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Methods of Concrete Repair

This document provides information on methods for concrete repair, including surface grinding, Portland cement mortar, dry pack, and epoxy-bonded dry pack. Surface grinding can repair irregularities but should be limited to avoid weakening the surface. Portland cement mortar can repair shallow defects if applied with epoxy bonding agent. Dry pack is used for deeper holes and requires thorough cleaning and bonding techniques like epoxy or grout coating to ensure adhesion. Proper preparation, application, and curing are essential for successful concrete repairs.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
501 views27 pages

Methods of Concrete Repair

This document provides information on methods for concrete repair, including surface grinding, Portland cement mortar, dry pack, and epoxy-bonded dry pack. Surface grinding can repair irregularities but should be limited to avoid weakening the surface. Portland cement mortar can repair shallow defects if applied with epoxy bonding agent. Dry pack is used for deeper holes and requires thorough cleaning and bonding techniques like epoxy or grout coating to ensure adhesion. Proper preparation, application, and curing are essential for successful concrete repairs.

Uploaded by

charlessimo
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Methods of Concrete Repair

Additional Web Resources


International Concrete Repair Institute (http://www.icri.org/) is the trade organization for
concrete repair contractors. The web site includes videos, publications, and contact with
contractors.
Building Conservation (http://www.building conservation.com/) is an English site where
technical information on building conservation is posted. There is an interesting article on
repair of corroding reinforcement at
http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/concrete/concrete.htm
Technical Preservation Services http://www2.cr.nps.gov/tps
The National Center for Preservation Technology and Training (www.ncptt.nps.gov)
Preservation Briefs No. 15, by William B. Coney deals with this subject matter specifically
from the viewpoint of historic preservation. http://www2.cr.nps.gov/tps/briefs/brief15.htm

see also (Technical and Financial Tools for Preservation) in Module I

(Note: This material has been adapted from Smoak, W. Glenn Guide to Concrete Repair,
published by the US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Technical Service
Center, April 1997). This section deals with the topic in a generic, technical fashion. Some
refinements of this discussion particularly applicable to historic preservation may be found in
Preservation Brief

Surface Grinding
Surface grinding can be used to repair some bulges, offsets, and other irregularities
that exceed the desired surface tolerances. Excessive surface grinding, however, may result in
weakening of the concrete surface, exposure of easily removed aggregate particles, or
unsightly appearance. For these reasons, grinding should be performed with certain
limitations. Grinding of surfaces exposed to public view should be limited in depth so that no

aggregate particles more than -inch in cross section are exposed at the finished surface. In
no event should surface grinding result in exposure of aggregate of more than one-half the
diameter of the maximum-size aggregate. Where surface grinding has caused or will cause
exposure of aggregate particles greater than the fore-mentioned limits, the concrete must then
be repaired by excavating and replacing the concrete.

Portland Cement Mortar


Portland cement mortar may be used for repairing defects on surfaces not prominently
exposed, where the defects are too wide for dry-pack filling or where the defects are too
shallow for concrete filling, and no deeper than the far side of the reinforcement that is
nearest the surface. Repairs may be made either by use of shotcrete or by hand application
methods, although hand application methods are generally recommended for areas subject to
public view in historic preservation applications. Replacement mortar can be used to make
shallow, small-size repairs to new or green concrete, provided that the repairs are performed
within 24 hours of removing the concrete forms.
Accomplishing successful mortar repairs to old concrete without the use of a bonding
resin is unlikely or extremely difficult. Evaporative loss of water from the surface of the
repair mortar, combined with capillary water loss to the old concrete, results in unhydrated or
poorly hydrated cement in the mortar. Additionally, repair mortar bond strength development
proceeds at a slower rate than compressive strength development. This causes workers to
mistakenly abandon curing procedures prematurely, when the mortar seems strong. Once
the mortar dries, bond strength development stops, and bond failure of the mortar patch
results. For these reasons, using cement mortar without a resin bond coat to repair old
concrete is discouraged.
A portland cement mortar patch is usually darker than the surrounding concrete unless
precautions are taken to match colors. A leaner mix will usually produce a lighter color
patch. Also, white cement can be used to produce a patch that will blend with the surrounding
concrete. The quantity of white cement used must be determined by trial in an inconspicuous
location on the structure.

Preparation
Concrete to be repaired with replacement mortar should first have all the deteriorated
or unsound areas removed. After preparation, the areas should be cleaned, roughened if
necessary (preferably by wet sandblasting), and surface-dried to a saturated surface condition.
The mortar should be applied immediately thereafter.

Materials
Replacement mortar contains water, portland cement, and sand. The cement should be
the same type as used in the concrete being repaired. The water and sand should be suitable
for use in concrete, and the same should pass through a No. 16 sieve. The cement-to-sand
ratio should be between 1:2 to 1:4, depending on application technique. Only enough water
should be added to the cement-sand mixture to permit placing.

Application
For minor restorations, satisfactory mortar replacement may be performed by hand.
The success of this method depends on complete removal of all defective and affected
concrete, good bonding of the mortar to the concrete, elimination of shrinkage of the patch
after placement, and thorough curing.
Replacement mortar repairs can be made using an epoxy bonding agent; this
technique is highly recommended.

Curing
Failure to cure properly is the most common cause of failure of replacement mortar. It
is essential that mortar repairs receive a thorough water cure starting immediately after initial
set and continuing for 14 days. In no event should the mortar be allowed to become dry
during the 14-day period following placement. Following the 14-day water cure and while the
mortar is still saturated, the surface of the mortar should be coated with two coats of a waxbase or water-emulsified resin-base curing compound meeting reclamation specifications. If
this curing procedure cannot be followed or if conditions at the job are such that this curing
procedure will not be followed, money would be saved by using another repair material.

Dry Pack and Epoxy-Bonded Dry Pack


Dry pack is a combination of portland cement and sand passing a No. 16 sieve mixed
with just enough water to hydrate the cement. Dry pack should be used for filling holes
having a depth equal to, or great than, the least surface dimension of the repair area; for cone
bolt, she bolt, core holes, and grout-insert holes; for holes left by the removal of form ties;
and for narrow slots cut for repair of cracks. Dry pack should not be used for relatively
shallow depressions where lateral restraint cannot be obtained, for filling behind
reinforcement, or for filling holes that extend completely through a concrete section.

For the dry-pack method of concrete repair, holes should be sharp and square at the
surface edges, but corners within the holes should be rounded, especially when water
tightness is required. The interior surfaces of holes left by cone bolts and she bolts should be
roughened to develop an effective bond; this can be done with a rough stub of 7/8-inch steelwire rope, a notched tapered reamer, or a star drill. Other holes should be undercut slightly in
several places around the perimeter. Holes for dry pack should have a minimum depth of 1
inch.

