SOIL SAMPLING AND TESTING

FOR
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
TECHNICIANS

TRAINING MANUAL

Developed by
Multi-Regional Training and Certification Task Group
August 1999
Revised 2006

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic
Preface
To the Student
Soils: Their Origin and Their Existence
ASTM D 2488
Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure) Unified Method
ASTM D 3665
Random Sampling of Construction Materials
AASHTO T 248
Reducing Field Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size
AASHTO T 265
Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils
AASHTO T 87
Dry Preparation of Disturbed Soil and Soil Aggregate Samples for Test
AASHTO T 100
Specific Gravity of Soils
AASHTO T 88
Particle Size Analysis of Soils . . .
AASHTO T 89
Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils . . .
AASHTO T 90
Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils
AASHTO T99 and AASHTO T 180
Moisture-Density Relations of Soils . . .
AASHTO T 191
Density of Soil In-Place by the Sand-Cone Method

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

Topic
AASHTO T 272
Moisture-Density Relations of Soils
Family of Curves - One Point Method
AASHTO T 310
Density of Soil and Soil-Aggregate In-Place by Nuclear Method (Shallow Depth)
and
Moisture Content of Soil and Soil-Aggregate In-Place by Nuclear Method
(Shallow Depth)
ASTM D 2487
Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes
(Unified Soil Classification System)

PREFACE
The Code of Federal Regulations, Part 637, requires all personnel performing sampling and testing
for control or acceptance (QC/QA) to be qualified after June 29, 2000. This means that before this
date, each state highway department must have an approved program in place to evaluate
individuals who will perform such sampling and testing. This manual was
developed under the sponsorship of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) to assist
states in meeting this requirement. The training packages in this manual were developed by
representatives from state highway departments and the FHWA. The individual procedures
included in this manual were selected by representatives of state highway agencies, the
FHWA, academia, and the national transportation industry at the 1997 Multiregional Training and
Certification Conference. The group selected the test methods (AASHTO and ASTM)
included in this manual based on their knowledge of tests used in the transportation industry. The
use of AASHTO and ASTM procedures also supports the reciprocity of the personnel
qualification programs between different state highway agencies. States are free to use these
materials as they wish. They can be used as presented, modified to match the agencys own
testing procedures, expanded to include state specifications, sampling procedures,
documentation, etc. Each state should use their own standard forms for the documentation of test
results. No forms are provided with this manual. The prerequisites listed for each
procedure are recommendations and may be changed by the user.
This manual contains training materials for the area of soils. The training materials are written to be
programmed interactive texts, in which the student studies them at the individuals own pace, or to
be used as texts for instructor guided classes. The packages are designed to
provide the student with a background in the construction-related characteristics and
properties of the material, testing theory, and practical testing guidelines. These training
materials will provide the student with basic information about each test protocol. They should be
used in conjunction with laboratory or field experience in the performance of the
procedures. The manual will assist in preparing for state qualification/certification by
developing the skills needed to pass both written and performance evaluations. The student should
read the preface and the section To the Student for specific information about the
training packages in that material area.
Students are to use the mathematical rounding rules for each state agency in performing
calculations for qualification testing. The rounding used in this manual reflects that of the
AASHTO procedure.
A separate CD-ROM containing performance evaluations and example written exams is also
available for each state. The written exams are based on the information contained in each
study package. The performance evaluations provide a standardized grading system to evaluate
the technicians mastery of the procedure. This CD-ROM will be made available to state training
officers for their use in developing a testing program for QC/QA personnel.

TO THE STUDENT
This training manual is designed to provide the student with comprehensive general
information about soils and the testing of these materials for construction purposes.
The manual is organized into sections based on AASHTO or ASTM tests. The training packages
are in the presentational order recommended by the M-TRAC team. Some of these procedures
are prerequisites for others, because of their complexity or because it is usually necessary to
perform one procedure before another in order to obtain test results.
The individual training packages follow the same format throughout the manual. Each
individual procedure is organized in the following order:
Title Page
Prerequisites
Table of Contents
Basic Information About the Soil Property Being Tested
Summary of Procedure - a brief description of how to perform the test
Common Procedural Errors
Typical Test Results
Test Methodology - a complete rewrite of the procedure in simple terms, including any
steps not completely spelled out in the original test procedure. This section may
include photos, diagrams, etc. as training aids. The section is organized in a standard
outline format.
Glossary - terms relating specifically to the procedure

The training packages can be used to study at your own pace to learn basic information about
construction properties of the material and how to perform the procedures or as a reference text
for an instructor-guided class. The training package will serve as a reference as you progress with
your study. This manual will assist you in preparing to pass the written examinations and
performance evaluations that are a part of this course. These materials will be of benefit to you in
becoming a qualified/certified technician or inspector.
It is the intent of the FHWA to maintain these training materials current to any changes that
occur in these testing protocols following this publication date. For information on the latest
edition of these training materials, have your training office contact the FHWA Midwest
Resource Center.

INSTRUCTORS
GUIDE

Developed
by
Multi-Regional Soils & Certification Group
August 1999
Revised 2006

PREFACE
This guide is designed to assist training personnel, highway engineers, and technicians in
presenting the material encompassed by this course. The material should be presented as a
combination of instruction, demonstration, and hands-on practice. The instructional sessions
should be followed by a period of job experience in which the student has the opportunity to
become proficient in the performance of these tests. Written exams and performance
evaluations should not be administered until students have had adequate time for material
mastery.
The material contained in this training course is specific to AASHTO sampling and testing
protocols and should be used as a basis for establishing a qualification program. When used
as published, this program meets the intent of the training requirements of CFR, Part 637.
This manual, used as designed, will meet FHWA requirements. Any additions based on a
states individual requirements should be made as a supplement to the basic training materials.
Changes to these published procedures may negate FHWA approval of this course.
RECIPROCITY
It is recommended that states teach these basic AASHTO procedures first, supplementing the
standard materials with the states policies and unique procedures. Trainees would then be
qualified for the AASHTO procedures, enabling them to present their credentials for reciprocal
qualification in other states.

Instructor's Guide - i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic

Page

Preface . . . ...Instructor's Guide - i

Formal Instruction . . .. .Instructor's Guide - 1
Presentational Order . . . ..Instructor's Guide - 1
Customization . . .. .Instructor's Guide - 1
Lecture Sessions....Instructor's Guide - 2
Technical Demonstrations. ..Instructor's Guide - 3
Hands-on Practice. ....Instructor's Guide - 3

FORMAL INSTRUCTION
PRESENTATIONAL ORDER
The course developers recommend that the materials be presented in the following order:
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g
g

Soils: Their Origins and Their Existence

Why We Test Soils
ASTM D2487, Visual Classification
ASTM D3665, Random Sampling
T-248, Reducing Samples
T-87, Dry Preparation of Soils
T-100, Specific Gravity
T-88, Particle Size Analysis
T-89/90, Atterberg Limits
Moisture/Density Theory, Introduction to T-99
T-99, Moisture-Density
T-191, Sand-Cone Method
T-272, Family of Curves
T-238/T-239, Nuclear Moisture/Density
D2488, Unified Classification

This sequence leads the student logically from the simplest procedures to the more complex,
in the same basic progression typically used for soil sample evaluations.
CUSTOMIZATION
Each state should customize its presentations to reflect typical soil and soil-aggregate
materials which occur within the states geography. Additionally, any unique geomorphological
or geological characteristics within state boundaries should be included. The presentation on
the origins and existence of soils should be followed by examples from state geology, soil
maps, soil/vegetation relationships, etc. The typical test results, common testing errors, and
unique problems of each test procedure should also be modified to reflect local/state soil
engineering characteristics. No reporting forms are included in these materials. State
presenters should use their own standard forms for the documentation of test results. The
state should not rewrite the published materials, but expand them to include local soil
characteristics. Changes to these published procedures may negate FHWA approval of this
course.
Differences between state highway agency testing procedures and the AASHTO procedures
should also be noted. If state procedures differ from the AASHTO procedures, the state will
need to document that the state procedure will yield the same test results as that of the
AASHTO procedure.

Instructor's Guide - 1

LECTURE SESSIONS
The information contained in these materials can be used in a formal classroom, in front of
small workgroups, or even one-on-one. The slide presentations are, of course, designed for
use in a formal class. The student text can be used as modules or as a complete manual. It is
to be noted, that the Pilot Program established that the complete course is too long and too
detailed to be effectively presented to beginners in one session. For most effective learning,
students should be close to the same level of experience and competency. It is
recommended that the course be divided into logical blocks for extended presentations, which
can be followed by periods of on-the-job training.
It is critical that the initial presentation include:
the reasons for performing the test
the importance of standardized testing techniques and precision in obtaining results
how the test fits in with other tests to determine the engineering characteristics of the soil
specifications regarding the test result and the reasons for these values
differences between the state procedure and the AASHTO procedure
critical testing steps and commonplace errors
documentation and reporting of test results

Instructor's Guide - 2

TECHNICAL DEMONSTRATIONS
As part of the instructional process, each lecture session should be closely followed by a
practical demonstration of the test procedure. This demonstration should be conducted by a
technical trainer who is extremely proficient at the intricacies of the procedure. This section of
the training session is an opportunity for students to see the procedure performed correctly.
The demonstration should include an on-going discussion of proper testing techniques which
are critical to obtaining correct results. Commonly used, but incorrect techniques or short
cutes, should also be stressed, with the errors caused by such mistakes highlighted. Time
must be allowed for technical questions and answers during the demonstrations. Student
involvement must be encouraged. The demonstration must be made to groups small enough
that the testing techniques are clearly visible to each student and the potential for discussion is
maximized.

HANDS-ON PRACTICE
Following the demonstration, each student should perform the test under the supervision of an
experienced technician. One soil sample should be used for all testing so that at the end of
the entire program, the student will have performed a complete evaluation of a specific
material. This will provide continuity leading to a progressive understanding of soil behavior,
how each test contributes to the complete analyzation of the soil, and how the basic
engineering properties of a soil are determined. The use of a single material also allows the
instructor to compare student results to predetermined results for that sample so that the
student knows how well the results compare to the standard.

CAUTION
The use of teams during hands-on training sessions,
while expedient, is not to be encouraged. When more
than one person is responsible for the result, the
student who is more proficient than the other team
members will tend to dominate the practice session.
The less proficient students will look to the more
experienced teammate to take responsibility for team
results, thus negating the intent of the practice
session.

Instructor's Guide - 3

SOILS
Their Origin and Their Existence

Developed by
FHWA Multi-regional Soils Training & Certification Group
August 1999

PREFACE
The volume of knowledge about geology (the study of the earth), geomorphology (study of the
physical forms of the earth), and pedology (study of soils) requires that many generalizations
be made in this text. This course is designed to provide the student with broad knowledge
about soil formation and soil characteristics. It will show how these characteristics can predict
the performance of a soil for a specific engineering purpose. The information in this course will
enable the technician to exercise improved evaluation techniques when analyzing the results
of soils testing. This information will assist geotechnical personnel in analyzing test results as
part of subgrade/foundation studies to determine the appropriate use of soils for highway
construction. Knowledge of geology and soil mechanics (how soils behave) will enable the
technician to predict the response of a specific soil to a specific test and to recognize test
results which do not conform to normalcy.
Books on geology, soil mechanics and related subjects are readily available from libraries,
book
stores, professional societies, and government agencies. The authors of this training course
encourage the technician to use these resources to supplement this material and to continue
the study of soils.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 1
Geology - Shaping the Earths Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 2
Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 2
Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 2
Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 3
Figure 1: Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 4
Figure 2: Idealized Cross Section of Plate Tectonics . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 4
Physiography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 5
Physiography of the Continental United States . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 5
Figure 3: Vegetation Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 7
Figure 4: Geologic Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 7
Figure 5: Topographic Map of the United States and Canada
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 8
Soil Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 9
Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 9
Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 9
Mass Wasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 10
Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 10
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 10
Figure 6: Major Processes of Degradation and Transportation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 11
Figure 7: Generalized Rock/Soil Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 12
Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 13
Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 15
Figure 8: Soil Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 16
Parent Material (Rock Detritus) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 17
Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 17
Geologic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 17
Figure 9: Geologic Time Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 18
Biological (Fauna and Flora) Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 19
Soil Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 19
Figure 10: Soil Profile Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 20
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 21
Soil Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 22
Figure 11: Dominant Soil Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 24
Manufactured Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 25
Figure 12: General Soil Map (Sabine Parish, LA) . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 26
Figure 13: Soil Types Mapped on Aerial Photo . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 27
Economic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 28
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 28
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils: Origin & Existence - 29
iii

iv

INTRODUCTION
Humans have walked upon soil without much thought since earliest times. In many instances,
soil has been treated with disdain. Many people consider soil just to be ordinary "dirt." They
curse it when their vehicle becomes stuck in the mud. Mothers become upset when their
children play in it and become "dirty." This mind set has spilled over into our language to the
extent dirty and soiled have become synonymous with such words as stained, foul, filthy,
nasty, sordid, and other derogatory words. We hear it daily in such phrases as "dirty politics" or
"soiled reputation." We are bombarded constantly by the advertising industry trumpeting the
value of each soap product in removing the dirt from our hands, hair, clothes, floors, and cars
as though they are trying to eradicate soil from the face of the earth.
In reality, soil comprises much of the earths surface and without this complex mix of mineral
fragments, organic material, moisture, and gases, as well as the biological and chemical
processes resulting from it, life as we know it would not exist on our planet. Soil is the upper
layer of the earth's crust. Soil provides us with a continuous supply of food, lumber for homes,
pigment for artists, medicine for health problems, clay for bricks and fine china. It contains our
groundwater, provides support and construction material for our buildings, roads and airports,
and other benefits unlimited in number.
Soil is a constantly changing substance. The beginning of organized study of this natural
material has been lost in antiquity. However, we do know that humans have practiced
agriculture for thousands of years. The knowledge gained from farming activities has led
directly to extensive soil management techniques and practices. We also know that society has
been involved in constructing sophisticated foundations and roadways with soils at least since
Roman times. These construction activities have led to what is commonly known as soil
mechanics (the study of soil behavior). Studies of the earth's crust have been brought about by
various needs and interests. These studies have been used by different disciplines including,
soil scientists, soil engineers, agricultural engineers, geologists, engineering geologists,
architects, architectural engineers, geotechnical engineers, and geophysicists. All these fields
of technology have been created for different purposes; however, they are all tied together by
this one material, soil. There is much overlap in these disciplines. They all use information
from soil samples tested under field and laboratory conditions.
As technicians we need to have an understanding, not only of the technical world of field and
laboratory testing of soils, but also of the origin and nature of these materials. This knowledge
will enable the technician to know where and how to select meaningful samples, so that the
results of any test become more than just a number. A background in soil study will make test
results take on real value. The technician will be able to correlate them to a particular soil and
its condition and origin to rapidly determine if a result is reasonable (therefore, valid) for a
particular soil.
Anyone without a background in soils may believe soils, like other materials used in
construction, behave in a stable manner and that simple, routine tests can accurately predict
the materials performance. A test result is just the beginning in the evaluation of a soil sample.
Judgement is an absolute necessity in this process. Each soil, like human fingerprints, is
unique. To understand the uniqueness of soils, let us start with their beginnings.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 1

GEOLOGY - SHAPING THE EARTHS SURFACE

The origin and development of the earth is a subject of much speculation and scientific
investigation. Whether Earth is a result of the Big Bang or some other cosmic cataclysm, the
end result has been the creation of a unique planetary body. The earth, 4.5 billion years old, is
not a dead mass of rock whirling through space. It is a dynamic system comprised of various
interrelated subsystems for which scientists are just beginning to develop an understanding.
STRUCTURE
The earth is an imperfect spheroid approximately 12 875 km (8000 mi) in diameter rotating on
its axis, west to east, generating surface speeds at the equator in excess of 1 600 km (1000 mi)
per hour. Chemical differentiation due to the internal heat of the earth caused by friction from
compression and radioactive decay has resulted in identifiable layering. Moving from the
surface toward the center, the earth is composed of a very thin crust, the mantle, and the core.
During early stages of the planets development, heavy elements, such as nickel and iron, sank
to the earths core while lighter elements such as aluminum, silicon, and oxygen migrated to the
surface. This separation has resulted in materials at the surface of continents having average
specific gravities of approximately 2.65, while the specific gravity within the core may be as high
as 15.
The earths atmosphere and water were formed later than the planet. Not until green algae
evolved did oxygen begin to accumulate. Green algae performed in early earth much the way
plants add to the oxygen supply today by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. The
planets water supply came from the condensation of gases released through volcanic activity.
This process still continues at a steady rate.
The earths surface layer is composed of numerous plates of crustal material literally floating in
mantle material, like large rafts, much as wood floats on water. This is known as the principle
of isostasy. These crustal materials are of two types. Basaltic material approximately 6 km (4
mi) thick lies beneath the oceans. The continental crust generally consists of granitic material
an average of 35 km (22 mi) thick. Where mountains, high plateaus, and major sedimentary
basins have formed, these continental rock masses may be as much as 70 km (40 mi) thick.
PLATE TECTONICS
The configuration, composition, and structure of the earth are best explained by a phenomenon
termed plate tectonics. The lighter and rigid crustal material floating in the hot, melted upper
layer of the mantle allows the crust to tear and become segmented into large irregular plates,
(Figure 1). These plates, adrift in a sea of molten magma, move relative to one another at
measurable rates of 10 - 100 mm/yr (0.4 - 4 in./yr). The continents, imbedded in these plates,
move in unison giving rise to the term continental drift. Crustal plates exhibit three different
types of boundaries:

Soils: Origin & Existence - 2

 Shear
Boundaries

These occur when plates slide by one another displacing crustal

material along the shear (strike-slip fault). A well known example of
this feature is the San Andreas Fault of California.

Subduction
Zones

These occur when plates collide forcing the margin of one plate under
the other. This process drags crustal material downward where it is
melted and returned to the crust as magma. Much of the volcanic
activity around the Pacific Rim (commonly known as the Ring of Fire)
is related to this process.

Spreading
Boundaries

These are areas where molten rock from depth rises and fills rifts left
as plates separate. This occurs at mid-ocean ridges. As this molten
rock filling cools and crystallizes new ocean crustal rock is formed.
The best known feature of this type is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

The rising of molten materials at the mid-ocean ridges and the down-surging of the crustal
material in the zones of subduction at the plates margins are part of a cycle which continually
replenishes crustal rock. (Refer to Figure 2.) It is thought that due to temperature differences
between the layers of the earth, thermal convection cells form with molten material rising from
depth into the rifts along zones of separation. As these molten materials cool, they form new
ocean crustal rock which is then pulled across the ocean floor and down into the subduction
zones to be melted again. These new melts are then refined by heat and pressure. Due to the
lower density, the granitic portions become continental crust by being ejected as lava during
volcanic action or injected as batholiths (or similar features).

COMPOSITION
Igneous rocks are those formed by the cooling of magmas (complex siliceous solutions) which
have risen from deep within the earth. Igneous rocks are of two basic types, intrusive and
extrusive.
Intrusive (Plutonic) - These are granitic rocks which make up the greater part of large
intrusions such as batholiths. They are coarse grained as a result of being crystallized
at depth while cooling slowly.
Extrusive (Volcanic) - These are basaltic rocks which occur primarily as lava flows.
They are fine grained to glassy due to the very rapid cooling and crystallization at the
crusts surface.
Granite has a silica content of approximately 70%, while basalt contains approximately 50%.
(Silica is what is commonly termed quartz [SiO2]). Therefore, silicate mineral rocks are the
building blocks of the planet. Because silica is highly resistant to weathering, it has a direct
bearing on the development of land forms. This resistance to weathering also makes silica a
major component of soils.
Soils: Origin & Existence - 3

Figure 1
Plate Tectonics

Figure 2
Idealized Cross Section of Plate Tectonics

Soils: Origin & Existence - 4

PHYSIOGRAPHY
Plate tectonics create tremendous forces within the rocks of the earths crust. As these plates
collide, slide by, or override one another, huge upwellings of molten rock occur, mountain
ranges rise, and significant crustal tears are created. Worldwide, the two dominant topographic
features are the ocean basins and continents. The maximum relief between Mt. Everest
(Himalayan Mountains), the highest continental elevation, and the deepest ocean trough
(Philippine Deep) is approximately 19 km (12 mi). This, however, is a very small distance
compared to the radius of the planet. Most relief is of very small magnitude and many areas of
the continents are virtually flat. Exposure of the continental surfaces over long periods of
geologic time to the deforming forces of plate tectonics and the ravages of climate have
produced the surface that we see in our daily activities.
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES
The continental United States is mostly a broad central plain lying between ranges of mountains
to the west and east. These three major divisions are readily recognizable from geology,
topography, climate, and biodiversity. Traveling east or west, going into or out of these areas,
the changes are usually rather abrupt.
The central plains are comprised primarily of the high plains called the Great Plains and the
Central Lowlands (high-grass prairies). Toward the south these areas transition into the coastal
plain along the Gulf Coast. These plains and prairie areas may locally exhibit considerable
relief from erosion; however, they are essentially flat with horizontally layered formations.
Within this vast region there are some anomalies of limited area which disrupt its "flatness."
These include the Arbuckle, Ouachita, and Ozark mountains of Oklahoma and Arkansas.
The Appalachian System, which forms the eastern border of the central plain, is a continuous
series of small mountain ranges of parallel ridges and valleys created by severely folded strata
which has also been heavily faulted. Much of the faulting is characterized by formations having
been pushed up and over adjacent rocks (thrust faulting) indicating significant compression and
resulting crustal shortening.
West of the central plains, the approximately 1600 km (1000 mi) wide cordilleran system rises
much higher and with greater expanse than the Appalachian system of mountains to the east.
These features, essentially parallel to the Pacific coast, result from a complex history of
intrusive batholiths, extrusive lava flows, and folding with extensive faulting. This mountain
region includes the Rocky Mountains, Cascade-Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the coast ranges
near the Pacific Ocean. Between these individual mountain ranges are broad plateaus
including the Colorado Plateau west of the southern Rockies and the Columbia Plateau
between the Rockies and Cascades. This mountainous area is associated with the Pacific rim
volcanic activity commonly referred to as the "Ring of Fire." It is also at the boundary of the
Pacific and North American tectonic plates.
Within these three major physiographic regions, there are smaller areas with readily
recognizable differences in landform, vegetation (Figure 3), and climate. Some exhibit deep
canyons with high cliffs and streams with turbulent currents. Some are characterized by gentle
slopes, rounded hills, and slow moving water. Others are essentially flat for extended
Soils: Origin & Existence - 5

distances. Each of these subdivisions has its own unique characteristics and similarities which
allow their separation into geologically-based provinces (Figure 4).
The type of rock, the structure, landforms, erosional patterns, and soil types are all related to
physiography and the resulting topography. Both are indicators of geological history. (Refer to
Figure 5.) Studying this history provides the knowledge to comprehend the ever evolving crust
of the earth. The soil sample in the testing laboratory relates directly to this history. The
following are some basic concepts to be considered when interpreting landscapes.
What we see at this moment has resulted from modifications to a former surface
over geologic time.
The same processes and gravitational laws that are in operation today have
influenced landscape development throughout geologic time.
Geology is a dominant factor in controlling the landscape which evolves in an
area and is reflected in it.
Each chemical and physical process develops its own characteristic landform.
As erosion occurs, a sequence of landforms develops which are distinctive of
their stage of development; either youth, maturity, or old age.
Evolution of crustal surface is more complex than simple.
Climate is a direct, significant contributor to surface evolution. Landscape,
vegetation, and soils are dependent on this factor.
Everything in nature tends to develop in cycles. Erosional cycle, hydrologic
cycle, soil cycle, rock cycle, and life cycle are all examples of nature forming,
changing state, reclaiming, and reforming.
What we see as the crust's surface at the moment is the beginning of a new
landscape.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 6

Figure 3
Vegetation Distribution

Figure 4
Geologic Provinces

Soils: Origin & Existence - 7

Topographic Map of the United States and Canada

Figure 5

Soils: Origin & Existence - 8

SOIL DEVELOPMENT
Each facet of society develops its own definition of soil depending on its interests and needs.
Therefore, many different definitions have resulted. To the general public, soil is simply dirt.
Webster's Dictionary defines soil as "the upper layer of earth that may be dug or plowed: the
loose surface material of the earth in which plants grow." The Natural Resources Conservation
Service, USDA, defines soil as "a three-dimensional body at the earth's surface. It is capable of
supporting plants and has properties resulting from the integrated effect of climate and living
matter acting on earthly parent material, as conditioned by relief over periods of time." ASTM D
653 defines soils as "(earth), sediments or other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles
produced by the physical and chemical disintegration of rocks, and which may or may not
contain organic matter." This definition is generally accepted by geotechnical personnel
involved in highway construction.

DEGRADATION
Soil creation begins with the breakup of rock mass. Rock masses are reduced to particle size
(clastic state) by a complex phenomenon termed degradation. Degradation can be divided into
three (3) major processes, which in nature overlap to varying degrees. These processes are
weathering, mass wasting and erosion.
WEATHERING
Weathering is a complex of processes involving physical, chemical, and biological activities
leading to the disintegration of mass rock. Weathering converts rock masses into soil.
Physical weathering is caused by the action of agents such as wind, water, freeze/thaw cycles,
landslides, and earthquakes. It breaks particles from the parent bedrock. As these particles
are moved by nature, their shapes are changed and they become increasingly smaller.
Materials generated directly by physical weathering are commonly referred to as granular.
These particles frequently continue to bear some characteristics of the parent rock.
Chemical weathering causes a complete change in the chemical and physical properties of the
parent material. When water flows over and through rocks, some of the minerals are leached.
These minerals, once precipitated, form new particles composed of mineral crystals which no
longer have the characteristics of the parent rock. Agents of chemical weathering include
oxidation, reduction, hydration, solution, and carbonization.
Biological weathering is a combination of physical and chemical breakdowns. Physical
deterioration is primarily caused by roots of vegetation, although animal activity may also play a
minor role. Chemical change is caused by organic acids and carbon dioxide supplied by plants.
Bacterial activity also contributes to chemical change.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 9

Mass Wasting
Mass wasting is the movement of rock debris down slope primarily under the direct influence of
gravity. Water may be present to act as a lubricant and minor carrier, but is not necessary to
the process. The common terms talus and colluvium are applied to rock fragments that
accumulate in this process of degradation.
Erosion
Erosion, like the term soil, has been defined to mean different things to different disciplines. In
all these definitions, there is usually an implication of transport. Regardless of the definition,
there is a segment of this process that is degradation. Whether the transportation mechanism
is wind, water, ice, or gravity, there is always a gradual breakdown of rock particles into ever
smaller pieces. The grinding, bumping, and bouncing that takes place in transit are important in
the process of degradation. Erosion can take place without weathering.

TRANSPORTATION
The results of degradation are rock fragments and materials dissolved in water. The resulting
detritus is usually swept away by physical agents to become clastic sediments. The material in
solution is carried away, ultimately to be added to the water of lakes and oceans. These
dissolved materials then become deposits of an entirely different nature.
Is it difficult to visualize a large boulder the size of a house breaking loose from the Rocky
Mountain batholith at the continental divide and moving down slope, breaking up with the
pieces becoming smaller and smaller until some of the particles enter the drainage system to
end up in the Mississippi River delta as sand, silt and clay? This is the continuing process that
has been taking place for the eons of geologic time.
As the rock mass is reduced to a clastic state through degradation, nature can move the
smaller particles more readily. This transportation effort is accomplished by wind, water, ice,
and gravity working and reworking particles as they progress persistently to lower grade. Long
periods of geologic time are required for these results. The transportation of particles is
primarily accomplished by the following actions (Figure 6), alone or in combination.
Traction

the pushing, dragging or rolling of particles too large to be lifted and

carried in the transport medium.

Saltation

the bouncing of particles that are too large to be held in suspension.

Suspension -

the lifting of particles into the transporting medium.

Solution

the incorporation of material into water in which the material actually

becomes a chemical component of the moving liquid.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 10

Feature list is not all inclusive.

Deflation

Wind

Scouring
Plucking

Glaciers
Continental
Mountain
Traction
Suspension
Saltation

Traction
Suspension

Traction
Suspension
Saltation
Solution

Solution

Traction
Suspension
Saltation
Solution

Transport
Method

Abrasion

Abrasion

Abrasion
Corrosion

Corrosion

Abrasion (Physical)
Corrosion (Chemical)

Degradation During
Transport

Hollows
Ventifacts
Desert Pavements

Ice Scour
Glacial Troughs
Cirques

Sea Cliffs
Tidal Channels
Sea Caves

Sink Holes
Caves
Karst Lakes

Soils: Origin & Existence - 11

Sand Dunes
Loess
Sand Sheets

Moraines
Eskers
Erratics

Beaches
Off-Shore Bars
Spits

Stalactites
Stalagmites
Limestone

Flood Plains
Alluvial Fans
Deltas

Depositional

Resulting Features1

Stream Valleys
Water Falls
Mesas

Erosional

Figure 6: Major Processes of Degradation and Transportation

Hydraulic Action

Solution

Ground Water

Waves & Currents

Lakes
Oceans
Lagoons

Hydraulic Action

Assimilates Load of
Weathered Material

Running Water
Streams
Sheet Floods

Water

Agent

MAJOR PROCESSES OF DEGRADATION AND TRANSPORTATION

The chart above illustrates the origins and interrelationships of the various groups of rock/soil. The arrows indicate
how each, through differing geological processes, is recycled into a rock or soil of a different type with totally different
characteristics.
Igneous Rock

Those rocks formed by the cooling and hardening of molten magma from deeper areas of
the earth. Molten material that is extruded onto the surface is known as lava. Granite and
basalt are common igneous rocks.

Metamorphic Rock

Those rocks formed by tremendous heat and pressure which alter the original character of
the previously existing rock. Slate, marble and quartzite are common rocks of this group.

Sedimentary Rock

Those rocks which are formed by either mechanical or chemical formation from degraded
particles of other rock. These are rocks which have become hardened as a result of
compression and/or cementation.

Mechanical Formation: Rocks of this group are formed from the detritus (fragments) of physical
decomposition of other rock and include conglomerate, sandstone, and shale.
Chemical Formation: As rock decomposes, soluble minerals are leached by water and transported to other
environments. Precipitation of these minerals from streams, springs, lakes, or oceans results in the
formation of a group of rocks including limestone, chert, chalk, marl, salt, and gypsum.
Sedimentary Soil

These soils are unconsolidated materials which have resulted from the degradation of other
rock. Subsequently, the rock fragments have been transported and deposited. Unique
soils, across the nation, number in the thousands. Materials in this group are commonly
referred to in terms of grain size and are important to the construction industry as gravel,
sand, silt, and clay. Soils which are not transported are called residual soils.

Figure 7

Soils: Origin & Existence - 12

Note that gravity is not listed as a transporting force. Gravity actually does not transport
particles, but is always pulling particles toward the center of the earth and is a great influence in
the movement of particles regardless of the other forces involved. Gravity causes downhill flow.
In conjunction with transporting actions, gravity becomes a powerful tool to "plane" a surface or
feature, significantly modifying it by reshaping and lowering elevations. These transporting
agents cannot maintain their energy and chemical balance indefinitely. As transporting power
diminishes, base level is reached, temperature, pressure, or chemical conditions change, and
transported materials drop out and become deposits.

DEPOSITION
The remains of mass rock are deposited in the lower areas (relative elevation) of the earth's
crust resulting in the elevation of those areas being raised. This process of deposition, in
addition to diastrophism (mountain building) and vulcanism (volcanic activity), prevents
degradation and transportation from ultimately reducing the earth's land areas to base level
where they would be covered with water.
These deposits (detritus resulting from exposure of rock mass to the atmosphere) are the
materials that, given the proper conditions and time, become what is commonly called soil. They
may also become the beginning of new rock mass. If they become cemented, metamorphosed
and melted, they can return to the crust as igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary, or volcanic rock
(Figure 7). The student should aware that this cycle does not always progress in a uniform,
linear fashion to successful completion, but is interrupted and sidetracked in erratic and complex
ways, with infinite variations.
Soil is the result of natural actions (Figure 6) on these masses of rock. These actions result in a
heterogenous mix of mineral fragments, organic matter, air, and water. Soil may be soft or hard,
porous or dense, loosely or weakly cemented. The colors of soil may cover the spectrum;
however, soils usually exhibit some shade of gray, white, or yellow.
As batholiths (granitic mountain cores), volcanic lava flows, sandstones, limestones, and other
rock mass disintegrate, the resulting fragments (soils) can be categorized in terms of their
environment, location, and the agents that created them.
Aeolian

- These soils are the result of fragments being transported and deposited
by wind. These soil particles are usually relatively small, since wind does
not have sufficient sustained energy to move large pieces of rock.

Alluvial

- These soils have been transported and deposited by the forces of moving
water. Depending on the volume and velocity of the water, particles
ranging in size from huge boulders to microscopic clays are moved in the
process of creating these soils. Alluvial soils usually show distinct
depositional layering and a reduction in particle size as the distance from
the source increases. These materials represent much of the land
surface.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 13

 Colluvial

- These materials involve the bulk movement of rock debris downslope

under the direct influence of gravity. Varying amounts of water may be
available, but water is not the major moving agent. Huge boulders
routinely move down slope, colliding and grinding until particles of varying
sizes accumulate at the bottom of mountains.

Glacial

- During periods of glaciation, ice picks up massive quantities of abraded

material and transports them long distances. As the glacial ice melts, it
deposits this debris.

Organic

- A soil generally created under a vegetative cover and under conditions

that allow the accumulation of plant residue. This name can be applied to
organic materials accumulating in marshes or bogs or where humus has
been incorporated in soils such as topsoils.

Residual

- Residual soil is created when rock particles are not transported, but remain
in their weathered position. These soils are unique in that normally no
stratification is present. Rock fragments are similar to those in the bedrock
immediately below and increase in size from top downward rather than
laterally.

Immediately after deposition, rock fragments themselves begin to change due to the same
processes which degrade rock mass. The weathering process to which the original rock mass
was subjected is the most significant factor in producing the detritus end product. The end
product will not necessarily bear any resemblance to the original parent material. As geological
time passes, the differences between the products of the original parent material become
increasingly more pronounced. The same rock mass can supply rock fragments to arid and
humid climates, but different weathering conditions will result in two entirely different products.
In discussing soils, there is much written on the effect of parent material on the soil. The term
parent material is used to refer to two distinctly different phases of soil development. One is
the rock mass that produced the clastic deposit. After it has been deposited, the clastic material
then becomes the parent material for the weathered soil. Weathered soil is the material with
which we normally deal. Weathered soil is the material on which and with which our
infrastructure is built.
From this point forward in this text, soil will be the term used to identify the material produced
from weathered clastic material. Clastic material will now be termed parent material. The
characteristics of any soil at any point of time are determined by the following.

the climate to which the parent material has been subjected since deposition
the physical and chemical composition of the parent material
the relief
the geological time over which natural forces have acted
the animal and vegetative life (externally and internally)

Soils: Origin & Existence - 14

CLIMATE
Climate is probably the most important factor in creating soil. Water, temperature and wind are
the elements of soil modification. Wind is the least important. Generally, moisture availability is
the dominate force in the maturing of soils. Under arid conditions, soil building is slow. Soil
development is primarily caused by the physical forces of temperature and wind, because low
moisture availability retards chemical activity. Since evaporation exceeds rainfall in these areas,
ground water with its dissolved minerals is slowly brought to the surface through capillary action.
As these mineral laden waters reach the surface and evaporate, the chemicals are left as a
residue. Calcium carbonates are the most common of these chemicals. Other minerals formed
by this process are borax, gypsum, and salt. These materials create hard crusts at the surfaces
of coarse textured soils in these climatic zones. Caliche, a common construction material found
in the Southwest, is a product of this environment.
Conditions of high humidity and temperature promote rapidly maturing soils. High rainfall quickly
weathers minerals in the soils and aids the downward movement of clay and colloids. Plant
remains decompose rapidly; therefore, highly organic soils do not readily form from vegetative
cover. Acids produced during decomposition of organic materials promote the development of
clay minerals and the reduction of carbonates resulting in clayey soils high in aluminum and iron.
These soils are evident in the subtropical and tropical climates.
Thus, rainfall and evaporation tend to control the evolution of soil types. A line can be drawn
from south to north, starting at the Gulf of Mexico in east Texas and extending northward to the
Canadian border near the east boundary of the states of North and South Dakota. This line
separates the continental United States into two sections. To the west of this line, the country
receives less than 25 inches of rainfall per year; to the east, it receives more than 25 inches of
rainfall per year. Correspondingly, soils high in aluminum and iron exist to the east of the line
and soils high in carbonates are found to the west, Figure 8.
An interesting and important fact about climates is that mountains tend to reproduce climates in
vertical zones, the effect of increasing altitude being similar to increasing latitude. Thus, the
climate that produces a tundra soil at the top of a western mountain is similar to the climate that
produces a tundra soil in Alaska with both soils being very similar. In addition to rainfall,
temperature is an important factor in soil development. Temperature regulates the chemical and
bacterial activity of soils. High temperature usually is a catalyst for chemical modification.
Conversely, cold temperatures result in a cessation of chemical activity, especially when the
ground is frozen. Thus, subtropical and tropical soils have undergone complete chemical
alteration. Soils of the frozen tundra are composed primarily of mechanically produced mineral
fragments with minimal chemical alteration. Biological activity in the soils follows patterns similar
to that of temperature. Bacteria actively consume organic material in regions with high
temperature and humidity, producing soils with minimal humus. In colder climates, bacterial
activity is significantly reduced, resulting in soils with high organic content where there is
sufficient moisture to grow vegetative cover.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 15

Figure 8
Soil Composition

Soils: Origin & Existence - 16

PARENT MATERIAL (ROCK DETRITUS)

The parent material (residual or transported) is a passive contributor to the maturing soil mix. It
only provides the minerals that are weathered into a particular soil. It is important to understand
that parent material by itself does not determine the soil that will eventually develop. We have
already seen that aridity and humidity are prime contributors in the development of soil types.
The original size, shape, and mineral content of particles affect color, texture, permeability,
mineralogy and erodibility of soils. Young, unweathered soils tend to be like the parent rock;
however, with continued weathering that likeness eventually is lost. When rock detritus from the
same or similar sources ends up in different climatic zones, the mineral fragments will eventually
develop into soils of very different characteristics.

