Igor A.

Karnovsky Evgeniy Lebed

Theory of
Vibration
Protection

Theory of Vibration Protection

Igor A. Karnovsky Evgeniy Lebed

Theory of Vibration
Protection

Igor A. Karnovsky
Coquitlam, BC, Canada

Evgeniy Lebed
MDA Systems Ltd.
Scientic and Engineering
staff member
Burnaby, BC, Canada

ISBN 978-3-319-28018-9
ISBN 978-3-319-28020-2
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2

(eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016938787

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
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Preface

Decreasing the level of vibration of machines, devices, and equipment is one of the
most important problems of modern engineering. Suppression of harmful vibrations
contributes to the products normal functionality, leads to increased product reliability, and reduces the negative impact on the human operator. This is the reason
why suppressing vibrations is a complicated technical issue with far-reaching
implications. The set of methods and means for reducing vibrations is called
vibration protection (VP).
Modern objects for which VP is necessary include engineering structures,
manufacturing equipment, airplanes, ships, and devices on mobile objects, to
name a few. The principal approaches to VP, concepts, and methods remain the
same regardless of the variations in different objects. Modern VP theory encompasses a broad scope of ideas, concepts, and methods. The theory of VP is largely
based on the common fundamental laws of vibration theory, theory of structures,
and control system theory and extensively uses the theory of differential equations
and complex analysis.
This book presents a systematic description of vibration protection problems,
which are classied as passive vibration protection, parametric (invariant), and
active vibration protection.
Passive vibration suppression means usage of passive elements only, which do
not have an additional source of energy. The passive vibration protection leads to
three different approaches: vibration isolation, vibration damping, and suppression
of vibration using dynamic absorbers. The passive vibration protection theory uses
the concepts and methods of linear and nonlinear theory of vibration.
One method of vibration protection of mechanical systems is internal vibration
protection: changing the parameters of the system can reduce the level of vibrations. This type of vibrations reduction we will call parametric vibration protection.
The problem is to determine corresponding parameters of the system. Parametric
vibration protection theory is based on the Shchipanov-Luzin invariance principle
and uses the theory of linear differential equations.

vi

Preface

Active vibration suppression is achieved by the introduction into the system of

additional devices with a source of energy. The problem is to determine additional
exposure as a function of time or function of the current state of the system. Optimal
active vibration protection theory is based on the Pontryagin principle and the Krein
moments method; these methods allow us to take into account the restrictions of the
different types.
This book is targeted for graduate students and engineers working in various
engineering elds. It is assumed that the reader has working knowledge of vibrations theory, complex analysis, and differential equations. Textual material of the
book is compressed, and in many cases the formulas are presented without any
rigorous mathematical proofs. The book has a theoretical orientation, so technical
details of specic VP devices are not discussed.
The book does not present the complete vibration protection theory. The authors
included in the book only well probated models and methods of analysis, which can
be treated as classical. The number of publications devoted to the VP problem is so
large that it is impossible to discuss every interesting work in the restricted volume
of this book. Therefore, we apologize to many authors whose works are not
mentioned here.
The book contains an Introduction, four Parts (17 chapters), and an Appendix.
Introduction contains short information about the source of vibrations. It
describes briey the types of mechanical exposures and their inuence on the
technical objects and on a human. The dynamic models of the vibration protection
objects, as well as principal methods of vibration protection are discussed.
Part I (Chaps. 19) considers different approaches to passive vibration protection. Among them are vibration isolation (Chaps. 14), vibration damping (Chap. 5)
and vibration suppression (Chaps. 6 and 7). This part also contains parametric
vibration protection (Chap. 8) and nonlinear vibration protection (Chap. 9).
Part II considers two fundamental methods for optimal control of the dynamic
processes. They are the Pontryagin principle (Chap. 10) and Krein moments method
(Chap. 11). These methods are applied to the problems of active vibration suppression. Also, this part of the book presents the arbitrary vibration protection system
and its analysis using block diagrams (Chap. 12).
Part III is devoted to the analysis of structures subjected to impact. Chapter 13
presents the analysis of transient vibration of linear dynamic systems using Laplace
transform. Active vibration suppression through forces and kinematic methods as
well as parametric vibration protection is discussed. Chapter 14 describes shock and
spectral theory. Chapter 15 is devoted to vibration protection of mechanical systems
subjected to the force and kinematic random exposures.
Part IV contains two special topics: suppression of vibrations at the source of
their occurrence (Chap. 16) and harmful inuence of vibrations on the human
(Chap. 17); Chapter 17 was written together with . ldon (Canada).
The Appendix contains some fundamental data. This includes procedures with
complex numbers and tabulated data for the Laplace transform.