Preparation
Application of dry-pack mortar should be preceded by a careful inspection of the hole,
which should be thoroughly cleaned and free from mechanically held loose pieces of
aggregate. One of three methods should be used to ensure good bond of the dry-pack repair.
The first method is the application of a stiff mortar or grout bond coat immediately
before applying the dry-pack mortar. The mix for the bonding grout is 1:1 cement and fine
sand mixed with a water to a fluid paste consistency.
All surfaces of the hole are thoroughly brushed with the grout, and dry packing is
done quickly before the bonding grout can dry. Under no circumstances should the bonding
coat be so wet or applied so heavily that the dry-pack material becomes more than slightly
rubbery. When a grout bond coat is used, the hole to be repaired can be dry. Presoaking the
hole overnight with wet rags or burlap prior to dry packing may sometimes give better results
by reducing the loss of hydration water, but there must be no free surface water in the hole
when the bonding grout is applied.
The second method of ensuring good bond starts with presoaking the hole overnight
with wet rags or burlap. The hole is left slightly wet with a small amount of free water on the
inside surfaces. The surfaces are then dusted lightly and slowly with cement using a small dry
brush until all surfaces have been covered and the free water absorbed. Any dry cement in the
hole should be removed using a jet of air before packing begins. The hole should not be
painted with neat cement grout because it could make the dry-pack material too wet and
because high shrinkage would prevent development of the bond that is essential to a good
repair.
A third method of ensuring good bond is use of an epoxy bonding resin. The epoxy
bonding resin should meet the requirements of ASTM C-881 for a type II, grade 2, class B or
C resin, depending on the job site ambient temperatures. Epoxies bond best to dry concrete. It
may be necessary to dry the hole immediately prior to dry packing using hot air, a propane
torch, or other appropriate method. The concrete temperature, however, should not be high
enough to cause instant setting of the epoxy or to burn the epoxy when it is applied. After
being mixed, the epoxy is thoroughly brushed to cover all surfaces, but any excess epoxy is
removed. Dry-pack mortar is then applied immediately, before the epoxy starts to harden. The
epoxy must be either fluid or tacky when dry packing takes place. If it appears that the epoxy
may become hard before dry packing is complete, fresh fluid epoxy can be brushed over
epoxy that has become tacky. If the epoxy becomes hard, it must be removed before a new
coat is applied. The epoxy ensures a good bond between the dry-pack repair and the old

concrete. It also reduces the loss of hydration water from the repair to the surrounding
concrete, thus assisting in good curing; however, the epoxy-bonded dry pack still requires
curing as discussed below. Where appearance is not important, epoxy has sometimes been
used on the surface in place of a curing compound. This procedure is not recommended.

Materials
Dry-pack mortar is usually a mixture (by dry volume or weight) of 1 part cement to 21/2 parts sand that will pass a No. 16 screen. While the mixture is rich in cement, the low
water content prevents excessive shrinkage and gives high strengths. A dry-pack repair is
usually darker than the surrounding concrete unless special precautions are taken to match the
colors. Where uniform color is important, white cement may be used in sufficient amount (as
determined by trial) to produce uniform appearance. For packing cone bolt holes, a leaner
mix of 1:3 or 1:3-1/2 will be sufficiently strong and will blend better with the color of the
wall. Sufficient water should be used to produce a mortar that will just stick together while
being molded into a ball with the hands and will not exude water but will leave the hands
damp. The proper amount of water will produce a mix at the point of becoming rubbery when
solidly packed. Any less water will not make a sound, solid pack; any more will result in
excessive shrinkage and a loose repair.

Application
Dry-pack mortar should be placed and packed in layers having a compacted thickness
of about three-eighths of an inch. Thicker layers will not be well compacted at the bottom.
The surface of each layer should be scratched to facilitate bonding with the next layer. One
layer may be placed immediately after another unless an appreciable rubbery quality
develops; if this occurs, work on the repair should be delayed 30 to 40 minutes. Under no
circumstances should alternate layers of wet and dry materials be used.
Each layer should be solidly compacted over the entire surface by striking a hardwood
dowel or stick with a hammer. These sticks, usually 8- to 12-inches long and not over 1 inch
in diameter, are used on fresh mortar like a caulking tool. Hardwood sticks are used in
preference to metal bars because the latter tend to polish the surface of each layer, making
bonding less certain and filling less uniform. Much of the tamping should be directed at a
slight angle and toward the sides of the hole to ensure maximum compaction in these areas.
The holes should not be overfilled; finishing may usually be completed at once by laying the
flat side of a hardwood piece against the fill and striking it several good blows with a
hammer. If necessary later, a few light strokes with a rag may improve appearance. Steel
finishing tools should not be used, and water must not be used to facilitate finishing.

Curing and Protection

Procedures for curing and protection of dry pack are essentially the same as those for
concrete. Additionally, the dry-pack repair area should be protected and not exposed to
freezing temperatures for at least 3 days after application of the curing compound.

Preplaced Aggregate Concrete


Preplaced aggregate concrete is an excellent repair material that has not been used
much in recent years. Preplaced aggregate concrete is made by injecting portland cement
grout, with or without sand, into the voids of a formed, compacted mass of clean, graded,
coarse aggregate. The preplaced aggregated is washed and screened to remove fines before
placing into the forms. As the grout is injected or pumped into the forms, it displaces any
included air or water and fills the voids around the aggregate, thus creating a dense concrete
with a high aggregate content.
Because the coarse aggregate has point contact prior to grout injection, preplaced
aggregate concrete undergoes very little settlement, curing, or drying shrinkage during
hydration. Drying shrinkage of preplaced aggregate concrete containing 1-1/2 inch maximum
size aggregate is about 200 to 400 millionths, while conventional concrete drying shrinkage
containing the same size maximum aggregate is about 400 to 600 millionths.
Another advantage of preplaced aggregate concrete is the ease with which it can be
placed in certain situations where placement of conventional concrete would be extremely
difficult or impossible. Preplaced aggregate concrete would be extremely difficult or
impossible. Preplaced aggregate concrete is especially useful in underwater repair
construction. It has been used in a variety of large concrete and masonry repairs.
Although preplaced aggregated is adaptable to many special repair applications, it is
essential that the work be undertaken by well-qualified personnel who are willing to follow
exactly the construction procedures required for this repair material. Form work for preplaced
aggregate concrete requires special attention to prevent grout loss. The construction of forms
should be with workmanship better than the normally encountered with conventional
concrete. Leaking forms can cause significant problems and should, by careful construction,
be avoided whenever possible. The injected grout is more flowable than plastic concrete and
takes slightly longer to set. Forms, therefore, must be constructed to take more lateral
pressure than would be necessary with conventional concrete. Form bolts should fit tightly
through the sheathing, and all possible points of grout leakage should be caulked.

Preparation
The preparation of concrete to be repaired by preplaced aggregate concrete is identical
to the preparation required for replacement concrete if the development of bond is required.

Materials
Grout for preplaced aggregate concrete may be mixed with sand either of the
gradation specified for conventional concrete or with fine sand, pozzolanic or fly ash fillers,
water reducing admixtures, and pumping admixtures as dictate by the minimum size of the
coarse aggregate. With 1-1/2 inch minimum size coarse aggregate, the sand gradation is that
specified for conventional concrete. The portland cement, water, and sand are mixed using
high-speed centrifugal grout mixers that produce well-mixed grouts of a creamy consistency.
For use with -inch minimum size coarse aggregate, a grout mixture is prepared containing a
No. 8 screen and with at least 95 percent passing a No. 16 screen. Best pumping
characteristics will be obtained with fineness modulus between 1.2 and 2 and with the
rounded shape of natural sands as opposed to crushed sands.
Addition of fly ash and water reducing admixture improves the flowability of the
grout and the ultimate strength. Proprietary pumping admixtures are commonly used to
increase the penetration and pumpability of the final grout. The consistency of grout for
preplaced aggregated should be uniform from batch to batch and should be such that it can be
readily pumped into the voids at relatively low pressure. Consistency is affected by water
content, sand grading, filler type and content, cement type, and admixture type. For each mix,
there are optimum and proportions that produce best grout pumpability or consistency, and
tests are necessary for each job to determine these optimum proportions.
The maximum size coarse aggregate used with both types of grout is the largest
available, provided that the aggregate can be easily handled and placed. Coarse aggregate
should meet all the requirements of coarse aggregate for conventional concrete. It is essential
that the coarse aggregated be clean. The aggregate should be well-graded from minimum
size (1/2-inch minimum or 1-1/2 inch minimum) up to the maximum size, and when
compacted into the forms, should have a void content of 35 to 40 percent. If grout containing
sand of concrete grading is used, the minimum coarse aggregate size should be 1-1/2 inches.

