

S
S

(5.33 10

j0.06478)

13.8
13.5

100
5

(0.1115 j1.3538)

11.15 j135.38

Impedance Z1: The base voltage is determined by using the transformer turn ratio. The base
impedance for Z1 is determined using the base voltage at Bus5 and the MVA base.

VB

kVutility 13.5
4.0695
N1
3.31
N2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

ZB

VB2
MVA

(4.0695) 2
100

0.165608

Slide 7

The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.

Z pu

Zactual
ZB

% Z 100 Z pu

(0.1 j1)
0.1656

(0.6038 j6.0382)

60.38 j603.8

The LF report generated by ETAP displays the following percent impedance values
in 100 MVA base

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 8

Load Flow Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 9

Load Flow Problem

Given
Load Power Consumption at all buses
Configuration
Power Production at each generator

Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 10

Load Flow Studies

Determine Steady State Operating Conditions
Voltage Profile
Power Flows
Current Flows

Power Factors
Transformer LTC Settings
Voltage Drops
Generators Mvar Demand (Qmax & Qmin)
Total Generation & Power Demand

Steady State Stability Limits

MW & Mvar Losses
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 11

Size & Determine System

Equipment & Parameters
Cable / Feeder Capacity
Capacitor Size
Transformer MVA & kV Ratings (Turn Ratios)

Transformer Impedance & Tap Setting

Current Limiting Reactor Rating & Imp.

MCC & Switchgear Current Ratings

Generator Operating Mode (Isochronous / Droop)

Generators Mvar Demand

Transmission, Distribution & Utilization kV
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 12

Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 13

Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd

Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd

Re-Calculate Load Voltage VR

Re-use Load Voltage as initial condition until the
results are within the specified precision.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 14

Load Flow Calculation

Methods
1.

Accelerated Gauss-Seidel Method

2.

Low Requirements on initial values,

but slow in speed.

3.

Fast-Decoupled Method

Two sets of iteration equations: real

power voltage angle,
reactive power voltage magnitude.

Fast in speed, but low in solution

precision.

Better for radial systems and

systems with long lines.

Newton-Raphson Method

Fast in speed, but high requirement on

initial values.

First order derivative is used to speed up

calculation.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 15

Load Nameplate Data

kVARated
FLA3
FLA1

kWRated
PF Eff
kVARated
3 kV
kVARated
kV

HP 0.7457
PF Eff

Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %

loading conditions

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

kVA
PF
I3
I1

(kW ) 2 (kVar ) 2
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
1000
kV
1000

Slide 16

Constant Power Loads

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

In Load Flow calculations induction,

synchronous and lump loads are treated
as constant power loads.

The power output remains constant even

if the input voltage changes (constant
kVA).

The lump load power output behaves like

a constant power load for the specified %
motor load.

Slide 17

Constant Impedance Loads

In Load Flow calculations Static Loads, Lump Loads
(% static), Capacitors and Harmonic Filters and Motor
Operated Valves are treated as Constant Impedance
Loads.
The Input Power increases proportionally to the
square of the Input Voltage.
In Load Flow Harmonic Filters may be used as
capacitive loads for Power Factor Correction.
MOVs are modeled as constant impedance loads
because of their operating characteristics.

1996-2008 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 18

Constant Current Loads

The current remains constant even if the
voltage changes.
DC Constant current loads are used to test
Battery discharge capacity.
AC constant current loads may be used to test
UPS systems performance.
DC Constant Current Loads may be defined in
ETAP by defining Load Duty Cycles used for
Battery Sizing & Discharge purposes.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 19

Constant Current Loads

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 20

Generic Loads

Exponential Load

Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 21

Generator Operation Modes

Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 22

Governor Operating Modes

Isochronous: This governor setting allows the
generators power output to be adjusted based on
the system demand.
Droop: This governor setting allows the generator
to be Base Loaded, meaning that the MW output is
fixed.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 23

Isochronous Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 24

Droop Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 25

Droop Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 26

Droop Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 27

Adjusting Steam Flow

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 28

Adjusting Excitation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 29

In ETAP Generators and Power Grids have four operating

modes that are used in Load Flow calculations.
Swing Mode
Governor is operating in
Isochronous mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Voltage Control
Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
Automatic Voltage Regulator
Mvar Control
Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
Fixed Field Excitation (no AVR
action)
PF Control
Governor is operating in
Droop Mode
AVR Adjusts to Power Factor
Setting
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 30

 In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied

If in Voltage Control Mode, the limits of P & Q are reached, the

model is changed to a Load Model (P & Q are kept fixed)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 31

Generator Capability Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 32

Generator Capability Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 33

Generator Capability Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 34

Maximum & Minimum

Reactive Power
Machine Rating (Power Factor Point)
Field Winding Heating Limit

Steady State Stability Curve

Armature Winding Heating Limit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 35

Generator Capability Curve

Field Winding
Heating Limit

Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)

Steady State Stability Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 36

Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page

Load Flow Loading Page

10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 37

Power Flow

V*I

V1

V2

V2

1
2

jQ

V1*V2
*SIN(
X
P

V1

V *V
j 1 2 *COS(
X

V1*V2
*SIN( 1
X
V1*V2
*COS( 1
X

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

V2
X

)
2

V2
X

Slide 38

Example: Two voltage sources designated as V1 and V2 are

connected as shown. If V1= 100 /0 , V2 = 100 /30 and X = 0 +j5
determine the power flow in the system.

I
I

V1 V 2 100 j0 (86.6 j50)

X
j5
10 j2.68
I

V1I* 100( 10 j2.68)

V2 I*

1000 j268

(86.6 j50)( 10 j2.68)

1000 j268

| I |2 X 10.352 5 536 var

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 39

The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.

( V E)
X

sin

( V E)
cos
X

Power Flow

V
X

2
2
0

Real Power Flow

Reactive Power Flow
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 40

Bus Voltage
ETAP displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value

Percent of Nominal Bus kV

For Bus4:

kVCalculated 13.5 kVNo min al 13.8

V%

kVCalculated
100 97.83%
kVNo min al

For Bus5:

kVCalculated
V%

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

4.03

kVNo min al

4.16

kVCalculated
100 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 41

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 42

Lump Load Negative

Loading

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 43

Load Flow Adjustments

Transformer Impedance
Adjust transformer impedance based on possible length variation
tolerance

Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance

Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance

Transmission Line Length

Adjust Transmission Line Impedance based on possible length
variation tolerance

Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 44

Load Flow Study Case

Adjustment Page
Adjustments applied
Individual

Global

Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance

Transmission Line
Resistance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 45

Allowable Voltage Drop

NEC and ANSI C84.1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 46

Load Flow Example 1

Part 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 47

Load Flow Example 1

Part 2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 48

Load Flow Alerts

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 49

Equipment Overload Alerts

Bus Alerts

Monitor Continuous Amps

Cable

Monitor Continuous Amps

Reactor

Monitor Continuous Amps

Line

Monitor Line Ampacity

Transformer

Monitor Maximum MVA Output

UPS/Panel

Monitor Panel Continuous Amps

Generator

Monitor Generator Rated MW

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 50

Protective Device Alerts

Protective Devices

Monitored parameters %

Condition reported

Low Voltage Circuit Breaker

Continuous rated Current

OverLoad

High Voltage Circuit Breaker

Continuous rated Current

OverLoad

Fuses

Rated Current

OverLoad

Contactors

Continuous rated Current

OverLoad

SPDT / SPST switches

Continuous rated Current

OverLoad

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 51

If the Auto Display

feature is active, the
Alert View Window will
appear as soon as the
Load Flow calculation
has finished.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 52

Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 53

Load Flow Convergence

Negative Impedance
Zero or Very Small Impedance
Widely Different Branch Impedance Values

Long Radial System Configurations

Bad Bus Voltage Initial Values

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 54

Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement

Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 55

Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition

Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor

Change Syn2 Quantity to 6.

(Info Page, Quantity Field)

Add Shunt Capacitor to Bus8

Run LF

Voltage is improved

Bus8 Turns Magenta (Under

Voltage Condition)

Method 1 - Change Xfmr

300 kvar 3 Banks

Method 3 - Change Tap

Place LTC on Primary of T6
Select Bus8 for Control Bus

Change T4 from 3 MVA to 8

MVA, will notice slight
improvement on the Bus8 kV

Select Update LTC in the

Study Case

Too Expensive and time

consuming

Bus Voltage Comes within

specified limits

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Run LF

Slide 56

Mvar Control
Vars from Utility

Method 2 Add Capacitor

Add Switch to CAP1

Close Switch

Open Switch

Run Load Flow

Run LF

Var Contribution from the

Utility reduces

Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Method 3 Xfmr MVA

Change T1 Mva to 40 MVA
Will notice decrease in the
contribution from the Utility

Slide 57

Panel Systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 58

Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems

Click to drop once on OLV

Double-Click to drop multiple panels

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 59

Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 60

Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 61

Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 62

Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A

B
C

B
C
IB = IBC

IBC
Load

IC = -IBC

LoadB

Angle by which load current IBC lags the load voltage =

Therefore, for load connected between phases B and C:

For load connected to phase B

SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin

SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C

SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 63

Info Page

NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)

3-Phase 4-Wire Panel

3-Phase 3-Wire Panel
1-Phase 3-Wire Panel
1-Phase 2-Wire Panel

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 64

Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV

For IEC, Enclosure Type

is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel

Select ANSI or IEC

Breakers or Fuses from
Main Device Library

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 65

Schedule Page

Circuit Numbers with

Standard Layout

Circuit Numbers with

Column Layout

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 66

Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the total
panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 67

Rating Tab

Enter per phase VA, W, or

Amperes for this load.
For example, if total Watts
for a 3-phase load are
1200, enter W as 400
(=1200/3)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 68

Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 69

Protective Device Tab

Library Quick Pick LV Circuit Breaker
(Molded Case, with
Thermal Magnetic Trip
Device) or

Library Quick Pick

Fuse
will
appear
depending on the
Type of protective
device selected.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 70

Feeder Tab

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 71

Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.

Paste the entire content (of the

copied row) in the selected row.
This will work when the Link
Type is other than space or
unusable, and only for fields
which are not blocked.

Blank out the contents of the entire

selected row.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 72

Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)

Code Demand Per Phase and Total

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 73

Output Report

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 74

Panel Code Factors

The first fourteen have fixed formats per NEC 1999
Code demand load depends on Panel Code Factors
Code demand load calculation for internal loads are done
for each types of load separately and then summed up

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis

Slide 75

Transformer MVA Sizing

ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

Transformer MVA Sizing

Based on ANSI C57 and IEC 60076 standards
Considers multiple cooling stages and transformer
types (3-phase & 1-phase)
Considers altitude correction factors
Considers temperature correction factors
Load variation
Considers short-circuit impedance requirements
Use connected load or operating load to size the
transformer
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 2

MVA Sizing Page

Transformer
MVA Loading

Correction
Factors & Load
Variation

Sizing Results
Section
Larger

Short-Circuit
Impedance
limits

Consider
Growth Factor
for Max. MVA

Required
Smaller
Impedance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 3

Temperature Correction
Ambient temperature in degree Celsius
For air cooled transformers use the air
ambient temperature
For water cooled transformers use the water
temperature
Based on C57.92-1981 and IEC 76-2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 4

Altitude Correction
Derate the transformer capacity based on
altitude of the installation
Derating starts above 1000 m or 3300 ft
Based on C57.92-1981 and IEC 76-2

800
meter

900
meter

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

1000
meter

1100
meter

1200
meter

Slide 5

Load Variation
Growth Factor
Allowance for future load growth

Load Factor
The ratio of the average load to the peak load
over a designated period of time
Load Factor = 100 x ( kWi x Ti ) / ( kWp x Tt )%

Load Factor = 100 x E / ( kWi x Tt )%

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 6

Where:
I = interval of time when the load is non-zero

kWi = load at interval i

Ti = number of hours of interval i
kWp = peak load
Tt = Ton + Toff
Ton = total hours when the load is on

Toff = total hours when the load is off

E = energy (kWh) consumed by load over the
interval

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 7

Short-Circuit Impedance
Size Requirement
Use Primary Short-Circuit kA and FLA to
Calculate Impedance
Primary 3-Phase FLA = MVA / (kVLL * 3)
Primary 1-Phase FLA= MVA / (kVprimary)

Zcalculated =100*(FLAprimary / ISC_primary)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 8

Connected or Operating Load

Connected Load
Determine the radial load connected to the transformer
secondary
Can include spare loads for conservative results

Operating Load
PowerStations load flow program determines the power
flow through the transformer
Automatically updated in the transformer required MVA
field (load flow study case info page option)
Can determine loading in radial or looped systems
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 9

Sizing Results and

Automatic Updating
Sizing results include MVA and % Z for
Required Size (Actual calculated Size)

Next Standard Larger Size

Next Standard Smaller Size

Automatically Update the calculated rated

MVA, Max MVA and % Z into the Rating
page of the transformer
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 10

Transformer MVA Sizing Page

Update automatically
when you press these
buttons

Transformer Rating Page

Transformer Rating Page

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 11

Unit Transformer Sizing

Presented by Farrokh Shokooh

ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

Unit Transformer Sizing

Based on IEEE C5F-116 Standard
Optimize unit transformer turn ratio
Consider system voltage variation
Consider generation station auxiliary load
Automatically detect generator, cable
impedance and bus nominal kV
Generator reactive vs. capacitive plots
Optimization reports
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 13

Transformer Tap Optimization

Page
Transformer
Impedance
Section

System kV
Information

Primary / Secondary
Cable Impedance
Generator
Information

Auxiliary Load
Information
Optimization
Results Section

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 14

Automatic System Parameter

Update

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 15

Primary Fixed Tap Editor

Use 0.1% Tap Step to obtain best
Optimization results
Set the maximum/minimum fixed tap range

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 16

MVAR Delivery Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 17

Unit Transformer Tap

Optimization Reports
Input Data
Optimal Tap Position

Transformer Power Input and output at

different system voltage levels (system
voltage variation)
Generator Power Output at different system
voltage levels
Generator and System voltage at different
system voltage levels
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 18

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transformer Sizing

Slide 19

Unbalanced Load Flow

ETAP Workshop Notes 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc.

Real Unbalanced Power

Systems
Distribution System
3-phase, 2-phase, and single-phase network
components

Unbalanced loads

Transmission System
Untransposed long transmission line
Abnormal operation with one phase out of service
Unbalanced loads (e.g., electrical railway traction
motors)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 2

Harmful Effects of System

Unbalance
Overheating of generators
Nuisance tripping of protective relays
Increased real power losses

Transformer failure
Radio communication interference

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 3

Unbalance Factors/Indexes
System unbalance is considered by power
quality standards as a disturbance
Voltage/Current unbalance factors

Ratio of zero/negative sequence to positive

sequence
Voltage/Current unbalance indexes
Ratio of average values to maximum
deviation of average values
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 4

Unbalanced Load Flow

Analysis
Current Injection (CI) method
The most robust algorithm ever developed

Converge in less iterations than other

methods, especially for heavily loaded
systems
Sparse matrix technique

Unique modeling concepts

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 5

Sequence Models of
3-Phase Machines

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 6

Unique Concepts of
3-Phase Machines
Swing Machine
The specified magnitude and the phase angle of the
positive sequence voltage only at the swing machine
terminal

PV Machine
The specified total output of 3-phase real powers and
the magnitude of the positive sequence voltage

PQ Machine
The specified total outputs of 3-phase real and reactive
powers
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 7

Concepts of Load
Connections
Single-Phase Loads
Connected in the phase connection types of
AB, BC, CA, AN, BN or CN
Three-Phase Loads

Connected in Delta, Wye or Wye-G

The constant individual powers in Wye are
not allowed due to multiple solutions
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 8

Modeling Capabilities
A mixture of 3-phase, 2-phase and singlephase network components
3-phase machines with internal impedance
being considered
Built-in calculator for overhead line
impedances
Mutual coupling among overhead lines
Transformers combined with load tap
changers (LTC) and phase shifters
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 9

Modeling Capabilities
2-winding and 3-winding transformers of
various winding connections
Lumped loads consisting of constant power,
constant impedance and constant current
components
Generator exciters with AVR or Mvar / PF
controllers
Robust library of of commonly used
overhead transmission lines and cables
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 10

Study Case
Same pretense as Balanced Load Flow with
more detailed modeling, calculations, and
results

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 11

Output Results
State-of-the-art graphic display of
results
Graphical display of marginal and
critical under/over voltages

Alert View displays

limit violations

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 12

Reporting
Customized output reports using Crystal Reports
Individual phase and sequence voltage, current,
and power

Voltage drops, losses,

power flows, power
factor, voltage/current
unbalance factors, etc.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 13

Example 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Example 2
IEEE Four Node Test Feeder
Characteristics of the Feeder
1. Two line segments with a 3-phase
transformer bank connected between the two
segments
2. Data is specified for balanced and
unbalanced loading at the most remote node
3. Transformer is specified for different
connection testing
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 15

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 16

Example 3
IEEE 13 Node Test Feeder
Characteristics of the Feeder
1. Short and relatively highly loaded for a 4.16
kV feeder
2. Overhead lines with variety of phasing
3. Shunt capacitor banks
4. In-line transformer
5. Unbalanced loading

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 17

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Unbalanced Load Flow Analysis

Slide 18

Short-Circuit
ANSI Standard

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Short-Circuit Analysis
Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault

Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all
faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G
.87 * I3-phase

In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition

is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 2

Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device Interrupting capability

Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 3

System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Power Company Supply
In-Plant Generators
Transformers (using negative tolerance)

Reactors (using negative tolerance)

Feeder Cables and Bus Duct Systems (at
lower temperature limits)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 4

System Components
Involved in SC Calculations
Overhead Lines (at lower temperature limit)
Synchronous Motors
Induction Motors
Protective Devices

Y0 from Static Load and Line Cable

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 5

Elements That Contribute

Current to a Short-Circuit
Generator
Power Grid

Synchronous Motors
Induction Machines

Lumped Loads
(with some % motor load)
Inverters
I0 from Yg-Delta Connected Transformer
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 6

Elements Do Not Contribute

Current in PowerStation
Static Loads
Motor Operated Valves
All Shunt Y Connected Branches

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 7

Short-Circuit Phenomenon

i(t)

v(t)

v(t) Vm Sin( t

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 8

v(t)

i(t)

di
v(t) Ri L
Vm Sin( t
) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
i(t)

R
- t
Vm
Vm
sin( t
- )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z

Steady State

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Transient
(DC Offset)

Slide 9

AC Current (Symmetrical) with

No AC Decay

DC Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 10

AC Fault Current Including the

DC Offset (No AC Decay)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 11

Machine Reactance ( = L I )

AC Decay Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 12

Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 13

ANSI Calculation Methods

1) The ANSI standards handle the AC Decay by varying
machine impedance during a fault.

ANSI

2) The ANSI standards handle the the dc

offset by applying multiplying factors. The
ANSI Terms for this current are:
Momentary Current
Close and Latch Current
First Cycle Asymmetrical Current
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 14

Sources and Models of Fault

Currents in ANSI Standards
Sources
Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Motors & Condensers
Induction Machines
Electric Utility Systems (Power Grids)

Models
All sources are modeled by an internal
voltage behind its impedance.
E = Prefault Voltage
R = Machine Armature Resistance
X = Machine Reactance (Xd, Xd, Xd)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 15

Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Generators are modeled
in three stages.

Synchronous Motors &

Condensers
Act as a generator to supply fault
current. This current diminishes as the
magnetic field in the machine decays.

Induction Machines

Transient Reactance

Treated the same as synchronous

motors except they do not contribute to
the fault after 2 sec.

Subtransient Reactance

Electric Utility Systems

Synchronous Reactance

The fault current contribution tends to

remain constant.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 16

Cycle Network

This is the network used to calculate momentary short-circuit current

and protective device duties at the cycle after the fault.

1 to 4 Cycle Network
This network is used to calculate the interrupting short-circuit current
and protective device duties 1.5-4 cycles after the fault.

30-Cycle Network
This is the network used to calculate the steady-state short-circuit
current and settings for over current relays after 30 cycles.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 17

Reactance Representation for

Utility and Synchronous Machine
Cycle

1 to 4 Cycle

30 Cycle

Xd

Xd

Xd

Xd

Xd

Xd

Hydro-Gen with
Amortisseur
winding

Xd

Xd

Xd

Hydro-Gen without
Amortisseur
winding

0.75*Xd

0.75*Xd

Xd

Xd

Xd

Xd

1.5*Xd

Utility

Turbo Generator

Condenser
Synchronous
Motor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 18

Reactance Representation for

Induction Machine
Cycle

1 to 4
Cycle

>1000 hp , <= 1800

rpm

Xd

1.5*Xd

>250, at 3600 rpm

Xd

1.5*Xd

All others, >= 50 hp

1.2*Xd

3.0*Xd

< 50 hp

1.67*Xd

Note: Xd = 1 / LRCpu

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 19

Device Duty and Usage of Fault Currents

from Different Networks
Cycle Currents
(Subtransient
Network)

1 to 4 Cycle
Currents
(Transient Network)

HV Circuit Breaker

Closing and Latching

Capability

Interrupting
Capability

LV Circuit Breaker

Interrupting Capability

---

Fuse

Interrupting
Capability

SWGR / MCC

Bus Bracing

---

Relay

Instantaneous
Settings

---

---

30 Cycle currents are used for determining overcurrent settings.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 20

Momentary Multiplying
Factor

MFm is calculated based on:

Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)

Location of fault (Remote / Local generation)
Comparisons of Momentary capability (1/2 Cycle)
SC Current Duty

Device Rating

HV CB

Asymmetrical RMS
Crest

C&L RMS
C&L RMS

HV Bus

Asymmetrical RMS
Crest

Asymmetrical RMS

Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS

Symmetrical RMS
Asymmetrical RMS

LV Bus

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Crest

Slide 21

Interrupting Multiplying
Factor
MFi is calculated based on:

Fault X/R (Separate R & X Networks)

Location of Fault (Remote / Local generation)
Type and Rating of CB

Comparisons of Interrupting Capability (1 to 4

Cycle)
SC Current Duty

Device Rating

Adj. Symmetrical RMS*

Adj. Symmetrical RMS*

Adj. Symmetrical RMS***

Symmetrical RMS

HV CB

LV CB & Fuse
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 22

HV CB Closing and
Latching Duty
Calculate Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.

Calculate X/R ratio and Multiplying factor MFm

Imom, rms, Asym = MFm * Imom, rms, sym

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 23

HV CB Interrupting Duty
Calculate 1 to 4 Cycle Current (Imom, rms, sym) using Cycle Network.
Determine Local and Remote contributions (A local contribution is
fed predominantly from generators through no more than one
transformation or with external reactances in series that is less than
1.5 times generator subtransient reactance. Otherwise the
contribution is defined as remote).
Calculate no AC Decay ratio (NACD) and multiplying factor MFi
NACD = IRemote / ITotal
ITotal = ILocal + IRemote

(NACD = 0 if all local & NACD = 1 if all remote)

Calculate Iint, rms, adj = MFi * Iint, rms, Symm
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 24

HV CB Interrupting
Capability
CB Interrupting kA varies between Max kA and Rated kA
as applied kV changes MVAsc capability.
ETAPs comparison between CB Duty of Adj.
Symmetrical kA and CB capability of Adjusted Int. kA
verifies both symmetrical and asymmetrical rating.

The Option of C37.010-1999 standard allows user to

specify CPT.
Generator CB has higher DC rating and is always
compared against maximum through SC kA.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 25

LV CB Interrupting Duty

LV CB take instantaneous action.

Calculate Cycle current Irms, Symm (If) from the

cycle network.

Calculate X/R ratio and MFi (based on CB type).