Preface

vii

Numbering of equations, (Figures and Tables) has been followed sequentially

throughout the chapterthe rst number indicates the chapter; the second number
indicates the number of the gure equation (Figure or Table).
Problems of high complexity are marked with an asterisk*.
Coquitlam, BC, Canada
Burnaby, BC, Canada
October 2015

Igor A. Karnovsky
Evgeniy Lebed

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our gratitude to everyone who shared with us their
thoughts and ideas that contributed to the development of our book.
The authors are grateful to the numerous friends, colleagues, and co-authors of
their joint publications. The ideas, approaches, and study results, as well as the
concepts of this book, were discussed with them at the earliest stage of work.
One of the authors (I.A.K.) is sincerely grateful to the well-known specialists, his
colleagues, and friends. Among these are Acad. R.Sh. Adamiya (Georgia), prof.
A.E. Bozhko (Ukraine), prof. M.I. Kazakevich (Germany), acad. .V. Khvingiya
(Georgia), prof. A.O. Rasskazov (Ukraine), prof. V.B. Grinyov (Ukraine), prof.
.Z. Kolovsky (Russia), prof. S.S. Korablyov (Russia), prof. A.S. Tkachenko
(Ukraine). Although they were not directly involved in the writing of this book,
they were at the very beginning of the research that eventually formed the book.
Their advice, comments, suggestions, and support cannot be overstated.
The authors thank Mark Zhu and Sergey Nartovich for ongoing technical
assistance for computer-related problems.
The authors are grateful to Olga Lebed for her contribution as manager throughout the period of the work on the book.
The authors will appreciate comments and suggestions to improve the current
edition. All constructive criticism will be accepted with gratitude.
Coquitlam, BC, Canada
Burnaby, BC, Canada
October 2015

Igor A. Karnovsky
Evgeniy Lebed

ix

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Part I
1

Passive Vibration Protection

Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More

Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
Design Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic Excitation
and Vibration Protection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Simplest Mechanical Model of a Vibration
Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Force Excitation. Dynamic and Transmissibility
Coefcients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Kinematic Excitation. Overload Vibration Coefcient
and Estimation of Relative Displacement . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Complex Amplitude Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1
Vector Representation of Harmonic Quantities . . . . .
1.3.2
Single-Axis Vibration Isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3
Argand Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4
System with Two Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Linear Single-Axis Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1
Damper with Elastic Suspension. Transmissibility
Coefcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2
Simplication of Vibration Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3
Vibration Isolators Which Cannot Be Simplied . . . .
1.4.4
Special Types of Vibration Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Vibration Protection System of Quasi-Zero Stiffness . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System

with Lumped Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
Electro-Mechanical Analogies and Dual Circuits . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Principal Concepts of Mechanical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1
Vector Representation of Harmonic Force . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2
Kinematic Characteristics of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3
Impedance and Mobility of Passive Elements . . . . . .
2.3
Construction of Two-Terminal Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Two-Terminal Network for a Simple
Vibration Isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2
Two-Cascade Vibration Protection System . . . . . . . .
2.3.3
Complex Dynamical System and Its Coplanar
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Mechanical Network Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1
Combination of Mechanical Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2
Kirchhoffs Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3
Reciprocity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4
Superposition Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Simplest One-Side mkb Vibration Isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1
Force Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2
Kinematic Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
Complex One-Sided mkb Vibration Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1
Vibration Isolator with Elastic Suspension . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2
Two-Cascade Vibration Protection System . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks
of Mixed Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1
Fundamental Characteristics of a Deformable System
with a Vibration Protection Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1
Input and Transfer Impedance and Mobility . . . . . . . .
3.1.2
Impedance and Mobility Relating
to an Arbitrary Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Deformable Support of a Vibration Protection System . . . . . .
3.2.1
Free Vibrations of Systems with a Finite
Number of Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2
Generalized Model of Support and Its Impedance . . .
3.2.3
Support Models and Effectiveness Coefcient
of Vibration Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics . . . . . .
3.3.1
Problem Statement of Optimal Synthesis.
Brunes Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2
Fosters Canonical Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3
Cauers Canonical Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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xiii

3.3.4

Support as a Deformable System

with Distributed Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4
Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical
Four-Terminal Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1
Mechanical Four-Terminal Network for Passive
Elements with Lumped Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2
Connection of an 4N with Support
of Impedance Zf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3
Connections of Mechanical Four-Terminal
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5
Mechanical Multi-Terminal Networks for Passive
Elements with Distributed Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1
M4TN for Longitudinal Vibration of Rod . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2
Mechanical Eight-Terminal Network for Transversal
Vibration of a Uniform Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6
Effectiveness of Vibration Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4

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Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1
Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1
Analysis in the Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2
Logarithmic Plot of Frequency Response.
Bode Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Greens Function and Duhamels Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1
System with Lumped Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2
System with Distributed Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Standardizing Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Vibration Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1
Phenomenological Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1
Models of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2
Complex Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3
Dissipative Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4
Dimensionless Parameters of Energy Dissipation . . . .
5.2
Hysteretic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1
Hysteresis Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2
Hysteretic Damping Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3
Forced Vibration of a System with One Degree
of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4
Comparison of Viscous and Hysteretic Damping . . . .
5.3
Structural Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

5.3.2

Energy Dissipation in Systems with Lumped

Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3
Energy Dissipation in Systems with Distributed
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4
Equivalent Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1
Absorption Coefcient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2
Equivalent Viscoelastic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5
Vibration of a Beam with Internal Hysteretic Friction . . . . . . .
5.6
Vibration of a Beam with External Damping Coating . . . . . . .
5.6.1
Vibration-Absorbing Layered Structures . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.2
Transverse Vibration of a Two-Layer Beam . . . . . . .
5.7
Aerodynamic Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.1
The Interaction of a Structure with a Flow . . . . . . . . .
5.7.2
Aerodynamic Reduction of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters . . . .

6.1
Dynamic Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2
Dynamic Absorbers with Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1
Absorber with Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2
Viscous Shock Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3
Absorber with Coulomb Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3
Roller Inertia Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4
Absorbers of Torsional Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1
Centrifugal Pendulum Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2
Pringles Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5
Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1
Elementary Theory of Gyroscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2
Schlicks Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . .
6.6
Impact Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.1
Pendulum Impact Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2
Floating Impact Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3
Spring Impact Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7
Autoparametric Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed

Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1
KrylovDuncan Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2
Lumped Vibration Absorber of the Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3
Distributed Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4
Extension Rod as Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . .

8.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2
Invariance Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1
ShchipanovLuzin Absolute Invariance . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2
Invariance up to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3
Parametric Vibration Protection of the Spinning Rotor . . . . . .
8.4
Physical Feasibility of the Invariance Conditions . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1
Uncontrollability of Perturbation-Coordinate
Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2
Petrovs Two-Channel Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3
Dynamic Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5
Parametric Vibration Protection of the Plate
Under a Moving Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1
Mathematical Model of a System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2
Petrovs Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1
Types of Nonlinearities and Theirs Characteristics . . .
9.1.2
Features of Nonlinear Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2
Harmonic Linearization Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1
Method Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2
Coefcients of Harmonic Linearization . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3
Harmonic Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1
Dufngs Restoring Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2
Nonlinear Restoring Force and Viscous Damping . . .
9.3.3
Linear Restoring Force and Coulombs
Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.4
Internal Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4
Nonlinear Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5
Harmonic Linearization and Mechanical Impedance
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6
Linearization of a System with an Arbitrary Number
of Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Part II
10

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289
290
294
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. 329

Active Vibration Protection

Pontryagins Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

10.1 Active Vibration Protection of Mechanical Systems
as a Control Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
10.1.1 Mathematical Model of Vibration
Protection Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

xvi

Contents

10.1.2

Classication of Optimal Vibration

Protection Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Representation of an Equation of State in Cauchys
Matrix Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Qualitative Properties of Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . .
10.3.1 Accessibility, Controllability, Normality . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Pontryagins Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters . .
10.5.1 Vibration Suppression Problems
Without Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.2 Vibration Suppression Problem with Constrained
Exposure. Quadratic Functional, Fixed Time
and Fixed End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Bushaws Minimum-Time Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Minimum Isochrones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11

12

Krein Moments Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11.1 The Optimal Active Vibration Protection Problem
as the l-moments Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Formulation of the Problem of Vibration
Suppression as a Moment Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 The l-moments Problem and Numerical
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Time-Optimal Problem for a Linear Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Constraint of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 Control with Magnitude Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Truncated Moments Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2 Vibration Suppression of String. Standardizing
Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3 Vibration Suppression of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4 Nonlinear Moment Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Modied Moments Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Optimal Vibration Suppression of a Plate
as a Mathematical Programming Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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383

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413
415

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Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

12.1 Operator Characteristics of a Dynamical System . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
12.1.1 Types of Operator Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

Contents

xvii

12.1.2 Transfer Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12.1.3 Elementary Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.4 Combination of Blocks. Bode Diagram . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.5 Block Diagram Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1 Representation of bk and bm Systems
as Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.2 Vibration Protection Closed Control System . . . . . . .
12.2.3 Dynamic Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Vibration Protection Systems with Additional
Passive Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.1 Linkage with Negative Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.2 Linkage by the Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Vibration Protection Systems with Additional
Active Linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.1 Functional Schemes of Active Vibration
Protection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.2 Vibration Protection on the Basis of Excitation.
Invariant System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.3 Vibration Protection on the Basis of Object State.
Effectiveness Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.4 Block Diagram of Optimal Feedback Vibration
Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part III
13

14

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434
441
448
450

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. 471
. 477
. 479
. 481

Shock and Transient Vibration

Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient

Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1 Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Heaviside Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Active Suppression of Transient Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.1 Step Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3.2 Impulse Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4 Parametric Vibration Suppression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.1 Recurrent Instantaneous Pulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4.2 Recurrent Impulses of Finite Duration . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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501
501
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508
508
510
513
517

Shock and Spectral Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14.1 Concepts of Shock Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.1 Types of Shock Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.2 Different Approaches to the Shock Problem . . . . . . .

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519
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521

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15

Contents

14.1.3 Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14.1.4 Time and Frequency Domain Concepts . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Forced Shock Excitation of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.1 Heaviside Step Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.2 Step Excitation of Finite Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2.3 Impulse Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Kinematic Shock Excitation of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.1 Forms of the Vibration Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.2 Response of a Linear Oscillator to Acceleration
Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Spectral Shock Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.1 Biots Dynamic Model of a Structure: Primary
and Residual Shock Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.2 Response Spectra for the Simplest Vibration
Protection System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4.3 Spectral Method for Determination of Response . . . .
14.5 Brief Comments on the Various Methods of Analysis . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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536
537
538
540
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544
545

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552
554
557
559

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems . . . . . . . . .

15.1 Random Processes and Their Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.1 Probability Distribution and Probability Density . . . .
15.1.2 Mathematical Expectation and Dispersion . . . . . . . . .
15.1.3 Correlational Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2 Stationary Random Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.1 Properties of Stationary Random Processes . . . . . . . .
15.2.2 Ergodic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.3 Spectral Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.2.4 Transformations of Random Exposures
by a Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.3 Dynamic Random Excitation of a Linear Oscillator . . . . . . . .
15.3.1 Transient Vibration Caused by Impulse Shock . . . . . .
15.3.2 Force Random Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15.4 Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator . . . . . . . . .
15.4.1 Harmonic and Polyharmonic Excitations . . . . . . . . . .
15.4.2 Shock Vibration Excitation by a Set
of Damped Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

Part IV
16

17

xix

Special Topics

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic

Exposures on a Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1 Dynamic Pressure on the Axis of a Rotating Body . . . . . . . . .
16.2 Types of Unbalancing Rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.1 Static Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.2 Couple Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.3 Dynamic Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2.4 Quasi-Static Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Shaking Forces of a Slider Crank Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Dynamic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.2 Elimination of Dynamic Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.1 Vibration Exposures and Methods
of Their Transfer on the Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.2 International and National Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Inuence of Vibration Exposure on the Human Subject . . . . . .
17.2.1 Classication of the Adverse Effects
of Vibration on the Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.2.2 Effect of Vibration on the Human Operator . . . . . . . .
17.3 Vibration Dose Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4 Mechanical Properties and Frequency Characteristics
of the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4.1 Mechanical Properties of the Human Body . . . . . . . .
17.4.2 Frequency Characteristics of the Human Body . . . . . .
17.5 Models of the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5.1 Basic Dynamic 1D Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5.2 Dynamic 2D3D Models of the Sitting
Human Body at the Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.5.3 Parameters of the Human Body Model . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix A: Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661

Appendix B: Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

About the Authors

Igor A. Karnovsky, Ph.D., Dr. Sci. is a specialist in structural analysis, theory of

vibration, and optimal control of vibration. He has 40 years of experience in
research, teaching, and consulting in this eld and is the author of more than
70 published scientic papers, including two books in Structural Analysis
(published with Springer in 20102012) and three handbooks in Structural Dynamics (published with McGraw Hill in 20012004). He also holds a number of
vibration control-related patents.
Evgeniy Lebed, Ph.D. is a specialist in applied mathematics and engineering. He
has 10 years of experience in research, teaching, and consulting in this eld. The
main sphere of his research interests are qualitative theory of differential equations,
integral transforms, and frequency-domain analysis with application to image and
signal processing. He is the author of 15 published scientic papers and holds a US
patent (2015).

xxi

Introduction

Mechanical Exposure and Vibration Protection Methods

The introduction contains a short summary about sources of vibration and the
objects of vibration protection. Different types of mechanical exposure, inuences
on technical objects, and on human operators are briey described. Dynamical
models of vibration protection objects and fundamental methods of vibration
protection are discussed.

Source of Vibration and Vibration Protection Objects

A mechanical system is the object of study in the theory of vibration protection. The
source of vibration induces mechanical excitations, which in turn are relayed by
connections to vibration protection objects (Fig. 1).
Excitation factors, which are the source of vibrations of the object, can occur for
several different reasons. These reasons are generally grouped into two categories;
internal, which arise due to normal function of the object itself, and external, which
generally do not depend on the functions carried out by the object. Internal
excitation factors can be further classied into two subcategories.
Excitation Factors Arising due to Moving Bodies Examples of moving bodies
include a rotating rotor, reciprocating piston motion, as well as any moving parts
of machinery. Moving parts inside a source usually give rise to dynamic reactions,
which arise in constraints. These connections transmit the dynamic forces on the
different objects, which are associated with the source of vibration, in particular,
objects that are responsible for eliminating or suppressing the vibrations. Henceforth, these objects will be referred to as Vibration Protection Objects (VPO).

xxiii

xxiv

Introduction

Source of
Vibration (SoV)

onnection between
SoV and VPO

Vibration Protection
Object (VPO)

Fig. 1 Scheme representing an interaction between Source of Vibration (SoV) and Vibration
Protection Object (VPO)