Application
The grout piping system used with preplaced aggregate concrete must be designed to
serve at least 3 purposes: to deliver and inject grout; to provide means for determining grout
level in the forms; and to serve as vents in enclosed forms for escape or air and water. Proper
design and location of the grout piping system is essential for successful placement.
The grout delivery pipeline should be a recirculating system That is, the grout
delivery pipeline should extend from the grout agitator or holding tank to the grout pump,
then to the injection manifold, and return to the grout agitator tank. With this type of
pipeline, the grout can be kept moving and circulating in the delivery pipeline even when no
grout is being injected into the aggregate. Such a system prevents stoppages and clogging of
the delivery line. Noncirculating or deadheaded grout delivery lines are not allowed on
reclamation projects. The delivery line should be kept as short as practicable, and the pipe
size should be such that normal grout flow velocities range between 2 and 4 feet per second.

For most applications, a 1-inch ID grout line will suffice. All valves used in the grout piping
system should be quick opening ball valves which can be readily cleaned.
The simplest piping system is a single recirculating delivery line attached via a
manifold and valves to a single injection line. The injection line should extend to the lowest
point in the form. Multiple injection lines are used for larger projects. Spacing of the
injection lines is variable, depending on the form configuration, aggregate gradation, and
other factors, but spacings of 4 to 6 feet are common. In preparing the layout of the grout
delivery system, it is normally assumed that the slope of the grout face will be 4:1 for work in
the dry and 6:1 for underwater work. Much flatter slopes are common with actual grout
surfaces.
Sounding wells constructed from 2-inch-diameter slotted pipe are installed to allow
determination of the level of grout during injection. Similarly, clear plastic windows can be
installed in the forms to allow visual determination of grout levels. The number and location
of sounding wells are determined by the size and configuration of the aggregate mass. The
ratio of sounding wells to injection pipes should be from 1:4 to about 1:8.
Grout injection should begin at the lowest point of the form and continue uniformly
until the entire form is filled. After sufficient grout has been pumped to raise the level of
grout in the form about 18 inches above the bottom outlet of the injection line, the injection
line can be progressively raised, maintaining about 12 inches of embedment below the level
of the grout at all times. A great deal of thought and planning is required if multiple injection
lines are used. The objective is to entirely fill the form without trapping air or water. Vents
must be located where needed and the injection sequence designed to promote complete
filling. It is not possible to use internal vibrators to consolidate preplaced aggregate concrete.
External vibrators, however, can be attached to the forms and used advantageously. External
vibration will eliminate the splotchy appearance that can occur where coarse aggregate
particles contact the forms. Underwater applications of preplaced aggregate concrete require
additional considerations. During injection, grout pumping must continue until an undiluted
flow of grout emerges from the top of the form. Formwork is usually closed at the top to
prevent washout or dilution of the grout after placement if flowing water is encountered.
Anti-washout admixtures might prove useful for underwater applications of preplaced
aggregate concrete. Care must be taken, however, when using several different types of
admixtures (e.g., anti-washout, pumping aids, or high-range water reducers) that undesirable
combinations are avoided. It is known, for example, that some anti-washout admixtures can
significantly reduce the pumpability benefits of some high-range water reducers. Such
problems should be detected during the mixture proportioning tests previously recommended.
The minimum volume of the grout mixer tank and the grout agitator tank should be 17
cubic feet. The grout should be mixed using a high-speed centrifugal mixer operating at a
minimum of 1,500 rotations per minute. The grout pump should be of the helical screw, rotortype (commonly known as a Moyno grout pump), capable of pumping at least 20 gallons of
grout per minute at the specified injection pressure.
Quality control of preplaced aggregate concrete lies with proper compaction of the
aggregate into the forms and maintenance of proper grout consistency throughout the job.
Compaction requirements must be satisfied by visual inspection during placement and before
grout is introduced into the forms. Grout consistency can be determined by using a Baroid
Model 140 Mud Balance to measure grout density. Some practitioners promote using a flow

cone to time the rate of flow of a known volume of grout through the cone as a measure of
consistency. Recent laboratory tests (Smoak, 1993), however, have proven that the flow cone
is useless for measure the consistency of grout containing high range water reducing
admixture.

Curing
The curing requirements for preplaced aggregate concrete are the same as for
replacement concrete.

Shotcrete
Shotcrete, because it irreversibly alters the contours and surface profile of existing concrete,
is generally a poor choice in historic preservation projects. The following information is
included for completeness in the coverage of concrete repair methods

Shotcrete is defined as mortar or concrete pneumatically projected at high speed onto a


surface (American Concrete Institute, 1990). There are two basic types of shotcrete: dry mix
and wet mix. In dry-mix shotcrete, the dry cement, sand, and coarse aggregate, if used, are
premixed with only sufficient water to reduce dusting. This mixture is then forced through the
delivery line to the nozzle by compressed air. At the nozzle, sufficient water is added to the
moving stream to meet the requirements of cement hydration. For wet-mix shotcrete, the
cement, sand, and coarse aggregate are first conventionally mixed with water, and the
resulting concrete is then pumped to the nozzle where compressed air propels the wet mixture
onto the desired surface. The two types of shotcrete produce mixes with different water
contents and different application characteristics as a result of the distinctly different mixing
processes. Dry-mix shotcrete suffers high dust generation and rebound losses varying from
about 15 percent up to 50 percent. Wet-mix shotcrete must contain enough water to permit
pumping through the delivery line. Wet-mix shotcrete must contain enough water to permit
pumping through the delivery line. Wet-mix shotcrete, as a result, may experience
significantly more cracking problems due to the excess water and drying shrinkage.
Advances in the development of the high-range water reducing admixtures, pumping aids,
and concrete pumping equipment since approximately 1960 have greatly reduced these
problems, and wet-mix shotcrete is now being used more frequently in repair construction.
Shotcrete is a very versatile construction material that can be readily placed and
successfully used for a variety of concrete repair applications. The necessity of form work
can be eliminated in many repair applications by use of shotcrete. Shotcrete has been used to
repair canal and spillway linings and walls, the faces of dams, tunnel linings, highway
bridges and tunnels, deteriorating natural rock walls and earthen slopes, and to thicken and

strengthen existing concrete structures. Provided the proper materials, equipment, and
procedures are employed, such shotcrete repairs can be accomplished quickly and
economically. This apparent ease of application should not cause one to believe that shotcrete
repair is a simple procedure or one that can be haphazardly or improperly applied with
impunity. The following two paragraphs contain a very descriptive warning of such practices:
Regardless of the considerable advantages of the shotcrete process and its ability to
provide finished work of the highest quality, a large amount of poor and sometimes
unacceptable work has unfortunately occurred in the past, with the result that many design
and construction professionals are hesitant to employ the process. As with all construction
methods, failure to employ proper procedures will result in inferior work. In the case of
shotcrete, the deficiencies can be severe, requiring complete removal and replacement.
Deficiencies in the shotcrete applications usually fall into one of four categories:
failure to bond to the receiving substrate; delamination at construction joints or faces of the
application layers; incomplete filling of the material behind the reinforcing; and embedment
of rebound or other unsatisfactory material. (Warner 1995)
Each of the above-listed deficiencies has occurred on repair projects. Perhaps more
important with shotcrete than with any other standard concrete repair method, if highqualified, well-trained, and competent workmen cannot be employed, it is advisable to
consider using some other repair procedure. The quality of shotcrete closely depends upon
the skill and experience of one person, the nozzleman. Many specifications require
employment of only formally certified nozzlemen for shotcrete repairs. The on-the-job
training necessary to develop the experience and skill needed to achieve such certification for
reclamation work should occur prior to the nozzlemans arrival at the job.