Calculate adjusted interrupting current Iadj, rms, symm =

MFi * Irms, Symm

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 26

Fuse Interrupting Duty

Calculate Cycle current Iint, rms, symm from Cycle Network.
Same procedure to calculate Iint, rms, asymm as for CB.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 27

L-G Faults

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 28

L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 29

Sequence Networks

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 30

L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections

If

3 Ia 0

If

3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2 Z0

if Zg

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 31

L-L Fault Sequence Network

Connections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Ia 2

I a1

If

3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2

Slide 32

L-L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
Ia 2
If

I a1 I a 0

VPrefault
Z0 Z 2
Z1
Z0 Z 2

if Zg

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

0 Ia

Slide 33

Transformer Zero Sequence Connections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 34

Solid Grounded Devices

and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1

Z2 & Z0

Z1

If this conditions are true then :

I f3

I f1

This may be the case if Generators or

Y/ Connected transform er are solidly
grounded.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 35

Unbalanced Faults Display

& Reports
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

One-line diagram displayed results that

include:
L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
Sequence voltage and currents
Phase Voltages
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 36

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 37

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 38

SC Study Case Info Page

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 39

SC Study Case Standard

Page

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 40

SC Study Case Adjustments

Page
Tolerance
Adjustments
Transformer
Impedance
Reactor
Resistance
Overload
Heater
Resistance

Length
Adjustments
Cable Length
Transmission
Line Length

Temperature
Corrections

Adjust Fault
Impedance

Transmission
Line Resistance

L-G fault
Impedance

Cable Resistance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 41

Tolerance Adjustments
Z 'Transformer

Z Transformer * (1 Tolerance)

Length'Cable

LengthCable * (1 Tolerance)

Length'TransmissionLine

LengthTransmissionLine * (1 Tolerance)

Positive tolerance value is used for IEC Minimum If calculation.

Negative tolerance value is used for all other calculations.

Adjustments can be applied Individually or Globally

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 42

Temperature Correction
(234 .5 Tc )
R'Copper ' RBASE *
(234 .5 Tb )
(228 .1 Tc )
R' Alumi RBASE *
(228 .1 Tb )
RBASE

Resistance at base tempereature

R'

Resistance at operating temperature

Tb

Conductor base temperature in C

Tc

Conductor temperature limit in C

Temperature Correction can be applied

Individually or Globally
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 43

System for SC Study

Power Grid U1
X/R = 55

Transformers
T1 X/R
PS =12
PT =12
ST =12
T2 X/R = 12

Gen1
Voltage Control
Design Setting:
%Pf = 85
MW = 4
Max Q = 9
Min Q = -3

Lump1
Y open grounded

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 44

System for SC Study

Tmin = 40, Tmax = 90

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 45

System for SC Study

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 46

Short-Circuit Alerts
Bus Alert
Protective Device Alert
Marginal Device Limit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 47

Bus SC Rating
Type of Device

Monitored Parameter

Condition Reported

Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA

Bracing Asymmetrical

Momentary Asymmetrical. crest kA

Bracing Crest

Momentary Symmetrical. rms kA

Bracing Symmetrical

Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA

Bracing Asymmetrical

MV Bus (> 1000 Volts)

LV Bus (<1000Volts)

Protective Device Rating

Device Type

ANSI Monitored Parameters

IEC Monitored Parameters

LVCB

Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA

Breaking

Momentary C&L

Making

Momentary C&L Crest kA

N/A

Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA

Breaking

Fuse

Interrupting Adjusted Symmetrical. rms kA

Breaking

SPDT

Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA

Making

SPST Switches

Momentary Asymmetrical. rms kA

Making

HV CB

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 48

3-Phase Duty SC Results

Run a 3-phase Duty SC calculation for a
fault on Bus4. The display shows the
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 49

Unbalance Fault Calculation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit ANSI

Slide 50

Short-Circuit Analysis
IEC Standard

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Purpose of Short-Circuit
Studies
A Short-Circuit Study can be used to determine
any or all of the following:
Verify protective device close and latch capability
Verify protective device interrupting capability

Protect equipment from large mechanical forces

(maximum fault kA)
I2t protection for equipment (thermal stress)
Selecting ratings or settings for relay coordination
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 2

Types of Short-Circuit Faults

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 3

Types of Short-Circuit Faults

Types of SC Faults
Three-Phase Ungrounded Fault
Three-Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Phase Ungrounded Fault
Phase to Phase Grounded Fault
Phase to Ground Fault

Fault Current
IL-G can range in utility systems from a few percent to
possibly 115 % ( if Xo < X1 ) of I3-phase (85% of all
faults).
In industrial systems the situation IL-G > I3-phase is rare.
Typically IL-G
.87 * I3-phase

In an industrial system, the three-phase fault condition

is frequently the only one considered, since this type of
fault generally results in Maximum current.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 4

Short-Circuit Phenomenon

i(t)

v(t)

v(t) Vm Sin( t

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 5

v(t)

i(t)

di
v(t) Ri L
Vm Sin( t
) (1)
dt
Solving equation 1 yields the following expression
i(t)

R
- t
Vm
Vm
sin( t
- )
sin( - ) e L
Z
Z

Steady State

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Transient
(DC Offset)

Slide 6

AC Current (Symmetrical) with

No AC Decay

DC Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 7

AC Fault Current Including the

DC Offset (No AC Decay)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 8

Machine Reactance ( = L I )

AC Decay Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 9

Fault Current Including AC & DC Decay

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 10

IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation (IEC 909)
Initial Symmetrical Short-Circuit Current (I"k)
Peak Short-Circuit Current (ip)
Symmetrical Short-Circuit Breaking Current
(Ib)
Steady-State Short-Circuit Current (Ik)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 11

IEC Short-Circuit
Calculation Method
Ik = Equivalent V @ fault location divided by
equivalent Z
Equivalent V is based bus nominal kV and c
factor
XFMR and machine Z adjusted based on
cmax, component Z & operating conditions
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 12

Transformer Z Adjustment
KT -- Network XFMR
KS,KSO Unit XFMR for faults on system
side
KT,S,KT,SO Unit XFMR for faults in auxiliary
system, not between Gen & XFMR
K=1 Unit XFMR for faults between Gen &
XFMR
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 13

Syn Machine Z Adjustment

KG Synchronous machine w/o unit XFMR
KS,KSO With unit XFMR for faults on
system side
KG,S,KG,SO With unit XFMR for faults in
auxiliary system, including points between
Gen & XFMR

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 14

Types of Short-Circuits
Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition to which at least
one synchronous machine contributes a
prospective initial short-circuit current which is
more than twice the generators rated current, or
a short-circuit condition to which synchronous
and asynchronous motors contribute more than
5% of the initial symmetrical short-circuit current
( I"k) without motors.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 15

Near-To-Generator Short-Circuit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 16

Types of Short-Circuits
Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit
This is a short-circuit condition during which the
magnitude of the symmetrical ac component of
available short-circuit current remains essentially

constant.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 17

Far-From-Generator Short-Circuit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 18

Factors Used in If Calc

calc ip based on Ik
calc ib for near-to-gen & not meshed network

q calc induction machine ib for near-to-gen & not

meshed network
Equation (75) of Std 60909-0, adjusting Ik for
near-to-gen & meshed network
min & max calc ik
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 19

IEC Short-Circuit Study Case

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 20

Types of Short-Circuits
When these options
are selected
Maximum voltage factor is used
Minimum impedance is used (all negative
tolerances are applied and minimum
resistance temperature is considered)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 21

Types of Short-Circuits
When this option is
selected
Minimum voltage factor is used
Maximum impedance is used (all positive
tolerances are applied and maximum
resistance temperature is considered)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 22

Voltage Factor (c)

Ratio between equivalent voltage &
nominal voltage
Required to account for:
Variations due to time & place

Transformer taps
Static loads & capacitances
Generator & motor subtransient behavior
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 23

Calculation Method

Breaking kA is more
conservative if the option
No Motor Decay is
selected

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 24

IEC SC 909 Calculation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 25

Device Duty Comparison

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 26

Mesh & Non-Mesh If

ETAP automatically determines mesh & nonmeshed contributions according to individual
contributions
IEC Short Circuit Mesh Determination
Method 0, 1, or 2 (default)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 27

L-G Faults

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 28

L-G Faults
Symmetrical Components

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 29

Sequence Networks

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 30

L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections

If

3 Ia 0

If

3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2 Z0

if Zg

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 31

L-L Fault Sequence Network

Connections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Ia 2

I a1

If

3 VPrefault
Z1 Z 2

Slide 32

L-L-G Fault Sequence

Network Connections
Ia 2
If

I a1 I a 0

VPrefault
Z0 Z 2
Z1
Z0 Z 2

if Zg

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

0 Ia

Slide 33

Transformer Zero Sequence Connections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 34

Solid Grounded Devices

and L-G Faults
Generally a 3 - phase fault is the
most severe case. L - G faults can be
greater if :
Z1

Z2 & Z0

Z1

If this conditions are true then :

I f3

I f1

This may be the case if Generators or

Y/ Connected transform er are solidly
grounded.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 35

Zero Sequence Model

Branch susceptances and static
loads including capacitors will be
considered when this option is
checked
Recommended by IEC for
systems with isolated neutral,
resonant earthed neutrals &
earthed neutrals with earth fault
factor > 1.4

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 36

Unbalanced Faults Display

& Reports
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

One-line diagram displayed results that

include:
L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
Sequence voltage and currents
Phase Voltages
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 37

Transient Fault Current

Calculation (IEC 61363)
Total Fault Current Waveform

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 38

Transient Fault Current

Calculation (IEC 61363)
Percent DC Current Waveform

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 39

Transient Fault Current

Calculation (IEC 61363)
AC Component of Fault Current Waveform

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 40

Transient Fault Current

Calculation (IEC 61363)
Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 41

Transient Fault Current

Calculation (IEC 61363)
Top Envelope of Fault Current Waveform

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 42

IEC Transient Fault Current

Calculation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 43

Unbalanced Faults Display

& Reports
Complete reports that include individual
branch contributions for:
L-G Faults
L-L-G Faults
L-L Faults

One-line diagram displayed results that

include:
L-G/L-L-G/L-L fault current
contributions
Sequence voltage and currents
Phase Voltages
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 44

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 45

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Short-Circuit IEC

Slide 46

Arc Flash Analysis

ETAP Workshop
Notes
1996-2009
Technology,
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Operation
Workshop
Notes: ArcInc.
Flash Analysis

Slide 1

Electrical Arc Hazards

Electrical Arcs can occur when a conductive
object gets too close to a high-amp current
source (energized conductor).
Arc Flash Burns
The arc can heat the air to temperatures as
high as 35,000 F, and vaporize metal.

Arc flash can cause severe skin burns by direct

heat exposure and by igniting clothing.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 2

Electrical Arc Hazards

Arc Blast Impacts
The heating of the air and vaporization of metal
creates a pressure wave that can damage
hearing and cause memory loss (from
concussion) and other injuries. Flying metal
parts are also a hazard.

Falls
Electric shocks and arc blasts can cause falls,
especially from ladders or unguarded
scaffolding.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 3

Definitions
Limited Approach Boundary: A shock protection
boundary not to be crossed by unqualified persons
unless escorted by qualified personnel.
Restricted Approach Boundary: A shock protection
boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons.
Shock protection is required.
Prohibited Approach Boundary: A shock protection
boundary to be crossed by only qualified persons. The
use of techniques that may require direct contact with
energized equipment.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 4

Definitions
Flash Protection Boundary: Distance at which the
incident energy equals 1.2 Cal/cm^2.
Incident Energy: The amount of energy impressed on
a surface, a certain distance from the source,
generated during and electrical arc event.
Working Distance: The dimension between the
possible arc point and the head and body of a worker
positioned in place to perform the task.
Bolted fault current: A short-circuit contact between
two conductors at different potentials in which the
impedance between the conductors is zero.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 5

Definitions
Available fault current: The electrical current that can
be provided by the serving utility and facility-owned
electrical generating devices and large electrical
motors considering the amount of impedance in the
current path.
Arcing fault current: A fault current flowing through an
electrical arc-plasma, also called arc fault current and
arc current.
Voltage (Nominal): A nominal value assigned to a
circuit or system for the purpose of designating its
voltage class (I.e. 120/240 V, 480Y/277 V, 600V, etc).

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 6

Regulating Authorities
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.132 (d) requires
employers to assess the workplace to
determine if hazards are present, or likely to be
present and select and have each employee
use the types of PPE that will protect them.
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.333 Requires employees
who are exposed to electrical shock hazard to
be qualified for the specific task that they are
performing and use the appropriate PPE
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 7

Regulating Authorities
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.335 (a)(1)(I): Protective
equipment for specific body parts
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.335 (a)(2)(I): use of Insulated
tools when working around energized equipment.
NEC 110.6: equipment must be marked to warn
qualified persons of potential electrical arc-flash
hazards.
NFPA 70E-2000 Part II Chapter 2, paragraph 2-1.3.3
states that arc-flash analysis must be performed in
order to determine the level of hazard and appropriate
PPE for given tasks.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 8

Protection From Arc Flash Hazards

NFPA 70E 2004 Standard for Electrical Safety
Requirements for Employee Workplaces

IEEE 1584 2002 Guide for Performing Arc Flash

Hazard Calculations

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 9

Comparison of Arc Flash Standards

NFPA 70E-2000

IEEE 1584-2002
208 15 kV (Empirical)

Voltage Range

208 V 600 V

Current Range

16 kA 50 kA

0.7 kA to 106 kA

No limit

No Limit

Installations

Open Air,
Cubic Box

Open Air, Cubic Box,

Cable Bus

Working Distance

18 inches +

18 inches +

Cal/cm2 or J/cm2

Cal/cm2 or J/cm2

Arc Duration Range

Unit of Measure

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

15 kV+ (Lee Method)

Slide 10

Incident Energy Comparison

600 Volt Arc in Open Air Incident energy Exposure @ 18 in.

20

Calorie/cm^2

15
NFPA 70E-2000
IEEE 1584-2002

10
5
0
0

10

20

Fault clearing time (Cycles)

Incident energy exposure at a working distance of 18

for a 19.5 kA Arc @ 600 Volts (open air equipment)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 11

600 Volt Arc in Closed Box Incident energy Exposure @ 18 in.

20

Calorie/cm^2

15
NFPA 70E-2000
IEEE 1584-2002
10

0
0

10

20

Fault clearing time (Cycles)

Incident energy exposure at a working distance of 18

for a 19.5 kA Arc @ 600 Volts (enclosed equipment)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 12

NFPA Hazard Risk Determination

Quick Table (Table 3-3.9.1 of 2000 Ed)
Can you use them exclusively and still be in
compliance for Arc-Flash safety?
Developed based on outdated standard that only
covers 600 V systems

May result in unnecessary overprotection / under

protection
Best when used only in emergency situation for quick
evaluation of hazard level
Standard mandates a detail arc-flash analysis be
performed when the task is not specifically covered by
this table

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 13

General Steps for Performing

Arc Flash Analysis
Collect system information required for the Arc
Flash Calculation
Determine the system operating configuration
Calculate 3-Phase bolted fault currents
Calculate arcing fault current (IEEE only)

Determine arc clearing time (arc duration) -TCC

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 14

General Steps for Performing

Arc Flash Analysis
Calculate Incident Energy
Determine Flash Protection Boundary
Determine Hazard/Risk Category based on
NFPA 70E requirements
Select appropriate protective equipment
(PPE Matrix)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 15

Data Collection for Arc Flash

Required Parameter
System Nominal Voltage

NFPA
70E

IEEE
1584

Gap Between Conductors

Distance X Factor

System Grounding
(Grounded/Ungrounded)

Open/Enclosed Equipment

Working Distance

Coordination Information (TCC)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 16

Gap between Conductors

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 17

Additional Considerations
Up to date one-line-diagrams

Data similar to information required for Shortcircuit studies like MVAsc values of Utilitiy
including X/R, subtransient and transient
reactance, cable impedance, etc.
Include low voltage equipment which is often
not included in large systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 18

3-Phase Bolted Fault Current

Perform ANSI/IEC short circuit study that considers
the following:
3-phase bolted fault

cycle or 1-4 cycle fault current depending on the

type of device or system voltage
Include all cables & Overload heaters

Prefault voltage (nominal circuit voltage)

Short-circuit Calculation should be more accurate rather
than too conservative (faults may persist longer at lower
current levels which may translate into higher energy)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 19

System Modes of Operation

Open or looped
One or more utility feeders in service
Utility interface substation secondary bus tie breaker
open or closed
Unit substation with one or two primary feeders
Unit substation with two transformers with secondary
tie opened or closed
MCC with one or two feeders, one or both energized.

Generators running in parallel with the utility supply or

in standby mode
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 20

Why use 3-Phase Faults

Line to Line faults quickly escalate into three- phase
faults
LV L-G faults in solidly grounded systems quickly
escalate into three phase faults

LV L-G faults in Ungrounded / High resistance

grounded systems do not release enough energy.
MV faults in low resistance or reactance grounded
systems should be cleared quickly, but worst case
scenario 3-phase fault should be considered
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 21

Standards for Short-Circuit

IEEE Std 141-1993 (IEEE Red Book)

IEEE Std 242-2001 (IEEE Buff Book)

ANSI (different standards like C37, etc)
IEC (60909, 60363, etc)
See ETAP help file for more standards

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 22

Arcing Current
In general, arcing current in systems below 15.0 kV will be less
than the 3-phase fault current because of arc impedance.
For buses with nominal kV in the range of 0.208 to 1.0 kV:

lg( Ia )

K 0.662 * lg( I bf ) 0.0966 *V

0.000526 * G

0.5588 *V * (lg( I bf )) 0.00304 * G * (lg( I bf ))

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 23

Arcing Current
For buses with nominal kV rating in the range of 1 to 15.0 kV:

lg( Ia ) 0.00402 0.983 * lg( I bf )

For buses with nominal kV rating greater than 15 kV, the

arcing current can be considered to be the same as the
bolted fault current:

Ia
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

I bf
Slide 24

Arc Duration LV CB

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 25

Arc Duration LV CB

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 26

Arc Duration for Fuses

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 27

Incident Energy
Empirical method (1.0 to 15.0 kV)

t
610
4.184 * C f * En
*
0.2
Dx

Lee method (higher than 15.0 kV)

2.142 *10 *V * I bf

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

t
2
D

Slide 28

Flash Protection Boundary

Empirical method (1.0 to 15.0 kV)

1.2

t
610
4.184 * C f * En
*
0.2
Dx

Lee method (higher than 15.0 kV)

1 .2

2.142 *10 *V * I bf

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

t
2
D

Slide 29

Hazard / Risk Categories

NFPA 70E 2000
Incident Energy
Exposure cal/cm2

Hazard Risk
Category

Total Weight
Oz/yd2

4.5 7

1.2

4.5 8

8 > cal/cm2

9 12

25> cal/cm2

16-20

24-30

1.2 > cal/cm2

5 > cal/cm2

cal/cm2

25

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 30

Personal Protective Equipment

PPE Matrix

Categories 0 and 1 Personal Clothing/Equipment Requirements

per Table 3-3.9.2 of NFPA 70E 2000
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 31

Category 0 (up to 1.2 Cal/cm2)

Shirt (Long-Sleeve)

Pants (Long)
Safety Glasses
V-Rated Gloves

Insulated Tools

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 32

Category 1 (1.2 up to 5.0 Cal/cm2)

Shirt (Long-Sleeve) FR
Pants (Long) FR
Safety Glasses FR
V-Rated Gloves
Insulated Tools
Hard Hat FR
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 33

Category 2 (5.0 up to 8.0 Cal/cm2)

Category 1 Requirements
plus
Extra Layer of Untreated
Natural fiber (Shirt &
Pants)

FR

FR

Leather Work Shoes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 34

Category 3 (8 up to 25 Cal/cm2)
Category 2 Requirements

plus
Coveralls up to 2 Sets

Double Layer Switching

Hood
Hearing Protection

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 35

Category 4 (higher than 25 Cal/cm2)

Category 3 Requirements
plus
Flash Suit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 36

PPE Incident Energy Rating

ATPV: is the defined as the incident energy on a fabric or
material that results in sufficient heat transfer through the
fabric or material to cause the onset of a second degree
burn.
EBT: is defined as the average of the five highest incident
energy exposures values below the Stoll curve where the
specimens do not exhibit breakopen. EBT is reported when
the ATPV cannot be determined due to FR fabric
breakopen.
HAF%: is the heat transfer capability of the fabric or
material
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 37

Stoll Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 38

FR Equipment Layering

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 39

Example of Layered System

(100 HAF %)
E ' Ecalculated( cal / cm 2 ) *
100
Proposed PPE for Arc Fault with E = 22 Cal/cm^2
Proposed
Equipment
FR Shirt (long
Sleeve)
FR Raincoat

ATPV Rating
(cal/cm^2)

EBT
(cal/cm^2)

HAF %

85

10

18

70

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 40

Example of Layered System

(100 70)
E ' 22 *
100

6.6cal / cm

Energy that passes to second layer is higher than ATPV

EBT is too low for outer layer (possible breakopen)

Modified
Equipment
FR Shirt (long
Sleeve)
FR Raincoat

ATPV Rating
(cal/cm^2)

EBT
(cal/cm^2)

HAF %

85

15

22

70

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 41

Considerations for layering

ATPV rating of the equipment must be above
the calculated incident energy of the Arc for
single layer FR system
In multiple layer FR system there must be no
breakopen that reaches the innermost layer to
prevent possible ignition of such

NFPA example recommends

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 42

Example1

Arc Fault at
Location A

Arc Fault at
Location B
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 43

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 44

Example1
Fault at location B

Calculated incident energy = 0.784 Cal/cm2

(Relay B operates at 1.206 cycles + 5 cycles HVCB)
For a fault at location A
Calculated incident energy = 0.945 Cal/cm2
(Relay A operates at 2.406 cycles + 5 cycles HVCB)
Hence the Incident Energy to be considered for this system
should be 0.945 Cal/cm2 (the most conservative value).
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 45

Example 2
Arc Fault at
Location C

Arc Fault at
Location D

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 46

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 47

Example 2
Fault at location C:

Calculated incident energy = 7.604 Cal/cm2

(LVCB 15 operates in 0.150 sec.)
For a fault at location D:
Calculated incident energy = 5.576 Cal/cm2
(LVCB 16, 17 & 18 operate in 0.115 sec.)
Hence the Incident Energy to be considered for this system
should be 7.604 Cal/cm2 (the most conservative value).
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 48

Arc Flash Hazard Labels

Place labels at each location (cubicle)

Contain information that is clear and

communicates the danger level
Meet current format per ANSI Z535 2002
(safety symbols)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 49

Examples of Safety Labels

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 50

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 51

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 52

ASTM Insulating Glove Voltage Classes

Types of Insulating Glove

Max. use voltage AC

(L-L) (V-Rating
field)

Class

500

00

kV 0.500 Bus kV

1000

0.500 kV < Bus kV 1.0 kV

7500

1.0 kV < Bus kV 7.5 kV

17000

7.5 kV < Bus kV 17.0 kV

26500

17.0 kV < Bus kV 26.5 kV

36000

26.5 kV < Bus kV 36.0 kV

Low Voltage Gloves

High Voltage Gloves

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Bus nominal kV range

Slide 53

Solutions to Arc-Flash Problems

Infrared Analysis: which allow inspections of
the equipment to be made without exposure to
the equipment (inspections of load, connection,
component fatigue and overheating without
opening the equipment).
Remote Racking Systems: which allow the
racking of circuit breakers at a safe distance
and thus reducing the amount of incident
energy exposure.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 54

Solutions to Arc-Flash Problems

Low Arc Flash Circuit Breakers : which are
designed to blow open the terminals in an
amount of time comparable to current limiting
fuses.