RELIEF
Relief influences soil formation by affecting internal and external drainage, erosion, deposition,
temperature, and biological activities. Relief is a passive soil former. Where relief is great and
slopes are steep, water drains rapidly resulting in a thin soil with less chemical activity, more
erosion, and generally less biological influences. As slopes get flatter, soils retain more water,
there is less erosion and life begins to increase. Flatlands with sufficient rainfall produce thick
layers of soils, highly leached with thick layers of clay and minimal erosion. Soils that are formed
in areas of greater relief are usually better drained and more highly oxidized with brown, yellow,
or red colorations. Soils that form on flat bottom lands are very thick and poorly drained.
Instead of oxidation, reduction takes place with less decay of vegetation allowing high
percentages of organic to accumulate. These soils exhibit dark grey, blue, and black
colorations. These soils are constantly water saturated and remain unstable.
Topography also influences soil formation. Slopes facing the warming and drying rays of the
sun develop different soils than those on slopes facing away from the sun. Soils on slopes
facing away from the sun retain more moisture at cooler temperatures and for longer periods of
time.

GEOLOGIC TIME
Time is necessary for the development of soil. Without time passing, parent material equals soil.
As time passes, all the soil forming agents take their toll on the parent material. The more time
that passes, the more mature a soil becomes. The time required to produce a mature soil
cannot be measured. It takes geologic time for nature to produce a mature soil in equilibrium.
(Refer to Figure 9 for illustration of geological time scale.)
The last glaciers in what is today the continental United States retreated approximately 10,000
years ago. Since they melted, nature has been modifying the glacial till left behind. Most of
those materials have not been completely weathered into their final form. There is no calendar
schedule and so many factors are involved, including the possibility of cycle interruption, that
any discussion of time required for soil development is speculative.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 17

Era

Period

Epoch

Approximate
Duration
(Millions of Years)

Life
Forms

Quaternary
Holocene
10,000 years ago to present
************************************************************
Pleistocene
1.7
********************************************************1.7**
Pliocene
9
********************************************************12**
Cenozoic
Miocene
14
Mankind
********************************************************26**
Tertiary
Oligocene
12
********************************************************38**
Eocene
16
********************************************************54**
Paleocene
11
****************************************************************65**
Cretaceous
70
Placental Mammals
*******************************************************135**
Mesozoic Jurassic
55
Birds, Grasses & Cereals
*******************************************************190**
Triassic
35
Mammals & Flowering Plants
***************************************************************225**
Permian
55
Ginkgoes
*******************************************************280**
Pennsylvanian
40
Insects, Cycads & Conifers
Carboniferous*****************************************************320**
Mississippian
25
Reptiles & Primitive Gymnosperms
*******************************************************345**
Paleozoic Devonian
55
Amphibians & Vascular Plants
*******************************************************400**
Silurian
25
*******************************************************425**
Ordovician
75
Fishes & Mosses
*******************************************************500**
Cambrian
100
***************************************************************600**
Proterozoic
Invertebrates & Marine Algae
Precambrian
3200
Archeozoic
**************************************************************3800**
Figure 9
Geologic Time Scale

Soils: Origin & Existence - 18

Approximate
Beginning
(Millions of
Years Ago)

BIOLOGICAL (Fauna and Flora) ACTIVITY

Both plants and animals have significant impact on the development of soils and their ultimate
character. Plants, animals, insects, bacteria, fungi, and other organisms, including humans,
initiate physical, chemical, or a combination of these activities on soil. Bacteria, fungi, and other
microorganism are primarily responsible for the decomposition of humus and the
oxidation/reduction that affect the physical and chemical characteristics of soils. These kinds of
activities are controlled by temperature. Chemical and physical action is strongest in warm,
humid climates. The percent organic is commonly higher in poorly drained soils. Reduction
activity is prevalent where water tables are high, resulting in gleyed soils. The better drained a
soil is, the more oxidized it will be and the lower its organic content will be. The influence of
animals, earthworms, burrowing animals, ants, etc., can also be important. They rework and
aerate the soil, changing its texture and its chemistry. Plants bring calcium, magnesium,
potassium, and other elements from lower horizons which are then added to the upper layers of
soil as the plants drop leaves, die and decompose. This process changes the chemistry of soils,
as well as physically altering soils through root action.
Humans and their activities have been profound in influencing soils and soil environments,
especially in more recent times. Consider the impact of the following on the natural processes
just discussed:

cities
forest clear cutting
dams
monoculture forests

agriculture
strip mining
dredging
levee systems

cement/lime production
aggregate production
transportation systems
stream channelization

Each of these modern activities is a method by which society is progressing, but each also gives
birth to a new generation of stresses on the environmental factors of soil building. These
activities change topography and biological activity, and may even be affecting climate. Time is
impacted by the interruption of the natural cycles of soil building; parent material is being
exposed and modified. All five soil building processes are being challenged. A major result is a
significant shift in erosion throughout the United States. Prime illustrations are the "Dust Bowl"
of the 1930's and dramatic coastal erosion caused by sediment starvation along the Gulf coast
due to control of the Mississippi River.

SOIL PROFILE
In summary, soil, created and positioned by various geological processes, is constantly
subjected to physical and chemical changes. These modifications are dependent on the soil
forming factors present in the geographical area surrounding the soil itself. Through natural soil
forming forces, what was once masses of rock, then boulders, then cobbles are now sands, silts,
and clays which begin to take on significantly different characteristics resulting in what is
scientifically termed a soil profile (Figure 10). Idealistically, a mature soil will exhibit three
distinguishable major layers called horizons. In situ, however, soils exhibit highly variable soil
profiles primarily depending on time and the intensity of soil forming processes. The three
layers, which together may represent only the upper few meters of the earth's crust, are termed
A Horizon, B Horizon, and C Horizon.
Soils: Origin & Existence - 19

Figure 10

Soils: Origin & Existence - 20

Soil Profile Development

A Horizon -

The A horizon is the upper layer of soils immediately exposed to the most
intense weathering. This is the material upon which we are dependent for our
food supply and is of intense interest to the agricultural engineer. Where
there is sufficient rainfall, the A horizon is a zone of higher organic content,
usually leached of fine materials, and darker in color than the underlying
layers. To geotechnical personnel, it is not considered good construction
material due to its inherent instability.

B Horizon -

This horizon immediately underlies a zone of transition separating the A and C

horizons. Chemicals, minerals, and some organic material are leached from
the upper A horizon percolating downward and collecting at this level. This
process results in a higher clay/colloid content as well as a richer chemical mix
than in the A horizon. These conditions also make soil materials from the B
horizon suspect as useful in highway and foundation engineering.

C Horizon -

This layer is separated from the B Horizon by another transitional zone that
has neither the characteristics of the more weathered and complex B horizon
nor the C horizon The C horizon is the parent material from which both the A
horizon and B horizon are formed. This horizon may be composed of a wide
variety of materials from rock to reworked soft sediments. These parent
materials are the least weathered of the soil profile and are, therefore, the
most stable. The C horizon soils are of most interest to geotechnical
personnel since they generally provide support for our buildings and
transportation system. Also, most of the excavated soil materials used in the
construction of earthen structures such as dams and embankments originate
in this horizon.

The A and B horizons, in combination, compose the true soil (solum). These soils are derived
from parent material which is represented by the C horizon. These solum materials, through the
complex weathering processes previously discussed as soil building forces, are generally inferior
in quality, questionable in usability, and generally unstable due to the higher clay/colloid
contents, complex chemistry, and inclusion of organic contents. At a minimum, special design
considerations must be employed to overcome the negative characteristics of the materials from
these two horizons before they can be used in construction. Understanding of and attention to
the soil profile provides insurance that data from soil mechanics tests from a particular horizon
and soil will only be compared to the results from tests completed on that soil and horizon from
other locations. Otherwise, meaningless assumptions and misguided judgements will be made.
Compositing soils or data horizontally or vertically can be disastrous when designing for
soil use.
Color
Color is a major characteristic in evaluating soils, soil profiles and keeping track of samples.
Color is usually not considered an engineering parameter; however, engineering assessment
can be well served by considering this factor. Natural colors recorded in the field during
Soils: Origin & Existence - 21

sampling give the testing technician and the designer a distinct advantage when comparing and
grouping soils. Color patterns such as banding, marbling, and mottling, are indicators of
performance and should be recorded with other field data at the time a sample is retrieved. The
intensity of soil color changes as moisture content varies; colors are readily destroyed by
handling, drying and preparation that produces a homogenous blend of separate soil particles
obliterating all of the original color or color patterns.
Color is an indicator of certain soil chemicals and mineral particles. Black to dark brown usually
results from organic matter. Reds are due to the presence of iron in a well-drained soil that is
highly oxidized resulting in hematite or siderite. Yellow-brown is also primarily a result of iron.
This color is usually associated with the mineral limonite that occurs in soils with less drainage
and less complete oxidation. Gray and blue soils result when soils are poorly drained. Yellow
mottling sometimes occurs with these colors. The darker gray and blue (gleyed) soils are
generally produced below permanent water tables; a result of reduction rather than oxidation.
All soil colors should be determined using the standard for soil surveys known as Munsel color
charts. These charts are based on hue (rainbow color), value (lightness/darkness of color) and
chroma (strength of hue). Color determination should be made only on damp soil. If the soil is
excessively dry, it is appropriate to dampen the soil to accurately determine color.

SOIL IDENTIFICATION
After decades of intense observations by soil scientists and agricultural engineers, a system has
been developed and refined based on soil characteristics and soil profiles that has universal
acceptance and demonstrable use to the geotechnical efforts in transportation design and
testing. This system, known as the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Classification, began in
Russia during the 19th Century and is becoming widely accepted as the standard for identifying
soils and grouping soils with like characteristics. The following quote from the PCA Soil Primer
defines the value of this system to the transportation industry.
Highway engineers found that this system and the resulting valuable soil information
could be used in identifying soils, after which they could classify them for engineering
purposes in their own work. Therefore, while the U.S. Department of Agriculture system
is called a soil classification system for purposes of nomenclature and use by the
agricultural engineer, it is used as a soil identification system by the highway engineer.
This system is based on the fact that soils with the same weather (rainfall and
temperature ranges), the same topography (hillside, hilltop, or valley) and the same
drainage characteristics (water table height, speed of drainage, and so forth) will grow
the same type of vegetation and be the same kind of soil. This is illustrated by the fact
that the black wheat-belt soils of the West are the same as the black wheat-belt soils of
Russia, Argentina, and other countries. The system is important basically because a
subgrade of a particular soil series, horizon, and grain size will perform the same
wherever it occurs since such important factors as rainfall, freezing, groundwater table,
and capillarity of the soil are part of the identification system. In no other system in use
are these important factors employed directly. The system's value and use can be
extended widely when the engineering properties, such as load-carrying capacity, mudpumping characteristics, and cement requirements for soil-cement, are determined for a
particular soil. This is because soils of the same grain size, horizon, and series are the
Soils: Origin & Existence - 22

same and will function the same wherever they occur. Therefore, a North Carolina
engineer and a Texas engineer, after each has identified a soil in his or her own area by
this system, could exchange accurate pavement design and performance data."
Note that the emphasis is on the use of the USDA system for soil identification, not classification
as a replacement for AASHTO, ASTM or other engineering classification.
This system has been under continual refinement since its inception and in 1965 major changes
were made in terminology. Therefore, when reviewing USDA soil information it is best to be
familiar with terms pre-and post-1965. Information is readily available from the Natural
Resources Conservation Service, USDA. The system is now divided into six (6) category levels;
orders (11), suborders (53), great groups (261), subgroups (approximately 1900), families
(approximately 6755), and series (greater than 17000) based on soil profile and soil
characteristics. Each succeeding level further defines unique characteristics of that category.
The eleven (11) orders generalized in Figure 10 are:
Alfisol -

soils with aluminum and iron formed under primarily deciduous forests with a welldeveloped B Horizon containing leached clay

Aridisol

soils with calcium, gypsum or salt hardpan formed in arid climates

Entisol

soils of recent origin which exhibit minimal profile formation. This order
includes tundra soils over permafrost that are serious engineering problems.

Histosol

bog soils containing peat and various organic materials. Severe engineering
problems are associated with these soils.

Inceptisol -

soils with indistinct horizons showing only beginning soil formation

Mollisol

soft, dark and crumbly A Horizon and the B Horizon exhibits clayey nature;
well developed profile under grass vegetation

Oxisol

soil composed primarily of oxides, red B Horizon formed in tropical and

subtropical climates; less than 0.02% of the soils in the United States fall into
this group.

Spodsol -

soils developed generally under coniferous forests on low clay parent material,
most commonly resulting in an amorphous layer of aluminum and organic
mixture.

Utilsol -

soils with very well developed profile with a red to yellow B Horizon high in clay.
Highly weathered, acid and developed under forest or grass.

Vertisol

Andisols -

nontypical profile showing vertical mixing due to high shrink/swell

characteristics caused by high clay contents. Very serious engineering
problems result.
residual soil over volcanic material with poor profile development.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 23

The lower subdivisions, including the soil series, are of the most interest to the geotechnical
investigator. A soil series represents soils that are essentially the same with very similar profiles.
Each series is divided into soil types by name. The Natural Resources Conservation Service
has mapped almost the entire United States and published manuals of these soil

Soils: Origin & Existence - 24

Figure 11
Dominant Soil Orders

Soils: Origin & Existence - 25

surveys. The manuals have details for many professions from geology to agriculture to highway
engineering. Each manual is specific to a county/parish and has two levels of mapping; a
General Soil Map (Fig. 12) and soil types mapped on aerial photos (Fig. 13). This information is
a significant assist to the technician or engineer in planning testing regimens and comparing
results to in situ soils. Other engineering data provided by these manuals for geotechnical use
in evaluating and using test results include:
basic geology

general mineralogy

surface slope (drainage)

density

internal drainage

permeability

water tables

shrink-swell potential

AASHTO and ASTM classifications

organic content

pH

Atterbergs

flooding history

quality of material for roads

corrosion characteristics

quality for site development

typical gradations

erodibility

MANUFACTURED MATERIALS
Nature has not always placed constructions frequently used materials in appropriate abundance
in all geographical areas. Therefore, a significant industry has developed to supplement the
availability of naturally occurring materials. Commonly, rock mass and fragments are mined,
crushed, washed, sorted and blended to meet specified requirements and ensure uniformity.
These materials and naturally occurring soils are frequently treated, modified, conditioned and
stabilized with a wide variety of manufactured products, primarily cement and lime, to improve
their performance.
Additionally, various man-made materials are available for use in construction. These materials
may be by-products of another industry (e.g., blast furnace slag) or be specifically manufactured
as an engineering material (soil and shale fused at high temperatures).
The field of soil mechanics has expanded as additional manufactured materials have been made
available to the construction industry. Testing regimens are generally similar to those of natural
materials; however, their numerical test results and behavior may be significantly different. Also,
the definitions of construction materials have expanded and become more inclusive as man
made materials have proliferated. Project design, construction techniques, and materials design
and testing are evolving to accommodate these materials, which also affect the economic
considerations of the construction industry.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 26

General Soil Map

(Sabine Parish, LA)
Figure 12

Soils: Origin & Existence - 27

Figure 13
Soil Types Mapped on Aerial Photo
Soils: Origin & Existence - 28

Economic Considerations
The construction of new roads and reconstruction of existing roads is a challenging and
expensive endeavor. Road construction typically requires the use of significant quantities of
aggregates in building the base and surface of a pavement, whether that be rigid or flexible.
Aggregates are so prevalent in road construction, that this single use consumes over half the
annual production of virgin aggregates in the U.S. This huge appetite for aggregate resources
during the last 100 years of industrial development has severely depleted the supply of highquality aggregate materials. Many areas which have traditionally had adequate supplies have
experienced shortages. Metropolitan areas are especially vulnerable to scarce aggregate
supplies because of depletion due to high demand in a small geographic area, and zoning
restrictions near population centers. Additionally, environmental constraints make it more
difficult and expensive to operate aggregate quarries. Rural areas are not immune either.
Demand for increasingly scarce resources has raised costs substantially. The absence of
concentrated demand in remote areas may require the purchase of aggregates from distant
sources.
These factors make it incumbent upon those who design and construct pavements to carefully
choose their construction materials. Whereas in years past, a designer might have selected a
crushed aggregate base or subbase without much thought to alternative materials, the designer
now needs to consider making most efficient use of locally available products, even if these are
not high-quality soils or aggregates.
Consequently, the focus on using marginal or inferior materials has necessitated the
development of methods to improve them so that they can be used in road construction. It is
usually more economical to improve in-place materials than to remove and replace them with
imported materials of higher quality. Cement and lime are commonly used as additives to
improve less than ideal materials to make them usable for roadbuilding. Every road must be
placed, at some point, on existing soils. Cement, lime, and other additives allow more soils to be
used as the principal load-bearing element in the pavement structure.

SUMMARY
The goal of this section of the training material is to provide the student information on the origin
of soils and to supply data on the types of soil which exist in specific areas of the continental
United States, as well as the reasons that these soils are found in these locations. This
information will enable the soil technician to predict the type of soil that is typical of a geographic
area. The course has demonstrated by maps how vegetation, climate, topography and the
location of dominant soil groups are closely related. It has also introduced information provided
by the Natural Resources Conservation Service that can be used to further recognize soil type.
This background knowledge will be of assistance to the soil technician in determining the validity
of any testing regimen and subsequent numerical results and to make informed decisions
regarding soil. Now the focus turns to testing and how to ensure the validity, accuracy and
significance of the numerical results.

Soils: Origin & Existence - 30

GLOSSARY
aeolian

in terms of soil generation, caused by wind erosion and transport

alluvial

in terms of soil generation, caused by water erosion and transport

arid

having little rainfall

basalt

igneous rock that has been ejected by volcanic activity to the surface of the
earths crust

batholith

large (greater than 40 square miles), intrusive, igneous mass of crystallized

granitic rock, which usually form mountain cores

biological
weathering

deterioration of parent material into soil caused by both chemical and physical
forces, especially that of animal and plant activities

borax

a white crystalline mineral compound composed of a hydrated sodium borate

(Na2B4O7) that forms on the surface of stony soil in arid regions as a result of
evaporation

calcium
carbonate

a compound (CaCO3) found in nature as calcite and aragonite and in

combination in soil or rocks, such as limestone and caliche

caliche

a crust of calcium carbonate that forms on the stony soil of arid regions as a
result of evaporation

capillary
action

the attraction of water to a surface which causes it to rise against the force of
gravity through surface tension.

carbonation -

the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water to form carbonic acid, which reacts
with calcium or other elements to form carbonates (e.g., limestone)

chemical
weathering

deterioration of parent material into soil through chemical changes (e.g.,

carbonation, leaching, oxidation)

clastic

made up of fragments of preexisting rock

colluvium -

rock detritus and soil accumulated at the foot of a slope

continental
divide

the elevated divide that separates the directional flow of water to opposite
sides effectively dividing the surface drainage of a continent.
Soils: Origin & Existence - 31

continental
drift

the movement of continents around the earth through geologic time due to
plate tectonics

core

the central mass of high density material at the center of the earth

crust

the outer layer of the earths structure directly in contact with the atmosphere

crustal
plates

see tectonic plates

degradation -

disintegration

deposition

the process carried out by wind, ice and water of moving material from one
location to another

detritus

loose material (e.g., rock fragments) that results directly from disintegration

diastrophism -

the process of deformation that produces the earths crust, its continents and
ocean basins, plateaus and mountains, strata folds, and faults

erosion

wearing away

extrusion

molten material (magma) from deep within the earth which has been ejected
onto the surface through volcanic activity

fauna

animal or animal life

flora

plant life

geology

the science that deals with the history of the earth, especially the study of rock
forms

geotechnical -

having to do with the properties of soils

glacial

having to do with the those parts of geologic time from Precambrian onward
when a much larger portion of the earth was covered with sheets of ice

gleyed soils -

soil that formed under poor drainage; resulting in the reduction of iron and
other elements in the profile and in gray and mottled colors, usually gray with
yellow

granite

a light colored predominately siliceous rock normally found in igneous

intrusions

granular

having a grainy texture

Soils: Origin & Existence - 32

gypsum

a widely distributed mineral (CaSO4) consisting of calcium sulfate that forms

on the stony soil of arid regions as a result of evaporation

Soils: Origin & Existence - 33

heterogenous-

consisting of dissimilar components; nonuniform blend

horizon soil -

a layer of soil produced by soil forming processes, lying approximately parallel

to the surface, having distinct characteristics

humid

characterized by perceptible moisture; in climate terminology, exhibits rainfall

between 40 - 80 inches per year

humus

a brown or black complex variable material resulting from partial

decomposition of plant or animal matter and forming the more stable organic
portion of a soil

hydration

a reaction of other chemical with those of water

igneous

resulting from the intrusion or extrusion of magma or the activity of volcanoes;

rocks formed from molten magma

intrusion

molten crustal material that is injected into other rock through fissures and
bedding planes

isostasy

general equilibrium in the earths crust maintained by a yielding flow of rock

material in the mantle

leach

to dissolve and remove soluble compounds from a substance by the action of

water percolating through soils

magma

molten rock

mantle

the layer of the earths structure lying immediately below the earths crust

mass wasting-

the movement of rock debris downslope under the direct influence of gravity

metamorphic -

the type of rocks produced by a pronounced change of pressure, heat and

water, resulting in a more compact and more highly crystalline condition

munsell color-

a designation of color by degrees of hue value and chroma

nomenclature-

a system of terms used in a particular discipline

organic

plant and animal residue in the soil in various stages of decomposition

oxidation

the process of chemically changing a compound through exposure to oxygen;

reactions in which oxygen chemically reacts with a metal forming an oxide

parent rock

the original rock formation; either the original rock mass or the clastic material
in which soil forms

Soils: Origin & Existence - 34

permeability -

the quality of a soil that enables water to move through the profile

physical
weathering

deterioration caused by agents such as wind, water, and ice

plate
tectonics

the movement of the earths crust divided into large pieces which float on a
viscous material in the mantle

reduction

reaction, which occurs below the water table, which results in the freeing of a
metal from its oxide; the opposite of oxidation

relief

the relative elevations of the land surface; topography

saltation

the bouncing of particles too large to be held in suspension

sedimentary
rock
-

formed from materials transported by moving water, air or ice or chemically

precipitated

shear
boundary

the point of contact between two tectonic plates which move laterally to each
other, resulting in and strike slip faults at their edges

solum

the altered layer of soil above the parent material that includes the A and B
horizons

solution

the process by which a solid, liquid or gaseous substance is homogeneously

mixed with a liquid

spreading
boundary

occurs where two tectonic plates are moving away from each other

subduction
zone

occurs where two tectonic plates are moving toward each other causing
crustal material to be pushed beneath the plates

suspension

a substance in which the particles are mixed, but not dissolved in a liquid

talus

a slope formed by an accumulation of rock debris; rock debris at the base of a

cliff

topography

the configuration of a surface including its relief and the position of its natural
and man-made features

traction

the pushing, dragging or rolling of particles to large to be lifted by the

transporting force

true soil

detritus which has been weathered to the point that it has an identifiable
Soils: Origin & Existence - 35

layering into specific horizons

tundra

a level or undulating treeless plain, characteristic of arctic and subarctic

regions; consists of black mucky soil with a permanently frozen subsoil

vulcanism

(also volcanism); the power or action of a volcano

weathering

the action of the elements in altering the texture, composition or form of

exposed objects; the physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of
earth materials

Soils: Origin & Existence - 36

DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION

OF SOILS
(VISUAL-MANUAL PROCEDURE)
UNIFIED METHOD
ASTM D 2488

Developed by
FHWA Multi-regional Soils Training & Certification Group

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluation is prerequisites for this
training package.
<

AASHTO T 265, Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of

Soils

<

AASHTO T 88, Particle Size Analysis of Soil

<

AASHTO T 89, Determining the Liquid Limit of Soil

<

AASHTO T90, Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index

of Soil

Soil-D2488-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure). . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-1
Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-1
Summary of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-2
Typical Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-2
Common Testing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-2
Test Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-3
Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-3
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-3
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-4
Identification of Peat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-8
Preparation for Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-8
Preliminary Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-9
Procedure for identifying fine-grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-11
Identification of Inorganic fine-grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-13
Identification of Organic fine-grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-13
Procedures for Identifying Coarse-Grained Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-14
Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-15
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2488-17

Soil-D2488-ii

DESCRIPTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF SOIL BY

THE UNIFIED METHOD ( VISUAL-MANUAL METHOD))
Soil exists throughout the world in a wide variety of types. Different types of soil exhibit diverse
behavior properties. The engineering properties of soils are governed by their physical
properties. Therefore, we need to describe and identify soils in terms that will convey this
information clearly and accurately.
This procedure describes a prudent visual, tactile, and somewhat olfactory inspection along
with a few simple tests that can be performed to provide an initial appraisal of the naturally
occurring soil in a given area. This information can be helpful in the initial planning and in
relating field observations to laboratory test results. This means that this type of soil appraisal
should clearly describe the soil using appropriate and recognizable terminology.

Soil-D2488-1

Summary of Testing
Until now, we have been concerned with identifying soils by giving them basic descriptive
names and group symbols. There is additional information that should be included in any soil
description. This information includes angularity and shape of the coarse particles in the soil,
soil color, odor, moisture condition, extent of reaction with hydrochloric acid, soil consistency,
cementation, structure of intact soil, range of particle sizes, maximum particle size present,
hardness of coarse sand and larger particles, presence of roots, mica, gypsum or extraneous
materials (like glass, brick, lumber, etc.), local or commercial name and/or geologic
interpretation of the soil.

Typical Test Results

The test results from this procedure would appear in the following format:
< Well-Graded Gravel with Sand (GW) - About 75% fine to coarse, hard, subangular
gravel; about 25% fine to coarse, hard, subangular sand; trace of fines; maximum
size, 75 mm, brown, dry; no reaction with HCl.
< Silty Sand with Organic Fines (SM) - About 75% fine to coarse, hard, subangular
reddish sand; about 25% organic and silty dark brown non-plastic fines with no dry
strength and slow dilatancy; wet; maximum size, coarse sand; weak reaction to HCl.

Common Testing Errors

<
<
<

<

<
<

Failure to protect samples from changes in moisture content will affect the results of
this test.
Not careful in reading the charts and tables used in this method, it is very easy to
misinterpret the data. Read and record, then read again.
Failures to correctly estimate the percentage of sand, gravel and fines in a sample.
This is something that is best learned by comparing ones own visual estimate with
a laboratory particle size analysis. Of course the laboratory analysis will be more
accurate, but the technician should strive to estimate within 5% of the laboratory
values.
Failure to examine the entire sample. For instance, when examining a sack of soil
obtained from a backhoe excavation, be sure to remove the material from the sack.
Do not get lazy and just classify the material at the open end of the sack. The
particle sizes at the top and bottom of the sack are likely to be different Always
strive to examine the total sample, not just part.
Failure to, when performing the dry strength, dilatancy and toughness tests on finegrained soils, remove particles larger than the 425 m sieve. The larger particles
may affect the results.
Failure to breakdown aggregations of soil into their individual constituents before
making particle size determinations. Practically, this means do not identify a 25-mm
clay clod as a piece of gravel.

Test Methodology
Soil-D2488-2

Apparatus
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
conduct the procedure. For this procedure you will need the following.
<
<
<
<
<
<

Pocket knife or small spatula

Small test tube with stopper or jar with lid
Small hand lens
Water (either tap water or natural source)
Hydrochloric acid, diluted in a small bottle, one part HCl (10N) to three parts distilled
water.
Sieves:
75 mm
4.75 mm
425 m

NOTE
There is a safety hazard in preparing any acid solution: When preparing the
dilute HCl solution, slowly add acid to the water, being careful not to spill any acid
or splash acid onto any person or surface. Handle this acid and the dilute solution
with caution and store safely. If the solution comes in contact with the skin,
rinse the affected area thoroughly with water. Do not add water to acid.

S
AMPLE
<

Select a representative sample of soil to be identified. The sample shall be

considered to be representative of a stratum, if it was obtained by an appropriate,
accepted or standard procedure, such as:
ASTM Practices
D 1452 - Soil Investigation and Sampling by Auger Boring
D 1587 - Thin-walled Tube Sampling of Soils
D 2113 - Diamond Core Drilling for Site Investigation
D 1586 - Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soils

<

Make sure the sample is carefully identified as to its origin. This may take the form
of a boring number and sample number in conjunction with a job number, a stratum,
a horizon or a location description with respect to a permanent monument, a grid
system, or a station number and offset with respect to a stated centerline and a
depth or elevation.

Soil-D2488-3

<

Selecting an appropriate specimen size for examination is very important for an

accurate description and identification. The minimum amount of material selected
for examination should be in accordance with the following schedule:

________________________________________________________________
Maximum Particle Size,
Minimum Specimen Size,
Sieve opening
Dry Mass
________________________________________________________________
4.75 mm
100 g
9.5 mm
200 g
19.0 mm
1.0 kg
38.1 mm
8.0 kg
75.0 mm
60.0 kg
________________________________________________________________
If a sample contains random isolated particles that are significantly larger than the
particles in the soil matrix, the soil matrix can accurately identified in accordance with
the preceding schedule.

If the field sample or specimen being examined is smaller than the minimum
recommended amount, the report shall include an appropriate remark to
that effect.

PROCEDURE
Description Information for Soils
<

Angularity - Describe the angularity of the coarse sand, gravel, cobbles, and boulders as
angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, or rounded. A range of angularity may be stated, such
as sub-rounded to round. Each material should be accessed in accordance with the
following:
Angular - particles have sharp edges and relatively plane sides with unpolished
surfaces.
Sub-angular - particles are similar to angular description but have rounded edges
Sub-rounded -particles have nearly plane sides but have well rounded edges and
corners
Rounded - particles have smoothly curved sides and no corners.

<

Shape - Describe the shape of gravel, cobbles. and boulders as flat, elongated, or flat and
elongated, as described later in this section, if they meet the criteria. Otherwise, do not
mention the shape. Indicate the fraction of the particles that have that shape, such as:
One-third of the gravel particles are flat.
Flat - particles with a ratio of width/thickness >3
Elongated - particles with a ratio of length/width >3
Flat and elongated - particles meet the criteria for both flat and elongated.

Soil-D2488-4

<

Color - Describe the color. Color is an important property in identifying organic soils, and
within a given locality it may also be useful in identifying materials of similar geologic origin.
If the sample has patches or layers of varying colors, this shall be noted and all
representative colors described. The color shall be described from moist samples. If color
represents a dry condition, this shall be stated in the report. For standard colors reference
Soils, Their Origin and Their Existence (Munsell System of Color Notation)

<

Odor - Describe the odor if organic or unusual. Soils containing a significant amount of
organic material usually have a distinctive odor of decaying vegetation. This is especially
apparent in fresh samples, but if samples are dried, heating a moistened sample may often
revive the odor. If the odor is unusual (petroleum product, chemical, and the like) it must be
described.

<

Moisture Condition - Describe the moisture condition as dry, moist, or wet in accordance
with the following:
Dry - Absence of moisture, dusty, dry to the touch
Moist - Damp, but no visible water
Wet - Visible free water, usually soil is below water table

<

HCl Reaction - Place a few drops of HCl solution on the soil, describe the reaction
between the acid solution and the soil as none, weak, or strong in accordance with criteria
given in this section. Since calcium carbonate is a common cementing agent, reporting of
its presence on the basis of the reaction with the acid solution is important. Depending on
the local conditions and the geologic history of a region, this reaction could also indicate
the presence of undesirable materials such as Marl.
None - No visible reaction
Weak - Some reaction with bubbles forming slowly
Strong - Violent reaction with bubbles forming immediately

<

Consistency - for intact fine-grained soils that are at or very near their natural moisture
content, and which do not contain significant amounts of gravel, press the thumb slowly
into the sample, and describe the consistency as very soft, soft, firm, hard, or very hard in
accordance with the following:
Very soft - thumb will penetrate soil more than 25 mm ( 1 in.)
Soft - thumb will penetrate about 25 mm (1 in.)
Firm - thumb will indent soil about 6 mm (1/4 in.)
Hard - thumb will not indent soil, but readily indents with thumbnail
Very hard - thumbnail will not indent soil

<

Cementation - describe the cementation of intact coarse-grained soils by pressing the soil
between the thumb and forefinger and classify it in accordance with the following:
Weak - Crumbles or breaks with handling or very little finger pressure
Moderate - Crumbles or breaks with considerable finger pressure
Strong - Will not crumble or break with finger pressure

Soil-D2488-5

<

Structure - describe the structure of the intact soil by observing the soil in day light or good
artificial light using the following :

Stratified - alternating layers of varying material or color with layers at least 6 mm thick
Laminated - alternating layer of varying materials or color with layers less than 6 mm
thick
Fissured - breaks along definite planes of fracture with little resistance to fracturing
Slickensided - fractured planes or bedding planes, having moved, appear polished or
glossy
Blocky - cohesive soil that can be broken down into small angular lumps, which resist
further breakdown
Lense - small lense shaped pockets of different soils, such as small lenses of sand
scattered through a mass of clay
Homogeneous - same color and appearance throughout

Range of particle sizes - for gravel and sand components, describe the range of particle
sizes within each component as explained in the Definitions section. For example, about
20% fine to coarse to gravel, about 40% fine to coarse sand. (See Figure 1)

<

Maximum particle size - describe the maximum particle size in accordance with the
following:

<

Sand size - if the maximum particle size is a sand size, describe as fine, medium, or
coarse in accordance with the Definitions section. For example, maximum particle
size, medium sand
Gravel size - If the maximum particle is a gravel size, describe the maximum particle
size as the smallest sieve opening that the particle will pass. For example, maximum
particle size is 38 mm (will pass a 38 mm square opening, but not a 19 mm square
opening)
Cobble or Boulder size - if the maximum particle size is cobble or boulder size,
describe the maximum dimension of the largest particle. For example, maximum
dimension, 450 mm.

Hardness - describe the hardness of coarse sand and larger particles by striking the
particle with a hammer on a solid surface and describing what occurs. For example: gravelsize particles fracture with considerable hammer blow, some gravel size particles crumble
with hammer blow. Hard means the particles do not crack, fracture or crumble under a
hammer blow.

Soil-D2488-6

3
inch
4

Coarse Gravel

3 inch

1 inch
4
Fine Gravel

1
inch
8

1
inch
64

3
inch
4

1
inch
4
Coarse Sand

1
inch
8
Medium Sand

1
64 inch

just visible

Fine Sand

Figure 1 - Illustration of Particle Size

Soil-D2488-7

Additional comments shall be added; such as the presence of roots or root holes, difficulty in
drilling or auguring the hole, caving of trench or hole, or the presence of mica.
<

The use of commercial or local name, or a geological interpretation of the soil, may be
added if appropriate.

<

Classification or identification of the soil by other classification systems may be added

if identified as such.

Identification of Peat
A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stage of decomposition, that has
a fibrous to amorphous texture, usually a dark brown to black color, and an organic odor, shall
be designated as a highly organic soil and shall be identified as peat, PT, and not be subjected
to the identification procedures described hereafter.

Preparation for Identification

<

The soil identification portion of this practice is based on the portion of the soil that will
pass a 75 mm sieve. The larger particles must be removed manually in loose sample, or
mentally for an intact sample before classifying the soil.

<

Estimate and note the percentages of cobbles and boulders.

<

For the fraction that passes the 75 mm sieve, estimate the percentages of gravel, sand,
and fines based on dry weight. This may be done by one of the following methods:
Jar Method - The relative percentage of coarse and fine-grained material may be
estimated thoroughly shaking a mixture of soil and water in a jar and then allowing the
mixture to settle. The coarse particles will fall to the bottom and successively finer
particles will be deposited with increasing time; the sand sizes will fall out of suspension
in 20 to 30 seconds. The relative proportions can be estimated from the volume of each
size.
Visual Method - Mentally visualize the gravel size particles placed in sacks or other
containers. Then do the same with the sand size particles and the fines. Mentally
compare the number of plus 4.75 sieve size and minus 4.75 sieve size present. The
percentages of sand and fines in the minus 4.75 sieve material can be estimated from
the wash test.
Wash Test - Select and moisten enough minus 4.75 sieve size material to form a 25
mm cube of soil. Cut the cube in half, set one half aside, and place the other half in a
as mall dish. Wash and decant the fines out of the material in the dish until the wash
water is clear and then compare the two samples and estimate the percentage of sand
and fines. Remember that the percentage is based on weight not volume. However, the
volume percentages will provide a reasonable indication of grain size percentages.

Soil-D2488-8

<

The percentages shall be estimated to the nearest 5 %. the percentages of gravel, sand
and fines shall total 100%.

<

If one of the components is present, but not on sufficient quantity to be considered 5% of

the smaller than 75 mm portion indicate its presence by the word trace. A trace is not
considered in the total 100% of the components.

Preliminary Identification
<

The soil is fine-grained if it contains 50% or more fines. Follow the procedure for identifying
fine-grained soils. (see figure 2)

<

The soil is coarse-grained if it contains less than 50 % fines. Follow the procedures for
identifying coarse-grained soils. (see figure 3)

Figure 2 - Flow Chart for fine-Grained Inorganic Soils

Soil-D2488-9

Procedur
identifyin
grained

Figure 3 - Flow Chart for Coarse-Grained Inorganic Soils

Soil-D2488-10

e for
g fineSoils

<

Select a representative sample of the material for examination. Remove particles larger
than 425 mm sieve, until a specimen equivalent to about a handful of material is available.
Use this specimen for performing the dry strength, dilatancy, and toughness tests.

<

Dry Strength

From the specimen, select enough material to mold into a ball about 50 mm in
diameter. Mold the material until it has the consistency of putty, adding water if
necessary.

From the molded material, take at least three specimens. A test specimen shall be a
ball of material about 13 mm in diameter. Allow the specimens to dry in air, sun, or by
artificial means, as long as the temperature does not exceed 60 C.

Test the strength of the dry balls by crushing between the fingers. Based on the
following criteria describe the dry strength as:
None - the dry specimen crumbles into powder with mere pressure of handling.
Low - the specimen crumbles to powder with some finger pressure.
Medium - the dry specimen breaks into pieces or crumbles with considerable finger
pressure.
High - the dry specimen cannot be broken with finger pressure. Specimen will break
into
pieces between thumb and a hard surface
Very High - Dry specimen cannot be broken between thumb and hard surface.
NOTE
The presence of high strength , may indicate the presence of water soluble
cementing materials, such as calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate can usually
be detected by the intensity of the reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid.

<

Dilatancy

From the specimen, select enough material to mold another ball about 13 mm in
diameter. Mold the material, adding water if necessary, until it has a soft but not sticky
consistency.

Smooth the ball in the palm of one hand with the blade of a knife or small spatula. Shake the
hand horizontally, striking the side of the hand vigorously against the other hand several times.
Note the reaction of water appearing on the surface of the soil. Squeeze the sample by closing
the hand or pinching the soil between the finger. Note the description in accordance with the
following criteria:
None - No visible change in the specimen.
Slow - Water appears slowly on the surface of the specimen during the shaking and

Soil-D2488-11

does not disappear or disappears slowly upon squeezing.