Replacement Concrete
Concrete repairs made by bonding new concrete to repair areas without use of an epoxy
bonding agent or mortar grout applied on the prepared surface should be made when the area
exceeds 1 square foot and has a depth greater than 6 inches and when the repair will be of
appreciable continuous area. Replacement concrete repairs should also be used for:

Holes extending entirely through concrete sections

Holes in which no reinforcement is encountered, or in which the depth extends 1


inch below or behind the backside of the reinforcing steel and which are greater in
area than 1 square foot and deeper than 4 inches, except where epoxy-bonded
concrete replacement is required or permitted as alternative to concrete replacement

Holes in reinforced concrete greater than one-half square foot and extending
beyond reinforcement

Replacement concrete is the most common concrete repair material and will meet the needs
of a majority of all concrete repairs. Replacement concrete repairs are made by bonding new
concrete to the repair areas without the use of a bonding agent or portland cement grout. The
combination of a deep repair and good curing practices ensures adequate hydration water will
remain at the bonding surface zone for at least 28 days, allowing the cement hydration
process to develop good bond. Because the defective concrete is being replaced with high
quality concrete very similar to the surrounding concrete, the repair is compatible in thermal
expansion and in other physical and chemical properties with the old concrete. For this
reason, in many cases, the best repair method is the use of replacement concrete. Only when
an unusual increase in durability is needed, or when placing conditions or dimensions dictate
otherwise, should other materials be considered.

Preparation
To obtain satisfactory results with the replacement concrete method, preparation
should be as follows:
Reinforcement bars should not be left partially embedded; concrete should be
removed to provide a clearance of at least an inch around each bar exposed more
than one-third its circumference.

The perimeter of the hole at the face should be saw cut to a minimum depth of
1 inch. If the shape of the defect makes it advisable, the remainder of the concrete
removal may be chipped below the vertical saw cut and continued until a
horizontal surface is obtained. The top of the hole, if on a vertical wall, should be
cut on a 1:3 upward slope from the back toward the face from which the concrete
will be placed. This is essential to permit vibration of the concrete without leaving
air pockets at the top of the repair. In some instances, where a hole extends
through a wall or beam, it may be necessary to fill the hole from both sides; the
slope of the top of the cut should be modified accordingly.

The bottom and sides of the hole should be cut sharply and approximately
square with the face of the wall. When the hole extends through the concrete
section, spalling and feather edges must be avoided by having perimeter saw cuts
from both faces. All interior corners should be rounded to a minimum radius of 1
inch.

The construction and setting of forms are important steps in the procedure for
satisfactory concrete replacement where the concrete must be placed from the side of the
structure. To obtain a tight and acceptable repair, the following requirements must be
observed:
Front forms for wall repairs more than 18 inches high should be constructed
in horizontal sections so the concrete can be conveniently placed in lifts not more
than 12 inches deep. The back form may be built in one piece. Sections to be set
as concreting progresses should be fitted before placement is started.

To exert pressure on the largest area of form sheathing, tie bolts should pass
through wooden blocks fitted snugly between the walers and the sheathing.

For irregularly shaped holes, chimneys may be required at more than one
level; when beam connections are required, a chimney may be necessary on both
sides of the wall or beam. For such construction, the chimney should extend the
full width of the hole.

Forms should be substantially constructed so that pressure may be applied to


the chimney cap at the proper time.

Forms must be mortar tight at all joints between adjacent sections, between
the forms and concrete, and at tie bolt holes to prevent the loss of mortar when
pressure is applied during the final stages of placement. Twisted or stranded
caulking cotton, folded canvas strips, or similar material should be used as the
forms are assembled.

Surfaces of old concrete to which new concrete is to be bonded must be clean, rough, and in
saturated surface dry condition. Extraneous material on the joint resulting from form
construction must be removed prior to placement.

Materials
Concrete for repair should have the same water-cement ratio as used for similar new
structures but should not exceed 0.47, by weight. Aggregate of as large a maximum size and
slump as low as is consistent with proper placing and thorough vibration should be used to
minimize water content and consequent shrinkage. The concrete should contain 3 to 5 percent
entrained air. Where surface color is important, the cement should be carefully selected or
blended with white cement to obtain the desired results. To minimize shrinkage, the concrete
should be as cool as practicable when placed, preferably at about 70 F or lower. Materials
should, therefore, be kept in shaded areas during warm weather. Use of ice in mixing water
may sometimes be necessary. Batching of materials should be by weight; but batch boxes, if
of the exact size needed, may be used. Since batches for this class of work will be small, the
uniformity of the materials is important and should receive proper attention.
Best repairs are obtained when the lowest practicable slump is used. This is about 3
inches for the first lift in an ordinary large form. Subsequent lifts can be drier, and the top few
inches of concrete in the hole and that in the chimney should be placed at almost zero slump.
It is usually best to mix enough concrete at the start from the entire hole. Thus, the concrete
will be up to 1-1/2 hours old when the successive lifts are placed. Such premixed concrete,
provided it can be vibrated satisfactorily, will have less settlement, less shrinkage, and greater
strength than freshly mixed concrete.
Structural concrete placements should be started with an oversanded mix containing
about a -inch maximum-size aggregate; a maximum water-cement ratio of 0.47, by weight;
6 percent total air, by volume of concrete; and a maximum slump of 4 inches. This special

mix should be placed several inches deep on the joint at the bottom of the placement. A
mortar layer should not be used on the construction joints.

Application
When placing concrete in lifts, placement should not be continuous; a minimum of 30
minutes should elapse between lifts. When chimneys are required at more than one level, the
lower chimney should be filled and allowed to remain for 30 minutes between lifts. When
chimneys are required on both faces of a wall or beam, concrete should be placed in only one
of the chimneys until it flows to the other. Attempted placement in both chimneys will result
in air entrapment and/or voids in the structure.
The quality of a repair depends not only on use of low-slump concrete, but also on the
thoroughness of the vibration during and after depositing the concrete. There is little danger
of over-vibration. Immersion-type vibrators should be used if accessibility permits. If not,
this type of vibrator can be used very effectively on the forms from the outside. Form
vibrators can be used to good advantage on forms for large inaccessible repairs, especially on
a one-piece back form, or attached to a large metal fittings such as hinge-based castings.
Immediately after the hole has been completely filled, pressure should be applied to the fill
and form vibrated. This operation should be repeated at 30-minute intervals until the concrete
hardens and no longer responds to vibration. Pressure is applied by wedging or by tightening
the bolts extending through the pressure cap. In filling the top of the form, concrete to a depth
of only 2 or 3 inches should be left in the chimney under the pressure cap. A greater depth
tends to dissipate the pressure. After the hole has been filled and pressure cap placed, the
concrete should not be vibrated without a simultaneous application of pressure. To do so may
produce a film of water at the top of the repair that will prevent bonding.
Addition of aluminum powder to concrete causes the latter to expand. Under
favorable conditions, this procedure has been successfully used to secure tight, well-bonded
repairs in locations where the replacement material had to be introduced from the side. Time
should not be allowed for settlement between lifts. When the top lift and the chimney are
filled, no pressure need be applied, but the pressure cap should be secured in position so
expanding concrete will be confined to and completely fill the hole undergoing repair. There
should be no subsequent revibration.
Concrete replacement in open-top forms, as used for reconstruction of the tops of
walls, piers, parapets, and curbs, is a comparatively simple operation. Only such materials as
will make concrete of proved durability should be used. The water-cement ratio should not
exceed 0.47, by weight. For the best durability, the maximum size of aggregate should be the
largest practicable and the percentage of sand the minimum practicable. No special features
are required in the forms, but they should be mortar tight when vibrated and should give the
new concrete a finish similar to the adjacent areas. The slump should be as low as
practicable, and dosage of air entraining agent should be increased as necessary to secure the
maximum permissible percentage of entrained air, despite the low slump. Top surfaces should
be sloped to provide rapid drainage. Manipulation in finishing should be held to a minimum,
and a wood-float finish is preferable to a steel-trowel finish. Edges and corners should be
tooled or chamfered. Use of water for finishing is prohibited.