Reducing vibration activity of source vibrations amounts to reducing dynamic

reactions in the constraint. Balancing machinery methods, specically, static and
dynamic balancing of rotating objects, such as rotors, and their corresponding
automatic balancing, are usually employed to achieve this goal. A detailed classication of automated balancing techniques of machinery rotors is presented in [1, 2].
Excitation Factors Caused by Physical and Chemical Processes Originating at
the Source Such processes should include the following: Exhaust processes in
internal combustion and jet engines, processes involving interactions of liquids or
gasses with an engines turbine blades, pulsations of liquids and gasses in conduits,
electromagnetic reactions in engines and generators, various technological processes (e.g., cutting of metals on powered metal-cutting equipment, processing of
materials in the mining equipment), etc. Changing the settings of the physical and
chemical processes can reduce the vibration activity factors in this group [3, vol. 4].
External factors are not related to an objects function. These external factors
may include explosions, seismic inuences, collisions, temperature uctuations,
and wind loads.
Let us have a closer look at several examples of vibration protection objects and
inuences that act upon them.
1a. An engine with an unbalanced rotor, mounted on a foundation. The vibration
protection problem involves reducing vibrations of the engines frame. The
engines frame is the object of vibration protection. The source of vibrations
(SoV) is the engines rotor. Dynamic excitations are the dynamic reactions of
the rotors supports (Fig. 2a, b).

b
Rotor-SoV

VPO
Rotor

c
Rotor-SoV

Connection
VPO
Foundation
Fig. 2 An unbalanced rotor as a source of vibration and two variation of the vibration protection
problem

Introduction

xxv

1b. For the same system, the goal here is to lower the vibrations of the foundation.
In this case the vibration protection object is the foundation. The source of
vibrations is the same as in the previous casethe unbalanced engines rotor.
The dynamic excitations are the dynamic reactions in the system that mounts
the engine to the foundation (Fig. 2c).
2a. Control panel, mounted inside an airplanes cockpit. The vibration protection
problem is to reduce the vibrations of the control panel. The vibration protection object is the control panel. The source of vibrations is the aircraft with all
of its parts, which cause the vibrations of the control panel. Dynamic disturbances are the kinematic excitations of the points where the control panel is
xed to the aircraft.
2b. For the same system, we can pose the problem of lowering vibrations of the
airplanes hull at the location (or locations) where the control panel is mounted.
In this case, the VPO becomes the part of the aircraft to which the control panel
is mounted. The source of vibration in this case arises from multiple, simultaneously interacting parts of the aircraft, creating dynamical and acoustic
inuences, which act on the VPO.
3. A problem of particular importance is how to properly protect a human
operator of transport equipment from vibrations. This type of problem has
many different types of approaches. In one case, we can choose the seat of the
human operator to be the VPO. In another case we may be interested in
reducing vibrations of an entire cabin; in this case, the cabin becomes the
VPO. Alternatively, we may want to reduce vibrations of the entire transportation mechanism.
Excitation of the system can be of either force (dynamic) or kinematic nature. If
vibration of the object is caused by the load (force, torque), which is applied just to
the object, we have a case of force or dynamic excitation. If vibration of the object
is caused by the displacement, velocity, or acceleration of the base, then we have a
case of kinematic excitation. In both cases the vibration of the object depends on the
properties of connection between the object and the foundation. An example of
kinematic excitation is vibration of a pilot of the aircraft caused by the motion of
the seat.
From here on, we refer to general mechanical excitations as force (dynamic) and
kinematic excitations. The simplest case of such excitations is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 (a) Force (dynamic)

and (b) kinematic excitation

b
F(t)
m

m
k

k
(t)

xxvi

Introduction

Here, m represents the mass of the object, k is the stiffness coefcient of the
connection between foundation and object, and F(t) and (t) refer to force and
kinematic excitations, respectively.
As such, in the case of internal excitation, the kinematic excitation is determined
by the problem formulation. In the case of external excitation, for example,
earthquakes, the kinematic character of excitation is natural.

Mechanical Exposures and Their Inuence on Technical

Objects and Humans
Mechanical exposures are commonly subdivided into three classes: linear overload,
vibrational exposures, and shocks.

Linear Overload
Mechanical effects of kinematic nature that arise during acceleration
(or deceleration) of objects are known as linear overloads. Linear overloads become
particularly prevalent during aircrafts takeoffs (or landings) and during an aircrafts maneuvers (roll, pitch, and yaw). The two main characteristics of linear
overloads are constant acceleration a0 (Fig. 4) and the maximal rate at which
acceleration grows a_ max da=dt. This characteristic is known as jerk.
Fig. 4 Graph linear
overload-time

a
a0

In special cases, linear overloads vary linearly in time. Linear overloads are
statically transferred to objects, and this is the primary reason why objects cannot be
protected from independently arising linear overloads. However, if linear overloads
are superimposed onto the vibrational or impact excitation, then the vibration
protection process signicantly changes its nature and the characteristics of vibration protection (VP) devices become more complicated.
Three different types of operating states for VP devices are possible when an
object is xed to a moving platform, which is able to move with large linear
accelerations in the presence of linear overloads.
Starting State At this stage the VP devices are in a state of stress, and current
overloads provide additional stress on the VP device.

Introduction

xxvii

Shutting Down the Starting Engines State During this state, the engines that were
initially used to accelerate the mechanism are turned off. The VP device, which was
stressed up to this point, is relaxed and instantaneously releases all of its stored
potential energy. This leads to a shock phenomenon, which could be hazardous to
the VP device.
Deceleration State This state is characterized by the fact that a signicant linear
overload is applied to the VP device.