Rapid - Water appears quickly on the surface of the specimen during shaking and
disappears quickly upon squeezing.
<

Toughness

Following the completion of the dilatancy test, the test specimen is shaped into an
elongated pat and rolled by hand on a smooth surface or between the palms into a
thread 3 mm in diameter. ( If the thread is too wet to roll easily, it should be spread into
a thin layer and allowed to lose some water by evaporation.) Fold the sample threads
and re-roll repeatedly until the thread crumbles at a diameter of about 3 mm. The tread
will crumble at about 3 mm when the soil is near the plastic limit. Note the pressure
required to roll the thread near the plastic limit. Also, note the strength of the thread.
After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and kneaded until the
lump crumbles. Note the toughness of the material during kneading.

Describe the toughness of the thread and lump in accordance with the following:
Low - only slight pressure is required to roll the thread near the plastic limit. The
thread and lump are soft and weak.
Medium - moderate pressure is required to roll the thread near the plastic limit.
The thread and lump have moderate stiffness.
High - Considerable pressure is required to roll the thread to near the plastic
limit. The thread and lump are very stiff.

<

Plasticity
<

On the basis of observations made during the toughness test, describe the plasticity of
the material in accordance with the following:
Non-plastic - a 3 mm thread cannot be rolled at any moisture content.
Low - the thread can barely be rolled and the lump can not be formed when
drier than the plastic limit.
Medium - the thread is easy to roll and not much time is required to reach the
plastic limit. The thread cannot be re-rolled after reaching the plastic limit. The
lump crumbles when drier than the plastic limit.
High - it takes considerable time rolling and kneading to reach the plastic limit.
The thread can be re-rolled several times after being rolled to 3 mm the first
time. The lump can be formed without crumbling when drier than the plastic
limit.

Decide whether the soil is an inorganic or an organic fine-grained soil and follow the
appropriate section given next.

Identification of Inorganic fine-grained Soils

Soil-D2488-12

<

The basis of the dry strength, dilatancy, plasticity and toughness tests, identify the soil as
one of the following:
Soil Symbol/Name

Dry Strength

Dilatancy

Toughness

ML/Inorganic Silt

None to Low

Slow to Rapid

Low or thread cannot be

formed

CL/Inorganic Lean Clay

Medium to High

None to Slow

Medium

MH/Inorganic elastic

Low to Medium

None to Slow

Low to Medium

CH/Inorganic Fat Clay

High to Very High

None

High

<

If the soil is estimated to have 15% to 25% sand or gravel, or both, the words with sand or
with gravel (which ever is more predominant) shall be added to the group name. For
example: lean clay with sand, (CL), or silt with gravel, (ML). If the percentage of sand is
equal to the percentage of gravel, use with sand. (see Figure 2)

<

If the soil is estimated to have 30% or more sand or gravel, or both, the words sandy or
gravelly shall be added to the group name. Add the appropriate word depending on which
is predominant in the sample. For example: sandy lean clay, (CL); gravelly fat clay, (CH),
or sandy silt, (ML). If the percentage of sand is equal to the percentage of gravel, then use
sandy. (see Figure 2)

Identification of Organic fine-grained Soils

<

Identify the soil as an organic soil, (OL/OH), if the soil contains enough organic particles to
influence soil properties. Organic soils usually have a dark brown to black color and may
have an organic odor. Often, organic soils will change color, for example, black to brown,
when exposed to air. Some organic soils will lighten in color significantly when air dried.
Organic soils will not have a high toughness or plasticity. The thread for the toughness will
be spongy. (see Figure 2)

Procedures for Identifying Coarse-Grained Soils (Contains less than 50% fines)
<
<

The soil is a gravel if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be more than the percentage
of sand.
The soil is a sand if the percentage of gravel is estimated to be equal to or less than the
percentage sand.

Soil-D2488-13

<

The soil is a clean gravel or clean sand if the percentage of fines is estimated to be 5% or
less.

<

Identify the soil as a well-graded gravel, (GW), or as a well-graded sand, (SW), if it has
a wide range of particle sizes and substantial amounts of the intermediate particle
sizes. (see Figure 3)
Identify the soil as a poorly graded gravel, (GP), or as a poorly graded sand, (SP), if it
consists predominately of one size (uniformly graded) or it has a wide range of sizes
with some intermediate sizes obviously missing.
The soil is classified as either gravel with fines or a sand with fines if the percentage of
fines is estimated to be 15% or more.
Identify the soil as a clayey gravel, (GC), or a clayey sand, (SC), if the fines are clayey
as previously determined.
Identify the soil as a silty gravel, (GM), or a silty sand, (SM), if the fines are silty as
previously determined.

If the soil is estimated to contain 10% fines, give the soil a duel identification using two
group symbols.
The first group symbol shall correspond to clean gravel or sand (GW, GP, SW, SP),
and the second symbol shall correspond to a gravel or sand with fines (GC, GM, SC,
and SM)

The group name shall correspond to the first group symbol plus the words with clay or
with silt to indicate the plasticity characteristics of the fines. For example: well-graded
gravel with clay, (GW-GC) or poorly-graded sand with silt, (SP-SM).

<

If the specimen is predominately sand or gravel, but contains an estimated 15% or more of
the other coarse-grained, the words with gravel or with sand shall be added to the group
name. For example: poorly graded gravel with sand, (GP) or clayey sand with gravel, (SC).

<

If the field sample contains any cobbles or boulders, or both, the words with cobbles or
with cobbles and boulders shall be added to the group name.

Report
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Group Name
Group Symbol
Percent cobbles or boulders, or both (by volume)
Percent of gravel, sand, or fines, or all three (by dry weight)
Particle size range:
Gravel-fine, coarse
Sand-fine, medium, coarse
6. Particle angularity:

Soil-D2488-14

 angular
subangular
subrounded
rounded
7. Particle shape: (if appropriate)
flat
elongated
flat and elongated
8. Maximum particle size or dimension
9. Hardness of coarse sand and larger particles
10. Plasticity of fines:
nonplastic
low
medium
high
11. Dry strength:
none
low
medium
high very high
12. Dilatancy:
none
slow
rapid
13. Toughness:
low
medium
high
14. Color (in moist condition)
15. Odor (mention only if organic or unusual)
16. Moisture:
dry
moist
wet
17. Reaction with HCl:
none
weak
strong
For intact samples:
1. Consistency: (fine-grained soils only)
very soft
soft
firm
hard

Soil-D2488-15

 very hard
2. Structure:
stratified
laminated
fissured
Slickensided
Lensed
homogeneous
3. Cementation:
weak
moderate
strong
4. Local name
5. Geologic interpretation
6. Additional Comments: (such as)
presence of roots
presence of mica, gypsum, etc.
surface coatings on coarse particles
caving or sloughing of auger hole or trench sides.
7. Difficulty in auguring or excavating, etc.

Soil-D2488-16

Glossary
For particles retained on a 75 mm sieve, the following definitions are suggested:
Boulders

- Particles of rock that will not pass a 75 mm square opening.

Cobbles

- particles of rock that will pass a 300 mm square opening and be retained on a
75 mm sieve.
Gravel - particles of rock that will pass a 75 mm sieve and be retained on
a 4.75 mm sieve with the following sub-divisions:
coarse - passes a 75 mm sieve and is retained on a 19 mm sieve.
fine - Passes a 19 mm sieve and is retained on a 4.75 mm sieve

Sand

- Particles of rock that will pass a 4.75 mm sieve and be retained on a 0.075
mm sieve with the following sub-divisions:
coarse - passes a 4.75 mm sieve and is retained on a 2.00 mm sieve
medium - passes a 2.00 mm sieve and is retained on a 0.425 mm
fine - passes a 0.425 mm sieve and is retained on a 0.075 mm

Fines

- That material which is non-organic, and passes a 0.075 mm sieve.

Silt

- Soil passing a 0.075 mm sieve that is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and
that exhibits little or no strength when air dry. For classification, a silt is a finegrained soil, or the fine-grained portion of soil, with a plasticity index less than
4, and the plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls below the A line.
(see figure 4)

Clay

- Soil passing the 0.075 mm sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity (puttylike properties) within a range of water contents and that exhibits considerable
strength when dry. For classification, a clay is a fine-grained soil, or the finegrained portion of soil, with a plasticity index
greater than 4, and the plot
of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls on
or above the A line. (see
figure 4)

Organic silt

- A silt with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties. For
classification , an organic silt is a soil would be classified as a silt except that
its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value
before oven drying.

Organic clay - A clay with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties. For
classification , an organic clay is a soil would be classified as a clay except
that its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit
value before oven drying.
Peat

- A soil comprised primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of

decomposition, usually with an organic odor, a dark brown to black color, a

Soil-D2488-17

spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous

(completely decomposed).
Olfactory

- Sense of smell.

Tactile

- Sense of touch.

Mica

- A mineral composed of very thin friable plates.

Soil

- Mineral particles which have been naturally degraded from mass rock.

The visual-manual procedure covered in this manual utilizes the following group symbols:
G gravel
S sand
M silt
C clay
O organic
PT peat
W well graded
P poorly graded

Soil-D2488-18

RANDOM SAMPLING OF
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ASTM D 3665

Developed by
Multi-Regional Aggregate Training and Certification Group
Revised 2006

Agg-D3665-1

NOTE
ASTM D 3665, Practice for Random
Sampling of Construction Materials, is a
prerequisite for soils, aggregates, and hot
mix training and certification materials
presented in this package.

ii
Agg-D3665-2

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION . . ...Agg-D3665-1
SUMMARY . . Agg-D3665- 4
METHOD . . Agg-D3665- 4
Picking Random Numbers: . . .
4
Examples of Random Sampling Procedures using Random Numbers Agg-D3665-5
Sampling from a Belt or Flowing Stream of Aggregate: . . Agg-D3665- 5
Sampling from Haul Units: . . . Agg-D3665- 5
Sampling from a Roadway . . . Agg-D3665-5
Sampling of a Stockpile Agg-D3665-7
RANDOM NUMBER TABLE . . Agg-D3665-8
GLOSSARY . . .Agg-D3665-12

iii
Agg-D3665-3

RANDOM SAMPLING OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

This practice covers the determination of random locations or times at which samples of
construction materials are to be taken.

INTRODUCTION
Highway construction materials are typically accepted or rejected based on the test results of small
representative samples. Consequently, acceptance or rejection of materials is highly dependent on
how well a small sample that is tested represents a larger quantity of material. If the sample is not
truly representative of the larger quantity, acceptable material could be rejected, or substandard
material could be accepted. Correct sampling methods are critical to the validity of the sample test
results. Sampling performed incorrectly will lead to test results that do not reflect the true
characteristics of the material or product being tested.
A random sample is any sample which has as equal a chance as any other sample of being selected
from a large quantity. In other words, there is an equal chance for all locations and all fractions of a
large quantity of material to be sampled. Random unbiased samples must be obtained in a way that
the true nature of the material is represented. Samples should not be obtained on a predetermined
basis, or based on the quality of the material in a certain area. If sampling is not performed on a
random basis, the quality of the sample can be artificially modified and the sample will no longer be
representative of the larger quantity.
When a sample is not representative or random, it is said to be biased. Examples of biased sampling
that should not be used include sampling a roadway at a given interval, such as every 1500 feet;
sampling asphaltic concrete production at a given frequency, such as every 500 tons, or taking
samples at a given time frequency, such as every hour on the hour. Random sampling eliminates
bias in the determination of materials characteristics.

Agg-D3665-1

Figure 1. Example of random sampling techniques.

The actions required to obtain a representative sample, such as how to take the sample, where to
take it, what tools to use and the size of sample are covered in the appropriate materials control
program and guidelines specified by the Agency for use on the project. Reference should be made to
these instructions, and AASHTO T2, on sampling requirements.
Agency specifications identify lot sizes, locations, and frequencies for sampling and testing. A lot is
defined as a given quantity of material that is to be sampled. The lot is a predetermined unit which
may represent a days production, a specified quantity of material, a specified number of truckloads or
an interval of time. Agencies will specify the lot size of a material and often a sampling frequency.
Although these frequencies may appear to be a violation of random sampling, they are given as a
minimum amount of sampling, not as a specific frequency.
Lots are often divided into equal sublots. The number of equal sublots used to represent the lot will
be determined by the agency and specifications, but in most cases four or more sublots compose a
full lot.
Instructors Note: Give an example of your Agencys materials control program, including lot
sizes, sampling locations, and sampling frequencies.
Multiple sample portions might be required to be taken and combined to represent a single sample.
For example, three sample portions are taken from an aggregate stockpile and combined to form a
single sample. The sample will then be tested for determining the sublot or lot specification
compliance. The use of random samples from sublots is referred to as stratified random sampling.
Stratified random sampling assures that samples are taken from throughout the entire lot and are
not concentrated in one area of the lot. See Figure 2.

Agg-D3665-2

Sublot 1

Sublot 2
Sample

Sublot 3

Sublot 4
Sample

Sample
Sample
LOT
Figure 2. Sublots for stratified sampling.
Sample location or time determination should be fully independent of material production and
construction activities. The established sample locations and times need to be confidential if they are
identified before completion of production. Under no circumstance should the material production or
construction be modified because of sample locations or times.
Quality control/quality assurance (QC/QA) specifications are developed based on statistical theory
which is valid only when random sampling is performed. QC/QA specifications are statistically
based on a normal distribution (bell curve) of material characteristics produced by a material
production process or construction method. If samples are biased or not random, the test results
will not fit the normal distribution and the QC/QA specification is no longer valid.
It is highly recommended that correlation sampling and testing is conducted between the QC and QA
technicians and labs before or at the beginning of production to identify any discrepancies
between the sampling and testing procedures and test equipment of the two labs and technicians. If
this is not done, the differing test results due to test equipment deficiencies, different sampling
techniques and/or different test method procedures may result in an apparent difference in
material characteristics.
Random sampling is usually accomplished with the use of random number generators or tables of
random numbers. Most calculators and computers contain a random number generator that
merely requires the operator to hit a button. The automated random number generators use
programmed tables of random numbers similar to the tables shown in Table 1. Random number tables
can be of any length and are simply random arrangements of numbers within a given
range of discrete numbers.
Do not attempt to create your own method of being random! There is no way you will be able to
avoid personal bias or the creation of bias.
Instructors Note: Examples of sampling that are not random and should be avoided
selecting a location because it looks good or bad
choosing a time to sample that is convenient instead of random
always sampling from the first truck each day to assure the day is starting off right
throwing a dart at a table of random numbers in a manner that is selective
throwing a rock and sampling where the rock lands.

Agg-D3665-3

SUMMARY
ASTM D 3665 - Standard Practice for Random Sampling of Construction Materials, is a method
used by the industry for determining random locations or time intervals at which samples of
construction materials are to be taken. The ASTM method uses tables of random numbers and
describes the procedures for determining random times for belt sampling, random locations for
windrow and stockpile sampling, random sampling of in-place paving materials, and random
sampling of truck loads. This method does not describe actual sampling procedure, but rather, how
to determine sampling times or locations.

METHOD
Picking Random Numbers:
If a calculator or computer random number generator is not used, the random number table adapted
from ASTM D3665 and presented as Table 1 on the following pages can be used. The table
contains all the numbers from 0.001 to 1.000, each number appearing only once.
1. Obtain two pill boxes, one box containing 100 pills numbered from 1 to 100 used for row
determination in the table, and the other box containing 10 pills numbered from 0 to 9 used
for column determination in the table.
2. Blindly, select a pill from the box containing 100 pills. For this exercise, say the pill with
number 31 has been selected. Row 31 will then be used for the final random number
selection from the table. Always return the selected pill back into the box for further
selections.
3. Blindly, select a pill from the box containing 10 pills. Say the selected pill number is 5.
Column 5 of the table will be used for the final random number selection. Again, return the
selected pill back into the box for further selections.
4. Now locate the random number in table 1 located at the intersection of row 31 and
column 5. That number is 0.687, which is the random number to be used for the
determination of a sampling location or time frequency.
Keep in mind that for most situations, youre going to need to pick several random numbers. This
can take some time using the recommended
procedure.
The final random numbers selected will represent feet from centerline offset and longitudinal
direction from a station for roadway sampling or time for production sampling.
Instructors Note: The above method is easier than that presented in Section 5 of ASTM D3665 for
the use of a random number table. If pills are not used, the method presented in Section 5 should
be clearly explained.

Agg-D3665-4

Examples of Random Sampling Procedures using Random Numbers:

Sampling from a Belt or Flowing Stream of Aggregate: Determine an amount of produced
material that is to be considered a lot quantity. Agencies will specify a time, such as a days
production or a half-day production. Sometimes a volume, such as 764.6 cubic meters or 1000
cubic yards will be specified. AASHTO T2 - Sampling Aggregates, stipulates that when time is
used to determine lot size, random numbers will be used directly to determine sampling time in
minutes.
Example:
The lot size is a ten hour day (600 minutes) and the random numbers .324, .612, and
.032 are chosen to represent three sub lots. The decimal point is dropped and the
times for sampling are then designated as 32 minutes, 324 minutes, and 612 minutes.
Since 612 minutes is beyond the lot size of 600 minutes, .612 is
discarded and another random number is chosen in its place. AASHTO allows the
actual time to be rounded off to the nearest 5 minutes.
Example:
It is desired to take a random sample of aggregate for every 1000 tons of
aggregate produced. The design requires 4123 tons of aggregate; therefore, 4
samples are required.
The random numbers selected from the table are: .87, .22, .38, .74.
Multiplying 4123 by each of these numbers gives the number of tons of production at
which sampling should occur:
.22 x 4123 = 907 tons
.38 x 4123 = 1567 tons
.74 x 4123 = 3051 tons
.87 x 4123 = 3587 tons
Sampling from Haul Units: Determine the number of units that comprise a lot. Multiply selected
random numbers by the number of hauled units to determine sampling locations. In most cases, the
number of hauled units of material will be anticipated at the beginning of the lots production. Some
agencies determine lot size based on tonnage shipped to projects, in which case the random
numbers are multiplied by the total anticipated tonnage to determine sampling locations.
Sampling from a Roadway: Determine the length and width of a lot. Determine the number of
samples required to represent the lot and pick random numbers for length and width. Determine
sample locations by multiplying the lot length by a random number and the lot width by a random
number. The length is typically measured from the beginning of the lot and the width is typically
measured from the centerline or edge of structure.

Agg-D3665-5

Example:
Four samples are required for a 12 feet wide pavement with a lot size determined to
be 4000 linear feet. The lot begins at Station 100+00. Use the random number table in
Table 1 to determine the sample locations.
From the given information:
lot begins at station 100+00
lot ends at station 140+00
length of lot = 4,000 feet
Determine the sample locations:
Using the random number table, obtain two sets of 4 random numbers each. Set 1 will
be used to determine stationing (X) of the samples by multiplying the random numbers
by 4,000 feet.
Set 2 will be used to determine the sampling distance from the right edge of pavement
(Y) by multiplying the random numbers by 12 feet.
Random numbers chosen from table are:
Set 1: .13
.69
.59
.88
Set 2: .73
.82
.46
.33
Sample coordinate locations determination:
Sample #1:
X = .13 x 4000 = 520 feet
Y = .73 x 12 = 8.8 feet
Sample #2:
X = .69 x 4000 = 2760 feet
Y = .82 x 12 = 9.8 feet
Sample #3:
X = .59 x 4000 = 2360 feet
Y = .46 x 12 = 5.5 feet
Sample #4:
X = .88 x 4000 = 3520 feet Y
= .33 x 12 = 4.0 feet
Sample locations:
Sample #1:
Station 100+00 + 520 feet = Station 105+20 @ 8.8 feet from right edge of pavement
Sample #2:
Station 100+00 + 2760 feet = Station 127+60 @ 9.8 feet from right edge of pavement
Sample #3:
Station 100+00 + 2360 feet = Station 123+60 @ 5.5 feet from right edge of pavement
Sample #4:
Station 100+00 + 3520 feet = Station 135+20 @ 4.0 feet from right edge of pavement

Agg-D3665-6

Sampling of a Stockpile: ASTM does not recommend a method for using random numbers in
determining the locations in stockpiles to sample. However, some agencies use random procedures for
determining sampling increment locations from a stockpile. Keep in mind that stockpiles are prone to
segregation and that a sample obtained randomly from a stockpile may not represent that material if it
is not obtained in accordance with AASHTO T2-Sampling Aggregates.

Agg-D3665-7

Table 1.
ASTM D3665

RANDOM NUMBER TABLE, ADAPTED FROM ASTM D3665

0.272

0.519

0.098

0.459

1.000

0.554

0.250

0.246

0.736

0.432

0.994

0.978

0.978

0.693

0.690

0.028

0.831

0.319

0.073

0.268

0.039

0.449

0.737

0.501

0.960

0.254

0.239

0.474

0.031

0.720

0.144

0.695

0.339

0.621

0.128

0.032

0.413

0.617

0.764

0.257

0.312

0.138

0.670

0.894

0.682

0.061

0.832

0.765

0.226

0.745

0.871

0.838

0.595

0.576

0.096

0.581

0.245

0.786

0.412

0.867

0.783

0.874

0.795

0.430

0.265

0.059

0.260

0.563

0.632

0.394

0.358

0.424

0.684

0.074

0.109

0.345

0.618

0.176

0.352

0.748

0.494

0.839

0.337

0.325

0.699

0.083

0.043

0.809

0.981

0.499

10

0.642

0.514

0.297

0.869

0.744

0.824

0.524

0.656

0.608

0.408

11

0.485

0.240

0.292

0.335

0.088

0.589

0.127

0.396

0.401

0.407

12

0.728

0.819

0.557

0.050

0.152

0.816

0.404

0.079

0.703

0.493

13

0.029

0.262

0.558

0.159

0.767

0.175

0.979

0.521

0.781

0.843

14

0.918

0.348

0.311

0.232

0.797

0.921

0.995

0.225

0.397

0.356

15

0.641

0.013

0.780

0.478

0.529

0.520

0.093

0.426

0.323

0.504

16

0.208

0.468

0.045

0.798

0.065

0.315

0.318

0.742

0.597

0.080

17

0.346

0.429

0.537

0.469

0.697

0.124

0.541

0.525

0.281

0.962

18

0.900

0.206

0.539

0.308

0.480

0.293

0.448

0.010

0.836

0.233

19

0.228

0.369

0.513

0.762

0.952

0.856

0.574

0.158

0.689

0.579

20

0.746

0.170

0.974

0.306

0.145

0.139

0.417

0.195

0.338

0.901

21

0.363

0.103

0.931

0.389

0.199

0.488

0.915

0.067

0.878

0.640

22

0.663

0.942

0.278

0.785

0.638

0.002

0.989

0.462

0.927

0.186

23

0.545

0.185

0.054

0.198

0.717

0.247

0.913

0.975

0.555

0.559

24

0.360

0.349

0.569

0.910

0.420

0.492

0.947

0.115

0.884

0.452

25

0.789

0.815

0.464

0.484

0.020

0.007

0.547

0.941

0.365

0.261

Agg-D3665-8

ASTM D3665

26

0.279

0.609

0.086

0.852

0.890

0.108

0.076

0.089

0.662

0.607

27

0.680

0.235

0.706

0.827

0.572

0.769

0.310

0.036

0.329

0.477

28

0.078

0.444

0.178

0.651

0.423

0.672

0.517

0.660

0.657

0.972

29

0.676

0.830

0.531

0.888

0.305

0.421

0.307

0.502

0.112

0.808

30

0.861

0.899

0.643

0.771

0.037

0.241

0.582

0.578

0.634

0.077

31

0.111

0.364

0.970

0.669

0.548

0.687

0.639

0.510

0.105

0.549

32

0.289

0.857

0.948

0.980

0.132

0.094

0.298

0.870

0.309

0.441

33

0.961

0.893

0.392

0.377

0.864

0.472

0.009

0.946

0.766

0.287

34

0.637

0.986

0.753

0.566

0.213

0.807

0.017

0.460

0.515

0.630

35

0.834

0.121

0.255

0.453

0.376

0.583

0.422

0.371

0.399

0.366

36

0.284

0.490

0.402

0.151

0.044

0.436

0.747

0.694

0.136

0.585

37

0.038

0.814

0.594

0.911

0.324

0.322

0.895

0.411

0.160

0.367

38

0.351

0.283

0.027

0.220

0.685

0.527

0.943

0.556

0.853

0.612

39

0.143

0.384

0.645

0.479

0.489

0.052

0.187

0.990

0.912

0.750

40

0.512

0.056

0.018

0.122

0.303

0.803

0.553

0.729

0.205

0.925

41

0.296

0.705

0.156

0.616

0.534

0.168

0.564

0.866

0.739

0.850

42

0.451

0.536

0.768

0.518

0.481

0.880

0.835

0.734

0.427

0.847

43

0.837

0.405

0.591

0.370

0.104

0.848

0.004

0.414

0.354

0.707

44

0.724

0.153

0.841

0.829

0.470

0.391

0.388

0.163

0.817

0.790

45

0.665

0.825

0.671

0.623

0.770

0.400

0.068

0.440

0.019

0.944

46

0.573

0.716

0.266

0.456

0.434

0.467

0.603

0.169

0.721

0.779

47

0.332

0.702

0.300

0.570

0.945

0.968

0.649

0.097

0.118

0.242

48

0.755

0.951

0.937

0.550

0.879

0.162

0.791

0.810

0.625

0.674

49

0.439

0.491

0.855

0.446

0.773

0.542

0.416

0.350

0.957

0.419

50

0.700

0.877

0.442

0.286

0.526

0.071

0.154

0.988

0.333

0.626

Agg-D3665-9

ASTM D3665

51

0.523

0.613

0.752

0.733

0.528

0.072

0.820

0.929

0.777

0.461

52

0.905

0.182

0.567

0.249

0.227

0.229

0.604

0.304

0.217

0.142

53

0.373

0.120

0.602

0.793

0.692

0.863

0.954

0.873

0.107

0.675

54

0.057

0.953

0.041

0.090

0.223

0.508

0.806

0.438

0.203

0.586

55

0.967

0.040

0.708

0.271

0.189

0.342

0.740

0.801

0.985

0.263

56

0.917

0.715

0.758

0.005

0.666

0.599

0.934

0.100

0.987

0.085

57

0.131

0.646

0.659

0.047

0.051

0.562

0.435

0.731

0.362

0.317

58

0.326

0.605

0.443

0.601

0.386

0.560

0.378

0.172

0.445

0.636

59

0.299

0.106

0.237

0.732

0.796

0.476

0.099

0.804

0.735

0.950

60

0.101

0.055

0.776

0.686

0.171

0.533

0.936

0.095

0.982

0.211

61

0.267

0.598

0.754

0.658

0.274

0.215

0.177

0.218

0.330

0.628

62

0.471

0.102

0.454

0.568

0.963

0.357

0.882

0.507

0.157

0.580

63

0.535

0.881

0.014

0.966

0.958

0.190

0.180

0.759

0.433

0.355

64

0.277

0.458

0.295

0.196

0.772

0.148

0.466

0.291

0.688

0.046

65

0.719

0.167

0.181

0.653

0.328

0.070

0.015

0.155

0.631

0.063

66

0.385

0.858

0.713

0.883

0.916

0.084

0.561

0.999

0.379

0.668

67

0.862

0.928

0.822

0.812

0.977

0.395

0.788

0.920

0.673

0.698

68

0.486

0.938

0.757

0.749

0.991

0.219

0.264

0.932

0.898

0.006

69

0.091

0.872

0.959

0.922

0.727

0.811

0.075

0.374

0.133

0.730

70

0.146

0.482

0.930

0.611

0.179

0.011

0.248

0.886

0.344

0.926

71

0.709

0.184

0.390

0.409

0.191

0.117

0.860

0.135

0.406

0.134

72

0.996

0.896

0.760

0.347

0.053

0.372

0.193

0.756

0.565

0.914

73

0.971

0.859

0.147

0.114

0.418

0.889

0.792

0.064

0.652

0.288

74

0.202

0.538

0.026

0.949

0.696

0.008

0.846

0.259

0.415

0.425

75

0.212

0.321

0.778

0.940

0.496

0.231

0.664

0.903

0.473

0.909

Agg-D3665-10

ASTM D3665

76

0.207

0.799

0.487

0.022

0.813

0.891

0.500

0.368

0.725

0.437

77

0.818

0.503

0.906

0.224

0.904

0.892

0.455

0.343

0.924

0.197

78

0.701

0.984

0.174

0.141

0.704

0.908

0.048

0.828

0.997

0.058

79

0.035

0.380

0.001

0.381

0.251

0.497

0.214

0.794

0.552

0.588

80

0.221

0.200

0.587

0.353

0.584

0.270

0.885

0.110

0.956

0.711

81

0.647

0.403

0.530

0.738

0.280

0.457

0.650

0.276

0.661

0.973

82

0.667

0.722

0.327

0.723

0.410

0.635

0.012

0.907

0.316

0.677

83

0.644

0.590

0.021

0.369

0.042

0.062

0.387

0.183

0.964

0.544

84

0.302

0.123

0.116

0.282

0.851

0.256

0.648

0.845

0.782

0.993

85

0.633

0.933

0.331

0.546

0.842

0.016

0.236

0.164

0.923

0.976

86

0.060

0.681

0.683

0.775

0.624

0.955

0.126

0.655

0.919

0.113

87

0.165

0.532

0.431

0.341

0.092

0.244

0.222

0.336

0.034

0.216

88

0.875

0.691

0.383

0.382

0.596

0.301

0.275

0.188

0.868

0.805

89

0.726

0.902

0.252

0.130

0.238

0.398

0.763

0.463

0.615

0.140

90

0.273

0.393

0.285

0.161

0.619

0.865

0.551

0.030

0.571

0.258

91

0.253

0.821

0.600

0.023

0.606

0.849

0.610

0.577

0.082

0.774

92

0.340

0.654

0.173

0.495

0.498

0.992

0.192

0.506

0.751

0.129

93

0.194

0.290

0.592

0.983

0.509

0.998

0.522

0.627

0.741

0.540

94

0.166

0.450

0.210

0.204

0.840

0.826

0.833

0.516

0.965

0.375

95

0.712

0.314

0.033

0.823

0.629

0.939

0.887

0.066

0.743

0.081

96

0.622

0.800

0.710

0.575

0.678

0.465

0.802

0.969

0.150

0.784

97

0.313

0.294

0.897

0.718

0.614

0.876

0.025

0.049

0.620

0.125

98

0.137

0.087

0.003

0.483

0.201

0.209

0.320

0.935

0.447

0.787

99

0.243

0.679

0.844

0.069

0.024

0.543

0.714

0.234

0.505

0.428

10
0

0.361

0.359

0.230

0.761

0.334

0.149

0.511

0.475

0.854

0.119

Agg-D3665-11

GLOSSARY
Bias - a systematic error which occurs in a method of sampling that affects the
representativeness of the sample.
Lot - a predetermined quantity of material or production that is represented by a random sample.
Random sample - a sample taken from a quantity of material using a randomization process. A
random sample is a sample which has as equal a chance as any other
sample of being selected from a large quantity.
Stratified sampling - a method for ensuring that the full range of a construction process,
materials production, or lot of material is included in random sampling.
Sublots - equal subdivisions of a lot used in stratified sampling.

Agg-D3665-12

REDUCING SAMPLES OF AGGREGATE

TO TESTING SIZE
AASHTO T 248

Developed by
Multi-Regional Aggregate Training & Certification Group
Revised 2006

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluation are prerequisites for this
training package.
AASHTO D3665, Practice for Random Sampling Construction
Materials
AASHTO T2, Sampling of Aggregates

gg248ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
REDUCING SAMPLES OF AGGREGATE TO TESTING SIZE ................................... Agg-T248-1
SUMMARY OF SAMPLE REDUCTION ............................................................ Agg-T248-2
COMMON SAMPLE REDUCTION ERRORS ................................................... Agg-T248-3
SAMPLE REDUCTION - METHOD A (MECHANICAL SPLITTER).............................. Agg-T248-4
Apparatus (Mechanical Sample Splitter) ........................................................... Agg-T248-4
Sample Preparation ........................................................................................... Agg-T248-4
Reduction Procedure ......................................................................................... Agg-T248-5
SAMPLE REDUCTION - METHOD B (QUARTERING)................................................ Agg-T248-8
Apparatus........................................................................................................... Agg-T248-8
Sample Preparation ........................................................................................... Agg-T248-8
Reduction Procedure ......................................................................................... Agg-T248-8
METHOD B - ALTERNATIVE ............................................................................ Agg-T248-8
SAMPLE REDUCTION - METHOD C (MINIATURE STOCKPILE) ............................ Agg-T248-11
APPARATUS ................................................................................................... Agg-T248-11
Sample Preparation ......................................................................................... Agg-T248-11
Reduction Procedure ....................................................................................... Agg-T248-11
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................. Agg-T248-15

gg248iii

REDUCING SAMPLES OF AGGREGATE TO TESTING

SIZE
Aggregates are the main ingredient in highway construction. They are used in all phases from
base construction, pavement and structural mix, granular shoulders, and granular surfacing, as
well as, erosion control. In order to ensure the aggregate performs as intended for the specified
use, a variety of tests must be performed on the aggregate. These samples must be
representative of the aggregate selected for use and should be obtained by appropriate methods
as described in AASHTO T 2.
The field samples of aggregate must generally be reduced to an appropriate size for testing to
determine physical characteristics, such as, sieve analysis, soundness, hardness, etc. The
methods described in this text are intended to minimize variations in the aggregate
characteristics between the smaller test samples and the larger field samples.
Several methods of sample reduction will be described. The technician must be sure to use the
appropriate technique dependent on such factors as aggregate size and moisture content.
The reduction methods include:
Method A - Mechanical Splitter
Method B - Quartering
Method C - Miniature Stockpile

In some circumstances, reducing the field sample prior to testing is not recommended.
Substantial differences may unavoidably occur during sample reduction, i.e., in the case of an
aggregate having relatively few large size particles in the sample. These few particles may be
unequally distributed among the reduced size test samples. If the test sample is being
examined for certain contaminants occurring as a few discreet particles in a small percentage,
the reduced test sample may not be truly representative of the total aggregate as produced. In
these cases, the entire original field sample should be tested.
Failure to carefully follow the procedures in these methods of sample reduction may result in
providing a nonrepresentative sample for subsequent testing, resulting in inaccurate test results,
and ultimately, failure of the aggregate to perform as intended.

gg2481

SUMMARY OF SAMPLE REDUCTION

Aggregate and other materials sampled in the field need to be reduced to appropriate sizes for
testing. It is, therefore, necessary to reduce field samples while minimizing the chance of
variability during handling. In some instances a few particles on a given sieve might affect a
gradation significantly enough to alter an interpretation of the field sample and subsequently the
entire lots compliance with specifications.
The appropriate field sample reduction method is dependent chiefly on the nominal maximum
size of the aggregate, the amount of free moisture in the sample, and the equipment available.
The glossary at the back of this section should be read thoroughly before proceeding with
sample reduction
The following chart should be used in selecting the appropriate reduction method for the
aggregate to be tested.

Mechanical Splitter

Quartering

Miniature Stockpile

Fine Aggregates Air Dry

Fine Aggregates Free Moisture on

the Particle Surface

Fine Aggregate - Free

Moisture on the
Particle Surface

Coarse Aggregates

Coarse Aggregates

Not Appropriate for

Coarse Aggregate

Combined Aggregates

Combined Aggregates
with Free Moisture on
the Particle Surface

Not Appropriate for

Combined Aggregate

gg2482

COMMON SAMPLE REDUCTION ERRORS

Failure to obtain a field sample using the methods and guidelines given in AASHTO T 2.
Failure to select proper method for sample reduction based on aggregate moisture content.
Failure to uniformly distribute the field sample from edge to edge while placing it in the
hopper or pan prior to pouring it through the chutes when using a mechanical splitter.
Failure to, when using a mechanical splitter, control the rate at which the materials are
poured through the chutes such that the material is free flowing into the receptacle pans
below. This includes using a hopper or straight-edged pan that, per AASHTO T 248, has a
width equal to or slightly less than the overall width of the assembly of chutes.
Failure to use or set mechanical splitters to meet the applicable requirements for number of
chute openings and chute width.
When using the quartering method or miniature stockpile method, failure to mix the sample
thoroughly by turning the entire sample over three times.
When using the quartering method, failure to brush the cleared spaces clean of fines after
removing the two diagonally opposite quarters from the flattened field sample.
When using the miniature stockpile method, failure to obtain the five (minimum) increments
of material from random locations in the miniature stockpile. Do not take all five samples
from the same location.

gg2483

SAMPLE REDUCTION - METHOD A (MECHANICAL

SPLITTER)
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment needed to perform
the test.

Apparatus (Mechanical Sample Splitter)

The mechanical sample splitter must have an even number of equal width chutes, not less
than eight for coarse or combined aggregate, or twelve for fine aggregate.
The chutes must discharge alternately to each side of the splitter.
For coarse and combined aggregates the minimum width of the individual chutes shall be
approximately fifty percent larger than the largest size particle in the sample to be reduced.
For dry fine aggregate in which the entire sample will pass the 9.5 mm ( in.) sieve, the
minimum width of the chutes shall be at least fifty percent larger than the largest particles in
the sample with a maximum width of 19 mm ( in.).
The splitter must be equipped with at least two receptacles(catch pans) to hold the two
halves of the sample during splitting.
It shall also be equipped with a hopper or straight-edge pan with a width equal to or slightly
less than the overall width of the assembly of chutes, by which the sample may be fed at a
controlled rate into the chutes.
The splitter and accessories shall be designed to allow the sample to flow smoothly without
restriction or loss of material.
NOTE:
Mechanical splitters are commonly available in
sizes adequate for aggregate having the largest
particle size not over 37.5 mm (1 in.).

Sample Preparation
Using the mechanical splitter to reduce a fine aggregate sample, the aggregate should be in an
air dry condition. The entire sample may be dried to at least a saturated surface dry condition
using temperatures that do not exceed those specified for any of the tests intended to be
performed on the material.
If the damp, fine aggregate sample is too large to efficiently dry in this manner, a preliminary split
may be performed using a mechanical splitter with chute openings no smaller than 37.5 mm (1
in.). Reduce the sample to not less than 5000 g and dry this sample. Reduce the dried sample
using a mechanical splitter with individual chute openings not to exceed 19 mm
( in.) to the required test sample size(s).
gg2484

When reducing a coarse aggregate by mechanical splitting, the sample may be reduced in a
damp condition taking care that any fine particles adhering to the chutes are brushed into the
catch pans. Samples containing excess water should be allowed to drain before reduction is
attempted.
Combined aggregates may also be reduced in a damp condition, as long as the aggregate flows
freely through the chute openings without plugging and any small particles adhering to the
chutes are brushed into the catch pans.
When practicable, allow all samples to attain an air dry condition before using a mechanical
splitter.
Note:
If the field sample was originally collected in two or more increments (separate sacks
containing material from different parts of the same stockpile), then the separate
increments must be thoroughly mixed together to form one homogenous field sample.
Mixing can be done using an adequate sample splitter or by mixing the sample with a
shovel as detailed later in the section describing the quartering method procedure.