Arc-Flash Detecting Circuit Breakers:

devices which can sense a combination of
arcing current and the light emitted by an arc
(cause the main circuit breaker to open to
extinguish the fault).
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 55

Solutions to Arc-Flash Problems

Current Limiting Fuses: Fuses designed to
operate very fast at certain current levels. Will
work for a lot of situations, but they may
introduce coordination problems and nuisance
tripping.
De-energize When Possible : The best
strategy to protect against arc-flash dangers is
to de-energize the equipment if possible at all.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 56

Solutions to Arc-Flash Problems

Replacing Switchgear with Arc Resistant
Switchgear
Adding a Secondary Relay that can trip the
Primary Breaker
De-energize When Possible : The best
strategy to protect against arc-flash dangers is
to de-energize the equipment if possible at all.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 57

Arc Flash Analysis

Advanced Topics

Arc Flash Analysis - February 2007

ETAP Workshop
Notes
1996-2009
Technology,
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Operation
Workshop
Notes: ArcInc.
Flash Analysis

Slide 1

Topics
Differential Relays

Arc Flash Detectors

Maintenance Mode
Analysis of Results

Troubleshooting FCT problems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 2

Differential Relays
Generator Differential Protection

Transformer Differential Protection

Bus Differential Protection

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 3

Gen Differential
Relay

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 4

Transformer
Differential Relay

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 5

Bus Differential
Relay

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 6

ETAP System
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 7

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 8

Arc Flash Detectors (Light)

Define the Enclosures

Define which Enclosures have Arc
Sensors
Determine the Definite time for Relay
to Trip
Combination of Overcurrent and Light
Detection
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 9

Enclosures

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 10

Light Sensor and

Overcurrent Relay
Combination

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 11

Light Sensor
Only

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 12

Maintenance Modes
Reduce the Fault Clearing Time (FCT)

Reduce the Incident Energy

Make Energized Work Safer

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 13

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 14

Maintenance
Mode

Normal
Operating
Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 15

Normal
Operating
Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 16

Normal
Operating
Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 17

Maintenance
Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 18

Maintenance
Mode

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 19

Analysis of Results
Consider all Configurations

Consider all Scenarios

Generate MS Excel Reports

Analyze Results for PDs and Buses

Determine the Worst-Case Incident Energy

Prepare the Data for Creating the Labels

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 20

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 21

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 22

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 23

Important Definitions
Bolted Fault Current: 3-Phase Short-circuit current
used to determine the arcing current
Arcing Current: current that flows in the event of an
arc fault and is typically less than the available SC
current
Source Protective Device: The upstream PD that
energizes a given bus. Multiple fed buses must have
multiple source PDs
FCT: Fault clearing time of the last protective device
to clear an arc fault (the FCT can only be determined
from source PDs

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 24

Why the FCT cannot be Determined

1. The protective device (PD) interlocks have not been
properly configured or library selection has not been
made for fuse relay, etc.
2. Arcing current is too low and source PD does not trip
3. The source PD is outside the search capability
4. The source PD is outside the reach of maximum
number of upstream search levels

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 25

Why the FCT cannot be Determined

5. The bolted Short-circuit current is outside the
range allowed by IEEE
6. The bus nominal kV is outside the range
allowed by IEEE
7. The user-defined bus FCT is set to zero

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 26

1.a PDS are missing

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 27

1.b PDS are missing Interlocks

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 28

2. Arcing Current is too Low

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 29

2.a Find the Arcing Current Contribution

To determine the arcing current you
need to take the ratio of the SC
contribution over the total SC
current. Multiply the total arcing
current times the ratio

(34.32 kA/35.3 kA)*24.26

kA = 23.58 kA
Now convert to the primary
base kV
23.58 kA * (0.48kV/13.2kV)
= 0.857 kA
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 30

2.b Plot the Arcing Current to find FCT

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 31

3. Source PD is outside search capability

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 32

4. Source PD is outside search capability

Level 4
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Slide 33

5 & 6. IEEE Limitations

Bus Nominal kV is too low

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

Short-circuit current
is too low or too high

Slide 34

7. BUS UD FCT is set to zero

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Arc Flash Analysis

If the FCT cannot be

determined from Source PD
Etap will determine it from
the Bus

Slide 35

Protective Device Coordination

ETAP Star

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Agenda
Concepts & Applications
Star Overview

Features & Capabilities

Protective Device Type
TCC Curves
STAR Short-circuit
PD Sequence of Operation
Normalized TCC curves
Device Libraries
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 2

Definition
Overcurrent Coordination
A systematic study of current responsive
devices in an electrical power system.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 3

Objective
To determine the ratings and settings of
fuses, breakers, relay, etc.
To isolate the fault or overloads.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 4

Criteria
Economics
Available Measures of Fault
Operating Practices
Previous Experience

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 5

Design
Open only PD nearest (upstream) of the fault
or overload
Provide satisfactory protection for overloads
Interrupt SC as rapidly (instantaneously) as
possible
Comply with all applicable standards and
codes
Plot the Time Current Characteristics of
different PDs
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 6

Analysis
When:
New electrical systems
Plant electrical system expansion/retrofits
Coordination failure in an existing plant

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 7

Spectrum Of Currents
Load Current
Up to 100% of full-load
115-125% (mild overload)

Overcurrent
Abnormal loading condition (Locked-Rotor)

Fault Current
Fault condition
Ten times the full-load current and higher
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 8

Protection
Prevent injury to personnel
Minimize damage to components
Quickly isolate the affected portion of the system

Minimize the magnitude of available short-circuit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 9

Coordination
Limit the extent and duration of service
interruption
Selective fault isolation

Provide alternate circuits

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 10

Coordination
C

D B

t
A

I
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 11

Protection vs. Coordination

Coordination is not an exact science
Compromise between protection and
coordination
Reliability

Speed
Performance

Economics
Simplicity
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 12

Required Data

One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)

Power Grid Settings
Generator Data
Transformer Data
Transformer kVA, impedance, and connection
Motor Data

Load Data
Fault Currents

Cable / Conductor Data

Bus / Switchgear Data
Instrument Transformer Data (CT, PT)
Protective Device (PD) Data
Manufacturer and type of protective devices (PDs)
One-line diagrams (Relay diagrams)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 13

Study Procedure
Prepare an accurate one-line diagram (relay
diagrams)
Obtain the available system current spectrum
(operating load, overloads, fault kA)
Determine the equipment protection guidelines
Select the appropriate devices / settings
Plot the fixed points (damage curves, )
Obtain / plot the device characteristics curves
Analyze the results

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 14

Time Current Characteristics

TCC Curve / Plot / Graphs
4.5 x 5-cycle log-log graph
X-axis: Current (0.5 10,000 amperes)
Y-axis: Time (.01 1000 seconds)
Current Scaling (x1, x10, x100, x100)

Voltage Scaling (plot kV reference)

Use ETAP Star Auto-Scale
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 15

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 16

TCC Scaling Example

Situation:
A scaling factor of 10 @ 4.16 kV is selected for
TCC curve plots.

Question
What are the scaling factors to plot the 0.48 kV
and 13.8 kV TCC curves?

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 17

TCC Scaling Example

Solution

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 18

Fixed Points
Points or curves which do not change
regardless of protective device settings:
Cable damage curves
Cable ampacities
Transformer damage curves & inrush points
Motor starting curves
Generator damage curve / Decrement curve
SC maximum fault points
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 19

Capability / Damage Curves

2

It

I2t

I2 t

I22t

Motor

Xfmr

Cable

Gen
I

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 20

Cable Protection
Standards & References
IEEE Std 835-1994 IEEE Standard Power Cable
Ampacity Tables

IEEE Std 848-1996 IEEE Standard Procedure for the

Determination of the Ampacity Derating of Fire-Protected
Cables
IEEE Std 738-1993 IEEE Standard for Calculating the
Current- Temperature Relationship of Bare Overhead
Conductors
The Okonite Company Engineering Data for Copper and
Aluminum Conductor Electrical Cables, Bulletin EHB-98

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 21

Cable Protection
The actual temperature rise of a cable when exposed to
a short circuit current for a known time is calculated by:
2

t
T2 234
0.0297log
T1 234

Where:
A= Conductor area in circular-mils
I = Short circuit current in amps
t = Time of short circuit in seconds
T1= Initial operation temperature (750C)
T2=Maximum short circuit temperature
(1500C)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 22

Cable Short-Circuit Heating Limits

Recommended
temperature rise:
B) CU 75-200C

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 23

Shielded
Cable
The normal tape
width is 1
inches

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 24

NEC Section 110-14 C

(c) Temperature limitations. The temperature rating associated with the

ampacity of a conductor shall be so selected and coordinated as to not exceed
the lowest temperature rating of any connected termination, conductor, or
device. Conductors with temperature ratings higher than specified for
terminations shall be permitted to be used for ampacity adjustment, correction,
or both.
(1) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated 100 amperes or less,
or marked for Nos. 14 through 1 conductors, shall be used only for conductors
rated 600C (1400F).
Exception No. 1: Conductors with higher temperature ratings shall be permitted
to be used, provided the ampacity of such conductors is determined based on
the 6O0C (1400F) ampacity of the conductor size used.
Exception No. 2: Equipment termination provisions shall be permitted to be
used with higher rated conductors at the ampacity of the higher rated
conductors, provided the equipment is listed and identified for use with the
higher rated conductors.
(2) Termination provisions of equipment for circuits rated over 100 amperes, or
marked for conductors larger than No. 1, shall be used only with conductors
rated 750C (1670F).

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 25

Transformer Protection

Standards & References

National Electric Code 2002 Edition

C37.91-2000; IEEE Guide for Protective Relay Applications to
Power Transformers
C57.12.59; IEEE Guide for Dry-Type Transformer Through-Fault
Current Duration.
C57.109-1985; IEEE Guide for Liquid-Immersed Transformer
Through-Fault-Current Duration
APPLIED PROCTIVE RELAYING; J.L. Blackburn; Westinghouse
Electric Corp; 1976
PROTECTIVE RELAYING, PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS;
J.L. Blackburn; Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1987
IEEE Std 242-1986; IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection
and
Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power
Systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 26

Transformer Category
ANSI/IEEE C-57.109

Minimum nameplate (kVA)

Category Single-phase Three-phase
I
5-500
15-500
II
501-1667
501-5000
III
1668-10,000 5001-30,000
IV
above 1000 above 30,000

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 27

Transformer Categories I, II

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 28

Transformer Categories III

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 29

Transformer
FLA

200

Thermal
I2t = 1250

t
(sec)

(D-D LL) 0.87

Infrequent Fault
(D-R LG) 0.58

Frequent Fault

Mechanical
K=(1/Z)2t
Inrush

2.5

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Isc

25

I (pu)

Slide 30

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 31

Transformer Protection
MAXIMUM RATING OR SETTING FOR OVERCURRENT DEVICE
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Over 600 Volts
Over 600 Volts
600 Volts or Below
Transformer
Rated
Impedance

Circuit
Breaker
Setting

Fuse
Rating

Circuit
Breaker
Setting

Fuse
Rating

Circuit Breaker
Setting or Fuse
Rating

Not more than

6%

600 %

300 %

300 %

250%

125%
(250% supervised)

More than 6%
and not more
than 10%

400 %

300 %

250%

225%

125%
(250% supervised)

Any Location Non-Supervised

Table 450-3(a)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

source: NEC

Slide 32

Transformer Protection

Turn on or inrush current

Oil Level

Internal transformer faults

Fans

External or through faults of major

magnitude

Oil Pumps

Pilot wire Device 85

Repeated large motor starts on the

transformer. The motor represents a
major portion or the transformers KVA
rating.

Fault withstand

Thermal protection hot spot, top of oil

temperature, winding temperature

Harmonics

Devices 26 & 49

Over current protection Device 50/51

Reverse over current Device 67

Ground current protection Device

50/51G

Gas accumulation Buckholz relay

Over voltage Device 59

Voltage or current balance Device 60

Tertiary Winding Protection if supplied

Differential Device 87

Over or under excitation volts/ Hz

Device 24

Sudden tank pressure Device 63

Relay Failure Scheme

Dissolved gas detection

Breaker Failure Scheme

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 33

Recommended Minimum
Transformer Protection
Protective system

Winding and/or power system Winding and/or power system

grounded neutral grounded
neutral ungrounded
Up to 10 MVA

Above 10 MVA

Up to 10 MVA

Above
10 MVA

Time over current

Instantaneous restricted
ground fault

Time delayed ground

fault

Differential

Gas detection

Over excitation
Overheating

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 34

Question

What is ANSI Shift Curve?

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 35

Answer
For delta-delta connected transformers, with
line-to-line faults on the secondary side, the
curve must be reduced to 87% (shift to the
left by a factor of 0.87)
For delta-wye connection, with single line-toground faults on the secondary side, the
curve values must be reduced to 58% (shift
to the left by a factor of 0.58)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 36

Question

What is meant by Frequent and

Infrequent for transformers?

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 37

Infrequent Fault Incidence Zones for Category II & III Transformers

Source
Transformer primary-side protective device
(fuses, relayed circuit breakers, etc.) may be
selected by reference to the infrequent-faultincidence protection curve
Infrequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*

Category II or III Transformer

Fault will be cleared by transformer
primary-side protective device
Optional main secondary side protective device.
May be selected by reference to the infrequent-faultincidence protection curve
Fault will be cleared by transformer primary-side
protective device or by optional main secondaryside protection device
Feeder protective device

Frequent-Fault
Incidence Zone*

Fault will be cleared by

feeder protective device
Feeders

* Should be selected by reference to the frequent-fault-incidence protection curve or for

transformers serving industrial, commercial and institutional power systems with secondary-side
conductors enclosed in conduit, bus duct, etc., the feeder protective device may be selected by
reference to the infrequent-fault-incidence protection curve.
Source: IEEE C57
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 38

Motor Protection

Standards & References

IEEE Std 620-1996 IEEE Guide for the Presentation

of Thermal Limit Curves for Squirrel Cage Induction
Machines.

IEEE Std 1255-2000 IEEE Guide for Evaluation of

Torque Pulsations During Starting of Synchronous
Motors

ANSI/ IEEE C37.96-2000 Guide for AC Motor

Protection

The Art of Protective Relaying General Electric

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 39

Motor Protection
Motor Starting Curve
Thermal Protection
Locked Rotor Protection
Fault Protection

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 40

Motor Overload Protection

(NEC Art 430-32 Continuous-Duty Motors)

Thermal O/L (Device 49)

Motors with SF not less than 1.15
125% of FLA

Motors with temp. rise not over 40C

125% of FLA

All other motors

115% of FLA
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 41

Motor Protection Inst. Pickup

I

1
LOCKED
ROTOR

XS

Xd "

Recommended Instantaneous Setting:

RELAY PICK UP

I PICK UP
I LOCKED ROTOR

1.6 TO 2

If the recommended setting criteria cannot be met, or where more sensitive

protection is desired, the in-stantaneous relay (or a second relay) can be set
more sensitively if delayed by a timer. This permits the asymmetrical starting
component to decay out. A typical setting for this is:

RELAY PICK UP

I PICK UP
I LOCKED ROTOR

1.2 TO 1.2

with a time delay of 0.10 s (six cycles at 60 Hz)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 42

Locked Rotor Protection

Thermal Locked Rotor (Device 51)
Starting Time (TS < TLR)
LRA
LRA sym
LRA asym (1.5-1.6 x LRA sym) + 10% margin

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 43

Fault Protection
(NEC Art / Table 430-52)

Non-Time Delay Fuses

300% of FLA

Dual Element (Time-Delay Fuses)

175% of FLA

Instantaneous Trip Breaker

800% - 1300% of FLA*

Inverse Time Breakers

250% of FLA

*can be set up to 1700% for Design B (energy efficient) Motor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 44

Low Voltage Motor Protection

Usually pre-engineered (selected from
Catalogs)
Typically, motors larger than 2 Hp are
protected by combination starters
Overload / Short-circuit protection

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 45

Low-voltage Motor
Ratings
Continuous amperes

Range of ratings
9-250

Nominal voltage (V)

240-600

Horsepower

1.5-1000

00-9

Types of protection

Quantity

NEMA
designation

Overload: overload
relay elements

OL

Short circuit:
circuit breaker current
trip elements

CB

Fuses

FU

Undervoltage: inherent
with integral control
supply and three-wire
control circuit

Ground fault (when

speci-fied): ground relay
with toroidal CT

Starter size (NEMA)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 46

Minimum Required Sizes of a NEMA

FUSE SIZE
CLASS J
FUSE

12

12

759

10

1251

15

15

15

1
2

3
3.4

0
0

12
12

12
12

531
468

10
10

875
772

15
15

15
15

15
15

6
7

4.8

12

12

332

10

547

20

20

15

10

7.6

12

12

209

10

345

20

20

15

15

11

12

10

144

360

30

25

20

20

10

14

10

283

439

35

30

25

30

15

21

10

189

292

50

40

30

45

20

27

10

227

347

70

50

40

60

25

34

276

407

80

70

50

70

30

40

346

2/0

610

100

70

60

90

40

52

266

2/0

469

150

110

90

110

50

65

2/0

375

4/0

530

175

150

100

125

60

77

2/0

317

4/0

447

200

175

125

150

75

96

4/0

358

250

393

250

200

150

200

100

124

250

304

350

375

350

250

200

250

125

156

2/0

350

298

500

355

400

300

250

350

150

180

4/0

500

307

750

356

450

350

300

400

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

MAXIMUM
LENGTH FOR 1%
VOLTAGE
DROP WITH
LARGER WIRE

NEXT
LARGEST
WIRE
SIZE
USE NEXT
LARGER GROUND
CONDUCTOR

2.1

MAXIMUM
LENGTH FOR 1%
VOLTAGE
DROP

MINIMUM
WIRE
SIZE

STARTER
SIZE

CIRCUIT BREAKER
SIZE

460V NEC FLC

MAXIMUM CONDUCTOR LENGTH FOR ABOVE AND

BELOW GROUND CONDUIT SYSTEMS. ABOVE GROUND
SYSTEMS HAVE DIRECT SOLAR EXPOSURE. 750 C
CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE, 450 C AMBIENT

MOTOR HP

MINIMUM
SIZE
GROUNDING
CONDUCTOR
FOR A 50 % CURRENT CAPACITY

Combination Motor Starter System

250%

200%

150%

Slide 47

Required Data - Protection of a

Medium Voltage Motor

Rated full load current

Service factor

Locked rotor current

Maximum locked rotor time (thermal limit curve) with the motor at ambient and/or
operating temperature

Minimum no load current

Starting power factor

Running power factor

Motor and connected load accelerating time

System phase rotation and nominal frequency

Type and location of resistance temperature devices (RTDs), if used

Expected fault current magnitudes

First cycle current

Maximum motor starts per hour

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 48

Medium-Voltage Class E Motor Controller

Ratings

Class El
Class E2 (with
(without
fuses)
fuses)

Nominal system voltage

Horsepower
Symmetrical MVA interrupting
capacity at nominal
system voltage

2300-6900
0-8000
25-75

Types of Protective Devices

Quantity

Overload, or locked Rotor,

or both:
Thermal overload relay
TOC relay
IOC relay plus time delay

2300-6900
0-8000
160-570

NEMA
Designation
Phase Balance

3
3
3

OL OC TR/O

Thermal overload relay

OL

TOC relay

OC

IOC relay plus time delay

TR/OC

Short Circuit:

Fuses, Class E2
IOC relay, Class E1

FU

OC

Ground Fault
TOC residual relay
Overcurrent relay with toroidal
CT

1
1

GP

Current balance relay

BC

Negative-sequence voltage 1
relay (per bus), or both

Undervoltage:
Inherent with integral
control supply and threewire control circuit, when
voltage falls suffi-ciently to
permit the contractor to
open and break the seal-in
circuit

UV

Temperature:
Temperature relay,
operating from resistance
sensor or ther-mocouple in
stator winding

OL

GP

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

NEMA Class E1
medium voltage starter

NEMA Class E2 medium

voltage starter
Slide 49

Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,

1800 rpm Motor
First half cycle current showing
current offset.

Beginning of run up current

showing load torque pulsations.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 50

Starting Current of a 4000Hp, 12 kV,

1800 rpm Motor - Oscillographs

Motor pull in current showing motor

reaching synchronous speed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 51

Thermal Limit Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 52

Thermal Limit Curve

Typical
Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 53

(49)
I2T

O/L

tLR

MCP

(51)

ts

200 HP

Starting Curve

MCP (50)

LRAs

LRAasym

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 54

Protective Devices
Fuse
Overload Heater
Thermal Magnetic
Low Voltage Solid State Trip
Electro-Mechanical

Motor Circuit Protector (MCP)

Relay (50/51 P, N, G, SG, 51V, 67, 49, 46, 79, 21, )
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 55

Fuse (Power Fuse)

Non Adjustable Device (unless electronic)
Continuous and Interrupting Rating

Voltage Levels (Max kV)

Interrupting Rating (sym, asym)
Characteristic Curves
Min. Melting
Total Clearing

Application (rating type: R, E, X, )

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 56

Fuse Types
Expulsion Fuse (Non-CLF)
Current Limiting Fuse (CLF)
Electronic Fuse (S&C Fault Fiter)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 57

Total Clearing
Time Curve

Minimum Melting
Time Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 58

Current Limiting Fuse

(CLF)
Limits the peak current of short-circuit
Reduces magnetic stresses (mechanical
damage)
Reduces thermal energy

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 59

Current Limiting Action

Current (peak amps)

Ip

ta = tc tm
Ip

ta = Arcing Time

tm = Melting Time
tc = Clearing Time
ta

tm
tc

Time
(cycles)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Ip = Peak Current
Ip = Peak Let-thru Current
Slide 60

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Let-Through Chart
Peak Let-Through Amperes

7% PF (X/R = 14.3)
230,000

300 A
100 A

12,500

60 A

5,200

100,000

Symmetrical RMS Amperes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 62

Fuse
Generally:
CLF is a better short-circuit protection
Non-CLF (expulsion fuse) is a better
Overload protection
Electronic fuses are typically easier to
coordinate due to the electronic control
adjustments

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 63

Selectivity Criteria
Typically:

Non-CLF:

140% of full load

CLF:

150% of full load

Safety Margin: 10% applied to Min

Melting (consult the fuse manufacturer)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 64

Molded Case CB
Thermal-Magnetic

Types

Magnetic Only
Motor Circuit Protector
(MCP)
Integrally Fused (Limiters)
Current Limiting
High Interrupting Capacity
Non-Interchangeable Parts
Insulated Case (Interchange
Parts)

Frame Size

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Poles
Trip Rating
Interrupting Capability
Voltage

Slide 65

MCCB

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 66

MCCB with SST Device

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 67

Thermal Maximum

Thermal Minimum

Magnetic
(instantaneous)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 68

LVPCB
Voltage and Frequency Ratings
Continuous Current / Frame Size / Sensor
Interrupting Rating

Short-Time Rating (30 cycle)

Fairly Simple to Coordinate
Phase / Ground Settings

Inst. Override
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 69

LT PU

CB 2
CB 1
LT Band
CB 2
480 kV

ST PU

CB 1

IT

ST Band
If =30 kA

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 70

Inst. Override

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 71

Overload Relay / Heater

Motor overload protection is provided by a
device that models the temperature rise of
the winding
When the temperature rise reaches a point
that will damage the motor, the motor is deenergized
Overload relays are either bimetallic, melting
alloy or electronic

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 72

Overload Heater (Mfr. Data)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 73

Question
What is Class 10 and Class 20 Thermal
OLR curves?