Vibrational Exposure
Force (dynamic) vibration exposures represent force F or torque M, which act upon
an object. Acceleration (a) of points connected to the source (foundations, aircraft
hull, etc.), their velocities () and displacements (x) represent kinematic vibrational
exposures. All of these exposures are functions of time. These exposures can be of
either stationary (steady-state) or non-stationary (unsteady-state) character.
Stationary Vibration Exposures The simplest exposures of this type have the
form
xt x0 sin 0 t,
where x(t) is the vibrational force or kinematic exposure, x0 and 0 represent the
amplitude and frequency of excitation. The period of an oscillation can be determined from the excitation frequency by T 2=0 .
Harmonic process and corresponding Spectra are shown in Fig. 5ab.
Fig. 5 Harmonic process
and its corresponding
spectra

x
T

x0

x0
t

Harmonic force exposures are produced by unbalanced rotors, different types of

vibrators, and piston pumps [4]. Kinematic excitations are produced by vibrations
of the foundation to which the object is mounted [5].
Non-stationary Vibrational Excitation Such effects occur during transient processes, originating at the source. For example, dynamic excitations acting upon an
engines hull during the rotors acceleration can be expressed by
xt a sin t t;
where (t) represents the rotors angular acceleration, as a function of time.

xxviii

Introduction

Polyharmonic Vibrational Excitation Excitations of this nature are described by

the following expression [3, vol. 1]:
xt

1
X

ak cos k0 t bk sin k0 t:

k1

The set of frequencies k0 for k 1, 2, . . . ; of harmonic components, arranged

in ascending order, is called the frequency spectrum of the process. An amplitude
q
Ak a2k b2k , and an initial phase k, where tan k bk =ak , is associated with
each frequency. The set amplitudes, sorted in ascending order of the respective
frequencies, form the amplitude spectra of the process. A typical amplitude spectra
of a polyharmonic excitation is shown in Fig. 6. Such effects usually occur in
machinery containing cyclic mechanisms [3, vols. 1, 4].
Fig. 6 Amplitude spectra
of a polyharmonic
excitation

A1
A2

A3
An

Bandwidth of frequencies max  min . The range of frequencies for which max
=min > 10 is referred to as broadband. If the energy spectra is concentrated around
just a few frequencies, such excitations are known as narrowband.
Geometric addition of two processes leads to a at curve called a Lissajous
curve. The appearance of curves depends on correlation between frequencies,
amplitude, and phases of the two processes [3, vol. 1]. A beat is a phenomenon
occurring when two periodic oscillations with slightly different frequencies are
imposed one upon the other. In this case we observe a periodic growth/reduction in
the amplitude of the summed signal. The frequency of the amplitudes change, and
the resulting signal is equal to the difference in frequencies of the two original
signal [6].
The bandwidth min  max of a polyharmonic excitation has a profound impact
on vibration protection problems. Depending on this bandwidth, different design
diagrams may be chosen to represent the vibration protection object. The model
should be chosen in such a way that all the eigenfrequencies of the vibrating object
fall into the bandwidth of the excitation spectra [2].
Exposure to high frequency vibrational excitations typically results in acoustic
vibrational effects. In this case the vibrational excitations are transferred to the
object not only by elements mechanical connections, but also by the surrounding
environment. High acoustic pressure can have a signicant impact on high precision machinery, such as modern day jet engines and supersonic aircraft.

Introduction

xxix

Chaotic Exposure The following expression can be used to characterize chaotic

vibrations:
xt

N
X

ak cos k t bk sin k t:

k1

A polyharmonic process with the ratio of frequencies forming an irrational

number describes a vibrational exposure excited by completely independent
sources.
Random Exposure It often happens that vibrational exposures are not fully deterministic. This is explained by the following. The characteristics of vibrational
exposure can be determined either by calculations, or by in situ measurements. In
both cases, random factors play a signicant role, and their inuences are impossible to determine beforehand. This is why such vibrational exposures are difcult,
and often impossible, to describe with standard functions. The only way that this
can be achieved is to characterize that process as random, and use the
corresponding characteristics. Some typical examples of random vibrational exposures include pulsations of liquids as they move through pipes, aerodynamic noise
of a jet stream, and a vibrating platform with multiple objects xed onto itself [7].

Impact Exposure
Impact exposures are classied into dynamic impact excitation (DIE) and kinematic
impact excitation (KIE). DIE implies that a system is under the action of impact
force or torque. KIE implies that a system is inuenced by kinematic excitations;
such excitations arise during a rapid change in velocity (i.e., landing of an aircraft).
Both of these excitations are characterized by short temporal durations and significant maximum values. Oscillations caused by impacts are of unsteady nature.
The graph force-time, or moment-time for DIE and graph accelerationtime for KIE is called form of impact. On this graph the force (moment, acceleration) varies from zero to the peak value and again back to zero within the duration
of the impact interval. The main properties of an impacts form include its duration,
amplitude, and spectral characteristics [8].