Reduction Procedure
Place the original sample, or portion thereof, in the hopper or pan and uniformly distribute it from
edge to edge being sure the sample appears homogenous (well-blended). Carefully introduce
the sample into the chutes in a manner to allow the aggregate to flow freely through the
openings and into the catch pans. Continue this procedure until the entire large sample has
been halved, being careful that catch pans do not overflow.
Remove the catch pans and set aside. Continue splitting the other half into quarters. Follow this
procedure, being sure to split entire increments, until the desired test sample size is obtained.
Retain the unused material until all desired tests are performed in case a retest is needed.
The mechanical splitter method is the preferred method of sample reduction and should be used
when practicable. Mechanical splitters are commonly available in sizes adequate for aggregates
with particle sizes up to 37.5 mm (1 in.).
Note:
Sometimes a significant amount of fines may be lost in the splitting process if the sample is
extremely dry and the action of pouring the sample through the splitter chutes creates a large
dust cloud, suspending the fines in the air above the splitter. If this is a serious concern,
then add a small amount of water to the original sample and mix thoroughly before splitting
the sample. The extra moisture will prevent many of the fines from becoming suspended in
the air and drifting off. Remember to not add so much water that the moisture content ends
up being at or greater than the SSD condition, in which case the mechanical splitting method
would no longer be valid. In any case, be sure to perform the splitting procedure in a wellventilated area while wearing a suitable dust mask (one which is designed to protect against
silica dust) or injury to the lungs, over time, may result.

gg2485

gg2486

MECHANICAL SAMPLE SPLITTER

Mechanical Splitter

Sample in Splitter

Sample Being Split

gg2487

SAMPLE REDUCTION - METHOD B (QUARTERING)

Apparatus
The following are the apparatus needed to perform Method B.

Straight-edged scoop.

Flat-edged shovel or trowel.

Broom or brush.

Alternate method only - canvas blanket measuring approximately 2 m by 2.5 m

(6 ft. X 8 ft.).

Sample Preparation
Fine aggregate must be in a moist condition to use Method B - quartering, to reduce the sample.
The material should be damp enough to allow it to stand in an almost vertical face.
Coarse aggregate may be either damp or dry when using Method B. (Method A is the preferred
sample reduction method for coarse aggregates).
Combined aggregates must be in a moist condition to reduce the sample by Method B, again able to
stand in an almost vertical face.
Reduction Procedure
Place the original sample on a hard, clean, level surface. Mix the material thoroughly by turning the
entire sample over with the shovel three times. With the last turning, shovel the entire sample into a
conical pile by depositing each shovelful on top of the preceding one. Carefully flatten the conical
pile to a uniform thickness and diameter by pressing down the apex with the shovel so that each
quarter section of the resulting pile will contain the material originally in it. The pile diameter should
be approximately four to eight times the thickness.
Divide the flattened pile into four equal quarters with the shovel or trowel. Remove two diagonally
opposite quarters, including all fine material. Brush the cleared spaces clean. Successively mix and
quarter the remaining material in the same fashion as the original sample. Continue this process
until the desired quantity is obtained.
Save the unused portion of the original field sample until all testing is completed in case a retest is
needed.

gg2488

METHOD B - ALTERNATIVE
As an alternative to Method B, when the floor surface is uneven, the field sample may be placed on a
canvas blanket and mixed with a shovel, or by alternatively lifting each corner of the blanket and
pulling it over the sample toward the diagonally opposite corner causing the material to be rolled.
Flatten and divide the pile as described in Method B, or if the surface beneath the blanket is too
uneven, insert a stick or pipe dividing the pile into two equal parts. Remove the stick leaving a fold in
the canvas between the sample halves. Slide the stick under the canvas blanket again at a right
angle to the first division and dissecting the two halves of the sample through their centers. Lift the
stick evenly from both ends dividing the sample into equal quarters. Remove two diagonal parts
including the fine material and clean the area. Successively mix and quarter the remaining material
until the desired sample size is obtained.

Note:
The quartering method is fairly time intensive and thus is generally used in situations where
an adequate mechanical splitter is unavailable. Diligence and care is required to ensure
that the samples obtained by quartering remain representative of the entire field sample.

gg2489

METHOD B
METHOD B

Mix by Forming New Cone

Flatten Cone

Divide Sample Into

Quarters

Method B ( alternative)

Stick Placed Under

Flattened Sample

Sample Divided in Half

gg24810

Sample Divided
Into Quarters

SAMPLE REDUCTION - METHOD C (MINIATURE

STOCKPILE)
APPARATUS
The equipment needed to reduce an aggregate sample using Method C include the
following items.

Straight-edged scoop.

Shovel or trowel (for mixing the aggregate).

Small sampling thief, small scoop, or spoon.

Sample Preparation
The miniature stockpile method must only be used when reducing a sample of fine
aggregate.
The sample must be in a moist condition before performing this method.

Reduction Procedure
This method is for damp, fine aggregate only.
Place the field sample on a hard, clean, level surface where there will be no loss of material
or contamination. Mix the sample by turning the entire sample over three times with a
shovel. With the last turning, shovel the entire sample into a conical pile by depositing each
shovelful on top of the preceding one. If desired, the conical pile may be flattened to a
uniform thickness and diameter by pressing on the apex of the conical pile with the shovel.
Obtain a sample for each test to be performed by selecting at least five increments of
material at random locations from the miniature stockpile using a sample thief, small scoop,
or spoon.

Miniature Stockpile

gg24811

Taking One of At Least Five

Increments

GLOSSARY
Nominal Maximum Size - The largest sieve size listed in the applicable specification, upon which
any material may be retained.

Note:
Occasionally the largest particles in a material as produced may be
smaller than the nominal maximum size as defined and still be in
specification compliance. Sample size and reduction method may be
revised to reflect the material to be tested.

INSTRUCTORS NOTE

Refer to state specification for definition of

nominal maximum size by material type.

Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) - An aggregate is considered to be in a saturated surface dry

condition when there is no free moisture present but the aggregate is in a nonabsorbent state. In
other words, the aggregate has all the moisture it can absorb and surface of the aggregate is dry.
Air Dry - When the aggregate appears to be dry but still has some absorbed moisture in its pore
structure.
Fine Aggregate - Aggregate which has a nominal maximum size of the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve or
smaller.
Coarse Aggregate - Aggregate which is predominately larger than the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve.
Combined Aggregate - Aggregate which has a blend of both coarse and fine particles.

gg24812

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF
MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOILS
AASHTO T 265

Developed by
FHWA Multi-regional Soils Training & Certification Group
August 1999

NOTE
There are no prerequisites to this training
package.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil - T 265 - 1
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil - T 265 - 4
Typical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil - T 265 - 4
Common . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil - T 265 - 4
Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soil - T 265 - 6
Soil - T 265 - 6
Soil - T 265 - 6
Soil - T 265 - 7
Soil - T 265 - 8
Soil - T 265 - 8

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil - T 265 - 10

MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL

Soil that is not completely dry contains water. Everything that identifies soil properties for the
construction process revolves around moisture content. It is important to know the percentage
of water in a soil in order to perform several tests that identify a soils engineering properties.
Moisture content is a factor in determining Atterberg Limits (Plastic Limit, Shrinkage Limit,
Liquid Limit) and Moisture-Density Relationships. During the construction process, it is
important to know the moisture content of a soil in order to properly relate test results to the
field condition of the soil. The correct moisture content is needed to achieve maximum
compaction and to allow stabilizing or modifying chemicals (e.g., cement and lime) to work.
Excess quantities of water will lead to failing soil foundations, embankments and base
courses. In order to determine if a soil foundation has been adequately compacted, it is
necessary to know its moisture content. Adequate compaction can only be achieved if a soil is
very close to its optimum moisture content (point at which, under standard compaction effort, a
soil can be compacted to maximum unit mass). The moisture content of a soil also influences
the processes to be used to excavate it, consolidate it, aerate it, and determine its gradation.
The moisture content of a soil refers to the quantity of water it contains. In soil mechanics,
moisture content is always expressed as a percent by dry mass. The reason for expressing
moisture content in terms of dry mass is based on the idea of solid soil particles remaining
relatively constant in mass and volume. Thus the basic structure of the soil remains basically
constant. However, the mass changes as the voids between the particles fill with water or lose
water. Therefore, the wet unit mass of a soil mass changes as the moisture content changes.
In nature, this variability of water content in the pores (voids) tends to be seasonal. Using the
fixed dry mass, instead of the variable wet mass provides a stable number on which to judge
soil characteristics.
There are four different types of soil moisture:
Gravitational -

Water that is free to move under the influence of gravity. For inplace soils, this means water at and below the ground water table
and is often referred to as ground water.

Capillary

Water held by capillary action in the soil pores (interconnecting voids

between particles), also called capillaries. Water is at zero pressure
at the groundwater level (phreatic surface). Because water has a
stronger attraction to solid surfaces than to air, water rises at its
boundary and in a narrow tube (capillary action). [A common
example of capillary action is the meniscus you see in a soda straw
or a hydrometer jar.] Capillary action causes water to be under
pressure below the phreatic surface and in tension above. The lifting
of water in a narrow (capillary) tube is referred to as surface tension.
The raising of water level in a capillary tube is in direct contradiction
to gravity. Capillary water is not free water, because it is weakly
bound by surface tension action.

Soil - T 265 - 1

 Hygroscopic

Water that forms a film around the individual soil particles when the
soil is exposed to the humidity in the air. The amount of hygroscopic
moisture in a soil will vary directly with the humidity. For any soil, the
higher the humidity, the higher the percent hygroscopic moisture will
be, until the soil and humidity reach equilibrium. Hygroscopic
moisture is the amount of moisture in air-dried soil. Hygroscopic
moisture can be driven off by oven drying to constant mass;
however, as it cools the soil will pick up hygroscopic moisture from
the air unless the dried soil is protected while cooling.

Interstitial

Loosely bonded water contained within the internal structure of soil

particles.

Soil - T 265 - 2

SUMMARY OF TESTING
The test method used to determine the percentage of moisture in a soil is a simple procedure.
First, determine the wet mass of the soil specimen (weigh it). Then, dry the soil using an oven.
Then weigh the dried soil and repeat the drying process until the mass of the dried soil stops
changing (constant mass). That is all there is to the procedure. Finally you perform
calculations to determine the percent of moisture removed from the soil (the moisture content).

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

Naturally occurring soils usually have a moisture content in the range of 5 - 40%. It is possible
(although unlikely) to obtain a moisture content as high as 100% or greater. This seemingly
impossible number is caused by the determination of moisture content in terms of dry mass.
Extremely high moisture contents can only be reasonable if they occur in a highly absorptive
soil, such as a soil with a high percentage of organic material. Extremely low moisture
contents (i.e., below 5%) are most often indicative of testing error, unless the material is from
an extremely arid environment.
In order to ensure that your test results are valid, it is critical to always perform the test exactly
as the procedure intends. Testing errors invalidate results.

COMMON TESTING ERRORS

<

Failure to protect sample or test specimen from exposure to air. This error can result in
either dehydration (moisture loss) or hydration (moisture gain) and can occur either
before or after drying.

<

Overheating the test specimen. Using too high a temperature to dry the material can
drive out interstitial moisture or result in material loss during the drying process. If the
temperature is too high, soil particles will expand rapidly and literally bounce out of the
drying container.

<

Losing material when a forced air oven in used. The draft can blow fines out of a soil
specimen. The specimen should never be placed in the air stream.

<

Failure to dry to real constant mass. The technician must determine how long to leave
the material in the oven between successive weighings for constant mass. This
decision should be based on the friability of the soil and the overall moisture content
and clay content. In general, the higher the moisture content and the higher the clay
content, the longer the material must remain in the oven between weighings. If the soil
does not remain in the oven long enough between weighings, the soil will falsely
appear to be at constant mass, because the material has not had time to lose
additional moisture.

Soil - T 265 - 3

COMMON TESTING ERRORS - Continued

<

Weighing inaccuracy caused by placing a too hot container on the balance. Heat
waves from the container can cause variations in the balance reading.

<

Placing wet test specimens in oven with almost dry specimens, because dry soil may
absorb moisture from wet specimens.

<

Recording the wrong data.

<

Calculation errors.

<

Organic Soils. It can be difficult to obtain accurate moisture contents for soils
containing significant amounts of organic material or for soils containing gypsum or
other minerals with loosely bound water. Gypsum and other such minerals have a
loose chemical bond between the water and soil. High drying temperatures will drive
out this moisture, causing it to loose its bond and will chemically alter the material.
Because the moisture used for construction purposes is based on free water not
bonded water, the inclusion of bonded water in the moisture content will not be
accurate. High drying temperatures can also destroy organic matter, causing loss of
mass. When this occurs the loss of organic mass is counted as water loss causing the
resulting moisture content not to be accurate.

Soil - T 265 - 4

TEST METHODOLOGY
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. To determine the moisture content of a soil specimen, you will need the
following.

Balance - conforming to AASHTO M23

Oven capable of maintaining temperature off 110 5EC (230 9EF)
Drying Containers
Soil Sample

Test Specimen
From a soil sample, obtain a representative quantity to use as a test specimen. When
obtaining the test specimen, be sure to keep it from drying out before it is used for testing.
Use the following table to determine the size of the test specimen.

Maximum Particle Sieve

Size

Minimum Mass of
Test Specimen, g

0.425-mm (No. 40)

10

4.75-mm (No. 4)

100

12.5-mm (1/2- inch)

300

25.0-mm (1 inch)

500

50-mm (2-inch)

1000

Procedure
1. Turn on the oven
and allow its
temperature to
stabilize at
110EC (230EF).

NOTE
For soils containing organic, turn the oven
to 60EC (140EF). If your oven cannot
maintain this temperature, dry the soil
using vacuum desiccation at a pressure of
10 mm Hg and at a temperature not lower
than 23EC (73EF).

Soil - T 265 - 5

2.

Determine the mass of the empty container and cover. Record the mass.

3. Place the wet test specimen in the drying container. Cover it immediately. Then determine
the mass of the covered container and test specimen. Record the mass of the wet
specimen, container and cover.
4. Remove the lid and immediately place the drying container holding the test specimen in the
oven.
5. Allow the test specimen to remain in the oven until it reaches constant mass. Constant
mass is that point at which the test specimen has the same mass on two successive
weighings. If the test specimen can be allowed to remain in the oven for an extended
period (e.g., 15-16 hours or overnight), it is safe to assume that constant mass has been
reached. If test results must be obtained quickly, to determine if constant mass has been
reached, remove the container and test specimen from the oven. Place the lid back on the
container. The drying container must be cool enough to be placed on the balance without
causing inaccuracy in the balance reading. Determine the mass of the container, lid, and
test specimen. Repeat this step until two successive weighing show no change in mass.
Be sure to record the mass at each weighing.

Calculations
1. Subtract the mass of the dried test specimen, container and cover (from Step 5) from the
mass of the wet test specimen, container and cover (from Step 3). This will give you the
mass of moisture in the specimen.
2. Divide the mass of moisture by the mass of the dried specimen minus the mass of the
container and cover.
3. Multiply the dividend obtained in Step 2 by 100. This will give you the percent moisture in
the sample.

The calculation steps are represented by the following equation:

MC '

Where:

Ww
Wd
Wc
100

=
=
=
=

(W w & W d)
(W d & W c)

x 100

Wet Mass of Specimen, Container and Cover

Dry Mass of Specimen, Container and Cover
Mass of Container and Cover
Constant to Convert Decimal to a Percent

Soil - T 265 - 7

Example Calculation
Mass of Drying Container
and Cover (Wc)
Wet Mass of Drying Container,
Cover and Test Specimen (Ww)
Dry Mass of Drying Container,
Cover and Test Specimen (Wd)

MC '

15.2 g

329.6 g

276.2 g

(W w & W d)

x 100
(W d & W c)
(329.6 & 276.2)
x 100
MC '
(276.2 & 15.2)
53.4
MC '
x 100
261.0
MC ' 0.20459 x 100
MC ' 20.5%

Report:

Report the percent moisture (MC) to the nearest 0.1%.

Soil - T 265 - 8

GLOSSARY
Atterberg Limits

Tests designed by A. Atterberg. Used to identify the limits at which

a soil passes from a solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid states.
Atterberg Limits are the Plastic Limit, Liquid Limit and Shrinkage
Limit. The Plastic Limit and Liquid Limit are used to determine the
Plasticity Index.

Absorbed Water

Water that fills the voids of a soil

Adsorbed Water

Water that is held in a film on the surface of soil particles.

Capillary Action

The attraction of water to a surface which causes it to rise against

the force of gravity through surface tension.

Constant Mass

The point at which all free water has been removed from a soil.
For the purposes of moisture content testing, constant mass is
defined as when a dried soil specimen no longer loses mass in two
successive weighings.

Dehydration

Removal of moisture.

Hydrometer

A testing device used to measure the specific gravity of a liquid in

which particles are either suspended or dissolved.

Hydration

The incorporation of moisture.

Liquid Limit

An Atterberg Limit. The point at which a soil moves from a plastic to

a liquid state.

Maximum Dry
Density

The dry unit mass of a soil when it is compacted with standard

compactive effort and at optimum moisture content.

Maximum Unit
Mass

Same as Maximum Dry Density. The dry unit mass of a soil when it
is compacted with standard compactive effort and at optimum
moisture content.

Plastic Limit

An Atterberg Limit. The point at which a soil moves from a

semisolid to a plastic state.

Soil - T 265 - 10

GLOSSARY - Continued

Meniscus

The curved concave upper surface of a column of liquid in a tube.

This concave surface is caused by surface tension. (Refer to
Capillary Action.)

Moisture-Density
Relationships

The interrelationship between density and changing moisture

contents in a soil.

Optimum Moisture
Content

The percent of free moisture at which a soil can reach its maximum
density with standard compactive effort.

Organic

Vegetable matter included in a soil.

Phreatic Surface

Ground water elevation.

Shrinkage Limit

An Atterberg Limit. The point at which a soil changes from a solid

to a semisolid.

Soil Mechanics

The study of engineering properties and behavior of soils.

Surface Tension

The lifting of water against gravity in a narrow (capillary) tube.

Soil - T 265 - 11

DRY PREPARATION OF
DISTURBED SOIL AND
SOIL AGGREGATE SAMPLES FOR
TEST
AASHTO T87

Developed by
FHWA Multi-Regional Soils Training & Certification Group
August 1999

NOTE
Successful completion of the training
materials, including examination and
performance evaluation, for the following
are prerequisites for this training package.
gAASHTO T265, Laboratory
Determination of Moisture Content of Soils
gAASHTO T 248, Reducing Field Samples
of Aggregates to Testing Size

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Soil Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils T 87 - 1
Dry Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils T 87 - 1
Summary of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils T 87 - 2
Common Procedural Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils T 87 - 2
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 1: Minimum Sample Size for Soils Containing Aggregate . . . . . . .
Figure 2: Minimum Particle Size and Sample Size for Soil or
Soil Aggregate Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soils T 87 - 3
Soils T 87 - 3
Soils T 87 - 4
Soils T 87 - 5
Soils T 87 - 6

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils T 87 - 9

SOIL PREPARATION
Soil samples received from the field vary widely in terms of moisture content and soil mass.
Some are very plastic and stick together firmly; others are loose and friable. Some materials
contain a high percentage of aggregates. Many contain aggregates too large to fit into the
testing equipment.
Each test designed to identify a soils properties has certain requirements for the test
specimen. Some tests exclude aggregates; others are performed only on a portion of the
material (e.g., that portion passing the 0.425 mm [No. 40] sieve). Some require the soil to be
at a specified moisture content. Therefore, before most laboratory tests are performed on a
soil sample, it must undergo basic preparation.
In order to ensure test results that reflect the true characteristics of the in situ material from
which the sample is taken, it is critical that soil be properly prepared. Valid test results can
only be obtained from:
' Representative, Properly Protected Samples
' Properly Prepared Test Specimens
' Standard Test Protocols
DRY PREPARATION
The purpose of dry preparation is to prepare a sample for an individual test by reducing the
sample to its individual particles without breaking down these particles. Dry preparation is
performed on both soils and soil aggregates. For testing purposes, soils are those materials
which pass the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve. Individual particles retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10)
sieve are considered aggregates. A soil aggregate is a material containing any combination of
these two particle sizes.

Soils T 87 - 1

SUMMARY OF TESTING
To prepare soil for testing, you first dry the sample in an oven. Before putting the sample in
the oven to dry, break up any large clods of soil and spread the material evenly across the
bottom of the pan. If the material layer is not uniform in thickness or large clods are present,
the material may not dry uniformly, resulting in nonrepresentative test results. Large clods are
also very difficult to pulverize, which can cause your gradation results to be inaccurate. Then,
pulverize the material into individual particles. Next, separate the soil and aggregate fractions
of the sample by pouring it over the 4.75 mm (No. 4) or 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve, as required by
the individual test procedure to be performed. You may then separate the sample into
additional specific fractions based on other sieve sizes, depending again on which tests are to
be performed. Record the dry mass of material passing each sieve and determine the percent
by mass for each sieve on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) and larger sieves. Finally, you will reduce
each fraction to the quantity required for the tests to be performed.
COMMON PROCEDURAL ERRORS
<
<
<
<
<
<
<

Improper drying
Incorrect mass
Failure to pulverize to individual particle size
Using the wrong sieves
Using sieves that are damaged, clogged, etc.
Reducing particle size during pulverization, especially critical for brittle particles (e.g.,
mica and shell)
Loss of material
NOTE
Be careful not to lose particles during the
preparation process. Loss of material will
change the representative nature of the
sample and may cause invalid test
results.

Soils T 87 - 2

METHODOLOGY
Before beginning the preparation of the material, you must dry the material at no more than
60EC (140EF). (Some materials [e.g., materials containing bitumen] require drying in air,
because oven temperatures will degrade the material. Dry the material to constant mass in
accordance with AASHTO T 265.
Before beginning to prepare the dried sample, assemble all the equipment you will need. To
prepare a sample for testing, you will need:
Balance conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 231.
Sieves
50.0 mm (2 inch)
19.0 mm (3/4 inch)
4.75 mm (No. 4)
2.00 mm (No. 10)
0.425 mm (No. 40)
Others as required for specific tests
Pulverizing Apparatus
Mortar and rubber-covered pestle
Power driven rubber-covered muller
Revolving drum with rubber-covered rollers
Riffle Sampler or Sample Splitter meeting the requirements of AASHTO T 248
Assorted Pans for drying and holding the material during preparation

SAMPLE
Refer to Figure 1 for sieve size and representative portion needed for tests when a coarse
aggregate gradation is required.
Refer to Figure 2 for sieve size and representative portion needed for specified procedures.

Soils T 87 - 3

Diameter of Largest Particle, mm (in.)

Minimum Sample Size

9.5 mm (3/8 in.)

0.5 kg

25 mm (1 in.)

2.0 kg

50 mm (2 in.)

4.0 kg

75 mm (3 in.)

5.0 kg

Figure 1: Minimum Sample Size for Soils Containing Aggregate

Soils T 87 - 4

Particle Size
Analysis of Soils

Determining the
Liquid Limit of Soils
Determining the Plastic Limit and
Plasticity Index of Soils
The Moisture Density Relations of Soils
Using a 2.5 kg Rammer and a 305 mm Drop

Specific Gravity of Soils

T 88

T 89

T 90

T 99

T 100

zStoppered Bottle - 10 g (Passing 2.00 mm)

zVolumetric Flask - 25 g (Passing 2.00 mm)

zMethod D - 11 kg (25 lb) (Passing 50 mm, Retained on 4.75 mm, &

proportioned by mass on 19 mm)

proportioned by mass on 19 mm)

zMethod A - 3 kg (7 lb) (Passing 4.75 mm)

zMethod B - 7 kg (16 lb) (Passing 4.75 mm)
zMethod C - 5 kg (11 lb) (Passing 50 mm, Retained on 4.75 mm, &

20 g (Passing 0.425 mm)

zMethod A - 100 g (Passing 0.425 mm)

zMethod B - 50 g (Passing 0.425 mm)

Material Retained on 2.00 mm See Figure 2 for Sample Size.

zSandy Soils
- 110 g (Passing 2.00 mm)
zSilty or Clay Soils - 60 g (Passing 2.00 mm)

PREPARED MATERIAL NEEDED FOR TEST

Soils T 87 - 5

Figure 2: Minimum Particle Size and Sample Size for Soil or Soil Aggregate Samples

TITLE

AASHTO PROCEDURE

PROCEDURE
1. Place the sample in the drying pan and break up large clods of soil.
2. Spread the material in an even layer across the bottom of the pan.
3. Dry the sample to constant mass in accordance with AASHTO T 265.
4. Select a pulverization method.

Mortar and Pestle

Drum Pulverizer

Disk Pulverizer

Jaw Crusher

Soils T 87 - 6

5. Pulverize the material until the sample is reduced to individual particles. Do not fracture individual
particles. Do not lose any particles during the process.
6. Determine the mass of the prepared sample and record.
7. Separate the sample on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve.

Pouring Sample On Nest of Appropriate Sized Sieves

NOTE
You may separate the material on the 4.75
mm (No. 4) sieve instead of the 2.00 mm
(No. 10) sieve. When you use this option,
you must repulverize the material passing
the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve until all soil
particles pass the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve.
Be sure to determine the mass of both
fractions and record.

Soils T 87 - 7

8. Determine the mass of material retained on and larger than the 2.00 mm (No.10).
9. Separate the material retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve into different fractions using the sieves
appropriate for the test to be performed. (Refer to Figures 1 and 2 for sieve designations per test.)
10. Determine the mass of material passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve. If required by the tests to be
performed, separate the material passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve on the 0.425 mm (No. 40)
sieve.
11. Split the sample, in accordance with AASHTO T 248, to the appropriate size for the test to be
performed. (Refer to Figure 2 for sample sizes.)

Proportional Sample Splitters for Various Particle Sizes

Soils T 87 - 8

GLOSSARY
aggregate

larger sizes of material usually retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve.

Gravel and crushed stone are common aggregates.

brittle

a material, such as shell, which will break easily during preparation, resulting
in reduced particle size.

constant
mass

used to determine when all moisture has been removed from sample by
drying. A sample is dried and weighed repeatedly until there is no more
weight loss indicating there is no more moisture to be removed.

fraction

a term applied to a portion of a sample resulting from a sieving process.

friable

easily crumbled

in situ

in its natural or original position

liquid limit
(LL)

as water is added to a soil, the material reaches a point at which it becomes

liquid. The moisture content at this point is the liquid limit.

non representative
- a sample which is supposed to, but does not, have the same characteristics
as the in situ material from which it was taken.
particle
size

a soil is composed of many fragments of varying dimensions. When sorted

by a sieving process, the soil can be defined by sizes of the fragments
related to the sieve size. (e.g., plus 2.00 m [No. 10], minus 4.75 mm [No. 4],
which defines a fragment larger than 2.00 mm and smaller than the
4.75mm.)

passing

material fragments which pass through a sieve during sieving operations

plastic

material, which when wet, readily holds together and can be molded.

plastic
limit (PL) -

plasticity
index (PI) -

As water is added to a soil, the material reaches a point at which it becomes

plastic. The moisture content at this point is called the plastic limit.

The numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit.

Soils T 87 - 9

GLOSSARY

- continued

protocol

standardized methods and sequences of testing developed to ensure

reliable results which represent in situ materials

pulverize

the process to reduce soil mass into individual particles for testing purposes

representative
-

a sample which possesses the same characteristics as the in situ material

from which it was taken.

retained

material fragments which do not pass through a sieve during sieving

operations, but remain on the sieve surface.

riffle
splitter

a device containing chutes on each side which effectively divide a sample

into two equal portions

sieve

a frame enclosing a wire, cloth, or perforated plate used to separate

materials by grain size

soil

mineral particles which have been naturally degraded from mass rock

specific
gravity

the ratio of the weight in air of a specific volume of material to the weight in
air of an equal volume of water, all at the same temperature

Soils T 87 - 10

SPECIFIC GRAVITY
OF SOILS
AASHTO T 100

Developed by
Multi-regional Soils Training & Certification Group
Revised 2006

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
Examination and performance evaluations are prerequisites for this
training package.
AASHTO T 265, Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content
of Soils

AASHTO T 87, Dry Preparation of Disturbed Soil and Soil

Aggregate Samples for Test

Soil-T100-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Specific Gravity of Soils ...Soil-T100-1
Summary of Testing . . . ...Soil-T100-2
Typical Test Results ...Soil-T100-2
Common Testing Errors. ...Soil-T100-2
Test Methodology . . . ..Soil-T100-3
Equipment . . .Soil-T100-3
Calibration of Pycnometer . . . .Soil-T100-3
Calculations for pycnometer calibration . . . .Soil-T100-4
Sample Preparation . . ... .Soil-T100-5
Procedure . . .. ..Soil-T100-5
Calculation of specific gravity... ..Soil-T100-6
Report . . . ..Soil-T100-6
Glossary . . ...Soil-T100-7

Soil-T100-ii

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOILS

The specific gravity of a soil is used in almost every equation expressing the phase relationship
of air, water, and solids in a given volume of material. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of a
given volume of material to an equal volume of water.

Sg Tx / Tx

Wo
Wo + (Wa Wb )

Where:
S g = specific gravity.
Wo = Mass of oven dried soil, in grams.
Wa = mass of pycnometer filled with water at Tx, in grams.
Wb = mass of pycnometer filled with water and soil at temperature Tx, in
grams.
Tx = temperature of the contents of the pycnometer when mass W b was
determined, in degrees Celsius.
The term Solid particles, as used in Geotechnical engineering, is typically assumed to mean
naturally occurring mineral particles that are not very soluble in water. Soils of varying mineral
content can have a wide range of specific gravities. However, they are typically in the range of
1.40 to 2.80. The specific gravity of some natural soils, as well as materials containing additives
(e.g. cement, lime) or water soluble matter (e.g. sodium chloride) may have specific gravities of
less than 1 (floats on water) and are not typical of soils used in construction. These materials
would require more detailed engineering solutions to make them usable.

Soil-T100-1

SUMMARY OF TESTING
This method covers the determination of specific gravity by means of a pycnometer. When the soil
is composed of particles of both larger and smaller than 4.75mm sieve, the sample shall be
separated on the 4.75mm sieve and the appropriate test method used on each portion. When soilaggregate materials are tested, the specific gravity shall be the weighted average of the specific
gravities of the plus 4.75mm and the minus 4.75mm portion. If the specific gravity is to be used for
AASHTO T 88 Particle-size Analysis of Soils, it is intended for the specific gravity be performed on
the material which passes the 2.00mm sieve.
NOTE
When material is retained on the 4.75mm sieve, the specific
gravity of that material will be determined by procedures in
the Aggregate Technician Training Manual.

This method takes the technician through the calibration of the pycnometer, weighing the soil in
the pycnometer, partially filling the bottle with water, distilling the sample by evacuating air from
the soil-water mixture, refilling the pycnometer with de-aired water, weighing and
completing calculations.

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

The specific gravity of naturally occurring soils, as defined by this procedure , will range
between 1.40 and 2.80.
If results outside this range a encountered, the data or sample shall be considered suspect

COMMON TESTING ERRORS

Not carefully measuring the temperatures at the time of calibration and testing.
Not carefully reading the charts and tables used in this method. It is very easy to
misinterpret the data. Read and record, then read again, to verify.
Not carefully recording weights that are determined, read-write-reread every time.

Losing material (water or soil) from weighed containers.

Improper calibration.

Not removing air from sample during test.

Soil-T100-2

METHODOLOGY
Equipment
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the
equipment you will need to conduct the procedure. For this procedure you
will need the following.
Pycnometer - Either a volumetric flask having a capacity of at least
100 mL or a stoppered bottle having a capacity of at least 50 mL.
The stopper shall be of the same material as the bottle, and of
such
size and shape that it can be easily inserted to a fixed depth in the
neck of the bottle, and shall have a small hole through its center to
permit emission of air and surplus water.
Balance-either AASHTO M 231 Class C; 1200 g capacity, readable to 0.01 g for use with
the volumetric flask, or AASHTO M 231 Class B; 200 g capacity, readable to 0.001g for
use with the stoppered bottle.
Oven -Thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining 110 C
5.
Thermometer - Capable of measuring the temperature range within which the test is being
performed, graduated in a 0.5C (1.0F) division scale and meeting the requirements of ASTM
E1 or any other thermometric device of equal accuracy, precision, and sensitivity.
Desicator
Vacuum pump or Bell Jar
Evaporating dish
Beaker
Spatula

NOTE
When the volumetric flask is used in the specific gravity determination all
masses shall be determined to the nearest 0.01 g. When stoppered bottle
is used, all masses shall be determined to the nearest 0.001 g.

Soil-T100-3

CALIBRATION OF PYCNOMETER
Clean and dry the pycnometer. Weigh the pycnometer and record the mass as W f.
Fill the pycnometer with distilled water at room temperature, weigh and record the mass of
the pycnometer and water as W a.
Insert the thermometer into the bottle and measure the temperature of the water, record
the temperature as Ti, determined to the nearest whole degree.
From the mass W a determined at the observed temperature Ti, a Table of values of mass
Wa shall be prepared for a series of temperatures that are likely to prevail when masses W b
are determined later.

CALCULATIONS FOR PYCNOMETER CALIBRATION

The values of W a are to be calculated using the following equation.

Wa (@Tx )

density of water at T [Wa (at Ti ) Wf ] + Wf

density of water Ti
x

(See Table 1 for values of relative density of water at various temperatures)

Where:
Wa = mass pycnometer and water, in grams.
Wf = mass of pycnometer, in grams.
Tx = observed temperature of water, in degrees Celsius
Ti = any other desired temperature in degrees Celsius

Temperature, deg. C Relative Density of water

Correction factor K

18

0.9986244

1.0004

19

0.9984347

1.0002

20

0.9982343

1.0000

21

0.9980233

0.9998

22

0.9978019

0.9996

23

0.9975702

0.9993

24

0.9973286

0.9991

25

0.9970770

0.9989

26

0.9968156

0.9986

27

0.9964541

0.9983

28

0.9962642

0.9980

29

0.9959761

0.9977

30

0.9956780

0.9974

Relative Density of Water and Conversion Factor K for Various Temperatures

Soil-T100-4

SAMPLE
Sieve the sample on the 2.00 mm sieve. The soil to be used in the specific gravity test may be at
its natural moisture content or oven-dried. The mass of the sample (oven-dried at 1105o C) shall
be at least 25 g when the volumetric flask is to be used, and at least 10 g when the stoppered
bottle is used.

Sample Preparation
Samples containing natural moisture.
Take a portion of the sample for moisture determination in accordance with AASHTO T
265.
Disperse the test sample in distilled water in accordance with AASHTO T 88.
When an oven-dried sample is to be used.
Dry the sample in accordance with AASHTO T 265. Cool to room temperature, using a
desiccator to prevent absorption of hygroscopic moisture. Weigh the sample and
transfer to the pycnometer. Add distilled water into the pycnometer in an amount that
will provide complete sample coverage. The sample shall then soak for a minimum 12
hours.

Procedure
After sample preparation, remove entrapped air by one of the following methods:
Subject the sample to a partial vacuum of 13.33 kPa (100 mm) or less absolute
pressure: or
Boil the sample gently for at least 10 minutes, while occasionally rolling the
pycnometer to assist in the removal of air.
NOTE
Subjection of the contents to reduced air pressure may be done either by
connecting the pycnometer directly to an aspirator or vacuum pump, or by
the use of a bell jar. Some soils boil violently when subjected to
reduced air pressure. It will be necessary, in those cases, to reduce
the pressure at a slower rate or to use a larger flask.

Cool to room temperature.

Fill the pycnometer with distilled water to its calibrated capacity.
Clean and dry the outside and dry with clean, dry cloth.
Determine the mass of the pycnometer and contents, and record.

Determine the temperature in degrees Celsius, and record.

Soil-T100-5

CALCULATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Calculate the specific gravity of the soil in accordance with the following equation:

S g , Tx =

Wo
Wo + (Wa Wb )

Where:
Sg = specific gravity.
Wo = Mass of oven dried soil, in grams.
Wa = mass of pycnometer filled with water at Tx, in grams.
Wb = mass of pycnometer filled with water and soil at temperature Tx, in grams.
Tx = Temperature of the contents of the pycnometer when mass W b
was determined, in degrees Celsius.

NOTE
Unless otherwise required, specific gravity values shall be
based on water at 20C using the following equation:

S g (Tx / 20 0 C ) = K S g (

Tx
)
Tx

Where:
K = a number found by dividing the relative density of water at temperature T x
by the relative density of water at 20 C. See Table 1 for a range of values.

REPORT
< Sample identification information, such as sample location, depth, classification, etc. <
Specific Gravity at 20 C and the sieve through which the sample was prepared.

Soil-T100-6

GLOSSARY
Pycnometer

- A small hand blown glass bottle of known volume, usually 100 mL or less,
with a vent in its stopper to allow excess water to leave the bottle when
the stopper is inserted.

Specific Gravity - The ratio of the mass of a given volume of material to the mass of an equal
volume of water at a specified temperature, usually 20 C.
Volumetric Flask - A large glass bottle of known volume, usually greater than 500 mL, with an
etched calibration line on its stem.
Bell Jar

- Glass container used for vacuum testing, which is strong enough to resist
collapsing.

Hygroscopic
Moisture

- Moisture still remaining in soil after it has been air-dried.

Entrapped Air

- Air that is trapped within the soil.