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 74

Answer
At 600% Current Rating:
Class 10 for fast trip, 10
seconds or less
Class 20 for, 20 seconds or
less (commonly used)

20

There is also Class 15, 30

for long trip time (typically
provided with electronic
overload relays)
6

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 75

Answer

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 76

Overload Relay / Heater

When the temperature at the combination motor starter is more than
10 C (18 F) different than the temperature at the motor, ambient
temperature correction of the motor current is required.
An adjustment is required because the output that a motor can safely
deliver varies with temperature.
The motor can deliver its full rated horsepower at an ambient
temperature specified by the motor manufacturers, normally + 40 C. At
high temperatures (higher than + 40 C) less than 100% of the normal
rated current can be drawn from the motor without shortening the
insulation life.
At lower temperatures (less than + 40 C) more than 100% of the
normal rated current could be drawn from the motor without shortening
the insulation life.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 77

Overcurrent Relay
Time-Delay (51 I>)
Short-Time Instantaneous ( I>>)
Instantaneous (50 I>>>)
Electromagnetic (induction Disc)
Solid State (Multi Function / Multi Level)

Application

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 78

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Time-Overcurrent Unit
Ampere Tap Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x A.T. Setting

Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT

Ratio
Multiples of A.T.
CT

IL

= IR/A.T. Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x A.T. Setting)

IR
51

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 80

Instantaneous Unit
Instantaneous Calculation
Ampere Pickup (P.U.) = CT Ratio x IT Setting

Relay Current (IR) = Actual Line Current (IL) / CT

Ratio
Multiples of IT
CT

IL

= IR/IT Setting
= IL/(CT Ratio x IT Setting)

IR
50

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 81

Relay Coordination
Time margins should be maintained between T/C
curves
Adjustment should be made for CB opening time
Shorter time intervals may be used for solid state
relays

Upstream relay should have the same inverse T/C

characteristic as the downstream relay (CO-8 to
CO-8) or be less inverse (CO-8 upstream to CO-6
downstream)
Extremely inverse relays coordinates very well with
CLFs
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 82

Situation
4.16 kV
CT 800:5

50/51

Relay: IFC 53

CB

Cable
CU - EPR

1-3/C 500 kcmil

Isc = 30,000 A
DS

5 MVA
6%

Calculate Relay Setting (Tap, Inst. Tap & Time Dial)

For This System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 83

Solution
Transformer:

IL

IR

5,000kVA
694 A
3 4.16kV
5
IL
4.338 A
800

IL
IR

I Inrsuh 12 694 8,328 A

Set Relay:

CT

125% 4.338 5.4 A

TAP

6 .0 A

(6/4.338 1.38)

TD 1
Inst (50) 8,328

5
800

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

52.1 A

55 A

Slide 84

Question
What T/C Coordination interval should be
maintained between relays?

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 85

Answer
B
t

A
CB Opening Time
+
Induction Disc Overtravel (0.1 sec)
+
Safety margin (0.2 sec w/o Inst. & 0.1 sec w/ Inst.)

I
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 86

Recloser
Recloser protects electrical transmission systems from temporary
voltage surges and other unfavorable conditions.
Reclosers can automatically "reclose" the circuit and restore normal
power transmission once the problem is cleared.
Reclosers are usually designed with failsafe mechanisms that prevent
them from reclosing if the same fault occurs several times in succession
over a short period. This insures that repetitive line faults don't cause
power to switch on and off repeatedly, since this could cause damage
or accelerated wear to electrical equipment.
It also insures that temporary faults such as lightning strikes or
transmission switching don't cause lengthy interruptions in service.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 87

Recloser Types
Hydraulic
Electronic
Static Controller
Microprocessor Controller

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 88

Recloser Curves

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Protective Device Coordination

Slide 89

Motor Starting
Dynamic Acceleration

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure that motor will start with voltage drop
If Tst<Tload at s=1, then motor will not start
If Tm=Tload at s<sr, motor can not reach rated speed
Torque varies as (voltage)^2

Ensure that voltage drop will not disrupt other loads

Utility bus voltage >95%
3% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes visible
5% Sag represents a point when light flicker becomes irritating
MCC bus voltage >80%
Generation bus voltage > 93%

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 2

Why to Do MS Studies?
Ensure motor feeders sized adequately
(Assuming 100% voltage at Switchboard or MCC)
LV cable voltage drop at starting < 20%
LV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 5%
HV cable voltage drop at starting < 15%
HV cable voltage drop when running at full-load < 3%

Maximum motor size that can be started across the line

Motor kW < 1/6 kW rating of generator (islanded)
For 6 MW of islanded generation, largest motor size < 1 MW

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 3

Motor Sizing
Positive Displacement Pumps / Rotary Pumps

p = Pressure in psi
Q = fluid flow in gpm
n = efficiency

Centrifugal Pumps

H = fluid head in feet

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 4

Motor Types
Synchronous
Salient Pole
Round Rotor

Induction
Wound Rotor (slip-ring)
Single Cage CKT Model

Squirrel Cage (brushless)

Double Cage CKT Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 5

Induction Motor Advantages

Squirrel Cage
Slightly higher efficiency and power factor
Explosive proof

Wound Rotor
Higher starting torque
Lower starting current
Speed varied by using external resistances

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 6

Typical Rotor Construction

Rotor slots are not parallel to the shaft but

skewed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 7

Wound Rotor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 8

Operation of Induction
Motor
AC applied to stator winding
Creates a rotating stator magnetic field in air gap
Field induces currents (voltages) in rotor
Rotor currents create rotor magnetic field in air gap
Torque is produced by interaction of air gap fields

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 9

Slip Frequency
Slip represents the inability of the rotor to
keep up with the stator magnetic field
Slip frequency
S = (s-n)/s

where s = 120f/P
n = mech speed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 10

Static Start - Example

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 11

Static Start - Example

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 12

Service Factor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 13

Inrush Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 14

Motor Torque Speed Curve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 15

Resistance / Reactance
Torque Slip Curve is changed by altering
resistance / reactance of rotor bars.
Resistance by cross sectional area or
using higher resistivity material like brass.
Reactance by placing conductor deeper in
the rotor cylinder or by closing the slot at the
air gap.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 16

Rotor Bar Resistance

Increase Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Full Load Speed
Lower Efficiency
No Effect on Breakdown Torque

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 17

Rotor Bar Reactance

Lower Starting Torque
Lower Starting Current
Lower Breakdown Torque
No effect on Full Load Conditions

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 18

Motor Torque Curves

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 19

Rotor Bar Design

Cross section Large (low
resistance) and positioned deep in
the rotor (high reactance).
(Starting Torque is normal and
starting current is low).
Double Deck with small conductor
of high resistance. During starting,
most current flows through the
upper deck due to high reactance
of lower deck. (Starting Torque is
high and starting current is low).
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 20

Rotor Bar Design

Bars are made of Brass or
similar high resistance
material. Bars are close to
surface to reduce leakage
reactance. (Starting torque is
high and starting current is
low).

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 21

Load Torque ID Fan

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 22

Load Torque FD Fan

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 23

Load Torque C. Pump

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 24

Double Cage Motor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 25

Motor Full Load Torque

For example, 30 HP 1765 RPM Motor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 26

Motor Efficiency
kW Saved = HP * 0.746 (1/Old 1/New)
$ Savings = kW Saved * Hrs /Year * $/kWh

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 27

Acceleration Torque
Greater
Acceleration
Torque means
higher inertia
that can be
handled by the
motor without
approaching
thermal limits

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 28

Acceleration Torque

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 29

Operating Range
Motor, Generator, or Brake

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 30

Rated Conditions
Constant Power

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 31

Starting Conditions
Constant Impedance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 32

Voltage Variation
Torque is proportional to V^2

Current is proportional to V

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 33

Frequency Variation
As frequency decreases, peak torque shifts toward lower
speed as synchronous speed decreases.
As frequency decrease, current increases due reduced
impedance.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 34

Number of Poles Variation

As Pole number increases, peak torque shifts toward lower

speed as synchronous speed decreases.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 35

Rotor Z Variation
Increasing rotor Z will shift peak torque towards lower
speed.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 36

Modeling of Elements
Switching motors Zlr, circuit model, or
characteristic model
Synch generator - constant voltage behind
Xd
Utility - constant voltage behind Xd
Branches Same as in Load Flow

Non-switching Load Same as Load flow

All elements must be initially energized,
including motors to start
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 37

Motor Modeling
1. Operating Motor
Constant KVA Load

2. Starting Motor
During Acceleration Constant Impedance
Locked-Rotor Impedance
Circuit Models

Characteristic Curves
After Acceleration Constant KVA Load
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 38

Locked-Rotor Impedance
ZLR = RLR +j XLR

(10 25 %)

PFLR is much lower than operating PD.

Approximate starting PF of typical squirrel
cage induction motor:

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 39

Circuit Model I
Single Cage Rotor
Single1 constant rotor resistance and
reactance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 40

Circuit Model II
Single Cage Rotor
Single2 - deep bar effect, rotor resistance and
reactance vary with speed [Xm is removed]

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 41

Circuit Model III

Double Cage Rotor
DB1 integrated rotor cages

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 42

Circuit Model IV
Double Cage Rotor
DB2 independent rotor cages

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 43

Characteristic Model
Motor Torque, I, and PF as function of Slip
Static Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 44

Calculation Methods I
Static Motor Starting
Time domain using static model

Switching motors modeled as Zlr during starting and

constant kVA load after starting
Run load flow when any change in system

Dynamic Motor Starting

Time domain using dynamic model and inertia model
Dynamic model used for the entire simulation
Requires motor and load dynamic (characteristic) model
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 45

Calculation Methods II

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 46

Static versus Dynamic

Use Static Model When
Concerned with effect of motor starting on other
loads
Missing dynamic motor information

Use Dynamic Model When

Concerned with actual acceleration time
Concerned if motor will actually start

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 47

MS Simulation Features
Start/Stop induction/synchronous motors
Switching on/off static load at specified loading
category
Simulate MOV opening/closing operations
Change grid or generator operating category
Simulate transformer LTC operation
Simulate global load transition

Simulate various types of starting devices

Simulate load ramping after motor acceleration
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 48

Automatic Alert

Starting motor terminal V

Motor acceleration failure
Motor thermal damage
Generator rating
Generator engine continuous
& peak rating
Generator exciter peak rating
Bus voltage
Starting motor bus
Grid/generator bus
HV, MV, and LV bus
User definable minimum time
span
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 49

Starting Devices Types

Auto-Transformer

Y/D Winding

Stator Resistor

Partial Wing

Stator Reactor

Soft Starter

Capacitor at Bus

Stator Current Limit

Capacitor at Motor
Terminal

Stator Current Control

Rotor External Resistor

Torque Control

Voltage Control

Rotor External Reactor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 50

Starting Device
Comparison of starting conditions

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 51

Starting Device AutoXFMR

C4 and C3 closed initially

C4 opened, C2 is closed with C3 still closed. Finally C3 is open
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 52

Starting Device AutoXFMR

Autotransformer

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 53

Starting Device YD Start

During Y connection Vs = VL / 3
Phase current Iy = Id / 3 and 3 to 1 reduction in torque
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 54

Starting Device Rotor R

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 55

Starting Device Stator R

Resistor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 56

Starting Device Stator X

Reactor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 57

Transformer LTC Modeling

LTC operations can be simulated in motor
starting studies
Use global or individual Tit and Tot

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 58

MOV Modeling I
Represented as an impedance load during
operation
Each stage has own impedance based on I, pf, Vr
User specifies duration and load current for each stage

Operation type depends on MOV status

Open statusclosing operation
Close statusopening operation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 59

MOV Modeling II
Five stages of operation
Opening

Closing

Acceleration

Acceleration

No load
Unseating
Travel
Stall

No load
Travel
Seating
Stall

Without hammer blow Skip No Load period

With a micro switch Skip Stall period
Operating stage time extended if Vmtr < Vlimit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 60

MOV Closing
With Hammer Blow- MOV Closing

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 61

MOV Opening
With Hammer Blow- MOV Opening

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 62

MOV Voltage Limit

Effect of Voltage Limit Violation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Motor Acceleration

Slide 63

Parameter Estimation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Induction Machine Models(1)

Equivalent Circuit Model
Rs

Xs
Xr

Xm

Single Cage
Rr/s

Rs

Xs
Xr1

Xr2

Rr1/s

Rr2/s

Xm

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Double Cage

Slide 2

Induction Machine Models(2)

Static-State Study Model
Motor Acceleration Analysis
V

IZ eq (s)

Dynamic Study Model

Transient Stability Analysis
V
T0

( Rs

dE
dt

jX ) I

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

E
j( X s

X ) I

jT0 sE

Slide 3

Induction Machine Models(3)

Short-Circuit Study Model
Short-Circuit Current Contribution
I sc

E
X

The Analysis Models Related to Motor

Circuit Parameters

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 4

Parameter Estimation
Methods
On-Line Estimation
Measurements
(Speed, I, V)

Parameter
Estimator

Off-Line Estimation
Nameplate Data
(Characteristics)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Parameter
Estimator

Slide 5

ETAP Parameter Estimation

Module (PE)
Using Nameplate Data or Motor
Characteristics Curves

Applicable for Single Cage Circuit Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 6

How to Use PE (1)

Prepare Input Data from Motor Nameplate
Full-Load:

IFL, sFL, PFFL, EFFFL

Locked-Rotor: ILR, PFLR, TLR

Max Torque:

Tmax

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 7

How to Use PE (2)

Prepare Input Data from Motor
Characteristics Curves

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 8

How to Use PE (3)

PE Module Editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 9

How to Use PE (4)

Set Proper Solution Parameters

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 10

Parameter Estimation
Results

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 11

Update Motor Data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Parameter Estimation

Slide 12

Transient Stability

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Time Frame of Power

System Dynamic Phenomena

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 2

Introduction
TS is also called Rotor Stability, Dynamic
Stability
Electromechanical Phenomenon
All synchronous machines must remain in
synchronism with one another
TS is no longer only the utilitys concern
Co-generation plants face TS problems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 3

Analogy

Which vehicles will pushed hardest?

How much energy gained by each vehicle?
Which direction will they move?

Height of the hill must they climb to go over?

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 4

Introduction (contd)
System protection requires consideration of:
Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)

Critical Separation Time (CST)

Fast load transferring
Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 5

Causes of Instability

Short-circuits
Loss of utility connections
Loss of a portion of in-plant generation
Starting of a large motor
Switching operations (lines or capacitors)
Impact loading on motors
Sudden large change in load and generation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 6

Consequences of Instability
Synchronous machine slip poles
generator tripping
Power swing
Misoperation of protective devices
Interruption of critical loads
Low-voltage conditions motor drop-offs
Damage to equipment
Area wide blackout

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 7

Synchronous Machines
Torque Equation (generator case)

T = mechanical torque
P = number of poles

air = air-gap flux

Fr = rotor field MMF
= rotor angle

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 8

Swing Equation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 9

Synchronous Machines
(contd)
Swing Equation

= inertia constant

= damping constant

Pmech

= input mechanical power

Pelec

= output electrical power

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 10

Rotor Angle Responses

Case 1: Steady-state stable

Case 2: Transient stable
Case 3: Small-signal unstable
Case 4: First swing unstable

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 11

Power and Rotor Angle

(Classical 2-Machine
Example)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 12

Power and Rotor Angle

(contd)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 13

Power and Rotor Angle

(Parallel Lines)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 14

Both Lines In Service

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 15

One Line Out of Service

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 16

Equal Area Criterion

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 17

Equal Area Criterion

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 18

Equal Area - Stable

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 19

Equal Area Unstable

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 20

Equal Area - Unstable

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 21

Power System Stability

Limit
Steady-State Stability Limit
After small disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady state operating
condition identical or close to the predisturbance
Limit: < 90

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 22

Power System Stability

Limit (cond)
Transient and Dynamic Stability Limit
After a severe disturbance, the synchronous
generator reaches a steady-state operating
condition without a prolonged loss of
synchronism

Limit: < 180 during swing

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 23

Generator Modeling

Machine
Equivalent Model / Transient Model / Subtransient Model

Exciter and Automatic Voltage Regulator

(AVR)
Prime Mover and Speed Governor
Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 24

Generator Modeling (cond)

Typical synchronous machine data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 25

Factors Influencing TS
Post-Disturbance Reactance seen from generator.
Reactance Pmax

Duration of the fault clearing time.

Fault time Rotor Acceleration Kinetic Energy
Dissipation Time during deceleration

Generator Inertia.
Inertia Rate of change of Angle Kinetic Energy
Generator Internal Voltage
Internal Voltage Pmax

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 26

Factors Influencing TS
Generator Loading Prior To Disturbance
Loading Closer to Pmax. Unstable during acceleration

Generator Internal Reactance

Reactance Peak Power Initial Rotor Angle
Dissipation Time during deceleration

Generator Output During Fault

Function of Fault Location and Type of Fault

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 27

Solution to Stability
Problems
Improve system design
Increase synchronizing power

Design and selection of rotating equipment

Use of induction machines
Increase moment of inertia
Reduce transient reactance
Improve voltage regulator and exciter
characteristics

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 28

Solution to Stability
Problems
Reduction of Transmission System
Reactance
High Speed Fault Clearing
Dynamic Braking
Regulate Shunt Compensation
Steam Turbine Fast Valving
Generator Tripping
Adjustable Speed Synchronous Machines
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 29

Solution to Stability
Problems
HVDC Link Control
Current Injection from VSI devices
Application of Power System Stabilizer
(PSS)
Add system protections
Fast fault clearance
Load Shedding

System separation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Transient Stability

Slide 30

User-Defined Dynamic
Models (UDM)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

UDM
UDM is a tool that allows a client to create
his own dynamic models.
Governor UDM

Generator

Network

Exciter UDM

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 2

Power System Dynamic

Models
Energy Conversion Models
- Synchronous Machine Models

- Induction Machine Models

Controller Models

- Turbine/Governor Models
- Exciter/AVR Models

- Power System Stabilizer (PSS) Modes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 3

ETAP Dynamic Model

Library
Having Most Popular IEEE Standard Models
Cannot Cover All Types of Models
Difficult to Update Existing Models

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 4

Benefits of Using UDM

Create Client Own Dynamic Models
Flexible to Update or Revise Existing Models
Shorten Development Time Cycle

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 5

How UDM Works with

ETAP(1)
Using ETAP Library Models (Built-in)

t = t + t

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 6

How UDM Works with

ETAP(2)
Using UDM

UDM Engine
Input Interface

Governor UDM
Exciter UDM
PSS UDM

Output Interface
t = t + t

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 7

How to Create UDM File

Using SimuLink(MatLab) Interface to Create
Transfer Block Diagrams

Using ETAP GUI (Future)

SimuLink
Interface

ETAP
GUI

UDM Transfer
Block Diagram
UDM
Compiler

UDM File
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 8

Create UDM Transfer Block

Diagram Using Simulink (1)
Manufacturer Governor/Exciter Control Block Diagram
Example: GE Exciter/AVR IEEE Type AC7B Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 9

Create UDM Transfer Block Diagram Using

Simulink (2)

Simulink Transfer Function Block Diagram (IEEE Exciter Type AC7B)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 10

Create UDM Transfer Block Diagram Using

Simulink (3)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 11

The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(1)
Recognized SimuLink Blocks

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 12

The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(2)
Key Words for UDM Input/Output Variable Names
in SimuLink

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 13

The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(3)
Key Words for UDM Input/Output Variable Names
in SimuLink

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 14

The Rules for Using

SimuLink in ETAP(3)
Key Words for UDM Input/Output Variable Names
in SimuLink

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 15

How to Use UDM (1)

Save UDM Files to UDM Folder Under
PowerStation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 16

How to Use UDM (2)

Load UDM Files in ETAP Generator Editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 17

How to Use UDM (3)

Compile UDM File
Click Compile UDM Button to Open UDM Compile Editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 18

How to Use UDM (4)

Select Initialization Method
Initializing State Variables of UDM Transfer Blocks According to
Operation Conditions
Direct Method

Solve an Algebra Equation

Suitable for a Single Integrator Model
Take Less Time

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 19

How to Use UDM (5)

Select Initialization Method
Iterative Method
Solve a Set of Differential Equations
Suitable for a Multi-Integrators Model

Take Longer Time

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 20

How to Use UDM (6)

Compile UDM Template File to Equation File
Click Compile Button to Open UDM System Data Editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 21

How to Use UDM (7)

Test UDM
Click Test Model Button to Open Test Mode Editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 22

How to Use UDM (8)

Test Type and System

Governor UDM
Line
Generator

Exciter UDM

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Load

Slide 23

How to Use UDM (9)

Test Results

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 24

How to Use UDM (10)

Close UDM Editor
Ready to Run Transient Stability Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: User-Defined Dynamic Models

Slide 25

Harmonic Analysis

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Types of Power Quality

Problems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 2

Waveform Distortion
Primary Types of Waveform Distortion
DC Offset

Harmonics
Interharmonics

Notching
Noise

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 3

Harmonics
One special category of power quality
problems
Harmonics are voltages and/or currents
present in an electrical system at some
multiple of the fundamental frequency.
(IEEE Std 399, Brown Book)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 4

Nonlinear Loads
Sinusoidal voltage
applied to a simple
nonlinear resistor
Increasing the
voltage by a few
percent may cause
current to double

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 5

Fourier Representation
Any periodic
waveform can be
expressed as a sum
of sinusoids
The sum of the
sinusoids is referred
to as Fourier Series
(6-pulse)
2 3

I ac

1
cos3 t
5

I d (cos t

I h cos(h t

1
1
1
cos7 t
cos11 t
cos13 t
7
11
13

h 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 6

Harmonic Sources
Utilities (Power Grid)
Known as Background Harmonic

Pollution from other irresponsible customers

SVC, HVDC, FACTS,

Usually a voltage source

Synchronous Generators
Due to Pitch (can be eliminated by fractionalpitch winding) and Saturation
Usually a voltage source
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 7

Harmonic Sources (contd)

Transformers
Due to magnetizing branch saturation
Only at lightly loaded condition
Usually a current source

Power Electronic Devices

Charger, Converter, Inverter, UPS, VFD, SVC, HVDC,
FACTS,

Due to switching actions

Either a voltage source or a current source

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 8

Harmonic Sources (contd)

Other Non-Linear Loads
Arc furnaces, discharge lighting,

Due to unstable and non-linear process

Either a voltage source or a current source

In general, any load that is applied to a

power system that requires other than a
sinusoidal current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 9

Harmonic I and V

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 10

Classification of Harmonics
Harmonics may be classified as:
Characteristic Harmonics
Generally produced by power converters

Non-Characteristic Harmonics
Typically produced by arc furnaces and discharge
lighting (from non-periodical waveforms)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 11

Phase Angle Relationship

Fundamental Frequency

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 12

Phase Angle Relationship

Third Order

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 13

Phase Angle Relationship

Fifth Order

Seventh Order

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 14

Order vs. Sequence

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 15

Characteristic Harmonics

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 16

Characteristic Harmonics
(contd)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 17

Harmonic Spectrum

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 18

Harmonic-Related Problems
Motors and Generators
Increased heating due to iron and copper losses
Reduced efficiency and torque

Higher audible noise

Cogging or crawling
Mechanical oscillations
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 19

Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Transformers
Parasitic heating
Increased copper, stray flux and iron losses

Capacitors (var compensators)

Possibility of system resonance
Increased heating and voltage stress
Shortened capacitor life
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 20

Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Power Cables
Involved in system resonance
Voltage stress and corona leading to dielectric
failure
Heating and derating

Neutrals of four-wire systems (480/277V; 120/208V)