Forms for concrete replacement repairs usually may be removed the day after casting
unless form removal would damage the green concrete, in which even stripping should be
postponed another day or two. The projections left by the chimneys normally should be
removed the second day. If the trimming is done earlier, the concrete tends to break back into
the repair. These projections should always be removed by working up from the bottom
because working down from the top tends to break concrete out of the repair. The rough area
resulting from trimming should be filled and stoned to produce a surface comparable to that
of surrounding areas. Plastering of these surfaces should never be permitted.
Some replacement concrete does not require forms. Full-depth replacement of
damaged or deteriorated paving or slabs involves procedures no different from those required
for best results in original construction. Contact edges at the perimeter should be saw cut
clean and square with the surface.
If, however, needed repairs are too small for the replacement concrete method
(including silica fume concrete), they should be made using the dry-pack procedure, the
epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar method, or the epoxy-bonded replacement concrete method.

Curing and Protection


The importance of curing replacement concrete repairs cannot be overemphasized.
Complete failure of repairs has been attributed to inadequate or improper curing. Because of
the relatively small volume of most repairs and the tendency of old concrete to absorb
moisture from new material, water curing is a highly desirable procedure, at least during the
first 24 hours. When forms are used for repair, they can be removed and then reset to hold a
few layers of wet burlap in contact with new concrete. One of the best methods of water
curing is a soil-soaker hose laid beneath a plastic membrane covering the repair area.
When curing compound is used, the best curing combination is an initial water-curing
period of 7 days (never less than 24 hours) followed, while the surface is still damp, by a
uniform coat of the compound. It is always essential that repairs, even dry packed cone bolt
holes, receive some water curing and be thoroughly damp before the curing compound is
applied. If nothing better can be devised for the initial water curing of the dry pack in cone
bolt holes and similar repairs, a reliable workman should be detailed to make the rounds with
water and a large brush or spraying device to keep the repaired surfaces wet for 24 hours
prior to application of a curing compound. White curing compound may be used only where
its color does not create objectionable contrast in appearance.

Epoxy-Bonded Epoxy Mortar

Epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar should be used where the depth of repair is less than 11/2 inches and the exposure conditions are such that relatively constant temperatures can be
expected. Epoxy mortars have thermal coefficients of expansion that may be significantly
different from conventional concrete. If such mortars are used under conditions of wide and

frequent temperature fluctuations, they will cause failure just below the bond surface in the
base concrete. For this reason, current practice precludes the use of epoxy mortars under
conditions of frequent or large temperature fluctuations.
The application of epoxy mortar to repair areas of concrete deterioration caused by
corroding reinforcing steel is also not recommended. The epoxy bond coat and epoxy mortar
create zones of electrical potential that are different from the electrical potential in the
surrounding concrete. This difference in potential can result in the formation of a galvanic
corrosion cell with accelerated corrosion at the repair perimeters.
The application of epoxy mortar to repair areas of concrete deterioration caused by
corroding reinforcing steel is also not recommended. The epoxy bond coat and epoxy mortar
create zones of electrical potential in the surrounding concrete. This difference in potential
can result in the formation of a galvanic corrosion cell with accelerated corrosion at the repair
perimeters.
Epoxy mortar is properly used to make thin repairs (1/2 inch to 1-1/2 inch thickness)
to concrete under relatively constant temperature exposure conditions. Such applications
could include tunnel linings, indoor or interior concrete, or the underside of concrete
structures such as bridge decks. Applications to concrete exposed to the daily temperature
fluctuations caused by exposure to direct sunlight are not appropriate for epoxy mortar repair.

Preparation
Concrete to be repaired with epoxy mortar should be prepared. Prior to application of
the epoxy mortar, the concrete should be heated insufficient depth, when necessary, so that
the surface temperature (as measured by a surface temperature gage) does not drop below 40
F during the first 4 hours after placement of an epoxy bond coat. This may require several
hours of preheating with radiant heaters or other approved means. The concrete temperature
during preheating should never exceed 200 F, and the final surface temperature at the time
of placing epoxy materials should never be greater than 100 F.

Materials
Epoxy resins used to prepare epoxy mortar for use in concrete repair should be twocomponent, 100-percent solids type meeting the requirements of specification ASTM C-881
for type III, grade 2 class B or C. Class B epoxy is used between 40 and 60 F. Class C epoxy
is used about 60 F up to the highest temperature defined by the epoxy manufacturer.
The sand used in epoxy mortar must be clean, dry, well graded, and composed of
sound particles. For most applications, sand passing a No. 16 screen and conforming to the
following limits should be used:

Individual Percent,
Screen Number

by mass, retained
on screen

30

26 to 36

50

18 to 28

100

11 to 21

Pan

25 to 35

Range shown is applicable when 60 to 100 percent of pan is retained on No. 200
screen. When 41 to 100 percent of pan passes the No. 200 screen, the percent pan should be
within the range of 10 to 20 percent, and the individual percentages retained on the Nos. 30,
50, and 100 screens should be adjusted accordingly.
Sand processed for use in concrete rarely contains the required quantity of pan-size
sand. As a result, problems often arise in obtaining additional pan size material to supplement
sand available on the job site. A sand graded as shown above and properly mixed with an
epoxy meeting ASTM C-881 specifications will provide a dense, high strength, workable
epoxy mortar.
The sand should be maintained in a dry area at not less than 70 F for 24 hours
immediately prior to the time of use. Filler materials other than sand, such as portland
cement, can be used. However, for general applications, a natural sand is recommended.
It is also acceptable to obtain and use brand-name prepackaged epoxy mortar repair
systems that contain resin and sand, provided that the resin systems meet the ASTM C-881
specifications previously listed. Such mortar systems are manufactured specifically for
concrete repair and must be used in exact accordance with the manufacturers
recommendations.

Mixing

Preparation of epoxy mortar involves premixing proper quantities of epoxy resin and
hardener and then mixing the resin system with sand to make the epoxy mortar.
The epoxy resin used for mortar preparation is a two-component (part A and part B)
material that requires accurate combination of components and mixing prior to use. Once
mixed, the material has a limited pot life and must be used immediately. (Pot life refers to the
period of time elapsing between mixing of ingredients and their stiffening to the point where
satisfactory use cannot be achieved.) The repair resin should be prepared by adding the
required quantity of hardener (normally, part B) to the resin (normally part A) in proportions
recommended by the manufacturer, followed by thorough mixing. Since the pot life of the
mixture depends on the temperature (longer at low temperature, much shorter at high
temperature), the quantity to be mixed at one time should be that quantity that can be applied
within approximately 30 minutes. The addition of nonreactive thinners or diluents to the resin
mixture is not permitted since it weakens the epoxy.
The epoxy mortar is composed of sand and epoxy resin suitably blended to provide a
stiff, workable mix. Mix proportions should be established, batched, and reported on a weight
basis, although the dry sand and mixed epoxy may be batched by volume using suitable
measuring containers that have been calibrated on a weight basis. Epoxy meeting ASTM
specification C-881 will require approximately 5-1/2 to 6 parts of graded sand to 1 part
epoxy, by weight. This is equivalent to a ratio of approximately 4 to 4-1/2 parts sand to 1 part
epoxy, by volume. If equivalent volume proportions are being used, care must be taken to
prevent confusing them with weight proportions. It will be necessary to adjust the mix
proportions for the particular epoxy and sand being used. The epoxy mortar should be
thoroughly mixed with a slow-speed mechanical device. The mortar should be mixed in
small-size batches so that each batch can be completely mixed and placed within
approximately 30 minutes.