Soil-T100-7

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS

OF SOILS
AASHTO T 88

Developed by:
FHWA Multi-Regional Soils Training and Certification Group

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluation are prerequisites for this
training package.
AASHTO T 87, Dry Preparation of Disturbed Soil and soil Aggregate
Samples for Test

Soil-T88-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-1
BASIC INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-1
SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-2
COMMON TESTING ERRORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-3
TEST METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-5
Sample Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-7
Mechanical Sieve Analysis of Fraction Retained on 2 mm sieve . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-8
Hydrometer and Sieve Analysis of Fraction Passing 2 mm sieve . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-11
Fine Sieve Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-16
Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-17
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-18
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T88-20

Soil-T88-ii

PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOIL

Particle size analysis is used to determine the percentages present of different size particle
grains in a soil. This information is usually expressed in terms of percent passing a particular
sieve size or percent smaller than a particular particle size. Specifically, the expression,
"percent passing," is usually reserved for the 0.075 mm (No. 200) and larger standard sieve
sizes. For sizes smaller than a 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve, the term, "smaller than," is used,
especially with respect to clay and colloidal size material. Silt size material is defined as being
between 0.074 mm to 0.002 mm in size. Clay size material is smaller than 0.002 mm, but
larger than 0.001 mm. Colloids are very small particles, being anything smaller than 0.001
mm.
The particle size analysis provides the technician with some of the information required to
classify the soil. Also, it can be used to determine if the material meets construction
specifications in terms of a certain range of acceptable "percent passing" values allowed for
certain sieves. See Table 1 for an example of one of these gradation (particle size
analysis-based) specifications. The gradation shown is a Federal Highway Administration
specification, but state and local government agencies and specific projects will generally have
gradation specifications of their own for different types of material (e.g., borrow, backfill,
embankment). The technician needs to be aware of which specifications apply to the
particular project for which the soil is being tested.
Particle size analysis results also can be used to make very rough estimates of the degree of
permeability and for soil stabilization mix design and control. Generally the larger the grain
size of the soil (the coarser it is), the better it's engineering properties.

Percent by Weight
Passing
Designated Sieve
(AASHTO T 27 and T 11)

Sieve Size
63 mm (2-1/2 in.)

100

50 mm (2 in.)

65 - 100

25 mm (1 in.)

50 - 85

4.75 mm (No. 4)

30 - 50

0.425 mm (No. 40)

0 - 16

0.075 mm (No. 200)

0-9

Table 1: Select Borrow Gradation

Soil-T88-1

SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE
This test method is performed on a soil sample prepared as directed in AASHTO T 87, Dry
Preparation of Disturbed Soil and Soil Aggregate Samples for Test. Distribution of particle
sizes of material retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve is performed using a nest of sieves
(sieve analysis). A portion of the soil sample passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve is subjected
to a hydrometer analysis and sieve analysis.
The hydrometer analysis is performed on a prepared portion of the material passing the 2.00
mm (No. 10) which is dispersed and placed into a sedimentation cylinder. The sample,
previously mixed with dispersing agent and distilled water, is further diluted with distilled water
added to the sedimentation cylinder. The sample is allowed to come to a constant
temperature, after being placed in a water bath or constant temperature room, before
proceeding with the test. After a final period of agitation, the sample is allowed to settle.
During the settlement period, measurements of the specific gravity and temperature of the soil
sample are made at certain specific time intervals. These measurements are called
hydrometer readings. The measurements require corrections before they are used in a
formula which yields the percentage of originally dispersed soil remaining in solution. A
mathematical equation called Stoke's Law is applied to find the maximum diameter of particles
in suspension at the time of any particular reading.

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

PARTICLE SIZE -MM

Figure 1 - Grain size Accumulation curve

Soil-T88-2

10.000

5.000

3.000

2.000

1.000

0.500

0.300

0.200

0.100

0.0500

0.0300

0.0200

0.0100

0.0050

0.0030

0.0020

10
0.0010

PERCENT OF PARTICLES SMALLER

THAN SIZE SHOWN

After all hydrometer readings are made, the soil solution is removed from the sedimentation
cylinder and washed on a 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve. The fraction retained on the sieve is
then dried and a sieve analysis performed on it. Mathematical calculations are performed and
the information provided by the sieve analysis and hydrometer measurements are combined to
produce a grain diameter accumulation curve, which is a graphical representation of particle
siz
e
dis
tributio
GRAIN
SIZE
ACCUMULATION
CURVE
n
in
sa
mple.
100
(S
ee
90
Fig
ure 1.)

COMMON TESTING ERRORS

<

Inadequate Dispersion of Soil Sample in Solution. To ensure that adequate dispersion

takes place, be sure to adhere carefully to the mixing time requirements and ensure that
the dispersion apparatus conforms to the detailed drawings and specification in AASHTO T
88.

<

Inaccurate determination of and/or recording of sample mass.

<

Unnecessary vibration or otherwise unnecessarily disturbing the soil solution in the

sedimentation cylinder after final agitation has taken place. You can minimize disturbance
by:
1. Lowering the hydrometer into the sample slowly. Do not let the hydrometer drop
into the solution.
2. Making sure that the hydrometer floats freely in the solution and does not touch the
wall of the sedimentation cylinder.

<

Not allowing the soil solution to come to a constant temperature before final agitation and
subsequent hydrometer readings.

<

Inaccurate reading of the hydrometer. The hydrometer should be read at the top of the
meniscus formed by the soil suspension around its stem, (See Figure 2).

<

Failure to, after dispersing the sample in the mechanical stirring or dispersing apparatus,
rinse off the cup and paddles of the apparatus thoroughly enough as you transfer the soil
solution to the sedimentation cylinder.

<

Failure to use a fresh solution of dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate). As per

AASHTO T 88, the solution should "be prepared frequently (at least once per month), or
adjusted to pH of 8 or 9 by means of sodium carbonate."

<

Loss of material when agitating soil in sedimentation cylinder.

<

Failure to wash particles from hand or stopper into sedimentation cylinder.

<

Inaccurate correction factor used.

<

Loss material during sieving and washing.

<

Water pressure too high when washing. Pushes particles through sieve or causes
material to splash out.

<

Errors made in calculations.

Soil-T88-3

Hydrometer

Meniscus
Top of Meniscus
Bottom of Meniscus (Fluid Level)

Soil Suspension

Figure 2 - Hydrometer and Meniscus

Soil-T88-4

TEST METHODOLOGY
Equipment

Figure 3 - Hydrometer equipment

Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. You will need the following equipment to perform AASHTO T 88 as shown in
Figure 3.
<

Oven-capable of maintaining temperature of 110+5 C (230+9 F).

<

Balance - conforming to the requirements of AASHTO M 231.

<

Drying containers.

<

Mechanically operated stirring apparatus or, alternatively, an air jet type dispersing
apparatus, conforming to the drawings, dimensions, and operating characteristics detailed
in AASHTO T 88.

<

Hydrometer - An ASTM hydrometer, graduated to read in either specific gravity of the

suspension or grams per liter of suspension, and conforming to the requirements for
hydrometers 151H or 152H in ASTM Specifications E 100. Dimensions of both
hydrometers are the same, the scale being the only item of difference.

<

Sedimentation cylinders - A glass cylinder approximately 460 mm (18 in.) in height and 60
mm (2-1/2 in.) diameter and marked for a volume of 1000 mL. The inside diameter shall be
such that the 1000 mL mark is 360 + 20 mm (14 + 1.0 in.) from the bottom on the inside.

Soil-T88-5

<
<

Thermometer - A calibrated thermometer readable to 0.5 C (1 F).

Sieves - A series of sieves of square mesh woven cloth, conforming to the requirements of
AASHTO M 92, Sieves for Testing Purposes. The sieves normally required are as follows
in Table 2:
Metric

English

75 mm

3 in.

50 mm

2 in.

25 mm

1 in.

9.5 mm

3/8 in.

4.75 mm

No. 4

2.00 mm

No. 10

0.425 mm

No. 40

0.075 mm
No. 200
Table 2 - Sieve sizes

NOTE
The above sieves fulfill the
requirements of AASHTO
M145 and M147. If required,
intermediate sieve sizes like
those listed to the right may
be used.

Metric

English

37.5 mm

1-1/2 in.

19 mm

3/4 in.

2.36 mm

No. 8

1.18 mm

No. 16

0.60 mm

No. 30

0.30 mm

No. 50

0.15 mm

No. 100

<

Water bath or constant temperature room - used for maintaining the soil suspension at a
constant temperature during the hydrometer analysis. See AASHTO T 88 for detailed
drawings, dimensions, and specifications for this equipment.

<

Beaker - A 250 mL beaker.

<

Timing Device - A watch or clock with a sweep second hand.

<

Glass Rod - Suitable for stirring the sample mixture.

<

Wash Bottle or Syringe

<

Distilled water.

<

Sodium hexametaphosphate solution (dispersing agent) - Prepared using distilled water

and sodium hexametaphosphate. Add sodium hexametaphosphate to distilled water at the
rate of 40 g sodium hexametaphosphate per liter of total solution. AASHTO T 88 specifies

Soil-T88-6

that the solution should be prepared frequently (at least once a month) or its pH adjusted to
8 or 9 by using sodium carbonate.

Sample Preparation
Prepare the test sample using the procedures outlined in AASHTO T 87, Dry Preparation of
Disturbed Soil and Soil Aggregate Samples for Test. After initial preparation, weigh a
representative portion of the original dried sample. Separate the representative portion into
two fractions using a 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve.
NOTE
AASHTO T 88 allows the use of either the 4.75 mm (No.4) or the 0.425 mm (No.40)
sieve as an alternate to using the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve for separating the
representative portion into two fractions. Although not covered in this text, both
alternates are acceptable. The student should consult AASHTO T 88 for further details.

Take care to ensure that the representative portion separated is large enough to yield the
following minimum amounts of material to be retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve, based
on nominal size of the largest particles present:
Nominal Size of Largest Particles
Metric
English

Approximate Minimum
Mass of Portion

mm

in.

kg

9.500

3/8

0.500

25.000

1.000

2.000

50.000

2.000

4.000

75.000
3.000
5.000
Table 3 - Minimum mass of representative portion
Both the fraction (subsample) of the representative portion (hereafter described as "the
sample") retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve and the fraction (subsample) passing the
2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve now need to be weighed. Weigh the subsample retained on the 2.00
mm (No. 10) sieve to the nearest 0.1 percent of the subsample's mass. This coarse fraction is
going to undergo mechanical sieve analysis during which its constituent particles will be
separated by size and each size fraction weighed. The same 0.1 percent weighing
requirement will also apply to these smaller size fractions.
0.1% x Mass of Subsample = Weighing Precision Required
For example, if the size of the subsample originally retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve is
2000 g, then after undergoing the additional mechanical sieve analysis/separation each
constituent sieve fraction would be weighed to the nearest 2 g.

Soil-T88-7

01%
.
2000 = 2g
100
After it has been weighed, split the subsample passing (finer than) the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve
using a sample splitter to yield the following smaller test samples:
1. For the hydrometer test:
a.
b.

A sample of approximately 100 g if the soil is sandy.

or
A sample of approximately 50 g if the soil is silty or clayey.

2. For the hygroscopic moisture determination: At least a 10 g sample.

Mechanical Sieve Analysis of Fraction

Retained On 2.00 mm (No. 10) Sieve
The portion of the sample retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve is, as described previously,
further separated using a series of coarser sieves. These sieves include, but are not limited to,
the following sizes:
!
75 mm (3 in.)
!
50 mm (2 in.)
!
25 mm (1 in.)
!
9.5 mm (3/8 in.)
!
4.75 mm (No. 4)
Additional sieves can be used to avoid overloading any one individual sieve or to check how
closely a soil conforms to a gradation-based specification requirement. See Table 4 for
guidance on how to avoid overloading sieves by limiting the mass of particles on any one sieve
to a certain maximum amount. Table 4 is based on the following recommendation, as set forth
in AASHTO T 27, Standard Method of Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates:
<

For sieves with openings smaller than 4.75 mm (No. 4)), the mass retained on any
sieve at the completion of the sieving operation shall not exceed 6 kg/mm2 (4 g/in2) of
sieving surface. For sieves with openings 4.75 mm (No. 4) and larger, the mass in
kg/m2 of sieving surface shall not exceed the product of 2.5 x (sieve opening in mm). In
no case shall the mass be so great as to cause permanent deformation of the sieve
cloth.

Although the sieving can be done by hand, it will in most cases be more efficient to use a
mechanical device such as a Rotap or Gilson shaker. The sieving procedure should be done
in accordance with AASHTO T 27. Even though we are dealing with soil here (instead of
aggregate), the basic sieving procedure and calculations are the same.
After a sufficient period of sieving (as described in detail in AASHTO T 27 under the procedure

Soil-T88-8

section), remove the stack of sieves from the mechanical shaking device (if used), remove the
contents of each sieve, weigh and record the weights. The total percentage of material
passing each sieve can be calculated based on the original total sample mass and the
individual masses retained on each individual sieve size. The following narrative and Figures 4
through 8 illustrate the AASHTO T 27 method, but keep in mind that, for AASHTO T 88, this
calculation methodology is used to calculate the percent passing values for the 2.00 mm (No.
10) and coarser sieves only (the hydrometer analysis gives information on finer sieves):

203 mm Round
(A=0.028502 m2)

Sieve Size

305 mm Round
(A=0.067012 m2)

457 mm x 610 mm
Rectanglar
(A=0.301935 m2)

4.75 mm (No. 4)

330

800

3 590

9.5 mm (3/8 in.)

670

1 590

7 170

12.5 mm ( in.)

890

2 090

9 440

19.0 mm (3/4 in.)

1 350

3 180

14 340

25.0 mm (1 in.)

1 780

4 190

18 870

37.5 mm (1-1/2 in.)

2 670

6 280

28 310

50 mm (2 in.)

3 560

8 380

37 740

10 550

47 550

12 560

56 610

63 mm (2-1/2 in.)

75 mm (3 in.)
A

Sieves indicated have less than five full opening and should not be used for sieve testing except as provided in E 5

Figure 4: Maximum Loading Specifications for Individual Sieves

(masses in grams, from AASHTO T27)

Non-Cumulative Method
1. Tare the pan on the scale. Weigh the material retained on each sieve (from top to bottom).
After the material from each sieve is weighed, empty the tarred pan and go to the next
sieve. Once all the sieves have been weighed, sum the mass of each fraction and record
the Total Mass. A table should be used as shown in the example in Table 5.
Sieve Size

Mass

% Retained

9.5 mm (3/8 in.)

0.0

0.0

4.75 mm (No. 4)

96.800

11.700

2.00 mm (No. 10)

286.500

34.500

0.850 mm (No. 20)

325.800

39.300

0.600 mm (No. 30)

65.300

7.900

0.425 mm (No. 40)

27.100

3.300

Soil-T88-9

% Passing

0.180 mm (No. 80)

18.900

2.300

0.075 mm (No. 200)

6.100

0.700

Pan

3.300

0.400

Total

829.800

100.100

Table 5: Non-Cumulative Method, Steps 1 through 3

2. Calculate the %Retained by dividing the Mass Retained on each sieve by the Total Mass,
and multiplying by 100.

%Retained =

Mass Retained
100
Total Mass

For example, from Figure 4 for the 4.75 mm sieve,

%Retained =

96.8g
100 = 11.7%
829.8g

3. Sum the percentages retained to determine if the total percentage retained equals or
nearly equals 100%. If the total is not between 99.7 and 100.3%, an error has been made
in weighing, recording or calculations. If the error is not found in the calculations, the
fractions will need to be reweighed and recorded again.
4. Calculate the %Passing for each sieve by cumulatively subtracting the percentage retained
on each sieve from 100%, beginning with the largest sieve (See Table 6).
Sieve Size

Mass

% Retained

% Passing

9.5 mm (3/8 in.)

0.0

100.0

4.75 mm (No. 4)

96.8

0.0
11.7

2.00 mm (No. 10)

286.5

34.5

53.8

0.850 mm (No. 20)

325.8

39.3

14.5

0.600 mm (No. 30)

65.3

7.9

6.6

0.425 mm (No. 40)

27.1

3.3

3.3

0.180 mm (No. 80)

18.9

2.3

1.0

0.075mm (No. 200)

6.1

0.7

0.3

Pan

3.3

0.4

Total

829.8

100.1

88.3

Table 6: Non-Cumulative Method, Steps 4 and 5

5. Continue the cumulative subtraction all the way down through the last sieve (Table 6). The
% passing the last sieve should be almost equal to the % retained in the pan.

Soil-T88-10

For example, from Figure 5 for the 2.00 mm sieve,

%Passing = 88.3 - 34.5 = 53.8%
The calculation for the sieve analysis applies to both coarse and fine aggregate samples.
Conventionally, fine aggregate samples are weighed to the nearest 0.1 g. Alternately, coarse
aggregate samples are weighed to the nearest 0.01 kg.

Hydrometer and Sieve Analysis of Fraction Passing

the 2.00 mm (No. 10) Sieve
Determination of Composite Correction for Hydrometer Reading
There are three errors that must be corrected for when conducting a hydrometer test.
1. Specific Gravity of Solution: The equations for percentages of soil remaining in suspension
are based on the use of distilled or demineralized water. Since a dispersing agent is used,
the resulting liquid will have a specific gravity appreciably greater than distilled water.
2. Testing Temperature: Soil hydrometers are calibrated at 20 C (68 F). Testing at any
other temperature will produce an inaccuracy.
3. Meniscus Reading: Hydrometers are graduated by the manufacturer to be read at the
bottom of the meniscus formed by the liquid on the stem. Since it is not possible to secure
readings of soil suspensions at the bottom of the meniscus due to the opaque nature of the
mixture, the readings must be taken at the top of the meniscus.
The amount of correction needed to account for these three errors is known as the composite
correction and may be determined as follows.
1. Prepare 1000 mL of liquid composed of distilled or demineralized water and dispersing
agent in the same proportion as will be used for the test.
2. Place the liquid in a sedimentation cylinder and then place the cylinder in the
constant-temperature water bath, set for one of the two temperatures to be used for the
test.
3. When the temperature of the liquid becomes constant, insert the hydrometer, wait a short
time to allow the hydrometer to come to the temperature of the liquid, then read
the hydrometer at the top of the meniscus formed on the stem.
4. For hydrometer 151 H, the composite correction is the difference between this reading and
one. For hydrometer 152 H, it is the difference between the reading and zero.
For example, if a hydrometer 151 H is used and the reading is 1.004, the correction
factor is 1 minus 1.004 or - 0.004. This correction factor will be added to the readings
during the hydrometer test to correct of the errors listed previously.

Soil-T88-11

5. Bring the liquid and the hydrometer to the other temperature to be used and calculate the
composite correction as before.
Note
For convenience, a graph or table can be prepared for a series of 1-degree temperature
differences to be used for future tests. If measurements are made at two known
temperatures as outlined, a straight line relationship between the two observed values may
be assumed to determine intermediate values for correction.

Correction Factor

-0.002

-0.003

-0.004

-0.005
20

21

22

23

Temperature

24

25

(oC)

Hygroscopic Moisture Determination

Hygroscopic moisture is, by definition, the water content of air-dried soil. A sample may also
absorb moisture from the air after it has been oven dried. Determination of hygroscopic
moisture content allows the mass of the fraction passing the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve to be
corrected for the presence of moisture. As mentioned earlier, this requires that a
representative sample, weighing at least 10 g, be obtained from that fraction passing the 2.00
mm (No. 10) sieve. Determine the hygroscopic moisture as follows:
1. Dry the sample and determine the moisture content according to AASHTO T 265,
Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils.
2. Calculate the
moisture as

%Hygroscopic Moisture =

where:

W - W1
x 100
W1

percentage of hygroscopic
follows:

W = mass of air-dried soil

W1 = mass of oven-dried soil

The hygroscopic moisture content will be used in later calculations.

Soil-T88-12

Dispersion of Soil Sample

Dispersion of the soil sample should be accomplished as follows:
1. Weigh a sample of approximately 100 g (sandy soil) or 50 g (silty or clayey soil) for
hydrometer analysis.
2. Place the sample in a 250 mL beaker.
3. Cover the sample with 125 mL of the stock dispersing agent solution.
4. Stir thoroughly with a glass rod.
5. Allow to soak for a minimum of 12 hours.
6. Wash the contents of the beaker into the dispersion cup.
7. Add distilled or demineralized water until the cup is more than half full.
8. Disperse the contents of the cup for a period of 60 seconds using the mechanical
stirring apparatus.
Note
Alternate methods for dispersion using a air-jet dispersion apparatus may also be used. The
procedure for using this type apparatus is not covered here, but is described in AASHTO T 88.

Hydrometer Test
After dispersion, the hydrometer test proceeds using the following steps:
1. Transfer the soil mixture to a sedimentation cylinder and wash any residue into the
cylinder.
2. Add distilled or demineralized water having the same temperature as the constant
temperature bath until the mixture has a volume of 1000 mL.
3. Place the cylinder in the constant temperature bath.
4. Remove the cylinder after the soil mixture has attained the temperature of the bath.
5. Close the open end of the cylinder with a rubber stopper (or place your hand over the
open end) and turn the cylinder upside down and back for a period of 60 seconds to
completely agitate the soil mixture.
Note
The number of turns during this 60 seconds should be approximately 60, counting the turn
upside down and back as 2 turns. Any soil remaining in the bottom of the cylinder after the
first few turns should be loosened by vigorously shaking the cylinder while it is upside down.

Soil-T88-13

6. Wash any material that clings to the inside walls of the cylinder and to the stopper
(or hand) into the suspended soil mixture using a small amount of water.
7. Return the cylinder to the water bath and record the start time.
8. About 90 seconds after the start time, carefully place the hydrometer in the soil mixture and
allow it to come to rest.
9. Exactly 120 seconds after the recorded start time, read the hydrometer at the top of the
meniscus formed by the suspension around its stem. If a hydrometer with scale A is
used, read to the nearest 0.5 g/L. Read scale B hydrometers to the nearest 0.0005
specific gravity.
Note
The hydrometer must float freely and not touch the wall of the cylinder.

10. Carefully remove the hydrometer from the soil suspension and place it with a spinning
motion in a graduated cylinder of clean water.
11. Immediately following the hydrometer reading, measure and record the temperature of the
soil suspension by carefully placing the thermometer in the soil suspension.
12. About 25 or 30 seconds before the next reading, remove the hydrometer from the clean
water and slowly immerse it again in the soil suspension to assure that it comes to rest
before the next reading.
13. Take additional readings at 5, 15, 30, 60, 250 and 1440 minutes after the start time
following steps 9 through 12.
14. Correct hydrometer readings by applying the approximate composite correction as
determined previously (on Page 11), to account for the dispersing agent, temperature
and height of meniscus on the stem of the hydrometer.
15. Calculate the percentage of soil remaining in suspension as follows:
For hydrometer 152 H;

P=

Ra
w

x 100

For hydrometer 151 H;

P=
where:

1606(R - 1)a
x 100
w
percentage of originally dispersed

P=

Soil-T88-14

soil
remaining in suspension

R = corrected hydrometer reading

w = mass in grams of soil originally dispersed
minus the hygroscopic moisture, and

a = constant depending on the density of the

suspension (from table below)
Specific Gravity, G

Constant, a

2.950
2.850
2.750
2.650
2.550
2.450
2.350

0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
1.02
1.05
1.08

16. Convert the percentages of soil in suspension to percentages of the total test sample,
including the fraction retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve by using the following
formula.

Total Test% = P x

100 - %Retained on 2.00 mm sieve

100

where:
percentage of originally

P=
dispersed soil
remaining in suspension

17. Calculate the maximum diameter of the particles in suspension by using Stokes' Law as in
the following formula.

d=
where:

30 nL
980(G - G 1)T

maximum grain diameter in millimeters

d=
n = coefficient of viscosity of the suspending medium
(in this case water) in Pas. Varies with changes
in temperature of the suspending medium
L = distance from the surface of the suspension to the
level at which the density of the suspension is being
measured, mm. (For a given hydrometer and
sedimentation cylinder, values vary according to the
hydrometer readings. This distance is known as the
effective depth (Table 2).)
T = interval of time from beginning of sedimentation to
the taking of the reading, min
G = specific gravity of soil particles, and
G1= specific gravity of the suspending medium
(approximately 1.0 for water).

Soil-T88-15

For convenience in calculations, the above equation may be written as:

D=K
where:

L
10 T

D = maximum grain diameter in millimeters

K = constant from Figure 6, dependent of temperature of
suspension and specific gravity of the soil particles
L = distance from the surface of the suspension to the
level at which the density of the suspension is being
measured, mm.
T = interval of time from beginning of sedimentation to
the taking of the reading, min.
10 = SI unit correction factor for particle diameter in mm

Values of K for Use in the Equation for Computing Diameter of Particle in Hydrometer Analysis
Specific Gravity of Soil Particles

Temperature
oC

2.45

2.50

2.55

2.60

2.65

2.70

2.75

2.80

2.85

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

0.01510
0.01511
0.01492
0.01474
0.01456
0.01438
0.01421
0.01404
0.01388
0.01372
0.01357
0.01342
0.01327
0.01312
0.01298

0.01505
0.01486
0.01467
0.01449
0.01431
0.01414
0.01397
0.01381
0.01365
0.01349
0.01334
0.01319
0.01304
0.01290
0.01276

0.01481
0.01462
0.01443
0.01425
0.01408
0.01391
0.01374
0.01358
0.01342
0.01327
0.01312
0.01297
0.01283
0.01269
0.01256

0.01457
0.01439
0.01421
0.01403
0.01386
0.01369
0.01353
0.01337
0.01321
0.01306
0.01291
0.01277
0.01264
0.01249
0.01236

0.01435
0.01417
0.01399
0.01382
0.01365
0.01348
0.01332
0.01317
0.01301
0.01286
0.01272
0.01258
0.01244
0.01230
0.01217

0.01414
0.01396
0.01378
0.01361
0.01344
0.01328
0.01312
0.01297
0.01282
0.01267
0.01253
0.01239
0.01255
0.01212
0.01199

0.01394
0.01376
0.01359
0.01342
0.01325
0.01309
0.01294
0.01279
0.01264
0.01249
0.01235
0.01221
0.01208
0.01195
0.01182

0.01374
0.01356
0.01339
0.01323
0.01307
0.01291
0.01276
0.01261
0.01246
0.01232
0.01218
0.01204
0.01191
0.01178
0.01165

0.01356
0.01338
0.01321
0.01305
0.01289
0.01273
0.01258
0.01243
0.01229
0.01215
0.01201
0.01188
0.01175
0.01162
0.01149

Figure 6 - Values of K for computing Particle Diameter

FINE SIEVE ANALYSIS

After the hydrometer analysis has been conducted determine the percentage of the dispersed
soil sample that will be retained on the 0.075 mm (No. 200) sieve.
1.

After the final reading of the hydrometer test, pour the suspension through the 0.075 mm
(No. 200) sieve.

2.

Wash the sample retained on the sieve to remove any material that will pass through the
sieve.

3.
4.

Dry the retained fraction in an oven at 110 + 5oC (230 + 9oF).

After the sample has been dried completely, sieve the dried material through the 0.425

Soil-T88-16

mm (No. 40) and 0.075 mm (No. 200) and other sieves that are required for the material
being tested.
5.

Calculate the percentage of the dispersed soil sample retained on each sieve by dividing
the mass of the fraction retained on each sieve by the oven-dry mass of the dispersed soil
and multiply by 100 as follows.

%Dispersed soil sample retained =

6.

mass of fraction
oven-dry mass

x 100

Calculat
e the
percentages of the total test sample, including the fraction retained on the
mm (No. 10) sieve using the following equation:

%Total test sample =

2.00

100 - percentage retained on the 2.00 mm sieve

100

PLOTTING
Plot the accumulated percentages of grains of different diameters on semilogarithmic 27 paper
to obtain a "grain size accumulation curve," such as that shown in Figure 7.

REPORT
GRAIN SIZE ACCUMULATION CURVE
100

80
70
60
50
40
30
20

PARTICLE SIZE -MM

Figure 7 - Grain Size Accumulation Curve

Soil-T88-17

10.000

5.000

3.000

2.000

1.000

0.500

0.300

0.200

0.100

0.0500

0.0300

0.0200

0.0100

0.0050

0.0030

0.0020

10
0.0010

PERCENT OF PARTICLES SMALLER

THAN SIZE SHOWN

90

1.

Report the results from the accumulation curve as follows (express as a percentage of the
total sample):

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
2.

Material Type
Particles larger than 2 mm
Coarse sand, 2.0 to 0.42 mm
Fine sand, 0.42 to 0.074 mm
Silt, 0.074 to 0.002 mm
Clay, smaller than 0.002 mm
Colloids, smaller than 0.001 mm

From Sieve Analysis

Retained on 2.00mm
Passing 2.00 mm, retained on 0.425 mm
Passing 0.425 mm, retained on 0.075 mm
Passing 0.075 mm, larger than 0.002
(from hydrometer)
(from hydrometer)

Report the results of the combined sieve and hydrometer analysis to the nearest 0.1% as
follows:
SIEVE ANALYSIS
Sieve Size
Metric
English
75 mm
3 in.
50 mm
2 in.
25 mm
1 in.
4.75 mm
No. 4
2.00 mm
No. 10
0.425 mm
No. 40
0.075 mm
No. 200

Percent
Passing
________
________
________
________
________
________
________

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Smaller Than:
Percent
0.02 mm
________
0.002 mm
________
0.001 mm
________

NOTE
<

For materials examined for a particular type of work or purpose, only such fractions that
are included in the specifications or other requirements may be necessary.

<

Report the Sieve Analysis to the nearest 0.1 percent passing.

<

Report the Hydrometer Analysis to the nearest 0.1 percent smaller than.

Soil-T88-18

GLOSSARY
Clay

- An earth material with a particle size smaller than 0.002 mm but larger than
0.001 mm.

Colloids

- Earth material with very small particles, being anything smaller than 0.001
mm.

Hygroscopic
Moisture

- Moisture still remaining in soil after it has been air-dried.

Hydrometer

- A floating instrument that is used to determine the specific gravity of a liquid.

Meniscus

- The curved surface of a liquid that occurs where it is in contact with a

container wall or other object that breaks the surface of the liquid.

Silt

- An earth material with a particle size smaller than 0.074 mm but larger than
0.002 mm.

Soil-T88-19

DETERMINING THE LIQUID LIMIT

OF SOILS
AASHTO T 89

Developed by
FHWA Multi-Regional Soils Training & Certification Group
August 1999

NOTE
Successful completion of the following
training materials, including examination
and performance evaluation, are
prerequisites for this training package.
AASHTO T265, Laboratory
Determination of Moisture Content of
Soils
AASHTO T87, Standard Method of
Preparing Disturbed Soil Samples

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic

Page

Atterberg Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 1

Liquid Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 2
Summary of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 3
Typical Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 4
Common Testing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 4
Test Methodology - Method A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 5
Testing Apparatus - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 6
Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 6
Weighing Test Specimen - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 6
Procedure Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 7
Placing Masking Tape on Cup Bottom - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 8
Checking Contacts with Height Gage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 9
Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 10
Adding Water - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 10
Blending Water and Soil - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 10
Perform Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 11
Spreading Specimen in Liquid Limit Cup - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 11
Grooving the Soil Specimen - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 12
Applying Blows by Turning the Handle - photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 12
Determine Moisture Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 14
Removing the Moisture Content Specimen - photo . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 14
Placing Moisture Content Specimen in the Drying Container photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 14
Flow Curve Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 15
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 15
Determine Liquid Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 15
Reference Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 16
Test Methodology - Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 17
Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 17
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 17
Determine Liquid Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 18
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 89 - 20

ATTERBERG LIMITS
Soils form the foundation of all transportation facilities. The final structure will be no more
durable than the foundation upon which it rests. In order to ensure that the soils which
support structures will function as intended in the design, it is necessary for all designers to
have basic information about them. Designers use this information to decide if a naturally
occurring soil can support the anticipated traffic load or if it will require chemical modification
(e.g., cement stabilization, lime treatment or treatment with fly ash) to enable it to perform as a
highway foundation. The strength of the soil foundation is also used in determining the type of
surface course the designer will choose for a pavement structure.
Several tests are performed in the laboratory that provide information to the designer about
soils which may be used as the foundation for a roadway. The determination of Atterberg
Limits are among these tests. In 1911, a Swedish scientist, A. Atterberg, developed some
simple tests for determining the moisture contents of a soil at which the soil moves from a solid
to a semisolid, to a plastic and to a liquid state. The numbers generated by these tests are
used to quantitatively describe the effect of varying water contents on a soil. As the moisture
content of a soil increases, the soil will eventually change from a solid to a liquid state.
The Atterberg Limits are:
Shrinkage
Limit

The point at which a soil changes from a solid to a semisolid.

Plastic Limit

The point at which a soil moves from a semisolid to a plastic state.

Liquid Limit

The point at which a soil moves from a plastic to a liquid state.

Each soil becomes less stable as the moisture increases (moving from left to right on
the diagram) after it exceeds the moisture needed for compaction. A soil whose
percent moisture content is greater than the Liquid Limit is, therefore, soft and unstable.
Two of these numbers (Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit) are used to determine the Plasticity
Index. The Plasticity Index is not an Atterberg Limit. It is a number that is derived by
subtracting the Plastic Limit of a soil from its Liquid Limit.
PI = LL - PL
Soils - T 89 - 2

The Plasticity Index of a soil is a measure of the cohesive properties of a soil. It is the
numerical range of moisture contents in which a cohesive soil is plastic. Many state highway
departments specify Plasticity Index values for soils to be used in construction.
The Shrinkage Limit is not used in determining the Plasticity Index. It is not one of the original
Atterberg Limits and is not used as widely in highway construction specifications. The point at
which a soil moves from a solid to a semisolid state is not as significant as the Liquid Limit in
determining the a soils suitability for highway construction.
When soil samples are received by the laboratory, they may be identified by a field
classification (e.g., plastic, nonplastic, hard, friable, etc.) based on moisture content and
consistency at the time of sampling. This field classification provides an indication of a soils
suitability for use in construction. However, a more accurate determination of the soils
behavior at varying moisture contents is needed to ensure that the soils will be able to perform
in a pavement structure. Therefore, it is critical that the tests for Atterberg Limits be properly
performed. They are one of the criteria used to classify a soil in terms of its suitability for a
specific design use and for determining if a soil meets specifications for use in construction
projects.
LIQUID LIMIT
The Liquid Limit is the moisture content at which a specific soil moves from a plastic to a liquid
state. Generally, soils with high Liquid Limits are clays with poor engineering properties. Soils
with a high clay content are cohesive (stick together), plastic (moldable), compressible (able to
be consolidated), and nearly impervious (impenetrable by water). Their compressibility leads
to rutting under load and can even cause the soil structure to collapse under its own weight,
causing embankment failure.
Clay soils become unstable when they react with water. Soils with high clay content also are
subject to swelling and shrinking during normal changes in moisture content. The
swell/shrinkage cycle will also lead to foundation failure. Swelling and shrinkage are directly
related to shear failure. When clay soils are disturbed by construction processes, they lose
their shear strength and are, therefore, subject to failure.
Therefore, the Liquid Limit is used to analyze the clay content of a soil. The Liquid Limit is
used in conjunction with the Plasticity Index to identify soils with a clay content high enough to
keep them from performing well in embankment construction.

Soils - T 89 - 3

SUMMARY OF TESTING
There are two methods approved by AASHTO to determine the Liquid Limit of a soil. The
basic test steps are the same for both methods. The differences are in the initial quantity of
water added to the test specimen; the number of specimens which are tested; the mandatory
blow count range; and the calculations involved. When the results of Method B or the use of
tap water cause questionable test results, there is also a reference method that must be used
to establish the validity of the values. This reference method uses Method A with special
parameters to ensure exacting testing standards.
The Liquid Limit test is performed on material passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40) sieve. First mix
the test specimen with water, alternately stirring and chopping the soil and adding water until
the soil is at a uniform stiff consistency. You will need some experience to recognize when
you have reached the correct consistency for each soil type. Place some of the test specimen
in the cup of the Liquid Limit device. Then use the spatula to press and spread the material to
the correct thickness. Be careful not to trap air bubbles in the test specimen when spreading it
in the cup.
Use the grooving tool to divide the test specimen in the cup through its center moving the tool
from back to front only one time for each stroke. Be sure to form a clean, sharp groove. Use
no more than six strokes of the grooving tool to divide the specimen; only the last stroke of the
grooving tool is to scrape the bottom of the cup.
If you are using a manual device, turn the crank at approximately 2 revolutions per second. If
you are using an automatic device, turn on the machine. Count the number of blows of the
machine or use the automatic counter if the device is equipped with one. When the groove
closes to 13 mm (0.5 inch), stop the device. Record the number of blows the device needed to
close the groove.
For Method A, repeat these steps at least three times until you have blow counts within the
following ranges:
& 25 - 35

& 20 - 30

& 15 - 25

There must be a difference of at least ten blows between the high and low blow count for the
test result to be valid.
For Method B, the blow count must be within the range of 22-28, inclusive, and only one
specimen is used for testing. A second specimen is run to verify the blow count.
From each test specimen, remove a slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula,
extending from edge to edge of the soil cake at right angles to the groove. Be sure to take
that portion of the groove in which the soil flowed together. Then, determine the moisture
content of each specimen in accordance with AASHTO T265. The Liquid Limit is a
mathematical calculation based on the moisture content and number of blows at closure.

Soils - T 89 - 4

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

Liquid Limits vary widely. It is possible to obtain values as high as 80 - 100. Values between
40 - 60 are typical of clay soils. For silty soils, typical values are between 25 - 50. The Liquid
Limit test will not produce a result for sandy soils; sandy soils are termed nonplastic.

COMMON TESTING ERRORS

<

Improperly adjusted Liquid Limit device.

<

Loose adjusting screws.

<

Excessively worn pin.

<

Excessively worn base or cup.

<

Worn grooving tool.

<

Automatic counter not zeroed.

<

Miscounting blows on manual device.

<

Restraining the base of the Liquid Limit device during testing.

<

Trapping air bubbles in the test specimen.

<

Soil cake of improper thickness.

<

Moisture content test specimen not representative of Liquid Limit test specimen.

<

Plotting or calculation errors.

<

Nonuniform moisture content in sample.

<

Performing test before moisture content in soil specimen is equalized.

<

Contaminated water used for testing.

<

Adding water too quickly for the soil to absorb it during the mixing process

Soils - T 89 - 5

TEST METHODOLOGY - METHOD A

Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. To determine the Liquid Limit of a soil specimen, you will need the following.
Dish

An unglazed porcelain dish (or similar mixing dish), approximately

115 mm (4 inches) in diameter

Cover

A cover to be used over the dish to prevent moisture loss during

testing

Spatula

A spatula or pill knife with a blade approximately 75 - 100 mm

(3 - 4 inches) long and approximately 20 mm (3/4-inch) wide

Liquid Limit
Device

Manual or mechanically operated conforming to AASHTO T89

Grooving
Tool

Conforming to AASHTO T89, Figure 1

Gage

Conforming to AASHTO T89, Figure 1 or a metal bar 10.0 0.2 mm

(0.394 0.008 inches) thick and approximately 50 mm (2 inches) long

Containers

Enough containers with close-fitting lids to provide one container

for each moisture content determination. Containers must be
resistant to corrosion and not subject to change in mass with
repeated heating and cooling.