Overheating

Fuses
Blowing
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 21

Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Switchgears
Increased heating and losses
Reduced steady-state current carrying capability
Shortened insulation components life
Relays
Possibility of misoperation
Metering
Affected readings
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 22

Harmonic-Related Problems
(contd)
Communication Systems
Interference by higher frequency
electromagnetic field

Electronic Equipment (computers, PLC)

Misoperation

System
Resonance (serial and parallel)
Poor power factor
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 23

Parallel Resonance
Total impedance at resonance frequency
increases
High circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 24

Parallel Resonance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 25

Capacitor Banks

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 26

Capacitor Banks

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 27

Capacitor Banks

Say, Seventh Harmonic Current = 5% of 1100A = 55 A

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 28

Capacitor Banks

Resistance = 1% including cable and transformer

CAF = X/R = 7*0.0069/0.0012 =40.25
Resonant Current = 55*40.25 = 2214 A
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 29

Parallel Resonance (contd)

Cause:

Source inductance resonates with

capacitor bank at a frequency
excited by the facilities harmonic
sources

Impacts: 1. Excessive capacitor fuse

operation
2. Capacitor failures
3. Incorrect relay tripping
4. Telephone interference
5. Overheating of equipment
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 30

Harmonic Distortion
Measurements
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
Also known as Harmonic Distortion Factor
(HDF), is the most popular index to measure the
level of harmonic distortion to voltage and
current
Ratio of the RMS of all harmonics to the
fundamental component
For an ideal system THD = 0%

Potential heating value of the harmonics relative

to the fundamental
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 31

Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Good indicator of additional losses due to
current flowing through a conductor
Not a good indicator of voltage stress in a
capacitor (related to peak value of voltage
waveform, not its heating value)
Fi 2
THD

F1

Where Fi is the amplitude of the ith harmonic,

and F1 is that for the fundamental component.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 32

Harmonic Distortion
Example
Find THD for this waveform

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 33

Harmonic Example
Find THD for this Harmonic Spectrum

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 34

Adjustable Speed Drive

Current Distortion

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 35

Adjustable Speed Drive

Voltage Distortion

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 36

Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Individual Harmonic Distortion (IHD)
- Ratio of a given harmonic to fundamental
- To track magnitude of individual harmonic
IHD

Fi
F1

Root Mean Square (RMS) - Total

- Root Mean Square of fundamental plus all
harmonics
- Equal to fundamental RMS if Harmonics are
zero
Fi 2

RMS
1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 37

Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Arithmetic Summation (ASUM)
Arithmetic summation of magnitudes of all
components (fundamental and all harmonics)
Directly adds magnitudes of all components to
estimate crest value of voltage and current
Evaluation of the maximum withstanding ratings
of a device
ASUM

Fi
1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 38

Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
Telephone Influence Factor (TIF)
Weighted THD
Weights based on interference to an audio
signal in the same frequency range

Current TIF shows impact on adjacent

communication systems
2

Wi Fi
TIF

1
2

Fi
1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 39

Harmonic Distortion
Measurements (contd)
I*T Product (I*T)
A product current components (fundamental

and harmonics) and weighting factors

H

( I h Th )2

I T
h 1

where Ih = current component

Th= weighting factor
h = harmonic order (h=1 for fundamental)
H = maximum harmonic order to account
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 40

Triplen Harmonics
Odd multiples of the
third harmonic
(h = 3, 9, 15, 21, )
Important issue for
grounded-wye systems
with neutral current
Overloading and TIF problems
Misoperation of devices due to presence of
harmonics on the neutral

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 41

Triplen Harmonics

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 42

Winding Connections
Delta winding provides ampere turn balance
Triplen Harmonics cannot flow
When currents are balanced Triplens
behave as Zero Sequence currents
Used in Utility Distribution Substations
Delta winding connected to Transmission

Balanced Triplens can flow

Present in equal proportions on both sides
Many loads are served in this fashion

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 43

Implications
Neutral connections are susceptible to overheating
when serving single-phase loads on the Y side that
have high 3rd Harmonic
Measuring current on delta side will not show the
triplens and therefore do not give a true idea of the
heating the transformer is subjected to
The flow of triplens can be interrupted by appropriate
isolation transformer connection
Removing the neutral connection in one or both Y
windings blocks the flow of Triplen harmonic current
Three legged core transformers behave as if they have
a phantom delta tertiary winding
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 44

Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis
Motors and Machines
Represented by their equivalent negative
sequence reactance

Lines and Cables

Series impedance for low frequencies

Long line correction including transposition and

distributed capacitance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 45

Modeling in Harmonic
Analysis (contd)
Transformers
Leakage impedance
Magnetizing impedance

Loads
Static loads reduce peak resonant impedance
Motor loads shift resonant frequency due to
motor inductance
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 46

Reducing System
Harmonics
Add Passive Filters
Shunt or Single Tuned Filters
Broadband Filters or Band Pass Filters
Provide low impedance path for harmonic
current
Least expensive

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 47

Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Increase Pulse Numbers
Increasing pulse number of convert circuits
Limited by practical control problems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 48

Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Apply Transformer Phase Shifting
Using Phase Shifting Transformers
Achieve higher pulse operation of the total
converter installation

In ETAP
Phase shift is specified in the tab page of the
transformer editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 49

Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Either standard phase shift or special phase
shift can be used

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 50

Reducing System
Harmonics (contd)
Add Active Filters
Instantly adapts to changing source and load
conditions
Costly
MVA Limitation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 51

Voltage Distortion Limits

Recommended Practices for Utilities (IEEE
519):
Bus Voltage
Individual
Total Voltage
Distortion

Distortion

(%)

THD (%)

69 kV and below

3.0

5.0

69.001 kV through 161kV

1.5

2.5

161.001 and above

1.0

1.5

At
PCC

In ETAP:
Specify Harmonic Distortion Limits in Harmonic
Page of Bus Editor:

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 52

Current Distortion Limits

Recommended Practices for General
Distribution Systems (IEEE 519):

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Harmonics

Slide 53

Underground Raceway
Systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Raceway Systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 2

Cable Derating Analysis

Determines the proper size of cables to carry
the specified loads for new systems.
Calculates maximum cable ampacities for
specific scenarios.
Examines cable temperatures and
ampacities for existing systems to determine
operating and emergency limits.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 3

Cable Derating Analysis

NEC Accepted Neher-McGrath Method
IEC 287 Method
Steady-state temperature calculation
Uniform-ampacity cable ampacity calculation
Uniform-temperature cable ampacity calculation
Cable sizing

Transient temperature calculation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 4

Cable Ampacity
Fundamentals
Cable Ampacity is the current a conductor can carry
continuously under the conditions of use without
exceeding its temperature rating.

Heat is generated when current is carried by a

conductor since it must pass through the electrical
resistance of the conductor.
Watts = I2R

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 5

Cable Ampacity
Fundamentals
Various thermal barriers:
1. Conductor insulation

2. Air inside a duct

3. Duct wall

4. Soil surrounding an underground duct

5. Additional thermal insulation applied such as
polyurethane

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 6

Cable Ampacity
Fundamentals
Heat Transfer Equation
The rate of heat transfer is directly dependent on the difference
in temperature between the conductor (Tc) and the ambient
temperature (Ta)
Tc Ta (I 2 R).RHO
RHO is thermal resistance in degrees Centigrade-cm/watt

Rearranging the terms for I:

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

( TC

TA )

( R RHO)

Slide 7

Heat Flow Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 8

Heat Flow Model

(Generalized)
Installation under an isolated
condition
Installation of groups of three
or six circuits
RHO of Soil = 90
Ta = 20 oC

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 9

Heat Transfer Problem

Ultimate Unchanged Surrounding Environment

Adjustment Factor
Heat Flow
Immediate Surrounding Environment
(Actual Installation Conditions)

In actual practice, the surrounding medium in which the cables

are to be installed rarely match those conditions under which
the stated ampacities apply.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 10

Adjustment Factor
Cable Derating is based on a concept of an adjustment
(multiplying) factor that is applied against base ampacity.
The multiplying factor takes into account the differences in the
cables actual installation conditions from the base conditions.

I' F x I
I = Allowable cable ampacity for the actual installation conditions
F = Cable Ampacity Adjustment Factor
I = Base Ampacity specified by cable manufacturer or NEC under an
isolated condition with a soil thermal resistively (RHO) of 90 and a
specified ambient temperature
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 11

Adjustment Factor
Composition
F Ft x F x Fg
th
Ft = Adjustment factor to account for the
differences in the ambient and
conductor temperatures from the
base case
Fth = Adjustment factor to account for the
difference in the soil thermal
resistivity from RHO of 90
Fg = Adjustment factor to account for
cable grouping
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 12

Duct Bank Example

I = 375 Amps 350 MCM
I = 450 Amps 500 MCM
Ft = 0.82

Ta from 20 C to 30 C
Tc from 90 C to 75 C
Fth = 0.9 RHO of 90 to 120
Fg = 0.479 350 MCM Cable
Fg = 0.478 500 MCM Cable
350 MCM
F = 0.82 x 0.90 x 0.479 = 0.354
500 MCM
F = 0.82 x 0.90 x 0.478 = 0.354
I = 375 x 0.354 = 133 Amps
I = 450 x 0.353 = 159 Amps

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 13

Neher-McGrath Equation
I
Tc
Ta
Td
Rdc
Tc
Rca

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Tc (Ta Td)
Rca'

Ampacity (kA)
I
Rdc (1 Tc)
Conductor temperature (Deg C)
Ambient Temperature (Deg C)
Conductor temperature rise due to dielectric loss (Deg C)
Conductor dc resistance (/ft)
Loss increment due to conductor skin & proximity effects
Thermal resistance between conductor & ambience (-ft)

(1+Tc) is a multiplier used to convert direct current resistance (Rdc) to

alternating current resistance or impedance. For wire sizes smaller than No. 2,
this term becomes insignificant.
TD compensates for heat generated in the jacket and insulation for higher
voltages. It is insignificant for voltages below 2kV.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 14

Neher-McGrath Example

Calculate ampacity of 3/C concentric stranded XHHW insulated copper

cable enclosed in a 1 inch steel conduit. Ta = 40 C
t = insulation thickness
2t = 2 x 0.045 in. = 0.09 in. [NEC Table 310-13]

DC

0.292

[NEC Table 8, Chapter 9]

DI

0.09

0.292

DI

0.382

Ri

0.012 400 log

Ri

0.56

From N-M Table VII

From N-M Table VII
a
3.2

1 Inch Rigid Steel Conduit ID = 1.049 in.

OD

DI
DC

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

0.19
1.315

From N-M Table VII

Ds

2.16 DI

Ds

0.825

Slide 15

Neher-McGrath Example

Rsd

( n a)
Ds b

Rsd

9.457
Emissivity
E
0.95
Emissivity
Ds2
1.315 Conduit OD
Emissivity
9.5 ( n)
RE
[ 1 1.7 Ds2 ( E 0.41) ]
RE 7.054

Rca

Ri

Rca

17.071

RE

Rdc75

194

Rdc90

Rdc75

Rdc90

203.402

I
I

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Rsd

( 234.5
( 234.5

90)
75)

( 90 40)
( 203.5 Rca)
0.12 kA with Ta = 30, I = 131 Amps
(Table 310-16 lists 130 Amps, Ta=30)

Slide 16

Cable Sizing
Determines the minimum size for each cable that will carry the
specified load current without violating the cable temperature
limit.
The sizing calculation is an
iterative process involving
adjustment of the cable size
and temperature.
Able to lock-in specific
cable sizes that cannot be
changed.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 17

Cable Sizing Example

1.
2.
3.

Load WKSHOP-EX4
Run Load Flow
Update Cable Load Amp
(Study Case)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 18

Cable Sizing Based Voltage Drop

Set Voltage Drop = 2%
Operating Current = 140 A
Optimal Size is Calculated
One Size Smaller is Displayed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 19

Cable Sizing Based on Ampacity

Operating Current = 140 A
Optimal Size is Calculated

One Size Smaller is Displayed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 20

New UGS Presentations

Project Editor Presentation Underground
Raceways - Right-Click Create New
Double-click
to change
presentation
properties

Select UGS Mode Click New Presentation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 21

UGS Presentation
UGS presentation is
conceptually a cross-section
of cable raceways.
Each UGS presentation is a
different cross-section of the
underground system.
If you delete a raceway from a UGS presentation
into the Dumpster, the raceway can be added to
other UGS presentations as an existing raceway.
In UGS, each presentation acts independently from
each other.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 22

UGS Edit Toolbar

Existing Heat Sources

Existing Cables
Existing Duct Bank RWs

Existing Direct Buried RWs

New Conduits for
Duct Banks RWs
Display Options

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

New Heat Sources

New Cables
New Duct Bank RWs

New Direct Buried RWs

New Locations for
Direct Buried RWs

Slide 23

UGS Components

Heat Source

New Duct Bank RW1

Existing Cable - Pump Cable

Cable 5 cannot fit inside this
conduit and is placed outside
the conduit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 24

Inserting Cables
Three main methods for adding cables to the existing
conduits:
1. Drag the cable from OLV
using Ctrl+Shift Key

2. Use the Existing Cable button

from the UGS Toolbar
3. Use the Routing Page from
the Cable Editor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 25

Cable Representation
3 Conductor / Cable and
3 Conductor / Phase
Symbol: 1, 2 and 3
1 Conductor / Cable and
1 Conductor / Phase
Symbol: 1A, 1B, 1C
Single Phase Cable
Symbol: 1F, 1R
DC Cable
Symbol: 1P, 1N

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 26

UGS Example
Duct Bank
X and Y = 30
Width = 15 Height = 8

Conduit
Conduit Size = 4
Y = 3.35

Pump Cable
From OLV

New Cable
5 kV Kerite 1/C
Operating Load = 200 Amps

Run Steady-State Temp Calc

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 27

UGS Large Example

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 28

Steady-State Calculation
Calculation Pre-Requisite: All cables have been carrying the specified load
long enough that the heat flow has reached its steady-state and no more
changes of temperature will occur throughout the raceway system.

The cable temperature calculated is dependent on raceway system

configuration, cable loading, and the location of each particular cable.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 29

Alarms and Warnings

Calculated 88.3 C is greater

Calculated 109 C is greater

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 30

Multiple Presentations

Same Cables and Heat Source

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 31

Uniform Ampacity Ampacity Calculation

Approach is based on the equal loading criterion for ampacity calculations.
Calculations determine the maximum allowable load currents when all the cables in
the system are equally loaded to the same percentage of their base loading.
Calculation Procedure
1. Determine initial loading level based on base ampacity.
2 Calculate cable temperature as in steady-state temperature calculation.
3. Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit.
If the temperature of the hottest cable is within close range of the temperature limit, the solution has been
reached. If not, adjust the cable loading uniformly at the same percentage, either increasing or decreasing
the loading in order to make the highest cable temperature come closer to the temperature limit. Then go
to back to step 2 to recalculate cable temperature.
The cable allowable current is updated by the calculated ampacity.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 32

Uniform Temperature Ampacity Calculation

Approach is based on the equal temperature criterion for ampacity calculations.
Determines the maximum allowable load currents when all the cables in the system have their
temperature within a small range of the temperature limit.
In the case where these conductors are not located in the same conduit/location, they may not have the
same temperature. When this situation occurs, the temperature of the hottest conductor in this cable
branch will be used to represent this cable branch.
Calculation Procedure
1. Determine an initial loading level based on the base ampacity from the Cable Library and using cable
derating factors for the given configuration.
2. Calculate cable temperature as in the steady-state temperature calculation.

3. Check cable temperature values against the cable temperature limit.

If temperature values of all cables are within close range of temperature limit, the solution has been
reached. If not, load change required for the cable temperature to approach the temperature limit based
on the gradient of cable temperature change is determined.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 33

Cable Sizing Calculation

The Cable Sizing Calculation determines the minimum size of each
cable that will carry the specified load current without violating the cable
temperature limit.
Only the available cable sizes within
the cable library for each selected
conductor will be considered.
Cables may be excluded if the potential
size of the cable cannot vary.
The calculation is an iterative process;
adjusting the cable size and then calculating
cable temperatures.
Once a solution is reached, calculation results will be reported in the
output report. Cables will automatically be changed to the new sizes if
the Update Size option is checked in the Study Case.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 34

Transient Temperature Calculation

Calculates and then plots cable temperature variations as a function of time in accordance to load changes.
(Table of Ampacity versus Time)
Provides a tool to verify operation conditions of the
raceway systems against the cable short-time or
emergency temperature limits.

Transient temperature calculations can be used to

determine the cable peak temperatures during a shorttime interval (usually less than a day), and compare
them against maximum allowable temperatures,
resulting in a more flexible and economical design of
your raceway systems.

The transient temperature calculations are based upon a dynamic thermal model of the raceway system,
constructed mainly from thermal resistance, thermal capacitance, and heat sources.
Thermal resistance is used to represent different thermal layers from cable conductor to ambient soil.

Thermal capacitance is used to represent the capability of each layer to absorb heat.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 35

Example From NEC

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 36

NEC Duct Bank (Detail 2)

Depth= 30 in

Fill RHO = 60
1kV NEC Rubber2
1/C CU 3-phase
Magnetic
Class = 100%
Size = 350 AWG
Load = 284.5 Amps
per phase

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 37

NEC Duct Bank (Detail 3)

Depth = 30 in

Fill RHO = 60
1kVNEC Rubber2
1/C CU 3-phase
Magnetic
Class = 100%
Size = 750 AWG
Load = 334.9Amps
per phase

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 38

(Detail 2) in ETAP

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 39

Results for Detail 2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 40

NEC (Detail 3) in ETAP

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 41

Results for Detail 3

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Underground Raceway Systems

Slide 42

Cable Pulling

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Key Features
Integrated with one-line diagram cables
Integrated with underground raceway cables
Pull multiple cables

Allow any pull geometry (3D graphical

display)
ETAP cable library integration

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 2

Cable Pulling Integration

Cable Pulling Presentation

One-Line Diagram

Underground Raceway System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 3

Multiple Cable Pulls

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 4

Capabilities
Reduction factors for calculating allowable
tension when pulling multiple cables
Evaluate possible conduit jamming
Tolerance for cable weights and outside
diameters
Summary and alert windows

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 5

Cable Pulling Features

Calculate forward and reverse pull
Calculate pulling tensions at all bend points
Calculate maximum tension limited by
sidewall pressures
Maximum allowable pulling tension

Conduit percent fill

Cradled and triangular cable configurations
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 6

Cable Pulling Definitions

Cradled or triangular

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 7

Cable Jamming
Jamming

No Jamming

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

No Jamming

Slide 8

Sidewall Pressure

Tension at Conduit Bend

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 9

Create a Cable Pulling

Presentation
Right-click on the Cable Pulling Systems
folder (project editor window)
To open the cable pulling presentation,
double-click on it
Bring cable from one-line diagram
Same cable exists on underground raceway
system
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 10

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 11

Cable Pulling Example

Conduit size =
4

Horizontal
Angles

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Summary and Alert Window

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 14

Cable Pulling Reports

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 15

How to Fix Problems

Increase the bend radius at location Loc0
from 2 ft. to 3 ft.
Increase the bend radius at location Loc3
from 2 ft. to 3 ft.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 16

New Results

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. - Workshop Notes: Cable Pulling

Slide 17

Optimal Power Flow

(OPF)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Table of Contents
Review of Load Flow Solution
Optimal Power Flow Approach

Comparison of LF and OPF

Optimization Examples
Power Balance Equation
Control Variables
Objective Functions
Other Constraints
OPF Study Case Editor
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 2

Review of Load Flow

Solution
Given generation, loading and control
settings (Mwgen, Vgen, LTC, Capacitor
Bank, )
Solve bus voltages and branch flows

Check over/under voltage, device

overloading conditions
Reset controls and run Load Flow again
Iterative process
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 3

Optimal Power Flow

Approach
Given control setting ranges
Specify bus voltage and branch loading
constraints
Select optimization objectives (Min. P
Losses, Min. Q Losses, )
Solve bus voltages, branch flows and control
settings
Direct solution
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 4

Comparison of LF and OPF

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 5

Optimization Example 1
Objective function: Min. y(x) = 20x2 80x10
Control variable x range: 0

10

Non-constrained
1400
1200
1000
Y

800
600
400

Solution Found

200
0
-200 0

10

15

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 6

Optimization Example 2
Objective function: Min. y(x) = 20x2 80x10
Control variable x range: 0 x 10
Balance equation y = 60x 100
Constrained (Solution Found)
1400
1200
1000
Y

800
600
400

Solution Found

200
0
-200 0

10

15

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 7

Optimization Example 3
Objective function: Min. y(x) = 20x2 80x10
Control variable x range: 0 x 10
Balance equation y = 20x 300
Constrained (No Solution)
1400
1200
1000

Solution not
found!
(Infeasible)

800
600
400
200
0
-200 0

10

15

-400
X

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 8

Power Balance Equation

Pgen Pload Ploss = 0
Qgen Qload Qloss = 0
P=0

and

Q=0

Load Flow Solves

Power Balance Equation Only
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 9

Control Variables

Load Tap Changer (LTC) Settings

Generator AVR Settings
Generator MW Generation
Series or Shunt VAR Compensator Settings
Phase Shift Transformer Tap Positions
Switched Capacitor Settings
Load Shedding
DC Line Flow

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 10

Objective Functions
Minimize Real Power Losses
- To minimize real power losses in the system

Minimize Reactive Power Losses

- To minimize reactive power losses in the system

Minimize Swing Bus Power

- To minimize real power generation at the swing
bus(s)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 11

Objective Functions
Minimize Shunt var Devices
- To minimize var generation from available shunt
var control devices

Minimize Fuel Cost

- To minimize total generation fuel cost

Minimize Series Compensation

- To minimize var generation from available
series var control devices
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 12

Objective Functions
Minimize Load Shedding
- To minimize load to be shed from the available
bus load shed schedule

Minimize Control Movement

- To minimize total number of controls

Minimize Control Adjustment

- To minimize overall adjustment from all controls
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 13

Objective Functions
Maximize Voltage Security Index
AllBuses

Vi Vi ,avg

dVi

Voltage Security Index

2n

Where,
Vi ,avg

Vi ,max

Vi ,min
2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

dVi

Vi ,max

Vi ,min
2

Slide 14

Objective Functions
Maximize Line Flow Security Index
AllBranches

Line Flow Security Index

i

Si
Si

2n

Where, d S i is the line rating

Flat Voltage Profile

- Voltage Magnitude difference between all
buses is minimum

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 15

Other Constraints
Bus Voltage Constraints
Branch Flow Constraints
Interface Flow Constraints

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 16

OPF Study Case Editor

(Objectives)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 17

OPF Study Case Editor

(Controls)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 18

OPF Study Case Editor

(Controls)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 19

OPF Study Case Editor

(Controls)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 20

OPF Study Case Editor

(Controls)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 21

OPF Study Case Editor

(Constraints)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 22

OPF Study Case Editor

(Constraints)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Power Flow

Slide 23

Optimal Capacitor
Placement

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Problem of Var Flow in

Power Systems
Loads and delivery apparatus (e.g., lines
and transformers) are inductive in nature
Most power systems operate at a lagging
power factor
Resulting system capacity reduced, system
loss increased and system voltage
decreased

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 2

Purposes of Shunt
Capacitor Applications
Var support Primary benefit for
transmission systems and secondary benefit
for distribution systems
Voltage control Primary benefit for both
transmission and distribution systems
System capacity increase Secondary
benefit for transmission systems and primary
benefit for distribution systems
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 3