Application
Application of epoxy mortar repairs first requires application of a resin bond coat
followed by application and finishing of the epoxy mortar. Steel to be embedded in epoxy
mortar should be prepared, cleaned, and dried in the same manner as the concrete being
repaired. The exposed steel should be completely coated with epoxy bonding agent when the
agent is applied to the surfaces of the repair area.
A resin bond coat consisting of the same type epoxy resin used to mix the epoxy
mortar is applied to the prepared concrete surface immediately before placing the epoxy
mortar. After the bond-coat resin is mixed, it must be applied uniformly to the prepared, dry,
existing concrete at a coverage of not more than 80 square feet per gallon, depending on
surface conditions. The area of coverage per gallon of resin depends on the roughness of the
surface to be covered and may be considerably less than the maximum specified. The epoxy
bonding agent may be applied by any convenient, safe method such as squeegee, brushes, or
rollers which will yield an effective coverage. Spraying of the material is permitted if an
efficient airless spray is used and if the concrete surfaces to receive the agent are at a
temperature of 70 F or somewhat warmer. Before approving spraying, it should be
demonstrated that spraying will provide an adequate job with minimum overspray. If spray

application is used, the operator must wear a compressed air-fed hood, and no other personnel
should be closer than 100 feet if downwind of the operator.
During application of the epoxy bond coat, care must be exercised to confine the
material to the area being bonded and to avoid contamination of adjacent surfaces. However,
the bond coat should extend slightly beyond the edges of the repair area.
The applied epoxy bonding resin must be in a fluid condition when the epoxy mortar
is placed. If the resin cures beyond this fluid state but is still tacky, a second bond coat should
be applied over the first coat. If any bond coat has cured beyond the tacky state, it must be
completely removed by sandblasting, the concrete properly cleaned, and a new bond coat
applied.
Special care must be taken to prevent the bond coat from being spread over concrete
surfaces not properly cleaned and prepared.
Appropriate solvents may be used to clean tools and spray guns, but in no case should
the solvents be incorporated in any bonding agent. All tools must be completely dried before
reuse.
The prepared epoxy mortar should be tamped, flattened, and smoothed into place in
all areas while the bonding resin is still in a fluid condition, except that on steep slopes, the
bond coat can be allowed to stiffen to a very tacky condition to assist in holding the mortar in
place. Special care must be taken to thoroughly compact the epoxy mortar against the bond
coat. The mortar should be worked to grade and given a steel trowel finish. Special care must
be taken at the edges of the area being repaired to assure complete filling and leveling and to
prevent the mortar from being spread over surfaces not having the epoxy bond-coat
application. Steel troweling should best suit prevailing conditions; in general, it should be
performed by applying slow, even strokes. Trowels may be heated to facilitate the finishing,
but the use of thinner, diluents, water, or other lubricants on placing or finishing tools is not
permitted. After leveling the epoxy mortar to the finished grade where precision surfaces are
required on sloping, vertical, or overhead surfaces, the mortar should be covered with
plywood panels smoothly lined with polyethylene sheeting and weighted with sandbags or
otherwise braced by suitable means until the possibility of slumping has passed. When
polyethylene sheeting is used, no attempt should be made to remove it from the epoxy mortar
repair before final hardening.
Surfaces of all epoxy mortar repairs should be finished to the plane of surfaces
adjoining the repair areas. The final finished surfaces should have the same smoothness and
texture of surfaces adjoining the repair areas.

Curing
Epoxy mortar repairs should be cured immediately after completion at not less than
the temperature range prescribed by the class of the epoxy until the mortar is hard.
Postcuring, if required by the specifications, can then be initiated at elevated temperatures by
heating in depth the epoxy mortar and the concrete beneath the repair. Postcuring should
continue for a minimum of 4 hours at surface temperature generally not less than 90 F nor

more than 110 F. The heat could be supplied by use of portable propane-fired heater, infrared
lamp heaters, or other approved sources positioned to attain the required surface
temperatures.
In no case should epoxy-bonded mortar be subjected to moisture until after the
specified postcuring has been completed.
Epoxy mortars generally produce patches that are darker than the surrounding
concrete. Some available epoxies produce a gray-colored mortar resembling concrete.
However, these materials will rarely produce an exact color match. Grinding hardened epoxy
mortar may lighten its color to about that of the surfaces adjoining the repair areas. Epoxy
mortars can be colored by the addition of such materials as iron oxide red, chromium oxide
green, lampblack and titanium dioxide white for gray, and ocher yellow, although reclamation
rarely uses any materials to color the epoxy other than the sand for the mortar. Use of white
silica sand in the mortar will produce a white-looking patch; most natural riverborne sands
will produce darker colored mortars. Whenever epoxy mortar repair materials must be
colored to match adjacent concrete, laboratory mixes should be made to ascertain the proper
quantities of coloring constituents.

Safety
All personnel must be carefully instructed to take every precaution in preventing
epoxy resins and their components from contacting the skin and in preventing the breathing
of epoxy fumes or vapors. Protective clothing must be worn, including gloves and goggles,
and protective creams for other exposed skin areas should be provided when handling
epoxies, as severe allergic reactions and possible permanent health damage can result when
these materials are allowed to contact and remain upon the skin. Any deposits acquired
through accidental contact of these materials with unprotected skin must be removed
immediately by washing with soap and water, never with solvents. Solvents, such as toluene
and xylene, may be used only for cleaning epoxy from tools and equipment. Care must also
be exercised to avoid contact of cleaning operations. All safety equipment used must conform
to the requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Standards of the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration.

Epoxy-Bonded Replacement Concrete

Epoxy-bonded concrete is used for repairs to concrete that are between 1.5 and 6
inches thick. Shallow replacement concrete repairs, less than 6 inches thick, are subject to
poor curing conditions as a result of moisture loss to evaporation and to capillary absorption
by the old base concrete. Such repairs seldom develop acceptable bond strength to the old
concrete. The epoxy bonding resin is used to ensure a strong, durable bond between the old
concrete and the replacement concrete.

As with epoxy-bonded epoxy mortar, care should be exercised if epoxy-bonded


concrete is to be used to repair shallow deterioration resulting from corroding reinforcement.
The epoxy bond coat may create electrical potentials sufficiently different from potentials in
the surrounding concrete to result in accelerated corrosion at repair perimeters.

Materials
The materials used in epoxy-bonded concrete repairs consist of conventional portland
cement concrete and epoxy resin bonding agent.
The concrete used for epoxy-bonded repairs is the same as that used for replacement
concrete repairs except that the slump of the concrete when placed should not exceed 1-1/2
inches.
A number of proprietary epoxy formulations prepared for bonding new concrete to old
concrete are now available. Many of these materials are excellent high quality products and
can be used with reasonable certainty as to the results. However, some of the resins available
are unsuitable or untested for such repair applications, and care should be taken to use only
the epoxy bonding resins meeting the requirements of specifications ASTM C-881 for a type
II, grade 2, class B or C epoxy system. Class B epoxy should be used when the temperatures
are about 40 F but less than 60 F. Class C epoxy should be used when concrete
temperatures are from 60 F up to the maximum temperature recommended by the epoxy
manufacturer.
The epoxy resin used for epoxy-bonded concrete is a two-component, 100-percent
solids-resin system requiring accurate proportioning and thorough mixing prior to use. The
procedures should be followed during preparation and application of the resin. Conventional
concrete mixing procedures should be followed to mix the concrete.