Balance

Conforming to AASHTO M231, Class C

Oven

A thermostatically controlled oven capable of maintaining a

temperature of 110 5EC (230 9EF)

Distilled or Demineralized Water or Tap Water, if approved

Semi-logarithmic Graph Paper
AASHTO T265 (For the Determination of Moisture Content)
Stable, flat
surface

Support for testing apparatus to ensure uniform impact and base

stability of device

Soils - T 89 - 6

Testing Apparatus

Test Specimen
Prepare a soil sample in accordance with AASHTO T87, Standard Method of Preparing
Disturbed Soil Samples, or in accordance with AASHTO T146, Standard Method of Wet
Preparation of Disturbed Soil Samples. Separate the material passing the 0.425-mm (No. 40)
sieve. Obtain a representative portion of approximately 100 grams from this material.

Weighing Test Specimen

Soils - T 89 - 7

Procedure Preparation
1. Inspect the Liquid Limit device and grooving tool.
A. Check that the pin connecting the cup is not worn to the point of allowing side play.
B. Check that the screws connecting the cup to the hanger arm are tight. Loose screws
allow excessive cup movement and cause erratic blow counts.
C. Check that the points of contact on the cup and base are not excessively worn.
Excessive wear is defined as approximately 13 mm (0.5 inches) in diameter. Check the
lip of the cup for excessive wear. Excessive wear is defined as when any point on the
cup rim is worn to approximately the original thickness.
D. Check the center of the cup to ensure that use has not worn a groove into the cup.
(Replace any cup in which there is a pronounced groove.)
E. Check the cam follower. It should not be worn beyond the tolerance allowed or allow
any rocking on the height gage when checking height of drop.
F. Check the adjusting screws. All screws in the adjusting assembly must be tight with no
noticeable movement.
G. Check the dimensions of the grooving tool to ensure that the tool continues to conform
to the tolerances of AASHTO T89, Figure 1.
2. Adjust the height of drop so that the point on the cup that contacts the base rises to a
height of 10.0 0.2 mm (0.394 0.008 in.)
A. Mark the point of contact of the cup with the base. Facing the front of the cup, raise
the cup by hand. Place a piece of masking tape across the outside bottom of the cup.
Place the tape parallel to the pivot pin with the top edge of the tape bisecting the wear
mark on the cup where it contacts the base.

NOTE
When a cup is new, place a piece of
carbon paper on the base, carbon side up,
then allow the cup to drop several times to
mark the contact spot.

Soils - T 89 - 8

Placing Masking Tape on Cup Bottom

B.

Lower cup into position.

NOTE
You may remove the cup from the device
to apply the tape. If this was done, place
cup on device and install pivot pin.

C.

Turn the crank and raise the cup to its maximum height.

D.

Slide the height gage under the cup from the front until the gage contacts the edge
of the tape on the cup. If the gage contacts the cup at the edge of the tape, the
adjustment is approximately correct.

Soils - T 89 - 9

Checking Contacts with Height Gage

E.

If the gage does not contact the cup at the edge of the tape, use the adjusting
screw device to adjust the height until the cup is in proper position. Lock the
adjustment assembly into proper position.

F.

Leave the gage in position. Check the adjustment by turning the handle at two
revolutions per second. If the cup does not move and a ringing or clicking sound is
heard, the adjustment is correct. If no sound is heard or if the cup rises from the
gage, re-adjust the height of drop.

G.

Remove the tape as soon as the check procedure is completed.

Soils - T 89 - 10

Testing Procedure
I.

Prepare Test Specimen

A. Place the test specimen in the mixing dish. Add 15 - 20 mL of water. Mix thoroughly
by alternately stirring, kneading, and chopping with the spatula. Add enough water to
form a soil mass with a stiff consistency. After the initial addition of 15 - 20 mL of water,
add subsequent water in increments of 1 - 3 mL. Mix each increment of water
thoroughly into the soil mass before adding the next increment.
NOTE
It is permissible to use tap water for routine
testing, if comparative tests indicate no
difference in test results.

Adding Water

Blending Water and Soil

B. If too much water is added, either discard the test specimen or continue mixing and
kneading the material until natural evaporation lowers the moisture content to the
proper consistency.
C. Do not add additional dry material to the test specimen.

NOTE
Do not use the cup of the Liquid Limit
device to mix the soil and water.

Soils - T 89 - 11

NOTE
Some soils (fine silts and clays) are slow to
absorb water.
When testing such soils, allow additional
mixing time to ensure water absorption. If
water is added too quickly to these soils, it
is possible to obtain a false value for the
liquid limit.

II. Perform Test

A. Use the spatula to scoop a representative specimen of the mixed material about the
size of a golf ball. Immediately cover mixing dish to eliminate moisture loss.
B. Place this specimen in the cup of the liquid limit device directly above the point where
the cup rests on the base.
C. Use the spatula to press, spread, and level the specimen so that the material is no
more than 10 mm thick at its maximum thickness and is centered as close as possible
over the contact point of the cup and the base. Use as few spatula strokes as possible.
Do not trap air bubbles within the mass.

Spreading Specimen in Liquid Limit Cup

D. Trim excess soil from the specimen during Step C, return the excess to the mixing dish
and immediately cover to prevent moisture loss.

Soils - T 89 - 12

E. Use the grooving tool to make a smooth firm stroke through the soil pat. Move the
grooving tool from back to front though the center of the soil pat. Do not allow the soil
pat to tear or slide in the cup while making the groove. (If the soil pat tears or slides,
the soil is too dry or may be nonplastic. You will have to add more water and try again.)
Increase the depth of the groove with each stroke, but do not allow the tool to touch the
bottom of the cup, except on the last stroke. Use no more than six strokes to complete
the division. While grooving the material, you can use the curved end of the grooving
tool to determine if the pat is the proper thickness. When the grooving tool touches the
cup, the top of the soil cake should be level with the top of the curved portion of the
grooving tool. The curved portion of the grooving tool is 10 mm (0.4 inch) high.

Grooving the Soil Specimen

F. Apply blows. If the device is automatic, turn on the device. If the device is manual, turn
the crank at approximately two revolutions per second. Continue applying blows until
the two sides of the material come in contact at the bottom of the groove along a
distance of about 13 mm (0.5 in.).

Applying Blows by Turning the Handle

Soils - T 89 - 13

NOTE
Do not hold the base of the device with the
free hand while turning the crank.

NOTE
Some soils tend to slide on the surface of
the cup instead of flowing together. If this
occurs, remix the material with additional
water and repeat the procedure. If the soil
continues to slide at fewer than 25 blows,
the Liquid Limit test is not applicable.
Record that the Liquid Limit could not be
determined.

G.

Record the number of blows needed to close the groove to 13 mm (0.5 in.)

Soils - T 89 - 14

III.

Determine Moisture Content

A. Use the spatula to take a slice of soil from the specimen in the cup. Remove the slice
from edge to edge of the soil cake at right angles to the groove. Include that portion of
the groove where the soil has flowed together. Place the slice in a drying container.

Removing the Moisture Content Specimen

Placing Specimen in Drying Container

B. Determine the moisture content of the slice in accordance with AASHTO T 265.
C. Put the remaining part of the soil cake back into the mixing dish and cover it.
D. Wash and dry the cup and grooving tool.
E. Add more water to the material in the mixing dish and remix, making the material more
fluid. The intent is to increase the fluidity of the soil by 5 shocks (blows).
F. Repeat Steps II.A. - II. F. at least twice, until at least one determination is made in each
of the following ranges. The range of the three determinations must be at least 10
blows.
& 25 - 35

G.

& 20 - 30

& 15 - 25

Determine the percentage of moisture to the nearest 0.1% for each test specimen in
accordance with AASHTO T 265.

Soils - T 89 - 15

IV. Flow Curve Preparation

A.

Prepare semi-logarithmic graph paper by labeling the x and y axes for moisture content
and number of shocks.

B.

For each test specimen, plot the point corresponding to the blow count and moisture
content.

C.

Draw a flow curve (as straight a line as possible passing through all plotted points).

Example

50

Water content (%)

40
w=32.8%

30

20

10

N=25

0
2

10

100

Blow counts

NOTE
The lower point, although recorded, was
outside the 25 - 35 range. The course
developers, unlike AASHTO directions,
prefer that all points be recorded.

V. Determine the Liquid Limit

Identify the moisture content at which the flow curve intersects the 25-blow line. The moisture
Soils - T 89 - 16

content at the intersection of the flow curve and the 25-blow line is the Liquid Limit. Record
the Liquid Limit to the nearest whole number.

REFERENCE TESTS
When performing Method A as a reference test, use the following time schedule.
1.

Mixing of soil with water: 5 - 10 minutes

The more plastic the soil, the longer the mixing time should be.

2.

Seasoning in the humidifier: 30 minutes

3.

Remixing the material before placing it in the brass cup:

Add 1 mL of water and mix: 1 minute

4.

Placing the material in the brass cup:

5.

Adding water and remixing: 3 minutes

6.

Do not add dried soil to the seasoned soil during the test.

3 minutes, maximum

Soils - T 89 - 17

TEST METHODOLOGY - METHOD B

Method B is a quicker determination of Liquid Limit, because it is only necessary to run one
complete point. If results from Method B are questionable, use Method A as a referee test with
the special parameters listed under reference test.
You will need the same equipment as for Method A, except you will not need semi-logarithmic
graph paper. In addition to the equipment listed for Method A, you will need one of the
following:

Liquid Limit Slide Rule

Calculator

Liquid Limit Nomograph

Other Approved Charts or Graphs

NOTE
The discussion in this training package for
Method B will be limited to the Corps of
Engineers Nomograph and the
determination of Liquid Limit by formula.

Test Specimen
Obtain a test specimen of approximately 50 g in accordance with the directions in Method A.
Procedure
1. Prepare the test specimen and perform the test exactly like Method A, with the following
exception.
A.

Use approximately 8 - 10 mL of water for initial specimen preparation.

B.

The blow count must be between 22 - 28, inclusive.

C.

After the blow count is in the correct range, return the material from the cup to the
mixing dish. Remix quickly, being sure to avoid moisture loss during remixing. Repeat
the blow count procedure without adding additional water to reaffirm the blow count.

2. When blow count is acceptable, obtain the slice of soil from the specimen in the cup and
Soils - T 89 - 18

determine moisture content in accordance with AASHTO T 265.

Soils - T 89 - 19

Determine Liquid Limit

Use one of the methods shown in AASHTO T 89 to determine the Liquid Limit. In this
training package only the formula and nomograph are shown as examples.
1.

Use the following formula to determine the Liquid Limit.

LL = WN(

N 0.121
)
25

Where:

LL
N
WN
25
0.121

=
=
=
=
=

Liquid Limit
Blow Count
Moisture Content at Blow Count, %
Constant, Midrange of Acceptable Blow Count
Empirical Constant

Example
N
WN

=
=

23
48.5

N 0.121
)
25
23
LL = 48.5( ) 0.121
25
LL = 48.5(0.99)
LL = W N (

LL = 48.01 = 48

Soils - T 89 - 20

2.

Use the Nomograph to determine the Liquid Limit.

(Refer to the Nomograph in AASHTO T 89.)
(1) Plot the moisture content (WN) on the left vertical column.
(2) Plot the blow count (N) on the right vertical column.
(3) Using a straightedge, connect the two points.
(4) Read the Liquid Limit from the middle column.

Example:

W N = 48.5
N = 23

Developed by the Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers

U. S. Army, to determine Liquid Limit Using Mean Slope Method
Excerpted From AASHTO T89

Soils - T 89 - 21

GLOSSARY
Atterberg Limits -

Tests designed by A. Atterberg. Used to identify the limits at which a soil

passes from a solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid states. Atterberg Limits
are the Plastic Limit, Liquid Limit and Shrinkage Limit. The Plastic Limit
and Liquid Limit are used to determine the Plasticity Index.

Cohesive

Tending to stick together

Compressibility -

Able to be reduced in volume through compaction.

Friable

A noncohesive material which crumbles readily.

Liquid Limit

An Atterberg Limit. The moisture content at which a soil moves from a

plastic to a liquid state.

Plastic
Plastic Limit

Capable of being molded into a sustainable shape.

An Atterberg Limit. The moisture content at which a soil moves from a

semisolid to a plastic state.

Plasticity Index -

An measure of the cohesive properties of a soil. Determined by

subtracting the Plastic Limit from the Liquid Limit.

Nonplastic

Not capable of being molded into a sustainable shape.

Shrinkage Limit -

An Atterberg Limit. The moisture content at which a soil changes from a

solid to a semisolid.

Shear

Failure in a soil parallel to the direction of applied force.

Soils - T 89 - 22

DETERMINING THE PLASTIC LIMIT AND

PLASTICITY INDEX OF SOILS
AASHTO T 90

Developed by
FHWA Multiregional Soils Training & Certification Group
August 1999

NOTE
Successful completion of the following
training materials, including examination
and performance evaluation, are
prerequisites for this training package.
AASHTO T 265, Laboratory
Determination of Moisture Content of
Soils
AASHTO T 87, Standard Method of
Preparing Disturbed Soil Samples
AASHTO T 89, Determining the Liquid
Limits of soils

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic

Page

Atterberg Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 90 - 1

Plastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 90 - 2
Plasticity Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 90 - 2
Summary of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Testing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crumbling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soils - T 90 - 4
Soils - T 90 - 4
Soils - T 90 - 4
Soils - T 90 - 4

Test Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 1: Equipment for Plastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 2: Test Specimen for Plastic Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3: Rolling the Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 4: Continuing to Roll the Test Specimen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 5: Individual Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soils - T 90 - 5
Soils - T 90 - 5
Soils - T 90 - 6
Soils - T 90 - 6
Soils - T 90 - 6
Soils - T 90 - 7
Soils - T 90 - 7
Soils - T 90 - 8
Soils - T 90 - 9

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soils - T 90 - 10

ATTERBERG LIMITS
Soils form the foundation of all transportation facilities. The final structure will be no more
durable than the foundation upon which it rests. In order to ensure that the soils which
support structures will function as intended in the design, it is necessary for designers to have
basic information about them. Designers use this information to decide if a naturally occurring
soil can support the anticipated traffic load or if it will require chemical modification (e.g.,
cement stabilization, lime treatment or treatment with fly ash) to enable it to perform as a
highway foundation. The strength of the soil foundation is also used in determining the type of
surface course the designer will choose for a pavement structure.
Several tests are performed in the laboratory that provide information to the designer about
soils which may be used as the foundation for a roadway. The determination of Atterberg
Limits are among these tests. In 1911, a Swedish scientist, A. Atterberg, developed some
simple tests for determining the moisture contents of a soil at which the soil moves from a solid
to a semisolid, to a plastic and to a liquid state. The numbers generated by these tests are
used to quantitatively describe the effect of varying water contents on a soil. As the moisture
content of a soil increases, the soil will eventually change from a solid to a liquid state.
Atterberg Limits are the:
Shrinkage
Limit

The point at which a soil changes from a solid to a semisolid.

Plastic Limit

The point at which a soil moves from a semisolid to a plastic state.

Liquid Limit

The point at which a soil

oves from a plastic to a
iquid state.

m
l

Each soil becomes less stable as the moisture increases (moving left to right on the
diagram) after it exceeds the moisture needed for compaction. A soil whose percent
moisture content is greater than the Liquid Limit is, therefore, soft and unstable.
Two of these numbers (Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit) are used to determine the Plasticity
Index. The Plasticity Index is not an Atterberg Limit. It is a number that is derived by
subtracting the Plastic Limit of a soil from its Liquid Limit.
PI = LL - PL
Soils - T 90 - 1

The Plasticity Index of a soil is a measure of the cohesive properties of a soil. It represents the
range of moisture contents in which a cohesive soil is plastic. Many state highway
departments specify Plasticity Index values for soils to be used in construction.
The Shrinkage Limit is not used in determining the Plasticity Index. It is not one of the original
Atterberg Limits and is not used as widely in highway construction specifications. The point at
which a soil moves from a solid to a semisolid state is not as significant as the Liquid Limit in
determining the shear strength and compressibility of a soil.
When soil samples are received by the laboratory, they may have a field classification (e.g.,
plastic, nonplastic, hard, friable, etc.) based on their moisture content and consistency at the
time of sampling. This field classification provides an indication of a soils suitability for use in
construction. However, a more accurate determination of the soils behavior at varying
moisture contents is needed to ensure that the soils will be able to perform in a pavement
structure. Therefore, it is critical that the tests for Atterberg Limits be properly performed.
They are one of the criteria used to classify a soil in terms of its suitability for a specific design
use and for determining if a soil meets specifications for use in construction projects.
PLASTIC LIMIT
As the moisture content of a soil moves below the Liquid Limit, it becomes more plastic.
External force is needed to make the soil deform. Its bearing capacity begins to increase. The
soil becomes more cohesive and can be molded by hand into a ball or other shape. The
minimum moisture content at which a soil begins to behave as a plastic is called the Plastic
Limit. The Plastic Limit is determined by a simple test in which the soil is repeatedly rolled into
threads approximately 3 mm in diameter. During the repeated rollings, the soil gradually loses
moisture until it reaches the point where it will no longer hold together and breaks into short
pieces. The moisture content at the point where the soil begins to break up is the Plastic Limit.
PLASTICITY INDEX
The range of moisture contents at which a soil is considered to be plastic are those which fall
between the Liquid Limit and the Plastic Limit. This range is identified as an engineering
property by the Plasticity Index (PI). The Plasticity Index is a calculated value derived by
subtracting the Plastic Limit from the Liquid Limit.
PI = LL - PL
The Plasticity Index is an indicator of the suitability of the clay fraction of a soil or soilaggregate for use in highway construction. It is used as a specification by many highway
departments to determine the usability of a soil. When the Plasticity Index of the binder
fraction of a material containing clay is too high, the material will tend to soften under wet
conditions. Pavements constructed with soils or soil-aggregates having a high PI tend to have
problems with rutting, shifting and shoving. They may develop a washboard surface or other
failures that are caused by foundation failures. When such materials are used as surfacings,
Soils - T 90 - 2

they tend to become slippery in wet weather. When the Plasticity Index is too low or the soil
fraction is nonplastic, the material will tend to become friable in dry weather. It may ravel at the
edges and abrade under traffic. Pavement surfacings constructed with low PI material tend to
be dusty and may lose much of their binder during dry periods. The Plasticity Index is one of
the factors considered in determining the classification of soils.
Since the Plasticity Index is the numerical range of moisture contents through which a soil
remains plastic, each soil becomes less stable as the moisture content increases (moves left to
right on the graph) after it exceeds the moisture content needed for proper compaction. A soil
the natural moisture content of which exceeds the Liquid Limit is, therefore, soft and unstable.
It is possible for a soil to have a PI of zero, if the Plastic Limit and Liquid Limit are the same.
Such a soil is considered plastic, although the range of moisture contents at which the material
behaves as a plastic is so severely limited that the range cannot be determined by standard
laboratory tests. Soils with a PI of zero should not be confused with nonplastic soils.
Nonplastic soils (generally sands) are almost totally free of clay particles. Nonplastic soils
never reach a cohesive state, but move abruptly from a viscous liquid state to a dry granular
state. A nonplastic soil will not solidify. It will not form clods or other solid masses. It cannot
be rolled into a thread as small as 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) and, therefore, cannot be tested for a
Plastic Limit.

Soils - T 90 - 3

SUMMARY OF TESTING
To determine the Plastic Limit of a soil, you will first add water to a dried soil sample and mix it
thoroughly. When the moisture content is uniform, place the test specimen on a flat, smooth,
impermeable surface and, with the heel of the hand, roll it into a thin thread. Remold the test
specimen, without adding additional water. Repeat the procedure until the specimen
crumbles. Then, you determine the moisture content of the test specimen in accordance with
AASHTO T 265. The moisture content is the Plastic Limit. You can then determine the
Plasticity Index by subtracting the Plastic Limit from the Liquid Limit, determined in accordance
with AASHTO T 89.
TYPICAL TEST RESULTS
Plastic Limit tests are conducted on silts and clays. Normally, silty soils have lower Plastic
Limits than clay soils. The Plastic Limit usually falls in the range of 5 - 30. Nonplastic
materials (e.g., sand) cannot be tested by this procedure. Nonplastic materials lack the
cohesiveness to be rolled into a thread.
The Plasticity Index can range as high as 70 or 80 for very plastic clays. However, most clays
have a PI of 20 - 40 and silts have a PI of 10 - 20.
COMMON TESTING ERRORS
<
<
<
<
<
<
<

Nonuniform mixing of soil and water

Contaminated water
Improperly blended sample
Too thin or too thick soil threads
Errors in determining mass
Applying too much pressure or nonuniform pressure in rolling
Rolling on the wrong type surface

CRUMBLING
Different types of soils exhibit different styles of breaking up during rolling. Some soils fall
apart in many small aggregations; others form a tubular layer on the outside that splits at both
ends. When this occurs, the splitting tends to progress toward the middle until the thread falls
apart in many small platy particles. Heavy clays require a lot of pressure to deform the soil,
especially as it approaches the Plastic Limit. With clay soils, the thread often breaks into a
series of barrel-shaped segments about 6.4 - 9.5 mm (1/4 - 3/8 inch) in length.
The technician is never to attempt to produce failure at exactly 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) by reducing
the rate of rolling or modifying hand pressure. It is acceptable to reduce the amount of rolling
required for soils with low plasticity by making the initial diameter of the ellipsoidal test
specimen near the 3.2 mm (1/8 inch) final diameter.

Soils - T 90 - 4

TEST METHODOLOGY
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. To determine the Plastic Limit of a soil specimen, you will need the following.
Dish

Spatula

Surface for
Rolling

Glass Plate or Smooth, Unglazed Paper

Containers

Enough containers with close-fitting lids to provide one container for

each moisture content determination. Containers must be resistant
to corrosion and not subject to change in mass with repeated heating
and cooling.

Balance

Conforming to AASHTO M231, Class C

Oven

A thermostatically controlled oven capable of maintaining a

temperature of 110 5EC (230 9EF)

An unglazed porcelain dish (or similar mixing dish), approximately

115 mm (4 inches) in diameter
A spatula or pill knife with a blade approximately 75 - 100 mm (3 - 4
inches) long and approximately 20 mm (3/4-inch) wide

Figure 1: Equipment for Plastic Limit

Soils - T 90 - 5

Test Specimen
Prepare a soil sample in accordance with AASHTO T 87, Standard Method of Preparing
Disturbed Soil Samples. Separate the material passing the 0.425-mm (No. 40) sieve. Obtain
a representative portion of approximately 20 grams from this material if you are only going to
perform the test to determine the Plastic Limit.
Place the air dried soil in a mixing dish and thoroughly mix with water until it can be easily
shaped into a ball. Knead the material into plastic mass until the moisture content and texture
are uniform. Take a ball of approximately 8 g to perform the test.

Figure 2: Test Specimen for Plastic Limit

PROCEDURE
I.

Squeeze the 8 g test specimen into an ellipsoidal mass.

II. Place the test specimen on the rolling surface. Applying just enough pressure to cause the
specimen to move, roll it back and forth with your hand until it forms a thread of uniform
diameter throughout its length. Roll it back and forth at a speed of approximately 80 - 90
strokes per minute being sure to apply pressure uniformly during the procedure. A stroke
equals one complete motion back and forward to the starting point.

Soils - T 90 - 6

Figure 3: Rolling the Test Specimen

Figure 4: Continuing to Roll the Test Specimen

Soils - T 90 - 7

III. When the diameter of the thread becomes 3.2 mm (1/8 inch), stop rolling. Break the
thread into six or eight reasonably equal-sized pieces.

Figure 5: Individual Pieces

IV. Squeeze the pieces between the thumbs and fingers to create a uniform ellipsoidal mass.

V. Repeat Steps II - IV, until the thread crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and
the specimen can no longer be rolled into a thread.

NOTE
The test specimen may crumble when the
thread has a diameter greater than 3.2 mm
(1/8 inch). It is acceptable to end the
rolling procedure at this point if the
specimen has previously been rolled to the
3.2 mm-diameter.

VI. Gather the pieces of the crumbled thread together. Place them in a tared container that is
suitable for drying to determine the moisture content.
VII.

Determine the moisture content in accordance with AASHTO T 265 and record the
results.
Soils - T 90 - 8

CALCULATIONS
I.

Determine the Plastic Limit using the following formula and report the result to the nearest
whole number.

PL =

Mass of Water
Mass of Oven - Dry Soil

x 100

Example
Mass of Water
Mass of Oven
Dry Soil

5.3 g

22.0 g

PL =

5.3

PL

x 100
22.0
= 0.2409 x 100

PL

= 24.09 = 24

II. Determine the Plasticity Index using the following formula and report the result to the
nearest whole number.
PI = LL - PL
Example

LL = 70
PL = 24
PI = 70 - 24
PI = 46

Soils - T 90 - 9

GLOSSARY
Atterberg Limits -

Tests designed by A. Atterberg. Used to identify the limits at which a soil

passes from a solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid states. Atterberg Limits
are the Plastic Limit, Liquid Limit and Shrinkage Limit. The Plastic Limit
and Liquid Limit are used to determine the Plasticity Index.

Cohesive

Tending to stick together

Compressibility -

Able to be reduced in volume through compaction.

Friable

A noncohesive material which crumbles readily.

Liquid Limit

An Atterberg Limit. The moisture content at which a soil moves from a

plastic to a liquid state.

Plastic

Capable of being molded into a sustainable shape.

Plastic Limit

An Atterberg Limit. The moisture content at which a soil moves from a

semisolid to a plastic state.

Plasticity Index -

A measure of the cohesive properties of a soil. Determined by

subtracting the Plastic Limit from the Liquid Limit.

Nonplastic

Not capable of being molded into a sustainable shape.

Shrinkage Limit -

An Atterberg Limit. The moisture content at which a soil changes from a

solid to a semisolid.

Soils - T 90 - 10

MOISTURE-DENSITY
RELATIONS OF SOILS
Standard Method
AASHTO T 99
Modified Method
AASHTO T 180

Developed by
Multi-Regional Soils and Certification Group
Revised 2006

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training manuals, including
examination and performance evaluation are prerequisites for this
training package
< ASTM D 3365, Standard Practice for Random Sampling of
Consturction Materials
< ASTM D 2488, Standard Practice for Description and
Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual Procedure)
< AASHTO T 87, Dry Preparation of Disturbed Soil and Soil
Aggregate Samples for Test
< AASHTO T 88, Particle Size Analysis of Soils
< AASHTO T 265, Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of
Soils

Soil-T99-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
MOISTURE - DENSITY RELATIONS OF SOILS . . .. ...Soil-T99-1
Scope . . ... ...Soil-T99-1
SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE . . ... ..Soil-T99-2
Apparatus . . ...Soil-T99-3
Test Methods ...Soil-T99-6
Sample Preparation.. .Soil-T99-6
PROCEDURE. . . .. .Soil-T99-8
Calculations . . ..Soil-T99-10
GLOSSARY . . ...Soil-T99-12

Soil-T99-ii

MOISTURE - DENSITY RELATIONS OF SOILS

Standard Method (AASHTO T 99)
Modified Method (AASHTO T 180)
Soils form the foundation for most highway structures. The final structure, whether it is a
pavement or a bridge structure, can only be as durable as the foundation upon which it rests.
Compaction of the soil is necessary in order to assure that the soil or soil aggregate structure will
perform and support its intended design loads. Material that is densely compacted will support
more load than uncompacted material.
The principles of compaction were developed by R. R. Proctor in the 1930's. Proctor noted that
compaction is a function of four variables:
Compaction Effort
Soil Type
Dry Density, and
Moisture Content
The "percent compaction" is a comparison between the compaction actually achieved in the
field (in place density) and the maximum compaction possible for that soil type when
compaction is performed under a set of controlled conditions. These controlled conditions
exist in the laboratory. AASHTO T 99 and T 180 are used to determine the maximum possible
density that can be expected for that specific soil type using normal construction compacting
efforts. Maximum density of a soil or soil-aggregate is also dependent on the optimum
moisture content of the soil being tested. Since it is possible that several types of soil will be
used on a particular construction project, it is necessary for a laboratory to test and develop
the different moisture-density relationships for each soil or soil aggregate that will be
encountered.
A soil or soil aggregate mixture which is not compacted to the required density may subside or
collapse due to its own mass or traffic loadings, causing failure of the highway structure. It is
critical that these tests and procedures which determine the maximum density and the optimum
moisture content be performed properly.

Soil-T99-1

SUMMARY OF PROCEDURE
This procedure determines the moisture-density relationship of soils and soil-aggregate
mixtures. It is sometimes referred to as the standard proctor or the modified proctor test. A quantity
of soil or soil and aggregate mixture is prepared at a determinable moisture content and compacted
in a standard mold using a manual or mechanical rammer. The wet mass of this compacted sample
is divided by the volume of the mold to determine the wet density.
Moisture content testing on the material from the compacted mass is used to determine the dry
density of this material. This procedure is repeated at varied moisture contents and the results are
plotted on a graph as shown in Figure 1. A smooth line is drawn through the points to
obtain a curve. The maximum density and optimum moisture content are determined by
selecting a point at the peak of the curve.

1700

Max. Dry Density = 1677.5 kg/m 3

1675

1650

1625

1600

1575
15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

Moisture Content (%)

Figure 1 - The dry density to moisture content relationship is plotted and the Moisture-Density Curve is
established. The maximum dry density and optimum moisture are determined from the peak of this curve.

Soil-T99-2

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

Typical maximum density and optimum moisture that can be expected as the result of a
standard compaction test (AASHTO T 99) are given below. A modified compaction test
(AASHTO T 180) will yield 10 to 15 percent higher maximum densities and 20 to 30 percent
lower optimum moisture due to the greater compactive effort used (as described in Table 1).

Unified
Soil
Class
CH
CL
ML
SC
SM
SP
SW
GC
GP
GW

Description
Highly plastic clays
Silty clays
Silts and clayey silts
Clayey sands
Silty sands
Poorly-graded sands
Well-graded sands
Gravel, sand, clay mixes
Poorly-graded gravels
Well-graded gravels

Range of Max.
Densities
kg/m3 (lbs/ft3)
1200-1680 (75-105)
1520-1920 (95-120)
1520-1920 (95-120)
1680-2000 (105-125)
1760-2000 (110-125)
1600-1920 (100-120)
1760-2080 (110-130)
1840-2080 (115-130)
1840-2000 (115-125)
2000-2160 (125-135)

Range of
Optimum
Moisture (%)
19-36
12-24
12-24
11-19
11-16
12-21
9-16
9-14
11-14
8-11

Table 1 - Typical Values of maximum Density and Optimum Moisture for Common
Types of Soil (AASHTO T 99)

EQUIPMENT

Figure 2

Soil-T99-3

Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. You will need the following equipment per AASHTO T 99/T 180 as shown in
Figure 2.
!Rammers: The difference between the two procedures (standard and modified) is the

mass and freefall of the rammer used to compact the soil or soil and aggregate mixture in the
mold and the number of layers placed into the compaction mold for compaction.
Differences Between Standard (T99) and Modified (T180) Moisture Density Tests
R
a
Rammers
( Manual and
m
Mechanical)
Mass
m
Drop of Hammer to Soil
e
Surface
r
Layers
Placed when Filling
s
Mold

Standard
2.4950.009kg (5.50.02 lb)
3052mm (12.000.06 in.)

Modified
4.5360.009kg (10.000.02 lb)
4572mm (18.000.06 in.)

Table 2. Differences between standard and modified moisture density tests.

Mechanical compacting ram: If a mechanical compacting ram is used, it must be

calibrated to produce results repeatable with the manual methods using ASTM method
D2168. The percentage difference of maximum dry unit mass values for a single set of
data (the same sample run through both manual and mechanical compaction
procedures) may not exceed 2%. If this tolerance is exceeded, the mechanical
hammer apparatus may need adjustment. In addition to this density check, the
deformation characteristics of both manual and mechanical compacting must be
checked using a lead deformation apparatus and lead test cylinders. Deformation is
checked on a lot of lead cylinders and the percentage of average deformation
difference resulting from manual and mechanical compaction methods must not exceed
2%. Refer to ASTM D2168 for detailed procedures when calibrating mechanical
rammers to manual rammers.

Compaction block, with a mass not less than 90kg (200 lb).
Molds: Depending on the method, either a 101.6mm (4 in.) or a 152.4mm (6 in.) mold,
solid wall metal cylinder, with dimensions and capacities as shown in AASHTO T99 &
T180, Figure 2. Molds that fail to meet manufacturing tolerances after continued service
may remain in use provided those tolerances are not exceeded by more than 50%; and
the volume of the mold, calibrated in accordance with Section 8 of AASHTO T19, is used
in the calculations.
Scales and balances, conforming to requirements of AASHTO M231 Class G20 and
G2.
Drying oven, capable of maintaining 110 5C (230 9F).
Straightedge: At least 250mm (10 in.) length, made of hardened steel with one beveled
edge. The straightedge is used to plane the surface of the soil even with the top of the mold.
The straightedge may become worn with use and should be checked periodically. The
straightedge should not be so flexible that it leaves a concave surface when trimming the
soil from the top of the compacted sample.

Soil-T99-4

 Engineering Curve
Sieves: 50mm (2 in.), 19.0mm (3/4 in.), and a 4.75mm (No. 4) conforming to the
requirements of AASHTO M92.
Mixing Tools: Sample pans, spoons, scoops, trowels, used for mixing the sample with
water.
Containers: Corrosion resistant with close fitting lids to retain moisture content of
prepared soil samples.
Miscellaneous: Graduated cylinders for adding water.
COMMON TESTING ERRORS

The wrong number of blows is delivered with the rammer.

The lifts vary in thickness.

The soil is not thoroughly mixed to achieve uniform moisture.

The sample is not properly dried or the moisture content sample is improperly taken.

The manual rammer is not held vertically when the blows are delivered.

The mold is out of calibration tolerances.

The compaction block is unstable.

The compaction block is not of sufficient mass.

The points are not plotted correctly on the graph.

The rammer is not properly cleaned between uses.

The mechanical rammer is out of calibration.

The mechanical rammer has the wrong compaction face.

The wrong mold is used for the test.

The wrong rammer is used for the test.

The drop of the rammer is incorrect.

The manual rammer is not lifted to the full stroke.

Soil-T99-5

METHODS
AASHTO T 99 and T 180 stipulates four distinct test methods for these procedures which are
Method A, Method B, Method C, and Method D (Table 3). The method to be used should be
indicated in the applicable specification.

Mold Size
Materials Size
Min. Sample Size
Blows per Layer
Standard (T99)
Modified (T180)

Method A
101.60mm (4 in.)

Method B
152.40mm (6 in.)

Method C
101.60mm (4 in.)

Method D
152.40mm (6 in.)

Passing 4.75 mm
(No.4)
3.18kg (7 lbs.)

Passing 4.75mm
(No.4)
7.26kg (16 lbs.)

Passing 19.0mm
(3/4 in.)
4.99kg (11 lbs.)

Passing 19.0mm
(3/4 in.)
11.34kg (25 lbs.)

25.000
56.000
25.000
56.000
3 Layers; 2.495kg (5.5 lb.) rammer with/305mm (12 in.) drop
5 Layers; 4.536 kg (10 lb.) rammer with/457mm (18 in.) drop

Table 2. Moisture-Density Methods and Associated Mold Sizes.

Use caution when selecting the test method to be used. AASHTO test method designations are
distinct from ASTM methods listed in D 698 and D 1557. ASTM also contains three
Methods (A, B, or C) which correspond to different mold dimensions than the AASHTO
counterparts.
The step by step procedures for AASHTO T 99 and T 180 are essentially the same. The
differences in the two methods are the number of layers of soil used, the weight of the rammer and
the drop of the rammer. AASHTO T 99 will always use 3 layers and a 2.495 kg (5.5 lb) rammer
with 305 mm (12 in.) drop for all methods. AASHTO T 180 will always use 5 layers and a 4.536 kg
(10 lb) rammer with 457 mm (18 in.) drop.
AASHTO stipulates for each method that material must pass the designated sieve (Table 3). Any
material retained on the designated sieves is discarded, unless the oversize correction
procedure is to be used, (See "Rock Replacement" below.)

SAMPLE PREPARATION
1.

If the sample is wet, dry it in an oven not exceeding 60C (140F) until it becomes
friable under a trowel. Aggregations in a friable soil sample will break apart easily.
Avoid breaking apart the natural particles when breaking up the soil aggregations.

2.

Sieve the sample over the specified sieve for the Method being performed (A and B
use a 4.75mm (No. 4) sieve, C and D use the 19.0mm (3/4 in.). Discard any material
retained on the specified sieve.

Soil-T99-6

NOTE
Rock Replacement: It may be necessary to maintain the same percentage of coarse material in the lab
sample as was found in the field. If rock replacement is required, the material to be tested should be
screened through a 50mm (2 in.) And 19mm (3/4 in.) To ascertain the amount of material retained on the
19mm (3/4 in.) Sieve. An equal mass of material which passes the 19mm (3/4 in.) But retained on the
4.75mm (No. 4) sieve is then obtained from the remaining portion of the sample. This material is
recombined with the test sample prior to compaction. When this procedure is followed, it is necessary to
prepare a larger quantity of material for testing.

3.

Thoroughly mix the remaining sample. Obtain at least enough material to fill the mold
when compacted and provide enough extra material to ensure adequate material for
determination of moisture content and increase in density as more water is added.
NOTE
This method uses the same soil or soil-aggregate sample for each point on the density
curve. If the soil or soil-aggregate mixture to be tested is a clayey material which will not
easily mix with water or where the soil material is fragile and will break apart from the
repeated blows of the compaction rammer, it may be necessary to prepare individual portions for
each density point.
In most cases enough material should be sampled from the field to permit four individual points
anticipated optimum moisture content, and then each subsequent point increased by 2%
moisture. Optimum moisture content should be bracketed by the prepared samples in order to
provide a more accurate moisture-density curve.

4.

Prepare the sample(s) and mix with water to produce the desired moisture content. If
the four "points" are prepared in advance make sure to store prepared material in
moisture tight containers. The following example illustrates how to calculate the
amount of water to be added to the soil or soil-aggregate material as a percentage of
the sample's original mass.
A sample of 6.09kg needs to be prepared with approximately 2% additional moisture;
6.09kg is multiplied by 1.02% to yield a sample mass of 6.21kg.
6.09 x 1.02 = 6.21kg
6.21 - 6.09 = 0.12kg
Therefore, 0.12 kg of water should be added to bring the moisture content up by
approximately 2%. Since water has a mass of one gram per milliliter, 120mL of water
should be added.

Soil-T99-7

PROCEDURE
1.

Record the mass of the mold and base plate (without the extension collar) in kilograms
the nearest 5 grams.
NOTE:
While compacting the sample, make sure the mold rests on a
rigid and stable foundation or base which will not move.

2.