Purposes of Shunt
Capacitor Applications
System power loss reduction Secondary
benefit for transmission systems and primary
benefit for distribution systems
Billing charge reduction Not applied to
transmission systems but a primary benefit
for distribution systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 4

General Process for Placing

Shunt Capacitors
Determine bank size in kvar
Determine connection location

Determine a control method

Determine a connection type (wye or delta)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 5

General Methods for

Capacitor Placement
Rules of Thumb

Power Flow
Based
Optimal

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 6

Optimal Capacitor
Placement in ETAP
Genetic Algorithm - Use Genetic method to
find optimal (sub optimal) solution
Expert System Initialization- Use power
system knowledge to find a good initial
solution

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 7

Genetic Algorithm
An optimization technique based on the
theory of nature selection
An iterative procedure that maintains a
constant-size population of candidate
solutions

Coding, initialization, fitness evaluation,

selection, crossover, mutation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 8

ETAP OCP Capabilities

Find capacitors best location and bank size
Minimize the total cost of installation and operation
Handle radial or meshed balanced networks (PS
5.0)
User selectable capacitor placement purpose

Global or individual constraints

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 9

ETAP OCP Capabilities

Analysis capacitor control method and
review capacitor impact on the system with
load duration setting

Speed and precision ratio control by users

Determine available capacitor installation
locations by users

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 10

ETAP OCP Capabilities

Determine maximum capacitor size using
maximum load and determine switchblade
capacitor size using minimum load
Use average or source energy cost
Focus on saving during the whole planning
period

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 11

Display Results
LF results for maximum loads
New capacitor locations and sizes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 12

Plot Results
Loss reduction savings during the planning
period
Capacitor operation cost during the planning
period
Profit during the planning period

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 13

Report Results
Load Flow related reports

Capacitor locations and sizes

Load flow results for maximum, average and
minimum loads
Branch capacity release

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 14

Example
Run NR Load Flow and look at bus voltages
(critical under voltage is set to 95% and
marginal under voltage is set to 98%)
Switch to OCP mode and look at the study
case settings
Run OCP and look at the voltage
improvements

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Optimal Capacitor Placement

Slide 15

Ground Grid Systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Need for Grounding Grids

Currents flow into the grounding grid from:
Lightning Arrester Operations
Switching Surge Flashover of Insulators

Line-Ground Fault from Connected Bus

Line-Ground Fault from Connected Line

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 2

Objectives
Human and animal safety
Carry and dissipate current into earth under
normal and fault conditions
Grounding for lightning impulses and surges
Low resistance to ground for protective
relays

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 3

Construction

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 4

Common Definitions
Earth Current
Ground Fault Current
Ground Potential Rise

Step Voltage
Touch Voltage

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 5

Step 1 Soil Analysis

Done at a number of places in the substation
Several layers with different resistivity
Lateral surface changes are more gradual
than vertical changes
Wenner Four-Pin Method

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 6

Wenner Four-Pin Method

4 aR
a

2a
a2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

a
4b 2

a2

b2

Slide 7

Step 2 Grid Area

Area should be as large as possible
Increasing area is more effective than
adding additional conductor to reduce grid
resistance
Outer conductor should be placed on the
boundary of substation
Fence should be placed a minimum of 3 feet
inside
Square, rectangular, triangular, T-shaped, or
L-shaped grids
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 8

Step 3 Ground Fault

Currents
L-G fault on substation bus or transmission
line
Interested in maximum amount of fault
current expected to flow into the ground grid
Determine maximum symmetrical rms fault
current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 9

Ground Fault Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 10

Ground Fault Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 11

Ground Fault Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 12

Ground Fault Current

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 13

Symmetrical Grid Current

Ig

S f * (3I o )

Io = Symmetrical rms value of Zero

Sequence fault current in amperes
Transmission Systems Model Maximum Io
for L-G fault for present and ultimate
configuration
Distribution Systems Model future fault
current with suitable growth factor (1.1)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 14

Decrement Factor
Accounts for the asymmetrical fault current

AC component does not decay with time but

remains at its initial value
Calculated from time duration of fault and X
over R ratio
Transmission Systems Use fastest
clearing relay + breaker time
Distribution and Industrial Systems Use
worst case backup clearing time
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 15

Typical Shock Situations

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 16

Design Procedure Summary

Use network of bare conductors buried in the
earth
Encompass all area within the substation
fence and extend at least 3 feet outside
Perform soil resistivity test
Surface material at least 4 inches

Determine fault current using short circuit

Determine maximum clearing time
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 17

Design Procedure Summary

Size conductors

Conductor should be buried a minimum of

18 inches to 59.1 inches
Vertical ground rods should be at least 8 ft.
long
Determine if touch and step voltages are
below tolerable limits
Few iterations may be required to determine
correct grid design
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 18

Ground Rod Length

Three schools of thought
Length of 10ft is adequate
Length of 40ft is required to reach water table

Longest possible rod depth should be used

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 19

IEEE Methods
Empirical method; limited applications

Handles 2 layers plus protective surface

material (1 layer for touch potential)
Rectangular and triangular shapes only, with
vertical and horizontal conductors
One ground grid only
Rods; but arrangements are not flexible

Calculates required parameters

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 20

Finite Element Method

Handles 2 layers plus a protective surface
material
Any shape
Multiple interconnected ground grids
Rod location modeled in detail

Calculates required parameters at all points

Graphic potential profile
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 21

Typical IEEE Grid

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 22

IEEE Grid Description

40 ft. X 40 ft. square grid with 8 conductors
along X-axis and 8 conductors along Y-axis

Depth = 1.5 ft., 4/0 copper-clad steel wire

1 rod in each grid corner, diameter = 0.5 in.,
length = 8 ft. same material as conductor

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 23

FEM Grid Example

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 24

Step Potential Profile

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 25

Touch Potential Profile

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 26

Absolute Potential Profile

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Ground Grid Systems

Slide 27

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop

1996-2009
Notes: Operation
Real-TimeTechnology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time
Maintenance

Operations

Financial

Engineering

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Planning
As a component of the Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) system, ETAP optimizes the exchange of
information between diverse tiers of an organization
while channeling domain sensitive information.
ETAP Real-Time

Market Solutions

Oil & Chemical Refineries

Oil Production Fields
Oil Platforms
Mining
Cement & Paper Facilities
Manufacturing Plants
Generation Plants
Switchgear & Relay Manufacturers
Distribution Systems
Transmission Systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

Real-Time Objectives

Support Normal Operation

Support Transient Conditions
Prevent Downtime
Minimize System Losses
Minimize Energy Costs
Train & Assist Operators
Prevent Outage Due to Operator Error
Safe Operation & Avoid Penalties
Improve Equipment Life Time
Provide Data Accessibility

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

Advantages
One Centralized Solution
Knowledge of System Topology, Ratings, & Limits
Intelligent One-Line Diagram
Powerful Electrical Calculation Engines
Smart Optimization Engines
Enforce Complex Time-Dependent Logic

Capability to Predict System Response

User-Friendly Graphical Interface
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

Architecture Requirements
Seamless Integration

Enterprise-Wide Access

Robust Client/Server

Windows Platform

Multi-Redundant Server Multi-Tiered User

Access Management
OPC Interface

ODBC/SQL Compliant
Fast Data Transfer

Fast Calculation Time

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Scalable Modular
Design
Hardware Independent

ETAP Real-Time

V&V Requirements

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ISO 9001 Certified

ETAP Real-Time

System Architecture

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

System Architecture

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

Multi Server-Client Architect

ETAP Servers

ETAP Consoles

System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

Protocols & Standards

MMS

T103

ModBus

NetDDE

NetBeui

UCA

DNP

IPX/SPX (Netware)

ICCP

TCP/IP

IEC 60870

OPC

IEC 61850
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

Power System Monitoring

& Simulation

Advanced Monitoring
Energy Accounting
Real-Time Simulation
Event Playback
Load Forecasting
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advanced Monitoring
Intelligent Graphical One-Line & User-Interface
Voltage, Current, Power, Energy, Frequency,
Tap Settings, Switching Status, Operating
Modes,
State Estimation & Load Distribution
Operation, Process & Performance Monitoring
Alarm & Notification Management
On-Demand Control
Trending
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advanced Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Monitoring Capabilities
Multi-Console Server/Client Monitoring
Graphical Monitoring via ETAP One-Line Diagram
Visual Monitoring via Watch Windows (MMI)
Archived (Historical) Data Retrieval / Display

Electrical & Non-Electrical Metering Tags

OPC Interface Layer

Multi-Access Levels

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Virtual Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Virtual Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Virtual Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Standard Monitoring Systems

Shortcomings
Display Data on Static Images and Objects
High Costs to Setup & Maintenance MMI
Require Hardware for Every Monitored Point
Modifications Require New Static Images
Does Not Recognize Bad Data
Lack Electrical Intelligence

Primitive Data Reconciliation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advanced Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advanced Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

 1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Real-Time
Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Advanced Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Load
Estimator /
Distributor

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advanced Monitoring
State Estimator
Load Estimator / Distributor
Error Detection

Global (Server) & Local Alarm & Warning

Alarm & Warning Acknowledgement

Equipment Overload Detection

Over-Voltage & Under-Voltage Detection
Graphical Notification via One-Line Diagrams
Pinned Data (Override Monitored Data)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

 1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Real-Time
Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Advanced Monitoring

Flow Rate /
Pressure

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

RPM

Daily Energy
Consumption
(Max/Min)

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Process & Performance

Monitoring

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

GIS System Interface

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Accounting

Energy Tariff Builder

Customizable Reports
Real-Time Energy Cost Tracker
Cost & Consumption Summary

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Accounting

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Accounting

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Real-Time Simulation

Simulate Circuit Breaker Operation

Identify Potential Operating Problems

Simulate Motor Starting & Load Change

Predict Operating Time of Protective Devices

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Real-Time Simulation
Predict System Response Based on
Operator Actions
Perform What If Operating Scenarios

Simulate Real-Time & Archived Data

Operator Assistance & Training

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Real-Time Simulation
Simulation Modules

Load Flow

Sequence-of-Operation

Motor Acceleration

Harmonics

Short-Circuit ANSI/IEC

Transient Stability

Arc Flash

Reliability Assessment

Device Coordination &

Selectivity

More...

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Real-Time Simulation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Real-Time Simulation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

 1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:
Real-Time
1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.
Workshop Notes: Real-Time

 1996-2009
Operation
Technology,
Inc.Real-Time
Workshop Notes: Real-Time
1996-2009 Operation
Technology,
Inc. Workshop
Notes:

Event Playback

Replay Archived Historian Data

Investigate Cause & Effect
Explore Alternative Actions

Replay What If Scenarios

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Event Playback

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Event Playback
Playback Forward
Playback Reverse

Set Speed/Scan Rate

Pause
Step Forward

Step Reverse
Next Event
Previous Event

Scan Forward
Scan Reverse
Display Options

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Event Playback

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Event Playback
Replay Archived Historian Data
Improve Operator Knowledge
Predict System Behavior On-Demand
Investigate Cause & Effect
Explore Alternative Actions

Replay What If Scenarios

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Load Forecasting

Adaptive Bus Load Forecasting

Real-Time Trending
Load Profile Library
Forecasting Scenario Archiving

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Load Forecasting

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Load Forecasting
Predict Loading Up to Seven Days Ahead
Forecast Multiple Load Areas per Individual Meters
User-Adjustable Weather Variables & Load Profiles
Revise Forecasts Based on Loading & Weather
Conditions
Pattern & Load Profile Libraries

Import & Export Historical Forecast Data

Unlimited Forecast Views
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Load Forecasting

Adaptive Forecasting

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Load Forecasting
Trending

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Load Forecasting
Trending
View Up to 20 Trends in One Window
Create & View Unlimited Trend Windows
Auto-Scale Trends & Auto-Center Plots
Movable Cross-Hair for Reading Data Values
Zooming, Scrolling Backward / Forward in Time

Choose Background, Grid, & Plot Styles

Overlap Different Time Frames in a Single View

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Economic Dispatch
Supervisory / Advisory Control
Interchange Scheduling Management
Spin Reserve Management
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Energy Management System

P+jQ

P1+jQ1
Gen1

Load 1
Load 2

P2+jQ2
Gen2

Load 3
P3+jQ3

Gen3

P+jQ

Load 4
Load 5

Pn+jQn

Load 6

Genn

Initial Condition
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Energy Management System

P1+jQ1

P+jQ

Load 1

Gen1

Load 2
Gen2

Load 3
P3+jQ3

Gen3

Load 4

P+jQ

Load 5
Pn+jQn

Load 6

Genn

Optimized Condition
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Energy Management System

Major Capabilities of EMS
Handle Multi-Area Control

Perform Load Frequency Control

Optimize Generation Levels
Coordinate MW & Mvar Generation
Automate System Operation
Meet NERC Performance Standard
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Energy Management System

Saving Objectives
Reduce Demand & Energy Costs
Automatic Interchange Control
Improve System Operation & Stability
Increase Equipment Life Time
Increase System Capacity

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Maintain Frequency at the Scheduled Value

Maintain Net Scheduled Power Interchanges

Operate System with Adequate Security & Economy

Maintain Scheduled Power Exchange

Minimize Operating Costs

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Main Components of AGC
Primary Control
Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load

Secondary Control
Control tie-line flows to meet schedules

Generation Power (MW & Mvar) Sharing

Adjust AVR and Governor Set Points

Identify and Close on Incoming Generator

Identify and Open on Generator Stop Command
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Secondary Control

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Area Control Error (ACE)
Difference between actual flow out of an area and
the scheduled flow, plus a frequency component

ACE = Pinterchange Pscheduled + 10f

Ideally, ACE should be always zero

Because the load is constantly changing,

generation must constantly be changed to chase
the ACE

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Control Flow Chart
AGC?
No

ED?
No

Calculate ACE
{ Fuel Costs,
Flow Constraints,
MW Limits,
}

Do ED
{ New
Base
Generation
Settings }

Do MW
Sharing

{ Scheduled Frequency,
Scheduled Interchange,
Measured Frequency,
Measured Interchange,
}

Calculate
MW Change
Distribute
MW

Do MW
Sharing
{ New Generation Settings }

G1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

G2

Gn

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Control Function Block Diagram

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Primary Generation Control
Freq.

Freq.

Isoch

P = - 1/R f
Droop

F1

P1 = Pload P2

Gen. 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

MW

P2

MW

Gen. 2
Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Freq.

Freq.

Isoch

Droop

F1

P1 = Pload

Gen. 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

MW

P2 = Pload

MW

Gen. 2
Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Freq.

Freq.

Droop

Droop

F1

P1 = Pload

Gen. 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

MW

P2 = Pload

MW

Gen. 2
Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Freq.

Freq.

Droop

Droop

F1
F2

P1 = Pload MW

Gen. 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

P2 = Pload MW

Gen. 2
Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Freq.

Freq.

Droop

Droop

F1
F2

P1 = Pload MW

Gen. 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

P2 = Pload MW

Gen. 2
Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Freq.

Freq.

Isoch

Isoch

F1

P1 = Pload P2

Gen. 1
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

MW

P2

MW

Gen. 2
Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Freq.

Freq.

Isoch

Isoch

F1

EMS Action
P1 = Pload MW

P2 = Pload

Gen. 1

Gen. 2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

MW

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Control Selections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Define Control Areas and Zones

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Automatic Generation Control

Use AGC to Achieve
Minimize Area Control Error (ACE)

Minimize Operating Costs

Maintain Generation at Fixed (Base load) Values
Ramp Generation in a Linear Fashion per
Interchange Schedule

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Economic Dispatch

Minimize Fuel Costs

Optimize Energy Costs

Fast Solution
Robust Algorithms

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Economic Dispatch

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Generating Cost

Generation Dispatch

Energy Management System

Economic Dispatch
Optimization Control
Optimization Objectives
Bus Voltage Constraints

Branch Flow Constraints

Control Movement Constraints
User-Definable Constraints (Macros)

Energy Costs (Generation & Exchange Power)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Economic Dispatch

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Economic Dispatch
Detailed Nonlinear Cost Function Modeling
Considers All Losses (cable, transmission lines,
transformer, etc.)
Maintains Adequate Reserve Margins
Considers Line Constraints

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Economic Dispatch
Generation Constraints to Maintain Adequate
Online Reserves
Transmission Line Congestion Limits to Prevent
Overloads
Incremental Heat Rate Characteristics for Each
Generation Unit
Detailed Nonlinear Cost Function Modeling

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Supervisory Control

Automation
Requirements

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Auto Ctrl

Real-Time
Data

System

System
Topology
Energy Management System

Supervisory Control
System Automation
Supervisory & Advisory Control
Software-Based User-Defined System Logic
Simple or Complex Breaker Interlock Logic
User-Friendly Logic
C# Logic

Active Inhibition Control of Load & Generation

Permissive Control of Load & Generation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Supervisory Control
Operation & Process Control
Evaluate Control System Settings
Reduce Control System Commissioning Time

Design More Efficient & Robust Controls

Operator Training for Emergency Situations

User-Defined Dynamic Models

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Interchange Scheduling

Tariff Analyzer
Rate Structure Builder
Transaction Scheduling

Transaction Contract
Invoicing
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Interchange Scheduling

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Interchange Scheduling
Create Detailed Buy & Sell Transaction
Schedules
Detailed Energy Transaction Reports for
User-Defined Period of Time
Evaluate Energy Cost for Multiple Transactions
per Location (Regions, Areas, Zones)
Transaction Management Tools
Energy Cost Analysis & Reporting
Graphical & Tabular Transaction & Cost Views
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Reserve Management
Operating Reserve Analysis
Spinning Reserve

Non-Spinning Reserve
Fuel Pressure

Reserve Capacity Monitoring

Notification of Inadequate Reserve
Predict Operating Reserve
Unit Commitment Based on Load Forecast Data
Determines Startup and Shutdown Times

Consider Economical & Security Operation Considerations

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Reserve Management

Monitor & Manage Power Reserves & Maintain Reliability

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Reserve Management
Identify System-Wide Reserve Capacity
Requirements
Monitor & Maintain Regulating, Contingency,
Interruptible Imports, & On-Demand Reserves
Easily Replace Generating Capacity & Energy
Lost Due to Forced Outages
Compensate for Curtailment of Interruptible
Imports from Other Areas
Ensure Reliable System Operation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Energy Management System

Intelligent Load Shedding

Load Preservation

Load Restoration
Load Shedding Validation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Objectives

Operation Dependent
Fast Response
Optimal Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Why Load Shed
Partial loss of energy source due to a disturbance
(Generators and/or Utility Connections)

Optimal Load Shedding

Best combination (also minimum) load that must be

removed to keep the system operational

Load Shedding Protection is Essential

Critical loads with limited power supply
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Improper Load Shedding
Shed Too Much Load
Loss of Critical Process

Total Loss of Production

Safety & Environmental Concerns
$$$

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Conventional Methods
A. Breaker Interlock Scheme
B. Under-Frequency Relay (81)
C. PLC-Based Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Load Preservation
Optimal Load Preservation
Fast Response Time
Reliable Operation

Minimum Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Fault
Detection
(50)

CB
Trip

Trigger
Signal
to CB

Fault
Clearing

Local
PLC

10

10

Trigger
Received
by PLC

Remote
PLCs

Time
ms

60

20

70

PLC
Output
Triggers

Load
CB
Open
60

Time
ms

70

120

PLC
Output
Triggers

Load
CB
Open

20
Trigger
Received
by PLCs

Time
ms

Fast Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Fault
Detection
(50)

CB
Trip

Trigger
Signal
to CB

Fault
Clearing

Local
PLC

0.5

0.5

Trigger
Received
by PLC

Remote
PLCs

Time
Cy

3.5

PLC
Output
Triggers

Load
CB
Open
3.5

Time
Cy

PLC
Output
Triggers

Load
CB
Open

1
Trigger
Received
by PLCs

Time
Cy

Fast Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Fault
Detection
(50)

CB
Trip

Trigger
Signal
to CB

Fault
Clearing

Local
PLC

Trigger
Received
by PLC

Remote
PLCs

Time
ms

56

11

61

PLC
Output
Triggers

Load
CB
Open
26

Time
ms

31

81

PLC
Output
Triggers

Load
CB
Open

11
Trigger
Received
by PLCs

Time
ms

Actual Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS vs. Frequency Relay LS

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS vs. Frequency Relay LS

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS vs. PLC Based LS

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Load Restoration
Restart Inhibition
Logical Load Sequencer
Load Restoration Priority

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Load Restoration

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Monitor & Compare the Following Parameters:
System Frequency
Available Spinning Reserve
Starting & Operating Voltages
User-Defined Logic
Alternate Source Detection
System Configuration Status

Interlock & Switching Sequence Logics

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Confirm Load Shedding Actions
Simulate ILS Recommendations
Integrated Stability Knowledge Base

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Conditions & Triggers Can Be Simulated:
Loss of Generation
Under-Frequency
Mechanical Failures

Steam Pressure Decay

Other Conditions Leading to Load Shed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Breaker Interlock Scheme

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Shed load larger

than maximum
import power

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Breaker Interlock Scheme
Advantages
Fast action
Simple to implement

Limitations
Fixed load priority

Only one stage of load shedding

Usually more loads are shed than needed
Modifications are costly and impractical
Can result in complete system shutdown
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Under-Frequency Relay (81)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Shed fixed load

based on 81 relay
settings

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Under-Frequency Relay (81)

Stage
1
2
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Frequency Delay
Hz
Sec.
58.5
0.25
57.5
2.00

MW
Shed
10
30
Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Under-Frequency Relay (81)

Features
Detects after effects of disturbances

Detects frequency & rate of change

Can have multiple stage settings
Settings are based on analysis

Fixed settings (10% of load for .5 Hz drop)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Under-Frequency Relay (81)

Limitations
Slow response time

Lack of knowledge about system loading

Lack of knowledge about the disturbance
Lack of knowledge about spin reserve

Analysis knowledge is always lost

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

PLC-Based Load Shedding

Shed load based on the PLC tables

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

PLC-Based Load Shedding

Advantages
Access to system loading

Access to system generation

Access to CB operating status
Knowledge about spin reserve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

PLC-Based Load Shedding
Limitations
Lack of system topology / connectivity / islanding
Lack of system islanding conditions

Load priority is predefined and fixed

Slow response - initiation from frequency relays
Drop load based on the frequency relay settings
Fixed logic calculations are preformed at PLC
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Needs for Fast Response
Load 1
P+jQ

Gen

Load 2

Load 3

Normal Operation 0 Spin Reserve

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Needs for Fast Response
Load 1
j QG

j QL
Load 2

Gen
P=0

Load 3

3-Phase Fault for 5 Cycles

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Needs for Fast Response
Load 1
P + j Q
Load 2

Gen

P > P
Q >> Q

Load 3

Power Inrush after Fault Clearance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Needs for Fast Response
Load 1
P+jQ

Load 2

Gen

Load 3

Slow Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Needs for Fast Response
Load 1
P+jQ

Load 2

Gen

Load 3

Fast Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Needs for Optimal Solution
Requires Intelligence to Recognize
System Topology
Configuration
Operating Status
Generation Level
Power Exchange
Operating Load
Spin Reserve
Disturbance Type & Location
Transient Response to Disturbances
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