Inuence of Mechanical Exposure on Technical Objects and Humans

Inuences of Linear Overloads In their natural form (without any additional
exposures), such exposures lead to static loading of an object. In this case, for
example, linear overloads may lead to false operation of the relay devices.
Inuence of Vibrational Excitation The harmful inuence of such excitations are
manifested in diverse forms:

xxx

Introduction

1. The biggest hazard related to this type of exposure is the appearance of

resonances.
2. Alternating exposures lead to an accumulation of damage in the material. This in
turn leads to an accumulation of fatigue damage and destruction.
3. Vibrational exposures lead to gradual weakening and erosion of xed joints.
4. In connections with gaps, such exposures cause collisions between contact
surfaces.
5. These exposures result in damage to the structures surface layers, and premature
wear on the structure develops.
Particularly hazardous vibrational effects are manifested in the presence of
linear overloads [9].
Inuences of shock excitations. Such exposures can lead to brittle fractures.
Resonances may occur during periodic shocks. Fatigue failures can occur in the
case of multiple recurrent shocks [2]. Similar to the case of vibrational exposures,
the addition of linear overloads signicantly complicates the function of a vibration
protection system in shock excitations [9].
In the literature one can nd numerous examples where different systems failed
to function properly or were even completely destroyed due to vibrational exposures. Such systems range from the simplest to most complicated objects found in
transportation, aviation, civil engineering, structural engineering, etc.
Vibrational inuences on a human depend on a number of factors [10]. These
factors include the spectral composition of vibrations, their durations, direction and
location at which they are applied, and nally each individual persons physical
characteristics. Harmful vibrations are subdivided into two groups:
1. Vibrations inuencing a persons functional state;
2. Vibrations inuencing a persons physiological state
Negative vibrational effects of the rst group lead to increased fatigue, increased
time of visual and motor reaction, and disturbance of vestibular reactions and
coordination. Negative vibrational effects of the second group lead to the development of nervous diseases, violation of the functions of the cardiovascular system,
violation of the functions of the musculoskeletal system, and degradation of the
muscle tissues and joints.
Vibrational effects on a persons functional state lead to reduced productivity
and quality, while vibrational effects on a persons physiological state contribute to
chronic illnesses and even vibrational sickness [10].

Dynamical Models of Vibration Protection Objects

A fundamental characteristic of a dynamical system is the number of degrees of
freedom. The degrees of freedom is the number of independent coordinates that
uniquely determine the position of the system during its oscillation.

Introduction

xxxi

All structures may be divided into two principal classes according to their
degrees of freedom. They are structures with concentrated and distributed parameters (lumped and continuous systems). Members with lumped parameters assume
that the distributed mass of the member itself may be neglected in comparison with
the lumped mass, which is located on the member. The continuous system is
characterized by uniform or non-uniform distribution of mass within its parts.
From a mathematical point of view the difference between the two types of systems
is the following: the systems of the rst class are described by ordinary differential
equations, while the systems of the second class are described by partial differential
equations. Examples of the lumped and continuous systems are shown below.
Figure 7a, b shows a massless statically determinate and statically indeterminate
beam with one lumped mass. These structures have one degree of freedom, since
transversal displacement of the lumped mass denes the position of all points of the
beam. A massless beam in Fig. 7c has three degrees of freedom. It can be seen that
introducing additional constraints on the structure increases the stiffness of the
structure, i.e., increases the degrees of static indeterminacy, while introducing
additional masses increases the degrees of freedom.

a
y1

Pontoon

y1

c
d

y1

y3

y2
x

y
Fig. 7 (af) Design diagrams of several different structures

Figure 7d presents a cantilevered massless beam that is carrying one lumped

mass. However, this case is not a plane bending, but bending combined with torsion
because mass is not applied at the shear center. That is why this structure has two
degrees of freedom, the vertical displacement and angle of rotation in yz plane
with respect to the x-axis. A structure in Fig. 7e presents a massless beam with an
absolutely rigid body. The structure has two degrees of freedom, the lateral displacement y of the body and angle of rotation of the body in yx plane. Figure 7f
presents a bridge, which contains two absolutely rigid bodies. These bodies are
supported by a pontoon. Corresponding design diagram shows two absolutely rigid
bodies connected by a hinge C with elastic support. Therefore, this structure has one
degree of freedom.
Figure 8 presents plane frames and arches. In all cases we assume that no
members of a structure have distributed masses. Since the lumped mass M in

xxxii

Introduction

Fig. 8a, b can move in vertical and horizontal directions, these structures have two
degrees of freedom. Figure 8c shows a two-story frame containing absolutely rigid
crossbars (the total mass of each crossbar is M ). This frame may be presented as
shown in Fig. 8d.