Place a representative portion of the sample into the mold (102mm [4 in.]) diameter
mold for Methods A and C, or a 152mm (6 in.) diameter mold for Methods B and D) in
order to fill it in three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of
about 127mm (5 in.) (AASHTO T 99) or five approximately equal layers to give a total
compacted depth of about 127mm (5 in.) (AASHTO T 180).

3.

Prior to compaction, place loose soil into mold and spread into a layer of uniform
thickness. Lightly tamp the soil prior to compaction until it is not in a loose or fluffy state,
using either a manual compaction rammer or a similar device having a face diameter of
approximately 50mm (2 in.).

4.

Following compaction of each of the first two layers any soil adjacent to the mold walls
that has not been compacted or extends above the compaction surface shall be trimmed
using a knife or other suitable device and be evenly distributed on top of the layer.

5.

Use the 2.495kg (5.5 lb) rammer for standard moisture density test (AASHTO T 99) or
with the 4.536kg (10 lb) rammer for modified moisture density test (AASHTO T 180).

6.

Apply the required number of blows to the specimen layer (25 blows for Methods A and
C, 56 blows for Methods B and D).

7.

When compacting the specimen using the manual rammer, uniformly distribute the
blows over the entire surface area of the sample.
NOTE
< Do not lift the rammer and sleeve from the surface of the sample while compacting.
< Hold the rammer perpendicular to the sample and mold during compaction.
<Clean the face of the rammer between lifts.

8.

Repeat this Steps 1 through 5 for each subsequent layer.

Soil-T99-8

9.

Remove the extension collar from the mold and trim the sample even with the top edge
of the mold using a straightedge. Remove any particles that lodged between the mold
and the base plate or bolt holders. If there are voids in the surface of the compacted
sample, fill them with loose soil collected from around the baseplate.

10.

Weigh the mold with sample and record to the nearest 5 grams.

11.

When using the 100 mm (4 in.) mold (Methods A and C) multiply the wet mass of the
soil (mold mass with sample minus mold mass) in kilograms by 1060, and record the wet
density of the soil, W 1, in kilograms per cubic meter.
When using the 150 mm (6 in.) mold (Methods B and D) multiply the wet mass of the
soil (mold mass with sample minus mold mass) in kilograms by 471, and record the wet
density of the soil, W 1, in kilograms per cubic meter.

12.

Remove the compacted soil or soil-aggregate sample from the mold and slice vertically
through the center of the specimen. Obtain a representative sample from one of the
cut faces, determine the moist mass immediately and record and dry in accordance
with AASHTO T265 to determine moisture content.

13.

Break up the remainder of the sample from mold until it is judged by eye to completely
pass a 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve for Methods A and B. When using Methods C or D,
break up the particle aggregations until those particles which are agglomerated will
completely pass a 19.0 mm (3/4 in.) sieve and 90% of the fines (eligible material) in the
sample will pass a 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve. Add the broken up sample to the remainder
of the sample being used for the test.

14.

Add additional water to the sample to increase the overall moisture content by about 2%
(as described in Step 4 of Sample Preparation). The increased moisture content should
never be more than 2.5% (4% only for heavy soils or organic soils). If separate density
points were prepared prior to performing the procedure, skip this step. Continue
compacting samples with moisture contents increasing by roughly 2% until there is a drop
or no change in the calculated wet density.

Soil-T99-9

CALCULATIONS
1.

Calculate the wet density of the material as follows:

Method A & C
Method B & D

W1 = (Mms- Mm) x 1060

W1 = (Mms- Mm) x 471

where: W1 = Wet Density in kg/m3

Mms = Mass of the mold and sample in kg

Mm = Mass of the mold in kg
1060 and 471 = Constants based on the size of the mold
2.
Calculate the moisture content for each compacted sample by dividing the water
content
(loss between wet mass and dry mass of moisture sample) by the dry mass of the
sample and multiplying by 100.

ab
w = 100

b
where: w = moisture content of sample
a = wet mass of soil
b = dry mass of soil
3.

Calculate the dry density (W) for each compacted sample based on the corresponding
moisture sample for each compacted specimen.

W =

W1
100
w + 100

where: W = dry density in kg/m3 or pcf

w = moisture content of sample
W 1 = wet density in kg/m3 or pcf
4.

Plot each compaction point for dry density on graph paper with density on the x-axis
and moisture content on the y-axis as shown on Figure 3.

5.

Form a smooth line using the engineer's curve by connecting the plotted points to form
two curves. As close as possible to the intersection, round the peak to form a smooth,
continuous line.

6.

The moisture content corresponding to the peak of the curve will be termed the
"optimum moisture content."

7.

The dry density corresponding to the peak of the curve will be termed "maximum dry
density."

Soil-T99-10

Example Calculation
The following example moisture density relationship (Table 4) is calculated as a Modified,
Method A (Large Hammer, Small Mold). Remember that the mass of the wet soil needs to
be expressed per the unit volume of the mold used. The mass of the wet soil in kilograms is
multiplied by 1060 to determine the wet density in kg/m3.

Point No.
Mass of mold and soil (kg)
Mass of mold (kg)
Mass of wet soil (kg)
Wet Density (kg/m3)

6.065
4.295
1.770
1876.2

6.130
4.295
1.835
1945.1

6.190
4.295
1.895
2008.7

6.185
4.295
1.890
2003.4

Moisture Contents
A=Mass of container and wet soil
B=Mass of container and dry soil
C=Mass of container (g)
w=Moisture content (%)

373.5
336.9
115.2
16.5

397.5
354.9
123.2
18.4

385.2
339.7
115.4
20.3

387.3
338.9
122.8
22.4

W=Dry density (kg/m3)

1610.5

1642.8

1669.7

1636.8

Table 4 Modified Method A Moisture-Density Relationship Computation.

Soil-T99-11

1700

1675

Max. Dry Density = 1671 kg/m3

1650

1625

1600
16

17

18
19
20
21
Moisture Content (%)

22

23

Figure 3. Graphic plot of the moisture-density relationship in Table 4,

illustrating determination of maximum density and optimum moisture.

GLOSSARY
Compaction

- The reduction of voids in a soil mass. The densification of the soil

mass by applying a force such as the delivered by the rammer.

Compaction Effort

- The force applied to achieve compaction of a soil mass. In the

laboratory, the rammer used in this test procedure produces the
compaction effort. Compaction effort is increased by increasing the
mass, increasing the distance the mass is dropped, increasing the
number of drops or reducing the thickness of the layer being
compacted.

Density

- The mass of the soil divided by the volume.

Dry Density

- The density of the soil corrected for moisture content.

Homogenous

- Of uniform structure and composition throughout.

Soil-T99-12

Density of Soil-In Place by

the Sand Cone Method
AASHTO T 191

Developed by
Multi-Regional Soils Training & Certification Group
Revised 2006

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluations are prerequisites for this
training package
< AASHTO T 99 and T 180 - Laboratory Determination of
Moisture-Density Relations of Soils

Soil-T191-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Density Of Soil In-Place By The Sand-Cone Method . . . ..Soil-M191-1

Summary . . . ...Soil-M191-2
Common Testing Errors . . ...Soil-M191-2
Equipment needed . . ... .Soil-M191-2
Equipment Preparation . . .. .Soil-M191-4
Procedure . . . ..Soil-M191-7
Calculations. ...Soil-M191-8
Glossary . . .. ..Soil-M191-11

Soil-T191-ii

DENSITY OF SOIL IN-PLACE BY THE SAND-CONE

METHOD
This test uses the sand cone apparatus to determine the in-place density of soil or soil
aggregate mixtures. Density is used to calculate the compaction levels of the constructed soil
or soil aggregate layers. Compaction is densifying a material by a process of pressing the
individual soil grain particles more closely together. Compaction or densification is usually
accomplished by mechanical compactor devices (sheep foot compactor, vibratory compactor).
Proper compaction improves the engineering properties of the soil mass. Density is a function
of mass (weight) divided by its volume. Percent density is the ratio of the in-place density to
the maximum (target) density as determined in the laboratory according to standard testing
procedures.

Soil-M191-1

Summary
Prior to testing, calibrations must be done to determine the volume of the sand cone
apparatus, the sand density, and the weight of sand in the large cone. To determine the inplace
density using the sand cone first: excavate a hole as deep as the thickness of the
compacted lift. Remove all material and weigh. After weighing, use a representative sample to
determine the moisture content. Then measure the volume of the hole, which is the volume of the
soil sample in its undisturbed condition before removal, is measured by filling the hole with sand
whose unit mass (weight) is known. The mass of the sand required to fill the hole is converted into
volume. The mass of the soil removed from the hole divided by the volume of the hole is the wet
density of the soil.

Common Testing Errors

Equipment not calibrated properly
Soil weighed contained stones larger than No 4.75 mm (No 4)
Vibrating jar while sand is flowing into test hole
Moisture content not properly determined

Equipment needed
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. To determine in-place density using a sand-cone, you will need:
Density apparatus, consisting of a 4 L (1 gal) jar and a detachable appliance consisting of
a cylindrical valve with an orifice 12.7mm ( in.) in diameter and having a small funnel
continuing to a standard G mason jar top on one end and a large funnel on the other end.
The valve shall have stops to prevent rotating the valve past the completely open or
completely closed positions (AASHTO T 191, 2.1). (See Figure 1)

Figure 1 - Sand Cone Device

August, 1999

Soil-M191-2

 Calibration Container: A sturdy cylindrical container of known volume (v sub c). The
container shall dimensionally approximate the largest test hole that will be dug. The
container shall be calibrated according to T 19M/T19.
Sand: Should be a clean, non-cementitious sand with few or no particles passing the
0.075mm (No. 200) sieve, and none retained on the 2.00 mm (No. 10) sieve. AASHTO T
191 requires that the bulk density of the sand be measured several times to ensure that
the sand does not have a variation in bulk density greater than 1 percent.

Balances: AASHTO M 231, Class G20 (over 5 Kg through 20 Kg principle sample mass,
sensitivity of 5 g or 0.1%); and AASHTO M231 Class G (2 Kg or less, sensitivity of 0.1 g
or 0.1%).

Drying equipment: Suitable for drying moisture content samples, usually a hot plate or
Sterno stove in the field.

Miscellaneous equipment: Digging tools for test hole, which might include a small pick,
chisels, spoons, scoops, etc.; suitable container for drying moisture sample (small pan),
buckets or canvas bags to retain density sample, cache of density sand, thermometer for
water temperature determination (if calibrating cone in field), brush for fines.

Soil-M191-3

Equipment Preparation
Filling the apparatus:
1.

Place the empty apparatus upright on a firm level surface, close the valve and fill the
funnel
with sand.

2.

Open the valve and keep the funnel at least half full with sand during filling. When the
sand stops flowing into the apparatus, close the valve sharply and empty the excess
sand.
Note:
Vibration of the sand during any mass-volume determination may increase
the bulk density of the sand and decrease the accuracy of the determination.
Appreciable time intervals between the bulk density determination of the
sand and its use in the field may result in change in the bulk density caused
by a change in the moisture content or effective gradation.

3.

Determine and record the mass of the apparatus filled with sand (m1).

Determining the mass of sand required to fill the funnel and base plate (Cone
Correction):
1.

Place the base plate on a clean, level, plane surface. Invert the sand-cone filled with
sand and seat the funnel in the recess of the base plate.

2.

Open the valve fully, allow the sand to flow until the sand stops flowing.

3.

Close the valve sharply, remove the apparatus and determine the mass of the apparatus
and the remaining sand (m2).

4.

The mass of sand required to fill the cone and base plate is calculated by the difference
between the initial mass, and final mass. Record this mass as the cone correction (Cc =
m1 m2).

Note:
For each container/bag of sand there will be a unique cone correction and
sand calibration factor. Each sand-cone and matched base plate will also
have a set of unique cone corrections and bulk sand densities. If more than
one sand-cone apparatus is available, the sand-cone and base plate should
be marked and the associated correction/density factors recorded

Soil-M191-4

Example Calculation: Determining the Cone Correction

The mass of the apparatus filled with sand is 8069.2 g, the mass of the apparatus and the
remaining sand is 6492.8.

Cc = m1 m2
Where:
CC = Cone correction,
m1 = Mass of the apparatus filled with sand, and
m2 = Mass of the apparatus and remaining sand.
Cc = 8069.2 g 6492.8
Cc = 1576.4 g

Determining the bulk density of sand (DB) to be used in the field test:
1.

Replace the sand removed in the funnel determination according to the procedure for
filling the apparatus, close the valve, and determine the mass of the apparatus and sand
(m3).

2.

Position the calibration container on a clean, level, plane surface. Place the base plate
on the calibration container. Invert the apparatus and seat the funnel in the recess of the
base plate.

3.

Open the valve fully and keep open until the sand stops flowing.

4.

Close the valve sharply, remove the apparatus and determine the remaining mass of the
apparatus and sand (m4).

5.

Calculate the mass of the sand needed to fill the container, funnel and base plate.
Subtract the final mass (Step 4), from the initial mass (Step 1).

6.

The mass of the sand needed to fill the container only is determined by subtracting the
mass of the cone correction (Step 4) from the total mass required to fill the container
with the funnel and base plate (Step 5).

7.

Determine the bulk density of the calibration sand (sand calibration factor). Divide the
mass of the sand needed to fill the container (Step 6), by the volume of the calibration
container as determined according to T 19M/T 19.
DB = (m3 m4 CC)/VC

8.

Record this factor for future reference.

Soil-M191-5

Example Calculation: Determining Bulk Density of Sand

Volume of the calibration container is 2123.8 cm3, mass of the apparatus filled with sand is
8069.2 g., mass of apparatus and sand remaining after the calibration container has been filled
is 3160.0 g, the cone correction factor is 1576.4 g.

DB = (m3 m4 CC)/VC
Where:
DB = Bulk density of the sand in g/cm3,
m3 = Mass of the apparatus and sand,
m4 = Remaining mass of the apparatus and the sand,
CC = Cone Correction, and
VC = Volume of the Calibration Container
DB = (8069.2 g 3160.0 g 1576.4g)/2123.8 cm3
DB = 1.57 g/cm3

Soil-M191-6

Procedure
Determine the density of the soil in place as follows:
1.

Fill the apparatus with sand as described in the previous section. Record the total mass
(m5).

2.

Prepare the surface of the location to be tested so that it is a level plane.

3.

Seat the base plate on the prepared surface. Dig the test hole inside the opening of the
base plate, being very careful to avoid disturbing the soil that will bound the hole. Place
all loosened soil in a container, being careful to avoid losing any material. Care must be
taken to avoid moisture loss during excavation.

Note:
The volume of the hole should be dependent upon the maximum particle size
(Table 1). A larger jar and cone may be needed when the volume exceeds 0.1
cubic feet.
The walls of the hole should slope slightly inward and the bottom should be
reasonable flat or concave. The hole should be kept as free as possible of
pockets, overhangs, and sharp obtrusions since these affect the accuracy of the
test. Soils that are essentially granular require extreme care and may require
digging a conical shaped test hole.

4.

Place the apparatus on the base plate, open the valve. After the sand has stopped
flowing, close the valve.

5.

Weigh the apparatus with the remaining sand (m6) and record.

6.

Weigh the moist material that was removed from the test hole.

7.

Mix the material thoroughly and secure and weigh a representative sample for
moisture determination.

8.

Dry and weigh the soil sample for moisture content determination in accordance with T
265 or in accordance with rapid methods such as T 217, ASTM D 4959 or ASTM D
4643. The results obtained using these or other rapid test methods must be corrected to
the values obtained in accordance with T 265. Calculate the moisture content to the
nearest 0.1 percent.

9.

The minimum test hole volumes suggested in determining the in-place density of soil
mixtures are given in Table 1. This table shows the suggested minimum mass of the
moisture content sample in relation to the maximum particle size in soil mixtures.

Soil-M191-7

Maximum Particle
Size

Minimum Test Hole,

Volume

Minimum
Moisture
Content
Sample, g
cu ft
Mm
Alternate
cm3
4.75
No. 4 Sieve
710
0.025
100
12.5
in.
1415
0.050
250
25.0
1 in.
2125
0.075
500
50.0
2 in.
2830
0.100
1000
Table 1 Minimum Test Hole Volumes and Minimum Moisture Content Samples Based on
Maximum Size of Particle

Calculations
1. Calculate the moisture content of the soil removed from the hole (w)

w = (W1-W2)/(W2-Wc) x 100
where:
w
=
W1 =
W2 =
Wc =

moisture content, percent;

mass of container and moist soil, g;
mass of container and oven-dried soil, g; and
mass of container, g.

Calculate the percent of moisture content to the nearest 0.1 percent.

2. Calculate the volume of the test hole (VH):

VH = (m5 m6 Cc)/DB
where:
VH =
m5 =
m6 =
Cc =
DB =

volume of the test hole,

initial mass of the apparatus and sand,
final mass of the apparatus and sand,
Cone Correction, and
bulk density of the sand.

Calculate the volume of the test hole to the nearest 1 cm3 (0.0001 ft 3).
3. Calculate the dry mass of the material removed from the test hole as follows:

MDS = (MWS/(1 + (w/100))

where:
MDS = dry mass of the material removed from the test hole,
MWS = moist mass of the material removed from the test hole, and
w
= percentage of moisture, in material removed from the test hole.
Calculate the dry mass of the material to the nearest 1 g (0.01 lb).

Soil-M191-8

4. Calculate the dry in-place dry density of the material removed from the test hole as follows:

DD = MDS/VH
where:
DD = in-place dry density of the material removed from the test hole,
MDS = dry mass of the material removed from the test hole, and
VH = volume of the test hole.
Calculate the in-place dry density to the nearest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3).
Note:
0.001 g/cm3 = 1 kg/m3
It may be desired to express the in-place density as a percentage of
some other density, for example, the laboratory maximum density
determined in accordance with T 99. This relationship can be determined
by dividing the in-place density by the maximum density and multiplying
by 100.

Example Calculations
Determine moisture content (w) and dry mass of the material (MDS) from the hole:
Moist mass of the moisture sample and container is 271.6 g, dry mass of the moisture sample
and container is 257.9 g, the container weight is 37.8 g and the moist mass of the sample from
the test hole is 3234.5 g.

w = (W1-W2)/(W2-Wc) x 100
where:
w
=
W1 =
W2 =
Wc =
w
w

moisture content, percent;

mass of container and moist soil, g;
mass of container and oven-dried soil, g; and
mass of container, g.

= (271.6-257.9)/(257.9-37.8) x 100
= 6.2 %

MDS = (MWS/(1 + (w/100))

where:
MDS = dry mass of the material removed from the test hole,
MWS = moist mass of the material removed from the test hole, and
w
= percentage of moisture, in material removed from the test hole.
MDS = (3234.5/(1 + (6.2/100))
MDS = 3045.7 g

Soil-M191-9

Calculate the volume of the test hole (VH):

2150.0 grams of sand were used to fill the hole, 240.0 grams of sand filled the funnel, bulk
density of the sand used is 1.57

VH = (m5 m6 Cc)/DB
where:
VH =
m5 =
m6 =
Cc =
DB =
2.

volume of the test hole,

initial mass of the apparatus and sand,
final mass of the apparatus and sand,
Cone Correction, and
bulk density of the sand.

Calculate the dry mass of the material removed from the test hole as follows:

MDS = (MWS/(1 + (w/100))

where:
MDS = dry mass of the material removed from the test hole,
MWS = moist mass of the material removed from the test hole, and
w
= percentage of moisture, in material removed from the test hole.
Calculate the dry mass of the material to the nearest 1 g (0.01 lb).
3.

Calculate the dry in-place dry density of the material removed from the test hole as
follows:

DD = MDS/VH
where:
DD = in-place dry density of the material removed from the test hole,
MDS = dry mass of the material removed from the test hole, and
VH = volume of the test hole.
Calculate the in-place dry density to the nearest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3).

Soil-M191-10

Glossary

Compaction - The field process of pressing the individual soil grain particles closer
together my means of mechanical devices
Compaction Effort - The force required to achieve the required compaction level
Density - The mass of the soil divided by the volume
Dry Density - The density of the soil corrected for moisture content. Also referred to
as in-place density
Maximum Density - The highest density obtained for a particular soil type using a particular
compaction effort. Corresponding peak on a moisture-density curve as
determined in the laboratory
Optimum Moisture - The moisture content at which maximum density can be obtained
Percent Density - The ratio expressed as a percentage of the dry density to the maximum
density

Soil-M191-11

MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONS
OF SOILS
FAMILY OF CURVES -- ONE POINT
METHOD
AASHTO T 272

Developed by
FHWA Multi-regional Soils Training & Certification Group

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluation are prerequisites for this
training package.
<

AASHTO T 190, Density of Soil In-Place by the Sand-Cone Method

or

<

AASHTO T 265, Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of

Soils

<

AASHTO T 99, The Moisture - Density Relations of Soils Using a

2.5 kg (5.5 lb) Rammer and a 305 mm (12 in.) Drop.

To use this procedure, the student must have a Family of Curves

produced in accordance with the Appendix procedure outlined
in AASHTO T 272 relevant to the soils to be encountered .

Soil-T272-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Family of Curves - One Point Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T272-1
Summary of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T272-2
Typical Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T272-2
Common Testing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T272-2
Test Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method A Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method B Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Method C Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soil-T272-3
Soil-T272-3
Soil-T272-4
Soil-T272-4
Soil-T272-4
Soil-T272-5
Soil-T272-5
Soil-T272-5
Soil-T272-6
Soil-T272-6
Soil-T272-6

Method D Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination . .

Soil-T272-7
Soil-T272-7
Soil-T272-7
Soil-T272-8
Soil-T272-8

Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T272-9
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-T272-10

Soil-T272-ii

FAMILY OF CURVES--ONE POINT METHOD

The Family of Curves is a conversion tool developed to provide maximum dry density and
optimum moisture for soils commonly used in highway construction. The curves show the
moisture/density relationships of various soils or soils containing aggregate so that if the wet
density and moisture content of a soil is known, its maximum dry density and optimum
moisture can be read from the curve for that soil.
Soils are composed of various combinations of sand, silt, and clay. Where a material fits on
the Family of Curves depends on the composition of the material. Sandy or silty soils fit on the
curves with higher maximum densities, clay soils fit those curves with lower maximum
densities. Since sands do not hold water, the maximum density of sandy soil will occur at a
lower percent moisture content than for soils which contain fines.

Soil-T272-1

SUMMARY OF TESTING
Because of the wide variation in the soils encountered on any geographical area, it is difficult
for the inspector who performs the in-place density tests to identify the soil at a specific site
and relate it to the proper laboratory maximum density test. A method has been developed to
enable the inspector to determine in the field the maximum density of soil encountered for
each in-place density test. It consists of compacting the soil in a standard AASHTO T 99
compaction mold, determining its wet density and moisture content, and using this data with a
Family of Curves to determine the maximum dry density. This procedure is commonly referred
to as the One-Point Method.

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

This test provides the same results as a AASHTO T 99 Moisture Density Relations of Soils
Using 2.5 kg Rammer and a 305 mm drop.

COMMON TESTING ERRORS

<

This method can be used for any soil that develops a classic parabolic Proctor Curve.
It is not applicable for free draining granular materials.

<

Failure to protect samples from changes in moisture content will affect the results of
this test.

<

Not placing the mold on a substantial base, 90 kg (200 lb) of concrete or equivalent,
while compacting the specimen will cause loss of compactive effort and adversely
affect the results.

<

Level all scales before weighing.

<

Protect scales from drafts that would affect the accuracy of weighing.

<

Use care in reading the graphs used in this method, it is very easy to misinterpret the
data. Read and record, then read again.

Soil-T272-2

TEST METHODOLOGY
Equipment
Before beginning any procedure, you must first assemble all the equipment you will need to
perform the test. For this procedure you will need the following.
<

A 101.6-mm (4 in.) mold, having a capacity of 0.000943 0.000008 m3 (0.0333 0.0003

ft.3) with an internal diameter of 101.60 0.41 mm (4.000 0.016 in.) And a height of
116.43 0.13 mm (4.584 0.005 in.).

<

A 152.4 mm (6 in.) mold, having a capacity of 0.002124 0.000021 m3 (0.07500 0.00075

ft.3) with an internal diameter of 152.40 0.66 mm (6.000 0.026 in. ) and a height of
116.43 0.13 mm (4.584 0.005 in.).

<

A metal rammer with a mass of 2.495 0.009 kg (5.5 0.02 lb), and having a flat circular
face of 50.8 mm (2.000 in.) diameter with a manufacturing tolerance of 0.25 mm (0.01
in.) and a controlled height of fall of 305 mm 2 mm (12.00 0.06 in.). The rammer shall
be equipped with a guide-sleeve to control the height of the drop. The guide-sleeve shall
have a least 4 vent holes, no smaller than 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) diameter spaced approximately
90 degrees (1.57 rad) apart and approximately 19 mm (3/4 in.) from each end; and shall
provide sufficient clearance so the free fall of the rammer shaft and head is unrestricted.

<

One straightedge 250 mm (10 in.) long with a beveled edge and at least one longitudinal
surface.

<

Sieves, 50 mm (2 in.), 19.0 mm (3/4 in.), and 4.75 mm (No. 4).

<

Balances or Scales conforming to AASHTO M231

<

A set of Typical Moisture-Density Curves

<

Supply of clean water.

<

Miscellaneous tools such as mixing pans, trowel, putty knife and a plastic or glass bottle
with a sprinkling cap.

<

Sample extruder consisting of a hydraulic jack and frame to remove compacted samples
from the mold. Optional item.

<

A thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining a temperature of 110

5oC (230 9oF) for drying moisture samples.

Soil-T272-3

Method A Procedure
SAMPLE
Remove approximately 3.2 kg of representative soil from the test site for use in this procedure,
after performing the in-place density test. If the Sandcone Method was used, be careful not to
contaminate the sample with silica sand. Remove oversize material from this sample using the
4.75 mm sieve, by passing the entire sample over the sieve and separating the material into
that which is retained on the sieve and that which passes the sieve. Test the material, which
passed the sieve and discard the retained material. Record on the test data sheet Test
performed on material passing 4.75 mm sieve.

PROCEDURE
Thoroughly mix the selected sample with sufficient water to dampen approximately 4
percentage points below optimum moisture content. Greater accuracy in the determination of
the maximum density will result as the moisture content approaches optimum moisture content.
Moisture content of the sample should never exceed the optimum water content.
Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 101.6 mm mold (with the collar
attached) in three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125
mm. Compact each layer by 25 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer dropping free
from a height of 305 mm inches above the soil surface when a sleeve-type rammer is used.
During compaction, the mold shall rest firmly on a dense, uniform, rigid and stable foundation.
(A block of concrete, with a mass of not less than 90 kg supported by a relatively stable
foundation; a sound concrete floor: and for field application, such surfaces as found in
concrete box culverts, bridges, and pavements will meet this last requirement.)
Following compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted soil even with
the top of the mold by means of the straightedge. Determine the mass of the mold and wet soil
by weighing them in kilograms to the nearest 5 grams.
Subtract the mass of the mold from the mass of the soil and mold combined. Multiply the mass
of wet soil and record the result as wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter, of
compacted soil.
Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the center. Take a
representative sample from one of the cut faces, weighing not less than 100 grams and
determine the moisture content. For tests run in conjunction with a nuclear density gage, the
moisture content from that test may be used for this purpose , if allowed by local specification.

Soil-T272-4

Method B Procedure
SAMPLE
Select a representative sample in accordance with Section 1.1, except that it shall have a
mass of approximately 7 kg.

PROCEDURE
Follow the procedure as described for Method A in Section 2, except for the following: Form a
specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 152.4 mm mold (with the collar attached) in
three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125 mm. Compact
each layer by 56 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer dropping free from a height of
305 mm above the soil surface when a sleeve-type rammer is used. During compaction, the
mold shall rest firmly on a dense uniform, rigid and stable foundation. (A block of concrete,
with a mass of not less than 90 kg supported by a relatively stable foundation; a sound
concrete floor: and for field application, such surfaces as found in concrete box culverts,
bridges, and pavements will meet this last requirement.)
Following compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted soil even with
the top of the mold by means of the straightedge. Determine the mass of the mold and wet soil
by weighing them in kilograms to the nearest 5 grams and record the mass.
Subtract the mass of the mold from the mass of the soil and mold combined. Multiply the mass
of wet soil by and record the result as wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter, of
compacted soil.
Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the center. Take a
representative sample from one of the cut faces, weighing not less than 100 grams and
determine the moisture content. For tests run in conjunction with a nuclear density gage, the
moisture content from that test may be used for this purpose , if allowed by local specification.

Soil-T272-5

Method C Procedure
This method can be used for any soil that develops a classic parabolic Proctor Curve.
It is not applicable to free draining granular materials.

SAMPLE
Remove approximately 5 kg of representative soil from the test site for use in this procedure,
after performing the in-place density test. If the Sand cone Method was used, be careful not to
contaminate the sample with silica sand. Remove oversize material from this sample using the
19.0 mm sieve, by passing the entire sample over the sieve and separating the material into
that which is retained on the sieve and that which passes the sieve. Test the material, which
passed the sieve and discard the retained material. Record on the test data sheet Test
performed on material passing 19.0 mm sieve.

PROCEDURE
Thoroughly mix the selected sample with sufficient water to dampen approximately 4
percentage points below optimum moisture content. Greater accuracy in the determination of
the maximum density will result as the moisture content approaches optimum moisture
content. Moisture content of the sample should never exceed the optimum water content.
Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 101.6 mm mold (with the collar
attached) in three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125
mm. Compact each layer by 25 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer dropping free
from a height of 305 mm above the soil surface when a sleeve-type rammer is used. During
compaction, the mold shall rest firmly on a dense uniform, rigid and stable foundation. (A block
of concrete, with a mass of not less than 90 kg supported by a relatively stable foundation; a
sound concrete floor: and for field application, such surfaces as found in concrete box
culverts, bridges, and pavements will meet this last requirement.)
Following compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted soil even with
the top of the mold by means of the straightedge. Determine the mass of the mold and wet soil
by weighing them in kilograms to the nearest 5 grams and record the mass.
Subtract the mass of the mold from the mass of the soil and mold combined. Multiply the mass
of wet soil by 1060 and record the result as wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter, of
compacted soil.
Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the center. Take a
representative sample from one of the cut faces, weighing not less than 100 grams and
determine the moisture content. For tests run in conjunction with a nuclear density gage, the
moisture content from that test may be used for this purpose, if allowed by local specification.

Soil-T272-6

Method D Procedure
This method can be used for any soil that develops a classic parabolic Proctor Curve.
It is not applicable to free draining granular materials.

SAMPLE
Select a representative sample in accordance with Section 5.1, except that it shall have a
mass of approximately 11 kg.

PROCEDURE
Follow the procedure as described for Method C in Section 7, except for the following: Form a
specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the 152.4 mm mold (with the collar attached) in
three approximately equal layers to give a total compacted depth of about 125 mm. Compact
each layer by 56 uniformly distributed blows from the rammer dropping free from a height of
305 mm above the soil surface when a sleeve-type rammer is used. During compaction, the
mold shall rest firmly on a dense uniform, rigid and stable foundation. (A block of concrete,
with a mass of not less than 90 kg supported by a relatively stable foundation; a sound
concrete floor: and for field application, such surfaces as found in concrete box culverts,
bridges, and pavements will meet this last requirement.)
Following compaction, remove the extension collar, carefully trim the compacted soil even with
the top of the mold by means of the straightedge. Determine the mass of the mold and wet soil
by weighing them in kilograms to the nearest 5 grams and record the mass.
Subtract the mass of the mold from the mass of the soil and mold combined. Multiply the mass
of wet soil and record the result as wet density, W1, in kilograms per cubic meter, of
compacted soil.
Remove the material from the mold and slice vertically through the center. Take a
representative sample from one of the cut faces, weighing not less than 100 grams and
determine the moisture content. For tests run in conjunction with a nuclear density gage, the
moisture content from that test may be used for this purpose , if allowed by local specification.

Soil-T272-7

Calculations
See T 99, Section 11.

Maximum Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination

To undertake the use of this procedure, the user must have a Family of Curves produced
in accordance with the Appendix procedure outlined in AASHTO T 272 relevant to the
soils anticipated to be encountered in the geographical area.
With the dry mass and moisture content calculated in Section 5.1, plot those values on the
Family of Curves. (see Figure 1 )
If the one-point falls on one of the curves in the Family of Curves, the maximum dry mass and
optimum moisture content defined by that curve shall be used.

NOTE
In order to ensure that you have correctly identified the curve that matches the soil, the
point must fall near the curve peak (no more than 4% below optimum moisture content).
Note, that while AASHTO allows the point to fall at a 4% deviation from the optimum
moisture content, many agencies have tighter restrictions. If the point falls on the dry side
below the acceptable range, the moisture content of the soil is not high enough. Repeat
the test with a fresh sample of the same material at a higher moisture content. Estimate
the amount of moisture needed to bring the soil to the peak of the curve. With experience,
you will be able to do this easily. Be careful. You do not want to add so much water that
you will have to dry the material and repeat the test. Rarely, the point may fall on the wet
side of the curves peak. If this happens, dry the material and repeat the test. Add
moisture using trial and error.

If the one-point falls within the family but not on a curve, a new curve shall be drawn through
the plotted one-point parallel and in the same general shape with the nearest curve on the
family of curves. the maximum dry mass and optimum moisture content as defined by that new
curve shall be used.
If the one-point plotted within or on the family of curves does not fall in the range of 80 to 100
percent of optimum moisture content, compact another specimen, using the same material, at
an adjusted moisture content that will place the one-point within that range.

Soil-T272-8

Report
The method used (Method A, B, C, and D).
The optimum moisture content as a percentage to the nearest whole number.
The maximum mass to the nearest 0.5 kg/m3
In Methods C & D indicate if the material retained on the 19.0 mm sieve was removed or
replaced.

Soil-T272-9

GLOSSARY
Compaction

- The reduction of voids in a soil mass. The densification of the soil

mass by applying a force such as the delivered by the rammer.

Compaction Effort

- The force applied to achieve compaction of a soil mass. In the

laboratory, the rammer used in this test procedure produces the
compaction effort. Compaction effort is increased by increasing the
mass, increasing the distance the mass is dropped, increasing the
number of drops or reducing the thickness of the layer being
compacted.

Density

- The mass of the soil divided by the volume.

Dry Density

- The density of the soil corrected for moisture content.

Homogenous

- Of uniform structure and composition throughout.

Maximum Density

- The dry density corresponding to the peak of the moisture-density

curve. The highest density that can be achieved for a particular soil
using a particular compaction effort. Also referred to as maximum dry
density.

Maximum dry
Density

- See maximum density

Moisture Content

- The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of the water in a

given soil mass to the mass of the solid particles. The mass of the soil
remaining after oven-drying is used as the mass of the solid particles.

Moisture-Density
Curve

- A smooth line connecting the points obtained from this test procedure
when plotted on a graph with moisture on the x-axis and density on the
y-axis.

Optimum Moisture
Content

- The moisture content corresponding to the peak of the moisture-density

curve. The moisture content at which the maximum density can be
achieved.

Percent
Compaction

- The ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the density of a soil to its

maximum density.

Soil-T272-10

IN-PLACE DENSITY AND

MOISTURE CONTENT OF
SOIL AND SOIL-AGGREGATE
BY
NUCLEAR METHODS
(SHALLOW DEPTH)
AASHTO T 310

Developed
by
Multi-Regional Soils & Certification Group
Revised 2006

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluations are prerequisites for this
training package.

AASHTO T 99, Laboratory Determination of Moisture-Density

Relations of Soils
AASHTO T 191, Density of Soil In-Place by Sand-Cone Method

TABLE OF CONTENTS
In-Place Density and Moisture Content of Soil and Soil-Aggregate by Nuclear Methods
(Shallow Depth)...................................................................................................Soil-T310-1
Nuclear Device................................................................................................................Soil-T310-1
Summary of Testing ........................................................................................................Soil-T310-2
Moisture...............................................................................................................Soil-T310-2
Density Testing ...................................................................................................Soil-T310-2
Air Gap ....................................................................................................Soil-T310-2
Direct Transmission ................................................................................Soil-T310-2
Backscatter .........................................................................................................Soil-T310-3
Common Testing Errors......................................................................................Soil-T310-3
Safety ..............................................................................................................................Soil-T310-4
PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION SAFETY.............................................................Soil-T310-4
DISTANCE ..........................................................................................................Soil-T310-4
TIME....................................................................................................................Soil-T310-5
SHIELDING.........................................................................................................Soil-T310-5
Security ...............................................................................................................Soil-T310-5
CLEANING..........................................................................................................Soil-T310-6
MAINTENANCE ..................................................................................................Soil-T310-7
Methodology....................................................................................................................Soil-T310-9
Equipment ...........................................................................................................Soil-T310-9
Calibration of Gauge .........................................................................................Soil-T310-10
Standardization of Gauge .................................................................................Soil-T310-10
Procedure..........................................................................................................Soil-T310-12
Backscatter Method ................................................................................Soil-T310-13
Direct Transmission Method ...................................................................Soil-T310-13
Moisture Content Procedure .............................................................................Soil-T310-14
Calculation of Results .......................................................................................Soil-T310-15
Glossary ........................................................................................................................Soil-T310-16

August, 2006

Soil-T310-ii

In-Place Density and Moisture Content of Soil and

Soil-Aggregate In-Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow
Depth)
Density is a function of mass (weight) divided by volume. The more closely pressed together the
individual particles of a quantity of material are, the more dense it is. The farther apart they are,
separated by air spaces (voids), the less dense the material is. When the individual particles of
the same mass (weight) of material are pressed tightly together (compacted), the mass (weight)
takes up less volume than when the particles are farther apart.
In order to ensure that the embankment, base course, or other earthwork structure will be strong
enough to support its intended design load, it must be compacted, made dense. Most
specifications will require that the field earthwork be compacted to a specified percent of a target
density called maximum density. The nuclear device is one device that is used to determine if
the earthwork in the field has met this requirement (in-place density).
To determine the dry density of a soil in-place it is necessary to also determine the moisture
content of the soil.

Nuclear Device
The nuclear device is a portable source containing a radioactive source, electronics and
rechargeable battery packs. The device uses radiation (a gamma source and a gamma
detector) to obtain several different readings. These readings are then calculated to acquire a
number for in-place or dry density for soils and soil-aggregate mixtures. Density readings for
depths between 50mm and 300mm (2 in. and 12 in.) (depending upon the method used) can be
determined.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-1

Summary of Testing
Since a density reading and a moisture reading are required to determine dry density, both
values have to be determined. A separate radioactive source is necessary for each technique.
The nuclear device may have a radioactive source at the tip of its probe or source rod and
another source located in the body of the device. Some devices may have both sources located
in the probe. At the back of the device, at opposite ends from the probe are detector tubes
(Geiger-Muller tubes). Once the test is underway, these detector tubes pick up or count the
gamma rays that travel through the material to them and relay this count to the master controls
inside the body of the device . A certain percentage of gamma rays emitted by the source is
absorbed by the soil, a certain percentage is scattered in the material and a certain percentage
will pass through the material. The detector counts the rays that pass through the material and
this count is relayed to the master control, called a scaler, by means of electrical impulses. The
number of rays counted depends on the density of the material. The higher the density of the
material the lower the gamma ray count.