Application
Use of epoxy-bonded concrete in repairs requiring forming, such as on steeply sloped
or vertical surfaces, can be permitted only when sufficient time has been allowed to place
concrete against the epoxy bonding resin while it is still fluid. If the resin cures before
placement of the concrete, no bond will develop between the old and new concrete. It is a
good idea to practice install such forms at least once before actually applying the epoxy bond
coat.
Immediately after application of the epoxy resin bonding agent and while the epoxy is
still fluid, uniform epoxy-bonded concrete should be spread evenly to a level slightly above
grade and compacted thoroughly by vibrating or tamping. Tampers should be sufficiently
heavy for thorough compaction. After being compacted and screeded, the concrete should be
given a wood-float or steel-trowel finish as required. Water, cement, or a mixture of dry
cement and sand should never be sprinkled on the surface. Troweling, if required, should be
performed at the proper time and with heavy pressure to produce a smooth, dense finish free

of defects and blemishes. As the concrete continues to harden, the surface should be given
additional trowelings.
The final troweling should be performed after the surface has hardened so that no
cement paste will adhere to the edge of the trowel, but excessive troweling cannot be
permitted.

Curing
Even though an epoxy bond coat is used, it still remains essential to properly cure
epoxy-bonded concrete. As soon as the epoxy-bonded concrete has hardened sufficiently to
prevent damage, the surface should be cured by spraying lightly with water and then covering
with sheet polyethylene or by coating with an approved curing compound. Curing compound
should be used whenever there is any possibility that freezing temperatures will prevail
during the curing period. Sheet polyethylene must be an airtight, non-staining, waterproof
covering that will effectively prevent evaporation. Edges of the polyethylene should be
lapped and sealed. The waterproof covering should be left in place for at least 2 weeks. If a
waterproof covering is used and the concrete is subjected to any usage during the curing
period that might rupture or otherwise damage the covering, the covering must be protected
by a suitable layer of clean, wet sand or other cushioning material that will not stain concrete.
Application of curing compound must be in accordance with appropriate standard procedures
as contained in the Concrete Manual (Bureau of Reclamation, 1975).

Safety
All personnel must be carefully instructed to take every precaution in preventing
epoxy resins and their components from contacting the skin and in preventing the breathing
of epoxy fumes or vapors. Protective clothing must be worn, including gloves and goggles,
and protective creams for other exposed skin areas should be provided when handling
epoxies, as severe allergic reactions and possible permanent health damage can result when
these materials are allowed to contact and remain upon the skin. Any deposits acquired
through accidental contact of these materials with unprotected skin must be removed
immediately by washing with soap and water, never with solvents. Solvents, such as toluene
and xylene, maybe used only for cleaning epoxy from tools and equipment. Care must also be
exercised to avoid contact of cleaning solvents with the skin and to provide adequate
ventilation for mixing, placing, and cleanup operations. All safety equipment used must
conform to the requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Standards of the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

Resin Injection

Resin injection is used to repair concrete that is cracked or delaminated and to seal
cracks in concrete to water leakage. Two basic types of resin and injection techniques are
used to repair concrete: epoxy resins and polyurethane resins.
Epoxy resins cure to form solids with high strength and relatively high moduli of
elasticity. These materials bond readily to concrete and are capable, when properly applied, of
restoring the original structural strength to cracked concrete. The high modulus of elasticity
causes epoxy resin systems to be unsuitable for rebonding cracked concrete that will undergo
subsequent movement. The epoxies, however, do not cure very quickly, particularly at low
temperatures, and using them to stop large flows of water may not be practical. Cracks to be
injected with epoxy resins should be between 0.005 inch and 0.25 inch in width. It is difficult
or impossible to inject resin into cracks less than 0.005 inch in width, while it is very difficult
to retain injected epoxy resin in cracks greater than 0.25 inch in width, although high
viscosity epoxies have been used with some success. Epoxy resins cure to form relatively
brittle materials with bond strengths exceeding the shear or tensile strength of the concrete. If
these materials are used to rebond cracked concrete that is subsequently exposed to loads
exceeding the tensile or shear strength of the concrete, it should be expected that the cracks
will recur adjacent to the epoxy bond line. In other words, epoxy resin should not be used to
rebond working cracks.
Epoxy resins will bond with varying degrees of success to wet concrete, and there are
a number of special techniques that have been developed and used to rebond and seal water
leaking cracks with epoxy resins. These special techniques and procedures are highly
technical and, in most cases, are proprietary in nature.
Polyurethane resins are used to seal and eliminate or reduce water leakage from
concrete cracks and joints. They can also be injected into cracks that experience some small
degree of movement. Such systems, with the exception of the two-part solid polyurethanes,
have relatively low strengths and should not be used to structurally rebond cracked concrete.
Cracks to be injected with polyurethane resin should not be less than 0.005 inch in width. No
upper limit on crack width has been established for the polyurethane resins at the time this is
being written.
Polyurethane resins are available with substantial variation in their physical
properties. Some of the polyurethanes cure into flexible foams. Other polyurethane systems
cure to semi-flexible, high-density solids that can be used to rebond concrete cracks subject
to movement. Most of the foaming polyurethane resins require some form of water to initiate
the curing reaction and are, thus, a natural selection for use in repairing concrete exposed to
water or in wet environments. At the time this is written, there are no standard specifications
for polyurethane resins equivalent to the Standard Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base
Bonding Systems for Concrete, ASTM Designation C-881. This current lack of standards,
combined with the wide variations possible in polyurethane physical properties, creates the
necessity that great care be exercised in selecting these resins for concrete repair.
Cookbook-type application of these resins will not be successful. Because of the high costs
(generally about $200 per linear foot of injected crack), resin injection is not normally used to
repair shallow, drying shrinkage or pattern cracking.

Preparation

Cracks, joints, or lift lines to be injected with resin should be cleaned to remove all
the contained debris and organic matter possible. Several techniques have been used, with
varying degrees of success, for cleaning such cracks. Once injection holes have been drilled,
repeated cycles of alternately injecting compressed air followed by water have been very
useful in flushing and cleaning cracks subject to water leakage. The successful use of soaps in
the flushing water has been reported by some practitioners. Complete removal of such
materials once injected into cracks is troublesome and may create more problems than it is
worth. The use of acids to flush and clean cracks is strongly discouraged. Cracks subject to
epoxy injection for purposes of structural rebonding should not normally be injected with
water. The epoxy resins will bond to wet concrete, but they develop high bond strength when
bonding to dry concrete.

Materials
Epoxy resin used for crack injection should be a 100-percent solids resin that meets
the requirements of specification ASTM C-881 for type I or IV, grade 1, class B or C. If the
purpose of injection is to restore the concrete to its original design load bearing capabilities, a
type IV epoxy should be specified and used. If the purpose does not involve restoration of
load bearing capabilities, a type of I epoxy is sufficient. No solvents or unreactive diluents
should be permitted in the resin.
Polyurethane resin used for crack injection should be a two-part system composed of
100-percent polyurethane resin as one part and water as the second part. The polyurethane
resin, when mixed with water, should be capable of forming either a closed cell flexible foam
or a cured gel, dependent on the water to resin mixing ratio. However, the resin should be
such that, with appropriate water to resin mixing ratios, the resulting cured resin foam can
attain at least 20-psi tensile strength with a bond to concrete of at least 20 psi and a minimum
elongation at tensile failure of 400 percent. The manufacturers certification stating that the
product meets these requirements should be required before the injection resins are accepted
for use on the job.