P+jQ

P1 + jQ1

Load 1
P2 + jQ2

Gen1

Load 2
P3 + jQ3

Load 3
P4 + jQ4

P + j Q
Gen2

Load 4

P5 + jQ5

Load 5
P6 + jQ6

Load 6
Study Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

P+jQ

P1 + jQ1

Load 1
P2 + jQ2

Gen1

Load 2
P3 + jQ3

Load 3
P4 + jQ4

P + j Q
Gen2

Load 4

P5 + jQ5

Load 5
P6 + jQ6

Load 6
Study Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

p+jq

P1 + jQ1

Load 1

Gen1

Load 2
P3 + jQ3

Load 3
p + j q
Gen2

Load 4
P5 + jQ5

Load 5
Load 6
Study Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

p+jq

P1 + jQ1

Load 1

Gen1

Load 2
P3 + jQ3

Load 3
p + j q
Gen2

Load 4
P5 + jQ5

Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

p+jq

P1 + jQ1

Load 1

Gen1

Load 2
P3 + jQ3

Load 3
p + j q
Gen2

Load 4
P5 + jQ5

Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

p+jq

P1 + jQ1

Load 1

Gen1

Load 2
P3 + jQ3

Load 3
p + j q
Gen2

Load 4
P5 + jQ5

Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Load 1
Gen1

Load 2
Load 3
p + j q

Gen2

Load 4
P5 + jQ5

Load 5
Load 6
Actual Condition

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Objective
Shed Minimum Load

Dependencies

Disturbance Type & Location

Generation Level
Spin Reserve
System Configuration
System Loading
Load Distribution
Operation Constraints
Individual Circuit Breaker Loading

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

How to Achieve Objectives
Fast Load Shedding (less than 100ms)

Optimal Combinations of Loads (CBs)

Neural Network + Direct Logic
Knowledge Base
Direct User-Definable Logic
Multiple Subsystems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Knowledge Base
Hundreds of TS Studies Stored
System Knowledge is Never Lost

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Key Features
User-Defined Load Priority
User-Defined Load Groups
Unlimited Load Shedding Schedules

Operator Friendly Interface

On-Line Testing to Validate ILS Actions

User-Defined Trigger Inhibition

Operator Alerts
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Operator Friendly Interface

Operator Display
Load MW

Loads to Shed
Spinning Reserve

Required Load to Shed

Active Triggers

Unlimited Load Shedding Schedules

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Optimal CB Combination

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Optimal CB Combination

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Load Shed Verification

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Load Shed Verification

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Load Shed Verification

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Configuration

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Normal Operation

ILS Server

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

PLC Based Backup Operation
System Data

X
Frequency Relay

ILS Server
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Response
Response to Mechanical & Electrical Disturbances
Generator Breaker Trip
Utility Main Breaker Trip
Fuel Availability
Process Alarms
Faults in the System
Spinning Reserve Availability
User-Customizable Triggers
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Project One-Line

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Project - Communication

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Substation

Substation Automation
Switching Management
Load Management
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Substation Automation
Flexible Automation
Programmable Logic Editor

Online Control

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Benefits of iSub
Minimize Outages
Reduces Operating & Maintenance Costs

Enhance Information Management

Improve Productivity

Improve Asset Management

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Automatic Supervision of Interlocks
Graphical Presentations of Safety Procedures
Local & Global Alarm & Warnings
Detect Fault Location - Distribution Systems
Equipment Diagnostics
Intelligent Interlocking System

Diagnostics of Disturbances
Automation with Supervisory & Advisory Control

Substation Control via Operator

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Enforce Complex Logic for Device Protection &
Coordination
Programmable Logic Editor with Online Compiling
& Execution
Automatic Generation of Switching Sequences
Enterprise-Wide View of System
Automated Retrieval of All Data from the Substation

Security Control with Multiple Access Levels

Supporting Third Party SCADA Technology
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Automation Applications
Automatic Voltage
Control

Capacitor Control
Algorithm

Synchronism
Tap Position Monitoring

Substation Maintenance
Mode

Load & Bus Transfer

Fault Detection

Load Curtailment

Sequence of Event
Recorder

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Predictive Maintenance Through Analysis of
Operating Conditions
Sophisticated Built-In Control & Protection
Algorithms

Enables Integration of Protective Systems

Provides Remote Data Retrieval & Setting
Capability
Common Database
Web-Enabled Design
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Arc Flash Analysis

in Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Arc Flash Analysis

in Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Switching Management
Switching Sequence Management

Safety & Security Procedures

Interlock Logic Evaluator
Switching Plan Validation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
User-Friendly Switching Plan Builder

Point & Click Selection of Switching Device from

the One-Line Diagrams
Graphical Display of Selected Switching Devices
Multi-Level Switching Request Approval

Assignment of User-Definable & Interlock Logic

per Each Switching Device

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Checking of Select Switching Plans Against
Forbidden or Potentially Hazardous Actions
Unlimited Switching Plans Each with an Unlimited
Number of Switching Actions
Switching Order Reports Include Switching Mode,
Start / Stop Time, & Nature of Work
Simulate & Evaluate Switching Plans in All States
Prior to Execution

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
System Switching
Required for Scheduled Outage & Restoration
Required for Feeder Balancing & Load Transfer

Critical Steps in System Operations

Switching Errors Resulting in Serious
Consequences
Management Tool Needed to Reduce Cost for
Preparing Sequence

Management Tool Needed to Predict Results of

Executing a Sequence
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
ETAP SSM Features
An Integral Tool to PSMS
Specify Sequence from User-Friendly Spreadsheet

Specify Sequence from OLV Operations

Build in Interlock Logic for Switching Devices
Use-Defined System Logic for Au-to Switching
Based on System Operating Conditions
Auto & Step Simulation to Test A Sequence &
Predict Result Real Time System Data
On-Line Execution of Switching Sequences
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Switching Sequence Editor
Spreadsheet Editor to
Create & Modify Sequence.
Action on Switching Devices
and System Logic &
Procedures.
Actions Sorted Automatically by Groups
and Delay Time.
Editing Functions for Rearranging and
Modifying Sequences.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Create Sequence from OLV

Sequence Builder to Create Sequence

Graphically from OLV.
Add & Rearrange Actions by Mouse Click.
Rearrange Sequence from OLV or Editor.
OLV Shows System Configuration Changes as
Sequence Being Modified.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Build in Device Interlock
Embed System Control Logic
and System Procedure in a
Sequence
Use System Procedure for
Non-Switching Actions
(Checking, Lock, & Logging)

Use Control Logic to

Implement Automatic Switching based on System
Operating Conditions
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Build in Device Interlock
Complicated Interlock Logic
Specified in Switching Device
Pre-Condition Logic based on
Status of Other Devices and
System Operating Conditions
Post-Action Logic to Chain Switching Actions
Pre-Condition Logic and Post-Action Logic
Specified Separately for Open & Closing Actions
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Switching Sequence Simulation
Step & Auto
Execution of
Sequence

Logic Alert and

Operating Alert
Execute Actions form System Control Logic
Execute Actions from Interlock Post-Actions
Predict Effect of Each Switching Action
OLV Display of System Configuration & Operating
Conditions.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
On-Line Sequence Execution

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
380 kV Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
230 kV Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
69 kV Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Double-End Substation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Load Management
Demand-Side Management

Time-of-Use Load Shifting

Intelligent Load Management

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Intelligent Load Management
Reduce Energy Costs
Reduce Peak MWh Costs
Reduce Mvar & Power Factor Penalties
Improve System Operation & Stability

Increase Equipment Life

Increase System Capacity

Shared Decision Making Process

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Demand-Side Management
Load 7
Load 6 Load 6

MW

Load 5 Load 5 Load 5 Load 7

Load 4 Load 4 Load 4 Load 4 Load 4

Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3 Load 3

Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2

Load 1 Load 1 Load 1 Load 1 Load 1 Load 1 Load 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Time

Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Demand-Side Management
Shed 1

MW

Hold 1 Hold 1,6

Block 6 Shed 3

Hold 1
Start 3

Start 1

Load 6 Load 6

Load 4 Load 5 Load 5 Load 7 Load 7

Load 3 Load 3 Load 4 Load 4 Load 5 Load 4 Load 3

Load 2 Load 2 Load 3 Load 3 Load 4 Load 3 Load 2

Load 1 Load 1 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 1
Time

Load 1 Load 1 Load 3 Load 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Load 1
Intelligent Substation

Intelligent Substation
Demand-Side Management
Shift 6

Shed 1

Hold 1 Hold 1,6

Block 6 Shed 3

Hold 1
Start 3

Start 1
Shift 6

MW

Load 6 Load 4 Load 5 Load 5 Load 7 Load 7 Load 6

Load 3 Load 3 Load 4 Load 4 Load 5 Load 4 Load 3

Load 2 Load 2 Load 3 Load 3 Load 4 Load 3 Load 2
Load 1 Load 1 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 2 Load 1
Time

Load 1 Load 1 Load 3 Load 1

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

Load 1
Intelligent Substation

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

 1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time

ETAP Real-Time
Operation
Maintenance
Planning

Operation Technology, Inc.

Irvine, California

ETAP Real-Time
Monitor
Simulate
Operate

Analyze
Predict

Optimize
Manage

Control
ETAP Real -Time

ETAP Real-Time
Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Management System

Intelligent Load Shedding

ETAP Real -Time

ETAP Real-Time
Maintenance

Operations

Financial

Engineering
Planning
As a component of the Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP) system, ETAP optimizes the exchange of
information between diverse tiers of an organization
while channeling domain sensitive information.

Market Solutions

Oil Refineries
Oil Platforms
Oil Production Fields
Chemical Plants
Mining
Manufacturing Plants
Health Care Facilities
Generation Plants
Data Centers
Switchgear & Relay Manufacturers
ETAP Real -Time

Objectives
Optimize Operation
Optimal Load Shedding
Prevent Downtime
Minimize System Losses
Minimize Energy Costs
Predict System Response
Train & Assist Operators
Prevent Outage Due to Operator Error
Safe Operation & Avoid Penalties
Improve Equipment Life Time
Provide Data Accessibility
ETAP Real -Time

ETAP Real-Time Users

COCO

ETAP Real -Time

OTI Test Lab

ETAP Real -Time

System Architecture

ETAP Real -Time

Bring Your ETAP To Life

ETAP Real -Time

Client Server Architect

Windows 2000 / XP, Multitasking

ETAP Real -Time

Protocols & Standards

MMS

T103

ModBus

NetDDE

NetBeui

UCA

DNP

IPX/SPX (Netware)

ICCP

TCP/IP

IEC870

OPC

ETAP Real -Time

ETAP Real -Time

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Virtual Monitoring
Advanced Monitoring
Real-Time Simulation
Online Control
Event Playback
Trending
Alarm & Warning
Energy Cost Analysis
Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Monitoring Capabilities
Multi-Console Server/Client Monitoring
Graphical Monitoring via ETAP One-Line Diagram
Visual Monitoring via Watch Windows (MMI)
Archived (Historical) Data Retrieval / Display
Electrical & Non-Electrical Metering Tags
OPC Interface Layer
Multi-Access Levels

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advantages of ETAP
Intelligence
Simple to Modify the System
Option to Override Monitored Data
Online Switching & Breaker Operation
Visual Monitoring (MMI) by Watch Windows

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Advanced Monitoring

State Estimator
Load Estimator / Distributor
Error Detection
Global (Server) & Local Alarm & Warning
Alarm & Warning Acknowledgement
Equipment Overload Detection
Over-Voltage & Under-Voltage Detection
Graphical Notification via One-Line Diagrams
Pinned Data (Override Monitored Data)
Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Real-Time Simulation
Predict System Behavior to Operator Actions
Open/Close Circuit Breakers
Reject Generators
Load Impact & Ramping
Accelerate Motors
Protective Device Sequence-of-Operation

Conduct Engineering Analysis

Using Actual Operating Loading, Generation, &
Configuration
Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Event Playback
Replay Archived Historian Data
Improve Operator Knowledge
Predict System Behavior On-Demand
Investigate Cause & Effect
Explore Alternative Actions
Replay What If Scenarios

Power System Monitoring & Simulation

Energy Management System

Intelligent Energy Management
Demand-Site Management
Automatic Generation Control
System Optimization & Automation

Energy Management System

Energy Management System

Real-Time Data

Optimization
Requirements

EMS

System
Control

System Topology
Energy Management System

Energy Management System

Auto Control Overload, OverVoltage & UnderVoltage
Auto Control Generation, LTC, Shunt Capacitor,
Generation MW & Mvar Averaging with $ Constraints
Minimize System Losses
Peak Shaving
Minimize Mvar & Power Factor Penalties
Active Inhibition & Permissive Control of Load & Generation
Optimize Spin Reserve
Maximize Voltage Security Index

Energy Management System

Energy Management System

Optimization Control
Optimization Objectives
Bus Voltage Constraints
Branch Flow Constraints
Control Movement Constraints
User-Definable Constraints (Macros)
Energy Costs (Generation & Exchange Power)
Energy Management System

Energy Management System

Savings
Reduce Energy Costs
Reduce Peak MWh Costs
Reduce Mvar / Power Factor Penalties
Improve System Operation & Stability
Increase Equipment Life Time
Increase System Capacity

Energy Management System

Intelligent Load Shedding

Fast Load Shedding Action
Optimal Circuit Breaker Combinations

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Why Load Shed
Total or Partial Loss of Energy Source
(Generators and/or Utility Connections)
Electrical Disturbances

Consequences of Improper Load Shed

Shed Too Much Load (Loss of Critical Process)
Total Loss of Production
Safety & Environmental Concerns
$$$
Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Objective
Shed Minimum Load
Dependencies

Disturbance Type & Location

Generation Level
Spin Reserve
System Configuration
System Loading
Load Distribution
Operation Constraints
Individual Circuit Breaker Loading
Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

How to Achieve Objectives
Fast Load Shedding (less than 100ms)
Optimal Combinations of Loads (CBs)
Neural Network + Direct Logic
Knowledge Base
Direct User-Definable Logic
Multiple Subsystems
Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Knowledge Base

Hundreds of TS Studies Stored
System Knowledge is Never Lost

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS vs. Frequency Relay LS

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS vs. Frequency Relay LS

Intelligent Load Shedding

Intelligent Load Shedding

Key Features

User-Defined Load Priority

User-Defined Load Groups
Unlimited Load Shedding Schedules
Operator Friendly Interface
On-Line Testing to Validate ILS Actions
User-Defined Trigger Inhibition
Operator Alerts
Intelligent Load Shedding

Optimal CB Combination

Load
MW

Shed
Load

Req. to
Shed

16.00
ILS Group1

7.22
2.00
4.57

ILS Group2

3.25

PLC Based

7.22
2.00
4.57
8.23

17.04

-1.04

22.02

-6.02

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Operator Friendly Interface

Operator Display
Load MW
Loads to Shed
Spinning Reserve
Required Load to Shed
Active Triggers

Unlimited Load Shedding Schedules

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Load Shed Verification

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Configuration

Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Normal Operation

ILS Server

Intelligent Load Shedding

PLC Based Backup Operation

System Data

X
Frequency Relay

ILS Server
Intelligent Load Shedding

ILS Response
Response to Mechanical & Electrical Disturbances
Generator Breaker Trip
Utility Main Breaker Trip
Fuel Availability
Process Alarms
Faults in the System
Spinning Reserve Availability
User-Customizable Triggers
Intelligent Load Shedding

ETAP Real-Time Users

COCO

ETAP Real -Time

Data Exchange

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

ETAP Data Exchange

Easy Setup
Intelligent Mapping
Expert Support

International Standards
Flexible Operation
User Friendly

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 2

ETAP Data Exchange

Key Features
Import/Export Data
Data Synchronization
Automatic Diagram Generator

Intelligent Error Checking

GIS Map Interface
Real-Time Data Exchange
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 3

ETAP Data Exchange

Interface Phase 1
Data Import
Message Log

Elements
&
External Project
Connections

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

ETAP Database
Conversion

Exceptions

XML
ETAP
PowerStation
Project File

Slide 4

ETAP Data Exchange

Interface Phase 2
One-Way Synchronization
Message Log
Elements &
Connections

Exceptions

XML
Data
Mapping

External Project

ETAP Data
Exchange

ETAP

Add, Modify, &

Delete Actions
User
Confirmation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Existing Data

Slide 5

ETAP Data Exchange

Interface Phase 3
Two-Way Synchronization
Message Log
Elements &
Connections

Data
Mapping

External Project

ETAP Data
Exchange

Exceptions

XML
ETAP

Add, Modify, &

Delete Actions
Existing Data
User
Confirmation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 6

ETAP Data Exchange

Database Mapping
Equipment

Equipment
Attributes

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

ETAP
Element

ETAP
Element
Properties

Slide 7

GIS Key Features

Map GIS Equipment to ETAP
Integration with ETAP Projects
Use ETAP Analysis Tools
Display Analysis Results on GIS Maps
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 8

GIS Capabilities
Database mapping via a graphic user
interface
Display unlimited GIS presentations
Perform add, modify, or delete actions

View modifications and accept/reject action

via graphical user interface
Use map tools (zoom, pan, )
Full control of analysis results displayed on
the GIS map
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 9

GIS Data Exchange

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 10

GIS Data Exchange

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 11

GIS Data Exchange

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 12

ETAP GIS Benefits

Reduce cost by significantly reducing hours
needed to perform system studies
Avoid duplicate/incorrect data entry

Direct communication with ESRI

Geodatabase and map documents

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 13

ETAP GIS Benefits

Enter data in GIS and/or ETAP

Flexibility to use all ETAP modules for

analysis
Multi-level graphical display of GIS and
ETAP data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Data Exchange

Slide 14

DC Load Flow
DC Short-Circuit

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Why DC System Studies?

DC systems play an ever increasing role in:
Substation and generating station instrumentation
and control systems (IEEE Std 946)
Class 1E power system for nuclear power
generation station providing power to reactor trip
system and engineered safety features
(IEEE Std 308)
Provide back-up energy for emergencies in
hospital, generation station, production line, data
processing and communication, etc.
(IEEE Std 446 Orange Book)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 2

Why DC System Studies?

Due to the importance of DC systems,
it must be:
Reliable Having redundant sources and
can operate under single failure in the
system

Adequate Capable of providing sufficient

power at required system voltage in
specified time duration
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 3

Type of Studies
Load Flow Determine system operating
conditions and verify equipment continuous ratings
Short-Circuit Calculation Determine system SC
current and verify equipment SC capability
Battery Sizing and Discharge Calculation (IEEE
Std 485) Determine sufficient battery size to
provide required power in specified time duration

Control System Diagram, Vd Calc Determine

and verify sufficient voltage for control circuit
operation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 4

DC System Elements
DC System Source
Charger/Converter and Battery

DC System Loads
Static Load, DC Motor, Lump Load , and DC Elementary
Diagram

DC System Branch
Cable and Impedance

DC System Other Elements

Bus and Node, DC Converter, DC Composite Motor, and
Inverter
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 5

Purpose of DC LF Study
To determine system operating conditions -bus voltages, branch flows, and power
provided by various sources
To verify equipment continuous ratings

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 6

LF -- Battery Model
Constant voltage source behind battery
resistance .
Active voltage source if Vbus < Vrate

Inactive voltage source if Vbus > Vrate

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 7

LF -- Charger Model
Constant voltage source, if I < Imax
Constant current source, if I > Imax,
injecting Imax into system
Inactive if Vout < Vbus
Constant power load to AC system

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 8

LF -- Inverter Model
Constant voltage source to AC system
Constant power load to DC system

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 9

LF -- UPS Model
If auction diode option is checked, then DC
system provides power to UPS AC load if
Vdc > Vac.
If auction diode option is not checked
and UPS AC input bus is energized, then UPS
becomes a source to DC system, similar to a
charger.
and UPS AC input bus is not energized, then DC
system provides power to UPS AC load.

Constant power load to DC system

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 10

LF -- DC Converter Model
Constant voltage source to output bus, if
I<Imax
Constant current source to output bus, if
I>Imax, injecting Imax into the bus
Constant current load to the input bus

Inactive if Vout < Vbus

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 11

LF -- Load Model
Motor
Constant P load, if Vmin <V<Vmax;

Constant Z load, otherwise

Static Load
Constant resistance load

Lumped Load
Constant power, resistance, current load

Elementary Diagram Load

Constant resistance load
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 12

Constant Power Loads

DC Motor
DC Lumped Load (motor
load part)
Inverter
UPS

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 13

Constant Impedance Loads

Static Load
DC Elementary
Diagram Editor
DC Lumped Load
(static load part)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 14

Constant Current Loads

The current remains constant even if
the voltage changes.
DC Constant current loads are used
to test Battery discharge capacity.
DC Lump load can be used to
represent constant current load.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 15

LF -- Branch Model
Cable
Constant resistance at maximum operating
temperature

Impedance
Constant resistance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 16

LF- Adjustments
Cable Length Tolerance
Positive adjustment for DCLF & DCBS

Negative adjustment for DCSC

Cable Resistance based on Temperature

Copper / Aluminum
Use Maximum Temperature for DCLF & DCBS

Use Minimum Temperature for DCSC

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 17

Purpose of DC SC Study
To determine short-circuit fault currents and
fault contributions from different sources.
Maximum fault current
System equivalent impedance at fault location

Time constant for SC current rise

To verify protective equipment capability.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 18

SC -- Battery Model
Constant voltage source -- (Voc) behind
battery resistance
Voc may be calculated based on battery specific
gravity (SG)
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) from library
User-Defined value (% Vpc)

Constant current source

Ksc * One_Min_Discharge_Current
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 19

SC -- Charger Model
Constant voltage source behind AC system
impedance (converted to DC side)
Constant current source, Ksc * Ifl

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 20

SC -- UPS & Inverter Model

UPS -- Constant current source
Ksc * Ifl

Inverter -- Not considered in DC short-circuit

study

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 21

SC -- DC Converter Model
Constant current source, Ksc * Ifl, to faults
on output side of the system
Short-circuit contribution calculation stops at
DC converters

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 22

SC -- Load Model
Motor constant voltage behind transient
impedance
Static load and ED load are considered in
calculation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 23

SC -- Branch Model
Cable
Constant resistance at minimum operating
temperature

Impedance
Constant resistance

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: DC Load Flow/DC Short-Circuit

Slide 24

Battery Sizing &

Discharge

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

When does a battery kick in?

Load in DC System exceeds the battery
charger capacity
Output of the battery charger is interrupted

AC Power is lost [generally the worst case

scenario]

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 2

IEEE 485- Definitions

Battery Duty Cycle
The load that the battery is expected to supply for a
specified period of time (sum of all individual loads)

Cell Size
Rated capacity of a lead acid battery or number of
positive plates in a cell

Period
Time interval for which the load is assumed to be
constant

Vpc
Volts per cell (individual cell voltage)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 3

Types of Loads
Constant Power
As battery voltage decreases, their current increases.

Constant Resistance
As battery voltage decreases, their current also
decreases.