Moisture
The nuclear gauge uses a fast neutron source and a thermal neutron detector which determines
the intensity of slow or moderated neutrons. Moisture is determined by the relationship of
nuclear count to mass of water per unit volume of soil. The moisture content is used in
conjunction with the density measurement to determine dry density.

Density Testing
Three methods for determining density are covered by AASHTO T238: Method A, or Backscatter
mode, Method B, Direct Transmission, and Method C, Air Gap. Each method uses a different
test geometry (the geometric space of the test area changes) and should be used where
appropriate. Generally, backscatter is used when the properties of the first few inches are
concerned (such as density of hot mix asphalt), and direct transmission is used when the
properties of 50mm - 30mm (2 in.-12 in.) are concerned (such as 150mm (6 in.) lifts of
compacted backfill).

Air Gap
The air gap method which some older gauge models utilized has now been antiquated by
technology.

Direct Transmission
To determine in-place density with a nuclear device, you will first prepare a smooth area on
which to place the device. You will then place the nuclear device on the prepared surface and
check to be sure that it is solidly seated with maximum contact between the device and the
surface of the material being tested. Then place the device to the side and drill a small hole
through the layer or lift being tested. Replace the device in the prepared area, in the same
orientation as before, with the probe directly over the hole. Insert the probe into the hole and
operated the device in accordance with the manufacturers instructions.
August, 2006

Soil-T310-2

Backscatter
To determine in-place density in the backscatter mode, perform the test in the same manner as
described under Direct Transmission, with the exception of drilling the hole and lowering the
probe. Operate the device in backscatter mode in accordance with the manufacturers
instructions.
Special considerations when reporting density measurements as determined by the nuclear
gauge: It should be noted that the volume of soil or soil-aggregate represented in the
measurements is indeterminate and will vary with the source - detector geometry of the
equipment used and with the characteristics of the material tested. In general, and with all other
conditions constant, the more dense the material, the smaller the volume involved in the
measurement. The density so determined is not necessarily the average density within the
volume involved in the measurement. For the usual density conditions, the total count is largely
determined by the upper 75 mm to 100 mm (3 to 4 inches) of soils and soil aggregates.

Common Testing Errors

Test results may be affected by:
Soil chemical composition
Soil not homogenous
Equipment not calibrated properly
Surface texture
Testing to close to a vertical wall or other mass (e.g., cars, construction equipment,
body of water, large pipe)
Groups of observers gathered too close to device during operation
Presence of asphaltic materials, recycled Pcc, cement, lime, flyash, etc. in soil
materials

August, 2006

Soil-T310-3

Safety
The device used for density testing is like any other tool you use on the job. It is there to make
your job of taking accurate density readings easier and more efficient. It can be dangerous if
used improperly. However, this device is different in that the danger it poses is invisible.
Radiation poisoning is very serious. This is why taking proper safety precautions is so vital when
dealing with this machine at any level. The following safety rules are simple to follow and will
cause you very little inconvenience. If you follow them correctly, the nuclear device will be one
of the safest tools you use.
There are two important facts to remember when working with nuclear devices. One, the device
is radioactive and, two, the device is very expensive. It must always be handled carefully and
treated with the utmost respect. It is important to take care of the nuclear device, but it is also
important to take care of yourself while you are using it. This section will give guidelines on how
to handle the devices with a minimum amount of radiation exposure.
You should not be afraid of radiation, but should have a healthy respect for it. By realizing the
dangers involved, you will know the importance of following safety regulations carefully.

PRINCIPLES OF RADIATION SAFETY

There are several principles of radiation safety with which you should be familiar before you
handle the nuclear device. These principles are known as the ALARA concept: keep radiation
exposure As Low As Reasonably Achievable. The first principle is distance. The further
someone is from the device the less the radiation exposure. The amount of radiation a person
will receive when around a radioactive source is influenced by three factors: the intensity of the
source, the person's distance from the source and the length of time the person is exposed to it.
The intensity of radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.
This is called the Inverse Square Law. This means, for example, that a certain radiation
intensity at 3 m (10 ft) from a source will have 1/4 the intensity that it has 1.5 m (5 ft) from the
source. Remember, the device is always radioactive. The on/off switch does not turn off the
radiation.
The second principle is time. You must keep your exposure to a minimum. The third principle is
shielding. Shielding is a very important part of radiation safety. Even though shielding is built
into our equipment, any objects between you and the source help to cut down on the amount of
radiation received. We will discuss each of these principles in more detail.

DISTANCE
Distance from the radiation source is the most effective way to keep exposure to a minimum
because alpha and beta particles travel only short distances through matter, and gamma rays
become less intense as the distance is increased. Doubling the distance from a radioactive
source reduces the exposure to one-fourth the original value.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-4

For this reason, place the device in the back of the vehicle when transporting it. Also, it is a
good precaution to store the device at least 7.5 meters (25 ft) away from working areas
whenever possible. The device must be properly marked with the radioactive symbol and kept
locked when not in use. This means that the device itself must be locked and kept inside the
storage case. The room in which the device is stored must also be kept locked. A closet,
storage room or a cabinet may be used as the storage area if it meets the criteria described.
Ideally, the storage area should have only one door and no windows. The door must have a
lock. If storage cabinets are selected as the storage site, the cabinet must be securely and
permanently attached to the structure of the facility. Store the nuclear device in its appropriate
case.
Designate the area selected as the authorized storage location by installing a permanent sign in
clear view, preferably on the access door. The sign is yellow in color, and bears the official
symbol and the words "CAUTION - RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS." If a radioactive source is lost
or stolen, immediately notify your gang supervisor. There must also be a Notice To Employees
sign posted where the device is stored.

TIME
Time of exposure must be monitored carefully so anyone working with the device is checked for
exposure to radiation. Each operator or handler of radioactive devices should wear a TLD
(Thermoluminescent Dosimetry) badge or similar device, on his or her outer clothing when using
or transporting these devices. The amount of radiation to which the wearer has been exposed is
indicated by these badges. The badge is checked regularly for radiation exposure. It is
replaced by a new badge. The badges are never reused.
Badges are not interchangeable between operators. The badge you are issued is numbered for
identification; you must always wear your own badge. Be careful with your badge because it is
the means by which your exposure to radiation is measured. Your badge should not be exposed
to radiation when you are not wearing it. This means that you should not store your badge in or
near the nuclear equipment box. Also, you should not keep your badge on the dashboard of
your vehicle. The sun can melt the holder, and ruin the badge. If your badge measures
exposure, you want to be sure it came from the device, and not some other source. Wear your
badge on the upper torso, somewhere between the beltline and the top of the head. Ideally,
your badge should be worn in the chest area.

SHIELDING
Proper shielding also reduces exposure. The source encapsulation and shielding stop any
alpha and beta particles that are produced by the source because the source is well protected.
The radioactive sources in most devices are classified as special form, encapsulated sealed
sources. With normal device use, no extra shielding methods are required or necessary.
However, anything placed between you and a radiation source is a deterrent to radiation
penetration. Never attempt to remove the source. As long as the source is intact, it is safe.
You will be required to transport your nuclear device to various sites where testing is needed.
The device is to be transported to the testing site in a truck, carry-all or station wagon. The
device is to be kept securely in its case whenever it is not in use.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-5

It must not be jarred. The mechanical and electronic parts of the device are very durable, but the
radiation detectors contain fine wires with glass and ceramic seals that can be damaged by
severe jarring. Damage to these parts can cause the device to malfunction. During transport, it
must be padded and supported to prevent damage. If transported in a truck, the carrying case
shall be secured by lock and chain to the truck. Therefore, be careful to never drop the device,
leave it in the way of construction equipment, or transport it unsecured.
The most important thing to remember is use common sense. Follow these guidelines for safe
operation of the nuclear device:
Do not attempt to use the equipment unless you have been authorized to do so and have
been properly trained.
Keep the source in a safe or stored position when not in use.
Always wear your safety badge when using the nuclear device.
Never exchange your badge or loan it to another operator.
All unauthorized personnel should be kept out of the operating area.
Keep the nuclear device locked when not in use.
Never leave the nuclear device unattended, except when properly stored.
Return the nuclear device to its proper storage location when not in use.

Security
Security must always be maintained at 3 levels:
Lock on device
Device in locked case
Device in locked case in locked storage area or locked transport vehicle.

CLEANING
The nuclear device must be kept as clean as possible at all times. Dirt and dust from the field
can build up and cause delicate mechanisms within the machine to malfunction. The device
must be cleaned before and after use. When cleaning, put the source rod in the safe storage
position. This safe position is obtained by making sure that the index rod is pulled up to the top
position and that the trigger button is released. To clean the outside of the device, use mild
soap and water on a damp cloth. Before use, wipe the bottom of the device with a long handled
brush to remove any dust and moisture. Turn the bottom away from you when doing this. Do
the same when you are finished taking your reading. Make sure to clean off the device before it
is stored in its case.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-6

More extensive cleaning may be required if you encounter any of the following problems:
Difficulty in lowering/raising the source rod. This may indicate a need to replace the scraper
ring. The device is designed with a scraper ring on the bottom plate to keep the area of the
source rod free of material that could cause damage to the vertical bearings inside the cavity
above the bottom plate. Regular cleaning of this cavity will assure a long trouble-free
working life. Cleaning frequency can vary from everyday - when testing wet soils, sands,
etc., to a maximum of 2 weeks for normal conditions. Replacement of the scraper ring is
recommended as needed. If the source rod is cleaned with a long handle brush when
working with materials that stick to the rod, the cavity will only need cleaning once or twice a
year.
When the source rod is raised to the safe position, no click is heard from the tungsten
shield striking the back of the shield cavity.

Erratic density or moisture standard counts.

Occasionally, bottom shield removal is required to clean the cavity beneath the source. Cleaning
that requires removal of the shield should be done by authorized personnel only, wearing a
badge, and following all safety precautions. If the source rod cannot be retracted into the safe
position, isolate the device and call your supervisor immediately. Clean and lubricate in
accordance with manufactures instructions.
If the device has been out in extremely wet or humid weather, or if you have been in a cold
environment and store the device in a heated space, condensation may form on the inside of the
device. Normally, this is not a problem as condensation from the latter condition is so minimal
that it dissipates overnight, reducing moisture accumulation in the interior. A hair dryer may also
be used to dry out the inside of a wet device. If the gaskets are not tight, wet and very humid
conditions are another problem because humidity inside may cause erratic or fluctuating
moisture readings as well as possible damage to electronic equipment.

MAINTENANCE
Authorized personnel will perform all maintenance, except when removal of the source from the
device is required. For this type of maintenance, the device must be returned to the
manufacturer. There are two tests performed on the device every six months, the leak test and
inspection of the equipment. The leak test ensures that the source materials remain sealed so
that the equipment and the areas around the source are not contaminated. The inspection test
includes inspecting all radioactive labels for readability, operation of the shutter, presence of two
locks on the equipment and the physical condition of the equipment.
Both tests must be done on or before the due date of the leak test. In the event the device
cannot be leak tested on or before the due date, the device must be taken out of use on this
date and stored in a protected and secure location until the test can be performed. Follow the
standard regulations and procedures for you organization. If the device or any part of it is lost or
stolen, follow the regulations and procedures of your organization.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-7

These methods utilize radioactive materials which may be hazardous to the health of users
unless proper precautions are taken.1 The Federal Government strongly recommends that
users of this equipment become completely familiar with possible safety hazards and that they
establish effective operator instruction and use procedures together with routine safety
procedures such as routine source-leak tests, the routine recording and evaluation of film badge
data, the use of survey meters, etc. In connection with the operation of equipment of this type.2

August, 2006

Soil-T310-8

Methodology
Equipment
A Nuclear Gauge (Figure 2).

Reference standard A block of material used for checking gauge operation, correction of
source decay, and to establish conditions for a reproducible reference count rate.
Site preparation device - A plate, straightedge or other suitable leveling tool which may be
used for planing the test site to the required smoothness, and in the Direct Transmission
Method, guiding the drive pin to prepare a perpendicular hole.
Drive Pin A pin not to exceed the diameter of the rod in the Direct Transmission gauge by
more than 6mm (1/4 in.), or as recommended by the gauge manufacturer, used to prepare a
hole in the material under test for inserting the rod.
A slide hammer, with drive pin attached, may also be used both to prepare a hole in the
material to be tested and to extract the pin without distortion to the hole.
Drive Pin Extractor A tool that may be used to remove the drive pin in a vertical direction so
that the pin will not distort the hole in the extraction process
Operators manual

Calibration of Gauge
Newly acquired gauges are calibrated initially by the manufacturer. Existing gauges must be
calibrated after repairs that may affect the gauge geometry. Existing gauges are calibrated to reestablish calibration curves, tables, or equivalent coefficients if the gauge does not meet
specified tolerances in the verification process. If the owner does not establish a verification
procedure, the gauge shall be calibrated at least once every 24 months.

Existing gauges must be verified at a minimum frequency of 12 months. The verification

August, 2006

Soil-T310-9

process and resultant tolerances obtained over the depths that the gauge will be operated must
be formally recorded and documented. If the verification process indicates a variance beyond
the specified tolerances, the gauge must be calibrated.
Calibration or verification of the gauge is conducted on blocks of material with known density
and moisture content. Calibration or verification procedures are typically conducted by the
manufacturer or an independent vendor, but may be conducted by your agency. It is usually not
the responsibility of the inspector.

Standardization of Gauge.
All nuclear density/moisture gauges are subject to long-term aging of the radioactive sources,
detectors, and electronic systems, which may change the relationship between count rates and
the material density and water content. To offset this aging, gauges are calibrated as a ratio of
the measurement count rate to a count rate made on a reference standard or to an air-gap count
(for the backscatter/air-gap ratio method).
Standardization of the gauge on the reference standard is required at the start of each days use
and a permanent record of these data shall be retained. The standardization shall be performed
with the gauge at least 10m (30 ft.) away from other nuclear density/moisture gauges and clear
of large masses of water or other items which may affect the reference count rates. Standard
counts should be taken in the same environment as the actual measurement counts.
The following procedure should be used to take the daily standard count:
1. Turn on the gauge and allow for stabilization according to the manufacturers
recommendations. If the gauge is to be used either continuously or intermittently during the
day, it is best to leave it in the power on condition to prevent having to repeat the
stabilization (refer to manufacturer recommendations). This will provide more stable,
consistent results.
2. Using the reference standard, take at least four repetitive readings at the normal
measurement period and calculate the average count. If available on the gauge, one
measurement of four or more times the normal period is acceptable. This constitutes one
standardization check.
3. Use the procedure recommended by the gauge manufacturer for determining compliance
with the gauge calibration curves. Without specific recommendations, use the procedure
provided below.

N S = N 0 1.96 (N 0/F)
where:
NS = value of current standardization count,
N0 = average of the past four values of NS taken for prior usage, and
F = factory pre-scale factor (contact gauge manufacturer for the factor).

August, 2006

Soil-T310-10

4. If the mean of the four repetitive reading is outside the limits set by the equation below,
repeat the standardization check. If the second standardization check satisfies the equation,
the gauge is considered in satisfactory operating condition. If the second check does not
satisfy the equation, the gauge needs to be verified as outlined in Gauge Calibration. If the
verification shows that there is no significant change in the calibration curve, a new reference
standard count, NO, should be established. If the verification check shows that there is a
significant difference in the calibration curve, the gauge will needed to be repaired and
recalibrated.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-11

Procedure
1. Select a location where the gauge will be at least 150mm (6 in.) away from any vertical
projection. If closer than 600mm (24 in.) to a vertical mass, such as in a trench, follow gauge
manufacturer correction procedures.

Note about Trench Correction

When within 600mm (24 in.) of a wall in a trench the gauge might read the hydrogen
contained in the wall as well as the material under test. In such a situation use the
trench correction program contained within the gauge or other manufacturer
correction procedure. The procedure will likely instruct you to place the standard
block in the trench and then take a second reference count which will be compared to
the standard, at which point adjustments (if necessary) will be made.

2. Remove all loose and disturbed material and additional material as necessary to expose the
top of the material to be tested.

Note
The volume of material that you wish to be tested with the gauge should be
considered when determining the depth at which the gauge is to be seated.

3. Prepare a horizontal area sufficient in size to accommodate the gauge, by planning the area
to a smooth condition so as to obtain maximum contact between the gauge and material
being tested.
4. The maximum void space beneath the gauge shall not be more than 3mm (1/8 in.). Use
native fines or fine sand to fill these voids and smooth the surface with a rigid plate or other
suitable tool. The depth of the filler should not exceed approximately 3mm (1/8 in.).

Note
The placement of the gauge on the surface of the material to be tested is critical to
the successful determination of density. The optimum condition is total contact
between the bottom surface of the gauge and the surface of the material being
tested. When optimal conditions are not present, correct surface irregularities by the
use of sand or similar filler material. The total area filled should not exceed 10
percent of the bottom area of the gauge. Several trial seatings may be required to
achieve these conditions.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-12

5. Turn on and allow the gauge to stabilize (warm up) according to the manufacturers
recommendations.
6. Continue by using either the steps listed under the Backscatter or Backscatter/Air-Gap Ratio
Method, or the Direct Transmission Method depending on the method selected for your
test.

Backscatter or Backscatter/Air-Gap Ratio Method

7. Seat the gauge firmly.
8. Keep all other radioactive sources at least 10m (30 ft.) away from the gauge to avoid
affecting the measurement.
9. Set the gauge in the Backscatter (BS) position.

Note
As a safety precaution, do not extend a rod containing radioactive sources out of its shielded
position prior to placing on the test site. Always align the gauge so as to allow placing the rod
directly into the test position from the shielded position.

10. Secure and record one or more one-minute readings. When using the backscatter/air-gap
ratio method, follow the manufacturers instructions regarding gauge set up. Take the same
number of readings for the normal measurement period in the air-gap position as in the
standard backscatter position. Determine the air-gap ratio by dividing the counts per minute
obtained in the air-gap position by the counts per minute obtained in the standard position.
Many gauges have built-in provisions for automatically calculating the air-gap ratio and wet
density.
11. Determine the in-place wet density by use of the calibration curve previously established or
read the gauge directly if so equipped.

Direct Transmission Method

7. Select a test location where the gauge in test position will be at least 150mm (6 in.) away
from any vertical projection.
8. Make a hole perpendicular to the prepared surface using the guide and the hole-forming
device. The hole shall be a minimum of 50mm (2 in.) deeper than the desired measurement
depth and of an alignment that insertion of the probe will not cause the gauge to tilt from the
plane of the prepared surface.
9. Mark the test area to allow the placement of the gauge over the test site and to allow the
alignment of the source rod to the hole. Follow manufacturer recommendations if applicable.
10. Remove the hole forming device carefully to prevent the distortion of the hole, damage to the
surface, or loose material to fall into the hole.
August, 2006

Soil-T310-13

11. Place the gauge on the material to be tested, making sure of maximum surface contact as
described in Step 4.
12. Lower the source rod into the hole to the desired test depth. Pull gently on the gauge in the
direction that will bring the side of the probe to face the center of the gauge so that the probe
is in intimate contact with the side of the hole in the gamma measurement path.

Note
As a safety precaution, do not extend a rod containing radioactive sources out of its shielded
position prior to placing on the test site. Always align the gauge so as to allow placing the rod
directly into the test hole from the shielded position.
13. Keep all other radioactive sources at least 10m (30 ft.) away from the gauge to avoid
affecting the measurement.
14. If the gauge is so equipped, set the depth selector to the same depth as the probe before
recording the automated (gauge computed densities, moisture contents, and weights)
values.
15. Secure and record one or more one-minute readings. The gauge may be rotated about the
axis of the probe to obtain additional readings.
16. Determine the in-place wet density by use of the calibration curve previously established or
read the gauge directly if so equipped.

Moisture Content Procedure

Unless your gauge simultaneously tests for wet density and moisture content, once the wet
density has been determined and before moving the gauge, set the controls to the MOISTURE
MODE and take a series of one or more one-minute readings. The unit will now display the unit
weight of water measured. Pressing a control button on most gauges will result in the dry
density being displayed automatically. See the manufacturers instructions to operate your
individual unit.

NOTE:
The nuclear device reads hydrogen ions as water. It also can be affected by
minerals or chemicals that are neutron absorbers (e.g., boron, cadmium). Because
of this, the mineral composition of a soil may cause the moisture content determined
by a nuclear device to be inaccurate. Since density and moisture content bear a
direct relationship to each other an inaccurate moisture content will yield an
inaccurate density reading. To guard against this type of error, you should always
clear the moisture content from the nuclear device for a given soil or soil-aggregate
with AASHTO T 265 before relying on the nuclear moisture.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-14

Calculation of Results
If dry density is required, the in-place water content may be determined by using the nuclear
methods described above, by obtaining samples and testing in the laboratory, or by other
approved methods.
If the water content is determined by nuclear methods, use the gauge readings directly, or,
subtract the kg/m3 (lbm/ft3) of moisture from the kg/m3 (lbm/ft3) of wet density, and obtain dry
density in kg/m3 (lbm/ft3).
If the water content is determined by other methods, and is in the form of percent, calculate the
dry density using the following equation:
d = 100/(100+w) x m
d = Dry density in kg/m3 (lbm/ft3),
m = wet density in kg/m3 (lbm/ft3), and
w = water as a percent of dry mass
Percent Compaction
It may be desired to express the in-place density as a percentage of some other density, for
example, the laboratory densities determined in accordance with AASHTO Test Methods T 99
and T 180. This relation can be determined by dividing the in-place density by the laboratory
density and multiplying by 100. Calculations for determining relative density are provided in
ASTM D 4253 or D 4254. Corrections fro oversize material, if required , should be performed in
accordance with AASHTO T 224 or ASTM D 4718.
If representative samples of material are to be taken for purposes or correlation with other test
methods or rock correction, the volume measured can be approximated by a 200mm (8 in.)
diameter cylinder located directly under the center line of the radioactive source and detector(s).
The height of the cylinder to be excavated will be the depth setting of the source rod when using
the Direct Transmission method or approximately 75mm (3 in.) when using the Backscatter
method.
An alternate to the correction for oversize particles that can be used with mass density methods
or minimal oversize situations, involves multiple tests. Three tests may be take at adjacent
location and results averaged to get a representative value.
Comparisons need to be made to evaluate whether the presence of a single large rock or void in
the soil is producing unrepresentative values of density. Whenever values obtained are
questionable, the test volume site should be excavated and visually examined to determine
whether or not the material tested was representative of the laboratory density sample.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-15

Glossary
Background Count

- The naturally occurring radiation from lights, the sun and many other
sources.

Heterogeneity

- Differing in structure, quality, etc.; dissimilar.

Fast Neutron Detector

- An electronic device that counts Neutrons as they pass through a

special gas.

Fast Neutron Source

- Each atom has a nucleus comprised of varying numbers of Protons

and Neutrons. When a high-energy electron strikes a nuclei, one or
more Protons or Neutrons are released. These neutrons are used to
measure moisture content by a nuclear gauge.

Gamma Detector

- An electronic device that converts electronic pulses caused by high

energy electrons, passing through a special gas enclosed in a tube,
into a numerical count.

Gamma Source

- A radioactive material that emits high energy electron radiation,

similar to x-rays commonly used in hospitals. The radiation is invisible
and capable of passing through many millimeters of wood, soil or
other material.

Indeterminate

- Indefinite or vague.

Radioisotope

- Radioactive isotope of a chemical element.

Scaler

- A device that converts electric pulses into numerical counts and

displays the results.

Spatial

- Existing in differing space, or relationships of space.

August, 2006

Soil-T310-16

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS
FOR
ENGINEERING PURPOSES
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM)
ASTM D 2487

Developed by
FHWA Multi-regional Soils Training & Certification Group

NOTE
Successful completion of the following training materials, including
examination and performance evaluations are prerequisites for this training
package.
<
<
<
<
<

AASHTO T 265, Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils

AASHTO T 88, Particle Size Analysis of Soil
AASHTO T 89, Determining the Liquid Limit of Soil
AASHTO T 90, Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soil
ASTM D 2488, Description and Identification of Soils (Visual-Manual
Procedure)

Soil-D2487-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2487-1
Summary of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Typical Test Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Testing Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Soil-D2487-2
Soil-D2487-2
Soil-D2487-2
Soil-D2487-2

Test Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2487-3

Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2487-3
Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2487-7
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil-D2487-8

Soil-D2487-ii

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR ENGINEERING

PURPOSES
(UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM)
Soil exists throughout the world in a wide variety of types. Different types of soil exhibit diverse
behavior properties. Because the engineering properties of soils are governed by their physical
properties, we need to describe and identify soils in terms that will convey this information
clearly and accurately.
This standard is the ASTM version of the Unified Soil Classification System. The basis for the
classification scheme is the Airfield Classification System developed by A. Casagrande in the
early 1940s. It became known as the Unified Classification System when several U.S.
government agencies adopted a modified version of the system in 1952.

Soil-D2487-1

SUMMARY OF TESTING
This system identifies three major soil divisions: coarse-grained soils, fine-grained soils and
highly organic soils. These three divisions are further subdivided into a total of 15 basic soil
groups. Based on the results of visual observations and prescribed laboratory tests, a soil can
be cataloged according to the basic soil groups, assigned a group symbol(s) and name, and
thereby classified.

TYPICAL TEST RESULTS

The test results from this procedure would appear in the following format:
<
<

Well-Graded Gravel with Sand (GW)

Silty Sand with Organic Fines (SM)

COMMON TESTING ERRORS

<

Not careful in reading the charts and tables used in this method, it is very easy to misinterpret
the data.

<

Read and record, then verify.

SAMPLE
This procedure is conducted using soil characteristics from other tests; therefore, no sample is
required.

Soil-D2487-2

TEST METHODOLOGY
Generally, before a soil can be classified by this standard, the particlesize distribution of the
material passing the 75 mm sieve and the plasticity characteristics of the minus 425 m sieve
material must be determined. These tests and procedures have already been described in
detail in the prerequisite training for this module.

PROCEDURE
Determine into which of the following groups your sample belongs and proceed to that
Classification Heading: (the Flow Chart, figure 1, is helpful in understanding the classification
method)
<
<

Classify the soil as Fine-grained, if 50% or more of the test specimen passes the 75 m
sieve.
Classify the soil as Coarse-grained, if more than 50% of the test specimen is retained on
the 75 m sieve.

Classification of Fine-grained Soil (50% or more of the test specimen passes the 75 m sieve)
1. The soil is an inorganic clay if the position of the plasticity index versus liquid limit plot,
Figure 2, falls on or above the A line, the plasticity index is greater than 4, and the
presence of organic matter does not influence the liquid limit determination.
< Classify the soil as Lean Clay, (CL), if the liquid limit is less than 50.
< Classify the soil as Fat Clay, (CH), if the liquid limit is 50 or greater.
< Classify the soil as Silty Clay, (CL-ML), if the position of the plasticity index
versus liquid limit plot falls on or above the A line and plasticity index is in the
range of 4 to 7.
2. The soil is an inorganic silt if the position of the plasticity index versus liquid limit plot,
Figure 2, falls below the A line or the plasticity index is less than 4, and the presence of
organic material has not influenced the liquid limit determination.
< Classify the soil as silt, (ML), if the liquid limit is less than 50.
< Classify the soil as a elastic silt, (MH), if the liquid limit is 50 or greater

Soil-D2487-3

Soil classification
Criteria for Assigning Group Symbols and Group Names Using Laboratory TestsA

COARSEGRAINED
SOILS
More than 50%
retained on No.
200 sieve

Clean Gravels
Less than 5%
finesC

Gravels
More than 50% of coarse
fraction retained on No. 4
sieve

Sands with Fines

More than 12%
finesD

Clean Sands Less

than 5% finesD

Sands
50% or more of coarse
fraction passes No. 4
sieve

Sands with Fines

More than 12%
finesD
FINE-GRAINED
SOILS
50% OR MORE
PASSES THE
No. 200 sieve

Silts and clays

Liquid limit less than 50

inorganic

organic

Group
Symbol

Group NameB

Cu $ 4 and 1 # Cc # 3E

GW

Well-graded
gravelF

Cu < 4 and/or 1 > Cc > 3E

GP

Poorly graded
gravelF

Fines classify as ML or MH

GM

Silty gravel F,G, H

Fines classify as CL or CH

GC

Clayey
gravelF,G,H

Cu $6 and 1 # Cc # 3E

SW

Well-graded
sandI

Cu < 6 and/or 1 > Cc > 3E

SP

Poorly graded
sandI

Fines classify as ML or MH

SM

Silty sandG,H,I

Fines classify as CL or CH

SC

Clayey sandG,H,I

PI > 7 and plots on or above

A lineJ

CL

Lean clayK,L,M

Pi < 4 or plots below A lineJ

ML

siltK,L,M

Liquid limit - oven

dried

OL

Organic
clayK,L,M,P

<0.75
Organic siltK,L,M,Q

Liquid limit - not

dried
Silts and Clays
Liquid limit 50 or more

inorganic

organic

PI plots on or above A line

CH

Gsy clayK,L,M

PI plots below A Line

MH

Elastic siltK,L,M

Liquid limit - oven

dried

OH

Organic
clayK,L,M,P

<0.75
Organic siltK,L,M,Q

Liquid limit - not

dried
HIGHLY
ORGANIC
SOILS

Primarily organic matter, dark in color, and organic odor

Abased on the material passing the 75-mm

(3-in.) Sieve
Bif field sample contained cobbles or
boulders, or both add with cobbles or boulders,
or both to group name.
C
gravels with 5 to 12% fines require dual
symbols:
GW-GM well-graded gravel with silt
GW-GC well-graded gravel with clay
GP-GM poorly graded gravel with silt
GP-GC poorly graded gravel with clay
D
sands with 5 to 12% fines require dual
symbols:
SW-SM well-graded sand with silt
SW-SC well-graded sand with clay
SP-SM poorly graded sand with silt
SP-SC poorly graded sand with clay

Cu = D60/D10
F

Cc = (D30)2 / (D10 x D60)

if soil contains 15% sand, add with

sand to group name.
G
if fines classify as CL-ML, use dual symbol
GC-GM, or SC-SM.
H
if fines are organic, add with organic
fines to group name.
I

if soil contains 15% grael, add with

gravel to group name.
J
if atterberg limits plot in hatched area, soil
is a CL-ML, silty clay.
K
if soil contains 15 to 29% plus No. 200,
add with sand or with gravel, whichever is
predominant.

PT

if soil contains 30% plus No. 200,

predominantly sand, add sandy to group
name.
if soil contains 30% plus No. 200,
predominantly gravel, add gravelly to
group name.
N

PI
4 and plots on or above A line.
PI < 4 or plots below A line.
Q
PI plots below A line.
O

Figure 1 - Unified Soil Classification Chart

Soil-D2487-4

Peat

Figure 2 - Plasticity Chart

3. The soil is an organic silt or clay if the organic material is present in sufficient amounts to
influence the liquid limit.
<

If the soil has a dark color and an organic odor when moist and warm, a second
liquid limit shall be performed on a test specimen which has been oven dried at
110 5 C to a constant mass.

<

The soil is organic silt or organic clay if the liquid limit after oven drying is less
than 75% of the liquid limit of the original sample.
Classify the soil as an organic silt or organic clay, (OL), if the liquid limit
(not oven dried) is less than 50%. Classify the soil as organic silt, (OL), if the
plasticity index is less than 4, or the position of the plasticity index versus
liquid limit plot, Figure 2, falls below the A line. Classify the soil as organic
clay, (OL), if the plasticity index is 4 or greater and the position of the
plasticity index versus liquid limit plot, Figure 2, falls on or above the A line.
Classify the soil as organic clay or organic silt, (OH), if the liquid limit (not
oven dried) is 50 or greater. Classify the soil as organic silt, (OH), if the
position of the plasticity index versus liquid limit plot, Figure 2, falls below the
A line. Classify the soil as organic clay, (OH), if the position of the plasticity
index versus liquid limit plot, Figure 2, falls on or above the A line.

<

If less than 30%, but 15% or more of the test specimen is retained on the 75 m
sieve, the words with sand or with gravel shall be added to the group name,
(based on which ever material is predominant). For example, lean clay with
sand, (CL); or silt with gravel, (ML). If the percent sand is equal to the percent
gravel, use with sand.

<

If 30% or more of the test specimen is retained on the 75 m sieve, the words
sandy or gravelly shall be added to the group name, (based on whichever

Soil-D2487-5

material is predominant). For example: sandy lean clay, (CL), or gravelly fat
clay, (CH). If the percent sand is equal to the percent gravel, use sandy.

Classification of coarse-grained soil (more than 50% of the test specimen is retained on the 75
m sieve)
1. Classify the soil as gravel, if more than 50% of the coarse fraction [plus 75 m sieve] is
retained on the 4.75 mm sieve.
2. Classify the soil as sand, if 50% or more of the coarse fraction [plus 75 m sieve] passes the
4.75 mm sieve.
3. If 12% or less of the test specimen passes the 75m sieve, plot the cumulative particle
distribution curve, and compute the coefficient of uniformity, (Cu), and coefficient of curvature,
(Cc).
<

Coefficient of curvature,
Cc = (D30)2/D10xD60),

Where:
D60, D30 and D10 are the particle diameters corresponding to 60, 30 and
10% finer on the cumulative particle-size distribution curve, respectively.
<

Coefficient of uniformity,
Cu = D60/D10,

Where:
D60 and D10 are the particle diameters corresponding to 60 and 10% finer on
the cumulative particle-size distribution curve, respectively.

If less than 5%of the test specimen passes the 75 m sieve, classify the
soil as a well-graded gravel, (GW), or well-graded sand, (SW); if Cu is
greater than 4.0 for gravel or greater than 6.0 for sand, and Cc is at
least 1.0 but not more than 3.0.

If less than 5% of the test specimen passes the 75 m sieve, classify

the soil as a poorly-graded gravel, (GP), or poorly-graded sand, (SP),
if either the Cu or Cc criteria for well graded soils are not satisfied.

4. If more than 12% of the test specimen passes the 75 m sieve, the soil shall be considered
a coarse-grained soil with fines. The fines are determined to be either silty or clayey based on
the plasticity index versus liquid limit plot on Figure 1.

Soil-D2487-6

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Classify the soil as a clayey gravel, (GC), or a clayey sand, (SC); if the fines are clayey,
that is, the position of the plasticity index versus liquid limit plot falls on or above the A
line and the plasticity index is greater than 7.

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Classify the soil as a silty gravel, (GM), or a silty sand, (SM); if the fines are silty, that is,
the position of the plasticity index versus liquid limit plot, falls below the A line or the
plasticity index is less than 4.

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If the fines plot as silty clay, (CL-ML), classify the soil as silty, clayey gravel, (GC-GM), if
it is gravel. Classify the soil as silty, clayey sand, (SC-SM), if it is sand.

5. If 5% to 12% of the test specimen passes the 75 m sieve, give the soil a dual classification
using two group symbols.
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The first group symbol shall correspond to that for gravel or sand having less than 5%
fines (GW, GP. SW, SP), and the second symbol shall corresponds to gravel or sand
having more than 12% fines (GC, GM, SC, SM).

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The group name shall correspond to the first group symbol plus with clay or with silt to
indicate the plasticity characteristics of the fines.

6. If the specimen is predominately sand or gravel but contains more than 15% or more of the
other coarse-grained constituent, the words with gravel or with sand shall be added to the
group name.
7. If the field sample contained cobbles or boulders, or both, the words with cobbles or with
cobbles and boulders shall be added to the group name.

REPORT
The report should include:
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Group name
Group symbol(s)
Laboratory test results
% Gravel
% Sand
% Fines
and grain-size distribution curve, if it was used to classify the soil.

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GLOSSARY
Boulders

- particles of rock that will not pass a 75 mm square opening

Cobbles

- particles of rock that will pass a 300 mm square opening and are retained on
a 75 mm sieve.

Coefficient
of curvature

- Cc-the ratio(D30)2/D10xD60), where D60, D30 and D10 are the particle diameters
corresponding to 60, 30 and 10% finer on the cumulative particle-size
distribution curve, respectively.

Coefficient
of uniformity

- Cu-the ratio D60/D10, where D60 and D10 are the particle diameters
corresponding to 60 and 10% finer on the cumulative particle-size distribution
curve, respectively.

Gravel

- particles of rock that will pass a 75 mm sieve and be retained on a 4.75 mm

sieve with the following sub-divisions:
coarse- passes a 75 mm sieve and is retained on a 19 mm sieve.
fine- Passes a 19 mm sieve and is retained on a 4.75 mm sieve

Sand

- Particles of rock that will pass a 4.75 mm sieve and be retained on a 0.075
mm
sieve with the following sub-divisions:
coarse-passes a 4.75 mm sieve and is retained on a 2.00 mm sieve
medium-passes a 2.00 mm sieve and is retained on a 0.425 mm
fine-passes a 0.425 mm sieve and is retained on a 0.075 mm

Fines

- That material which is non-organic, and passes a 0.075 mm sieve.

Silt

- Soil passing a 0.075 mm sieve that is non-plastic or very slightly plastic and
that exhibits little or no strength when air dry. For classification, silt is a finegrained soil, or the fine-grained portion of soil, with a plasticity index less than
4, and the plot of plasticity index versus liquid limit falls below the A line.
(see figure 2.)

Clay

- Soil passing the 0.075 mm sieve that can be made to exhibit plasticity (puttylike properties) within a range of water contents and that exhibits considerable
strength when dry. For classification, a clay is a fine-grained soil, or the finegrained portion of soil, with a plasticity index greater than 4, and the plot of
plasticity index versus liquid limit falls on or above the A line. (see figure

1.)

Organic silt

- A silt with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties. For

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Organic clay

classification , an organic silt is a soil would be classified as a silt

except that its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid
limit value before oven drying.
- A clay with sufficient organic content to influence the soil properties. For
classification , an organic clay is a soil would b classified as a clay except

that

Peat

its liquid limit value after oven drying is less than 75% of its liquid limit value
before oven drying.
- A soil comprised primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of
decomposition, usually with an organic odor, a dark brown to black color, a
spongy consistency, and a texture ranging from fibrous to amorphous
(completely decomposed).

The visual-manual procedure covered in this manual utilizes the following group symbols:
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G - gravel
S - sand
M - silt
C - clay
O - organic
PT - peat
W - well graded
P - poorly graded

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