Injection Equipment
Resins can be injected with several types of equipment. Small repair jobs employing
epoxy resin can use any system that will successfully deposit the epoxy in the required zones.
Such systems could use a prebatch arrangement in which the two components of the epoxy
are batched together prior to initiating the injection phase with equipment such as a small
paint pressure pot. The relatively short pot life of the epoxy makes this technique rather
critical as far as timing is concerned.
Large epoxy injection jobs generally require a single-stage injection technique in
which the two epoxy components are pumped independently of one another from the
reservoir to the mixing nozzle. At the mixing nozzle, located adjacent to the crack being
repaired, the two epoxy components are brought together for mixing and injecting. The epoxy
used in this injection technique must have a low initial viscosity and a closely controlled set
time. Several private companies have proprietary epoxy injection systems. These

organizations have developed epoxies and techniques which allow them to make satisfactory
repairs under the most adverse conditions.
Polyurethane resins have a very short pot life after mixing and are always prepared
and injected with multiple component, single stage proprietary equipment similar to that used
for large-scale epoxy repairs. Reclamation specifications do not permit single component
injection of 100-percent pure resin. In every instance, multiple component water-resin
mixtures or resin (part A)-resin (part B) mixtures must be used. This equipment mixes the
resin system components just prior to the point of crack injection. The size of polyurethane
injection equipment varies from small, hand-operated pumps to full-size commercial
equipment capable of discharging many cubic feet of resin per hours. The pumping pressure
required of polyurethane injection equipment may exceed 3,000 psi. There are a number of
high-quality, polyurethane-resin injection-equipment manufacturers, and there is seldom any
cause to attempt polyurethane injection with equipment designed for, or adapted from, other
operations. Such adaptation is usually indicative of an inexperienced contractor and is highly
discouraged.

Application
The success of resin injection repair projects is directly related to the experience and
knowledge of the injection contractor. An injection contractor have a minimum of three
years experience in performing injection work similar to that being contracted for and that a
minimum of five projects be included in that experience. An injection contractor not having
the required experience may be acceptable provided that the work is performed under the
full-time, direct technical supervision of the injection resin manufacturer, provided the
manufacturer has a minimum of five years experience providing resins for applications
similar to those specified.

Application of Epoxy Resin by Pressure Injection


The objective of epoxy resin injection is to completely fill the crack or delamination
being injected and retain the resin in the filled voids until cure is complete. The first step in
the resin injection process is to thoroughly clean the concrete surface in the vicinity of the
cracks of all loose or deteriorated concrete and debris. The area of injection is then inspected
and the injection port location pattern established. Several different types of injection patterns
can be used:

If the cracks are clearly visible and relatively open, injection ports can be
installed at appropriate intervals by drilling directly into the crack surface. Care
should be taken in drilling the ports to prevent drilling debris and dust from
blocking or sealing the openings. Special vacuum drill chucks are available for
this work. The surface of the crack between ports is then sealed with epoxy paste,
and the paste is allowed to cure. Epoxy injection begins at the lowest elevation
port and proceeds along and up the crack to the uppermost port.

A more positive method is to drill holes on alternate sides of the crack, angled
to intersect the crack plane at some depth below the surface. This method ensures
that the crack will be intersected even if it strikes or dips in unexpected directions.
The top surface of the crack is then sealed with epoxy paste, and injection is
accomplished as described above.

The best method of ensuring quality epoxy injection work is to require the
contractor to prepare and submit for approval his overall, detailed injection plan and then to
obtain small diameter proof cores from the injected concrete. If more than 90 percent of the
voids in the cores are filled with hardened epoxy, the injection can be considered complete.
If not, the contractor should be required to reinject the concrete and obtain additional cores.

Application of Polyurethane Resin by Pressure Injection


The basic procedure for polyurethane injection consists of first gaining control of the
leaking water, followed by pressure injecting resin to seal the cracks. In most instances, the
polyurethane injection procedure is almost identical to the processes followed for
cementitious grouting.
To gain control of the waterflow, holes are drilled to intercept the waterflow paths as
far as possible from the concrete surface. Valved drains known as wall spears are installed
in the drilled holes, opened, and used to relieve water pressure in the cracks near the surface.
The cracks are then temporarily sealed with wood wedges, lead wool, or resin soaked jute
rope to prevent excessive loss of injection resin.
Additional resin injection holes are then drilled on alternate sides of the crack at
maximum spacing of 24 inches. These holes are angled to intercept the crack at a dept of 8 to
24 inches (as concrete thickness allows, these holes should extend as deeply as possible).
Injection ports of various design or additional valved wall spears may be installed in the
drilled holes, depending on the injection plan and the presence of flowing water.
Polyurethane resin injection should occur according to a preplanned sequence. A
system of split spacing similar to cementitious grouting is often successful. In such a system,
the primary holes are injected first, followed by drilling and injection of secondary holes
located between the primary holes. Similarly, tertiary holes, located between the secondary
holes and primary holes are then drilled and injected. Injection pressures should be the
minimum pressures necessary to accomplish resin travel and filling. Even so, pressures of
1,500 to 2,000 psi are common in this work. Closure of each injection hole should be
accomplished by holding injection pressure for a period of 10 to 15 minutes after injection
flow has ceased. This technique of closure to absolute refusal ensures that the resin attains
maximum density in the crack and becomes a permanent repair. It is usually a mistake to stop
injection as soon as the water leakage is stopped. If such a procedure is followed, the partially
cured, low-density resin can be pushed out of the crack system by hydrostatic pressure, and
repeat injection will be required to seal the resulting leakage.

It is also common practice to intermittently inject resin into a port in order to


accomplish sealing of large waterflows. With this technique, a preselected quantity of resin is
slowly injected into a port, followed by a 15-minute to 2-hour waiting period before repeat
injection. Several such cycles of injection may be necessary to control and seal large
waterflows. It is still necessary that closure to absolute refusal be accomplished with the final
injection cycle.
Polyurethane resin injection is accomplished with varying water to resin ratios. In
cases of high waterflows, it may be desirable to inject water to resin ratios as low as 0.5:1.
Alternatively, the water and resin may be introduced and mixed in a residence tube 1 to 5
feet before the point of injection so the foaming reaction may be well underway upon
entering the crack network. Special downhole packers can be utilized to inject resin at points
deep within a structure. If resin components are mixed and injected at the surface of such
deep holes, the reaction will occur within the drill hole before reaching the desired point of
injection into the cracks. These special packers allow separation of the resin components until
the reach the downhole point of crack injection.
The necessity of using experienced injection contractors or technical advisors for
work of this nature cannot be overemphasized.

Clean-up
At the completion of resin injection, all injection ports, excess resin, and crack surface
sealer should be removed from surfaces that are visible to the public. This can be
accomplished by scraping, high pressure water blasting, or grinding. The use of dry pack or
other replacement repair material necessary to fill injection holes should be anticipated and
provided by the specifications.

References
American Concrete Institute, Cement and Concrete Technology. ACI 116R-90, Detroit, MI,
1990.

Bureau of Reclamation, 1975, Concrete Manual, eighth edition. Bureau of Reclamation


Technical Service center, Denver, 1975.

Smoak, W. Glenn, Effect of high range water reducers on cement grout. Concrete
International 15(1)56:61, January 1993.

Warner, James, Understanding ShotcreteThe Fundamentals. Concrete International


17(5):59-64, May 1995.

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