Constant Current
Load current is invariant to battery voltage changes.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 4

Duty Cycle Classification

Continuous Load (Non-Random)
Non-random loads
Normally carried by the battery charger
Includes lighting, converters, indicating lights,
communications systems, continuously operating motors

Non-Continuous Load (Random or Non-Random)

Emergency pumps

MOV operations
Critical ventilation system motors
Fire protection systems actuators
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 5

Duty Cycle Classification

Momentary Loads (Random or Non-Random)
Loads with duration that do not exceed more than
one minute
MOV with stroke of less than a minute
Field flashing of generators
Motor starting currents
Inrush currents (solenoids, relay coils, etc)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 6

Individual Load Duty Cycles

Static Loads
Motor loads
DC Lump Loads
Elementary Elementary Diagram

DC to AC Inverters

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 7

Guidelines for Battery Duty

Cycles
All duty cycle periods (constant load) must
be higher or equal to one minute

First identify the non-random load battery

duty cycle
Find worst case scenario
Include the random load duty cycle
Final battery duty cycle becomes a
conservative combination of the two
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 8

Duty Cycle Example A

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 9

Duty Cycle Example B

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 10

Battery Modeling
Battery voltage based on manufacturer
battery discharge characteristic curves
Enter battery characteristic curves in battery
library
Interpolation / extrapolation is performed to
obtain battery size and discharge voltage
profile
Different interpolation methods to obtain Vpc
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 11

Characteristic Curves
Battery Characteristic Curves
1.5

1000.00

1.6
Time (min.)

1.67
1.75

100.00

1.78
1.81
10.00

1.84
1.88
1.92

1.00
10.00

100.00

1000.00

1.96

Amps per Positive Plate

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 12

Interpolation Methods

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 13

Battery Sizing Study Case

Load Summation
Adds all the load duty cycles
Generally more conservative for systems with more
constant resistance loads

Load Flow Method

Adds all the load duty cycles, but performs a load flow
calculation at every time step to account for system
losses (more realistic results)
Generally more conservative for systems with more
constant power loads
Load model type based on load type or duty cycle type
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 14

 Load Duty Cycles

5 different system duty cycles

Correction factors
Battery minimum temperature
Aging compensation

Initial capacity
Design margin

Voltage Requirements
Maximum system voltage deviation (charging voltage)
Minimum system voltage deviation (depends on final
Vpc)
Battery minimum discharge voltage (final Vpc)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 15

Battery Discharge Page

Vd Calculation Parameters
Time step and maximum voltage limit

Correction Factors
Same as battery sizing (no design margin)

Load Flow Parameters

Iterations
Precision
Initial conditions and motor load handling
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 16

Duty Cycle Span Options

Options
Two Existing Options Moved from Ini File to Study Case
New Option Added One-minute Span for Battery only

One-minute Span for Battery only

Calculating Battery Discharging Current Use One-Minute
Spanned Duty Cycle To Get Conservative Battery Voltage
Calculating System Voltage Use Battery Voltage Calculated
above to Run Load Flow with User Specified Duty Cycle for
Individual Loads To Get More Accurate System Voltage
Profile

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 17

Displayed Results
Tabulated results for battery voltage, bus
voltage and power flows through the entire
system
One-line diagram displayed results (similar
to DC load flow)
Complete set of plots that include battery
voltage, current, discharged AH and system
flows

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 18

Things to Consider
Obtain as many battery characteristic curves
as possible
Obtain specific curves for battery model and
type
Understand limitations of interpolation
methods
Use most conservative approach for your
system (load flow method or load
summation)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Battery Sizing & Discharge

Slide 19

Control System Diagram

(CSD)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Control System Elements

Switchgear Protection and Control Circuit
Circuit breaker trip and closing coils

Circuit breaker closing spring charging motors

Relays coils and timer

Motor Starter, Speed Control, and Protection

Starter coil circuit

Control relays
Can be either AC or DC control circuit
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 2

Control System Elements

Miscellaneous DC Loads
Relays

Solenoids

Other Purpose
Auxiliary devices and special control circuits
Regulator and regulating systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 3

CSD Modes
Edit Mode
Add/Delete Elements
Change Connections
Modify Engineering Data

Simulation Mode
Run Simulations Simulation Triggered by Manual Action or
Clicking the Run Button
Update Source Duty Cycle
Generate Event View, Alert View, and Report

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 4

CSD Setup
CSD Elements
Device Coil, Solenoid, General Load and Light
Contact Fixed and Form-C; Macro-Controlled Contact
Branch Wire and Impedance
Bus and Node
PD CB and Fuse

CSD Source
Elementary Diagram (ED) brought in from DC System
Each ED can be placed in only one CSD

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 5

Control Cable Schedule

Control Cable Schedule
Cable Used only in Control System Diagram
Can Have Multiple Wires for Different Wires in CSD
Assigned, Reserved, and Available Wire
Parameter Entered from Editor or Retrieved from Library
Parameter Change Affects All Wires

Wire Impedance Value

Editor Entered Data
Cable Library Data Data Cashed in at Selection Time
Control Cable Schedule Data Dynamically Retrieved from
Cable Schedule
Dynamically Linked to Library Dynamically Retrieving Data
from Library at Calculation Time

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 6

Solenoids & Relays

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 7

Device Property
Device Rating
Burden Rating and Inrush Rating
Burden Rating Can be Constant P, Z, or I
Inrush Rating Always Modeled as Constant Z
Inrush Duration length of Time Applying Inrush Rating
Vpickup & Vdropout Editor and Study Case Options

Device Duty Cycle

Model Device as a Time Varying Load
Each Section Can be Constant P, Z, or I Model Motor in CSD

Device Model Type

Option in Study Case
If Duty Cycle Is Used, a Device Draws Current When It is
Energized and Amp > 0 by Duty Cycle

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 8

Control Logic
Control Logic Setup
A Coil/Solenoid Can Control State of Multiple Contacts
Library Contact, Library Overwrite Contact & User Defined Contact
Macro Controlled Contact Time Varying Switch

Contact Property
Data Hold by Controlling Device
Top Time Taken for Contact Switching to Off-Normal State
when V >= Vpickup is maintained for controlling device.
Trelease Time Taken for Contact Retuning to Normal State
when V <= Vdeopout is maintanined for controlling device.
Each contact has its own Top and Trelealse

Special Conditions
If Duty Cycle Model Used for a Device, Control Logical Does
Not Apply.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 9

CSD Simulation
Initial Steady State
Switching Device in Specified State, Macro-Controlled Contact
in Initial State, and Contact In Normal State
CSD Find Initial Steady state
V Limit Not Checked When Switching Mode
V Limit Checked When Clicking Run Button

Simulations
CSD Behaves as A Simulator
One Action Triggering Simulation From Current Steady State
to Next Steady State
When Run Button Clicked, Simulation Starts from the Initial
Steady State and Then Simulate Duty Cycle Actions

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 10

Simulation Method
Two Methods by CSD
Sequence of Operation Simulation
Sequence Simulation with Vd Calculation
Features

Seq Vd
Op

Logical Simulation

Device Model Options

Voltage Drop Calculation and Reporting

CSD Source Voltage

Vpickup & Vdropout Checking & Reporting

Composite CSD Duty Cycle Updating

As Part of Battery Discharge Calculation

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 11

Study Case Options

Device Model
Global Options Rating or Duty Cycle
Individual Editor Options

Device Voltage Limit

For Vpickup and Vdropout
Global Option Provided due to Lack of Data from Manufacturers

CSD Source Voltage Options

ED Rated V, Terminal Bus V, Battery Discharge V

Alert
Voltage Alert Base Defined in Voltage Limit Section
Current Alert for Device, Contact, and Wire

Adjustment
R Adjustment for Contact and PDs
Temperature Adjustment for Wire R
Length Adjustment for Wire
Burden Rating Adjustment for Coil and Solenoid
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 12

Simulation Result Report

Event View
Detailed Steps of Sequence Simulation
State Changes of Each Element
Voltage Check Results

Alert View
Critical and Marginal Violation of Pickup and Dropout Voltage
Critical and Marginal Current Violation of Devices, Contact, and
Wire
Alerts are Generated only for Simulation with Vd Calculation

Crystal Report
Input Data
Voltage Drop and Power Flow Report for Each Step
All Alerts
Report is Generated only for Simulation with Vd Calculation
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 13

Duty Cycle Update

Composite CSD Duty Cycle Update
Update to the Specified Duty Cycle Category
Initial Time Shift to Set to New Time Reference

CSD Source Voltage

Modeled as Constant Voltage Source for a Time Moment
Can Use Bus Voltage Calculated by Battery Discharge Value
not Saved When Closing Project
Time Offset for Adjusting Time Reference

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 14

Configuration & Revision

Configuration
Configuration Is Not Supported in CSD

Revision
Revision is Not Supported for All the Data in Device Contact
Page
Revision May Not Be Supported for Cable Schedule Data and
Wire Impedance Page Data
All Other CSD Data Are Supported by Revision

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 15

Composite CSD Duty Cycle in ED

Duty Cycle Entered in ED Editor
Each Section Can Be Constant P, Z, or I
Load Sections Can Overlap in Time
Random and Non-Random Load

Duty Cycle Updated Individually from CSD Simulation

Run CSD Simulation to Update ED Duty Cycle
Time Reference Adjustable for Individual CSD
May Be Time Consuming

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 16

CSD Vd Calculation in BS
CSD Vd Calculation
Option to Perform Vd Calculation in BS Study Case
Vd Calculation Conducted for Each CSD with Bus Voltage from BS
Vd Calc Results for all CSDs Saved in One Report
CSD Vd Alert Also Available
All CSDs Use Same Time Reference as Battery Discharge

Bus Voltage from Battery Discharge

Bus Voltage Profile Saved Each Time Battery Discharge
Conducted
Bus Voltage Profile Available for Individual CSD Simulation with
Different Time Reference
Bus Voltage Profile Not Saved When Closing Project File

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 17

Auto-Calc CSD Duty Cycle in BS

CSD Duty Cycle Calc in Battery Discharge
Each CSD Duty Cycle Calculated
Device Model Specified In Study Case
Vpickup & Vdropout Checked in Calculation
CSD Duty Cycle Updated to ED Separated by Load Type (P, Z, I)

Special Considerations
Switching Events Must Be Triggered by Macro Controlled
Switch

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Control Circuit System

Slide 18

Reliability Assessment

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Power System Reliability

Analysis
Reliability

The probability of a system performing its

function adequately for the period of time and
operation conditions intended
Adequacy
Sufficient facilities within the system to satisfy
customer demand
Security
Ability of the system to respond favorably to
disturbances arising within that system
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 2

Power System Reliability

Analysis
Used in system planning and operation
Reliability Assessment for:
Generation station and generation capacity

Composite generation and transmission system

Distribution system

Substation and switching stations

Protection system
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 3

Power System Reliability

Analysis
Various Indices to Measure Reliability
Customer Interruption Frequency

Customer Interruption Duration

Customer Curtailment Power/Energy Not
Served
Reliability Worth Study
Minimize Total Cost: Reliability Cost and
Consumer Interruption Cost
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 4

Distribution System Reliability

Analysis
Concerned with availability and quality of power
supply at each customers service entrance
Adequacy Analysis
Statistics show that failures in distribution systems
contribute as much as 90% towards the
unavailability of supply to a load as compared with
other parts of electric power systems

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 5

Reliability Analysis Using ETAP

Assesses distribution system reliability level for
radial and looped systems with a very efficient
algorithm
Considers single and double contingencies
Assesses reliability level for system and each load
point based on component failure model and
system configuration
Performs sensitivity analysis to identify the optimal
location to make greatest improvement on system
reliability at minimum cost
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 6

Single & Double Contingencies

Consider a system with two or more parallel
branches.

In case of Single Contingency Analysis failure of

only one branch at a time is considered.

In case of Double Contingency Analysis

simultaneous failure of two branches at a time is
also considered in addition to failure of one branch
at a time.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 7

Single & Double Contingency

Example
Single Contingency:
Failure of T5 or T6 at
a time is considered.
Double Contingency

Simultaneous failure
of T5 & T6 and failure
of T5 or T6 at a time is
considered.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 8

Component Model
A

P-

- Active Failure Rate (No of Failures/Year)

Causes the operation of the protection devices around

the failed component, i.e. a short-circuit fault

Failed component itself (and those components that are

directly connected to this failed component) restores to
service after repair or replacement

Passive Failure Rate (No of Failures/Year)

Does not cause the operation of protection around the

failed component, i.e. an open circuit fault

Failed component itself restores to service after repair

or replacement

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 9

Component Model
Mean Time To Repair in hours (MTTR)
Time required to repair a component outage
and/or restore the system to its normal operating
state
Mean Repair Rate (No of repairs per year) ( )
= 8760/MTTR

Mean Time To Failure (years) (MTTF):

MTTF = 1.0/(

A+ P)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 10

Component Model
Mean Time Between Failure (Year) (MTBF)
MTBF = MTTF + MTTR/8760
Forced Outage Rate (Unavailability) (FOR)
FOR = MTTR/(MTBF*8760)
Switching Time
Time in hours for isolating a fault occurred at the
component
Assume that CB/Fuse trip a fault instantaneously
Time for replacing a failed element by a spare one,
in hours rP
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 11

Single-Component Concepts
Two-State Model
A two-state up/down representation is used for
the operation/repair cycle of a component (such
as lines, cables, transformers, breakers, fuses,
switches, loads and busbars)
=(
UP

Up

A+ P)

..

DOWN
Down
..
MTTF

MTTF
MTTR

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

MTTR

Slide 12

Model for Components in

Series/Parallel
Two Components in Series
Component 1

Component 2

1, r1

sys

rsys

1
r
11

2, r2

2
r ( r )( r )
2 2 11 2 2
sys

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

r
11

r
22
sys

Slide 13

Model for Components in

Series/Parallel
Two Components in Parallel
Component 1
1, r1

2, r2

(r r )
12 1 2
sys 1 r
r
11 2 2

(r r )
12 1 2

rr
rsys 1 2
r r
1 2

Component 2

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 14

System Modeling
Fault Current Interruption
Only overcurrent protection devices (CB and
fuse) can interrupt fault current
Fault current interruption is assumed to be
instantaneous
Assumed to have no effect on components with
multiple source connection and isolated from
fault by CB/fuses

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 15

System Modeling
Fault Isolation
All switching devices can isolate faults. CBs and
fuses isolate fault instantaneously
Switches isolate fault at switching time of the
faulted component
Switching time for a load is equal to that of the
closest component

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 16

System Modeling
Normally Open Tie: Open tie PD can be closed
(switching time) to provide back up power
Two terminal buses should be energized
Can have several PDs connected in series and
with one or more open

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 17

Library for Reliability Analysis

Component Reliability
Data for each type of component - transformer,
bus, line, etc.

Active Failure Rate

Passive Failure Rate
Repair Time
Switching Time
Replacement Time

Typical data from IEEE Standard

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 18

Library for Reliability Analysis

Sector Customer Interruption Cost
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) is used
to divide customers into seven categories of
large user, industrial, commercial, agriculture,
residential, government & institutions and office
& buildings.
Sector Customer Damage Functions (SCDF) are
interruption costs for several discrete outage
durations.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 19

Library for Reliability Analysis

A log-log interpolation of the cost data is used
where the interruption duration lies between two
separate times.
If fault duration is outside the range, a linear
extrapolation with the same slope as that
between the two largest durations are used to
calculate the interruption cost.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 20

Distribution System Reliability

Indices
Average Failure Rate at Load Point i,
i

i(f/yr)

j Ne e, j

- The average failure rate of element j (or element

combination j, such as double contingency).
Ne - The total number of the elements whose faults will
interrupt load point i.
e,j

Annual Outage Duration at Load Point i, Ui(hr/yr)

U

r
e
,
j
ij
j Ne

rij --Failure duration at load point i due to a failed element j.

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 21

Distribution System Reliability

Indices
Average Outage Duration at Load Point, ri(hr)
r U /
i i i

Expected Energy Not Supplied Index at Load Point, EENSi

(MWhr/yr)
EENSi P Ui
i

Pi - the average load of load point i.

Expected Interruption Cost Index at Load Point, ECOSTi

(k$/yr)
ECOST P
f (r )
i i j Ne ij e, j

Where f(rij) is the SCDF.

The EENS and ECOST for a bus are calculated based on loads that
are directly connected to that bus due to the outage of that bus.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 22

Distribution System Reliability

Indices
Interrupted Energy Assessment Rate Index at Load Point,
IEARi ($/kWhr)
IEARi

ECOSTi
EENSi

System Average Interruption Frequency Index, SAIFI

(f/customer.yr)
N
i i
N
i

SAIFI Total number of customer interrupti ons

Total number of customer served

Where N is the number of customers at load point i

System Average Interruption Duration Index, SAIDI

(hr/customer.yr)
SAIDI

Sum of customer interrupti on durations

Total number of customer served

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

UN
i i
N
i
Slide 23

Distribution System Reliability

Indices
Customer Average Interruption Duration Index,
CAIDI(hr/customer interruption)
CAIDI Sum of customer interrupti on duration s
Total number of customer interrupti ons

UN
i i
N
i i

Average Service Availability Index, ASAI(pu)

ASAI

Customer hours of available service

Customer hours demanded
N 8760
NU
i
i i
N 8760
i

Where 8760 is the number of hours in a calendar year

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 24

Distribution System Reliability

Indices
Average Service Unavailability Index, ASUI(pu)
ASUI 1 ASAI

System Expected Energy Not Supplied Index, EENS (MWhr/yr)

EENS = Total energy not supplied by the system =

EENSi

System Expected Interruption Cost Index, ECOST(k$/yr)

ECOST =

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

ECOSTi

Slide 25

Distribution System Reliability

Indices
Average Energy Not Supplied Index, AENS
(MWhr/customer.yr)
AENS

Total energy not supplied by the system

Total number of customer served

System Interrupted
IEAR($/kWhr)

Energy

Assessment

EENS
i
N
i

Rate

Index,

IEAR ECOST
EENS

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 26

RA Example 1 Using ETAP

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 27

RA Example 1 Using ETAP

Data:

Active failure rate for breakers:

Passive failure rate for breakers:
failure/year
Failure rate for Bus, Utility:

a=

0.003 failure/year

p=

0.002

= 0.001 failure/year

MTTR for breakers: 30 hours

MTTR for buses, utility: 2 hours

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 28

RA Example 1 Using ETAP

Reliability Indices at LP1:
The main bus would be de-energized if:
CB1 fails actively OR passively
CB2 and CB3 fail actively
Utility fails
Main bus itself fails

Failure rate for the main bus:

LP1

p CB1

a CB 2

a CB 3

Utility

Main Bus

0.005 0.003 0.003 0.001 0.001

0.013 failure / year
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 29

RA Example 1 Using ETAP

Annual unavailability for the main bus:

U LP1

MTTR CB1

MTTR CB 3

a CB 3

MTTR Main Bus

p CB1

MTTR CB 2

MTTRUtility

a CB 2

Utility

Main Bus

30 0.005 30 0.003 30 0.003 2 0.001 2 0.001

0.334 hour / year
Time to replace the main bus:
rLP1

0.334
0.013

25 .692 hours

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 30

RA Example 2 Using ETAP

Results for the Single Contingency case

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 31

RA Example 2 Using ETAP

Results for the Double Contingency case

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 32

RA Example 2 Using ETAP

Calculations for the Double Contingency case:
For simplicity for hand calculations:
Failure rates for the breakers connecting the transformers to the buses are
taken to be zero

Failure rates of the two transformers are taken to be 1; MTTR = 200 hr.
Therefore the failure rate at Bus 2 due to double contingency:

(r1 r2 )
8760
1r1
2 r2
8760

1 2
double

1 1 (200 200)
8760
1 200 1 200
1
8760

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

0.0436681 failures / year

Slide 33

RA Example 2 Using ETAP

Calculations for the Double Contingency case:
Failure rate for the single contingency case:

sin gle

U1

CB1

CB1

A
MainBus

Bus 2

CB 6

0.011 failures / year

Therefore total failure rate at Bus 2 :
Bus 2

double

sin gle

0.0436681 0.011 0.0546681 failures / year

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 34

RA Example 3 Using ETAP

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Reliability Assessment

Slide 35

Wind Turbine Generator

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Wind Turbine Generators

Wind turbine generator (WTG) converts
mechanical energy to electrical energy
Wind turbine rotor supplies fluctuating
mechanical power (torque)

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 2

Traditional Wind Turbine

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 3

Generating Voltage
WTG > 150 kW generate 0.69 kV or higher
Step-up transformer (outside or inside
tower) raises the voltage to 10-30 kV

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 4

Generator Technology
Induction Generator
Induction generator with
variable rotor resistant
Doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG)
Converter interfaced
gearless, multi pole
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 5

Doubly Fed Generator

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 6

Doubly Fed Generator

Variable Speed Operation => Higher wind energy
capture
Can absorb or generate reactive power
Lower transient torques
More complex electrical design and control

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 7

Rotor Designs

Two blades are cheaper but do

not last as long
Three blades are more stable
and last longer

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Options include:
Upwind vs downwind
Passive vs active yaw
Common option chosen is to
direct the rotor upwind of the
tower with a tail vane

Slide 8

Rotor Diameter Vs. Output Power

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 9

Wind Power
The lift force (only) turns windmill blades
for useful power output
Windmill is a fan running backwards.

The pitch of the blade causes a difference

in air pressure on either side.
Difference in air pressure provides the lift
force (similar to aircraft), and causes the
rotors to turn.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 10

Wind Drag
If the angle of attack of a blade is too large,
the wind simply pushes against the blade,
exerting a drag force but no lift. When the
drag is too great, a stall occurs.
Wind turbines are designed to operate in
winds up to 35 mph, but must be able to
survive 100 mph gales.
Random turbulent winds create strong
torques that can fatigue the structure.
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 11

Power Curve
Electrical Power output at
different wind speeds
Field measurements
Site complexity makes it
difficult to produce power
curves exactly
Does not provide power at a
certain average wind speed
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 12

Power Extracted From Wind

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 13

Power Extracted From Wind

Cp is the fraction of the upstream wind

power which is captured by the rotor
blades

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 14

Example 1.65 MW Turbine

Swept Area = A = 5281 m2
4.5 m/s : Power = 0.6125 AV3 = 295 KW
5.5 m/s : Power = 0.6125 AV3 = 538 KW
6.5 m/s : Power = 0.6125 AV3 = 888 KW

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 15

Example
Calculate how much more power is
available at a site where the wind speed is
12 mph than where it is 10 mph
P ~ V3
P2 /P1 = (V2 / V1)3
P2 = (12/10)3 * P1 = 1.73 * P1

1.7 x the power (almost a factor of 2

increase), with only 2 mph increase in wind
speed!
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 16

Power Coefficient
Efficiency of wind to electric energy
conversion
Power Output W/ m2 = Power Curve / Rotor
Area
Electrical Output / Wind Input
Depends on pitch angle and AOA
Depends upon ratio of downstream to
upstream wind speeds (Vo/V)
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 17

Power Coefficient
Theoretical maximum value of 0.59

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 18

Cp Curves
Maximum power generated at P1 max and P2 max

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 19

Speed Control
To capture more energy
To protect the rotor, generator and electronic
equipment from overloading

When generator is disconnected, rotor speed may

increase to levels causing mechanical damage

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 20

Speed Control Regions

Cut-in Speed

Optimum Constant Cp
Speed-Limited

Power-Limited
Cut-out speed

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 21

Pitch Control
Large horizontal axis turbines
Pitch is varied to hold Cp at largest value possible
up to rated speed of the turbine

Varied to reduce Cp while power in the wind (Pw)

increases

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 22

Wind Turbine Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 23

Wind Model

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 24

Converter Control

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 25

Simulated Turbine Operation

Vc = Wind Velocity
RPM = Rotor Speed
Cp = Power Coefficient
PE = Electrical Power

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 26

Power Height Relationship

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 27

Power Height Relationship

Wind speed increases with height
Conservative Approximation:

V2 = (H2/H1)

V1

is the Roughness exponent

Smooth terrain value (water or ice): 0.10
Rough terrain value (suburb woodlands): 0.25

Grasslands: 0.14
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 28

Hybrid System

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 29

Diesel Wind Interaction

Over-sized Diesel
Engine presents driving torque only to syn. gen
Diesel engine maintains balance of power
Increase in wind power means reduction in diesel output
When wind power output exceeds load requirement, the
diesel starts motoring
Small braking torque comes from engine compression
Rotor speed of the diesel increases

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 30

Diesel Wind Interaction

T = 2.5 sec
WTG (225 kW)
Genset (55 / 400 kW)

T=4 sec
Load reduced to 100 kW
Frequency runaway
Shunt Load to be added

Water heater, battery charger

Non-critical load
Minimum diesel power ~ 15% of rated load
1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 31

Operating Data

1996-2009 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Wind Turbine Generator

Slide 32