EI=

M
EI=

Fig. 8 (af) Design diagrams of frames and arches

Arches with one and three lumped masses are shown in Fig. 8e, f. Taking into
account their vertical and horizontal displacements, the number of degrees of
freedom will be two and six, respectively. For gently sloping arches the horizontal
displacements of the masses may be neglected; in this case the arches should be
considered structures having one and three degrees of freedom in the vertical
direction.
All cases shown in Figs. 7 and 8 present design diagrams for systems with
lumped parameters. Since masses are concentrated, the conguration of a structure
is dened by displacement of each mass as a function of time, i.e., y yt, and the
behavior of such structures is described by ordinary differential equations. It is
worth discussing the term concentrated parameters for cases 7f (pontoon bridge)
and 8 (two-story frame). In both cases, the massin fact, the masses are distributed along the correspondence members. However, the stiffness of these members
is innite, and the position of each of these members is dened by only one
coordinate. For the structure in Fig. 7f, such coordinate may be the vertical
displacement of the pontoon or the angle of inclination of the span structure, and
for the two-story frame (Fig. 8), the horizontal displacements of each crossbar.
The structures with distributed parameters are generally more difcult to analyze. The simplest structure is a beam with a distributed mass m. In this case a
conguration of the system is determined by displacement of each elementary mass
as a function of time. However, since the masses are distributed, then a displacement of any point is a function of a time t and location x of the point, i.e., y yx; t,
so the behavior of the structures is described by partial differential equations.
It is possible to have a combination of the members with concentrated and
distributed parameters. Figure 9 shows a frame with a massless strut F (m 0),
members A and with distributed masses m, and absolutely rigid member D
(EI 1). The simplest form of vibration is shown by the dotted line.

Introduction

xxxiii

Fig. 9 Frame with

distributed and lumped
parameters

EI, m

EI= D

EI, m
EI, m=0
F

If in Fig. 7a, we take into account the distributed mass of the beam and the
lumped mass of the body, then the behavior of the system is described by differential equationspartial derivatives of the beam and ordinary derivatives of
the body.
The diversity of mechanical systems usually makes it necessary to represent
them in conditional forms. To achieve this, we employ three different passive
elements: mass, stiffness and damper. A damper is a mechanism in which energy
is dissipated. Each of the systems in Fig. 7a, b, f may be represented as one degree
of freedom systems, neglecting damping, as shown in Fig. 3.
Let us return to Fig. 7a. The system shown here is described by a second-order
ordinary differential equation. Introduction of two additional masses (Fig. 7c)
increases the number of degrees of freedom by two. This leads to an introduction
of two additional differential equations of second order.
The model of any system with two degrees of freedom (Figs. 7d, f and 8ae) may
be presented (neglecting damping) as shown in Fig. 10. This model may be applied
for force, as well as kinematic excitations. Stiffness coefcients k1 and k1 depend on
the type of structure and the structures boundary conditions. Their derivations are
presented in [11].
The system shown in Fig. 10 is described by two second-order ordinary differential equations. The order of equations will not change if dampers, parallel to the
elastic elements, are introduced into the system.
k1

m1

k2

m2

Fig. 10 Design diagram of a mechanical system with two degrees of freedom

Special Case Assume that a damper is attached to an arbitrary point on the system
massless beam + lumped mass m (Fig. 11), except directly on the mass.
Fig. 11 Mechanical system
with 1.5 degrees of freedom

y1

y2

EI
b

This system is described by two ordinary differential equations

y1 by_1 11  my2 12 ,
y2 by_1 21  my2 22 :

xxxiv

Introduction

The second equation, for the mass, is second order with respect to y2, while rst
equation for the damper is rst order with respect to y1. Here ik are unit displacements; their calculation is discussed in [12]. The two equations describing this
system can be reduced to one third-order equation, so the total number of degrees of
freedom for this system is 1.5 [13].
An arbitrary vibration protection system can be described by a linear and
nonlinear differential equation. For systems with lumped parameters we have the
ordinary differential equations, while for systems with distributed parameters, we
use partial differential equations. For a linear stiffness element, such as a spring of
zero mass, the applied force and relative displacement of the ends of the element are
proportional. For a linear damping element, which has no mass, the applied force
and relative velocity of the ends of the element are proportional. For a linear system
the superposition principle is valid. Superposition principle means that any factor,
such as reaction or displacement, caused by different loads acting simultaneously,
are equal to the algebraic or geometrical sum of this factor due to each load
separately [14].

Vibration Protection Methods

Three fundamentally different approaches can be used to reduce vibrations in an
object. These approaches are
1. Lowering the sources vibrational activity;
2. Passive vibration protection;
3. Active vibration protection.
Lowering the Sources Vibrational Activity The set of methods used to lower
vibrational activity in machines and instrumentation is based on static and dynamic
balancing of rotors and, in general, balancing any moving parts in the machinery
[2, 15].
Passive vibration protection implies the absence of external sources of energy for
devices, which drive the vibration protection process. This type of vibration
protection can be achieved via isolating and damping vibrations, as well as changes
to the structure and parameters of the object. Typically these methods are characterized by vibration isolation, vibration damping, and vibration absorption. Passive
vibration protection systems include the mechanical system itself, as well as
additional masses, elastic elements, devices for dissipating energy, and potentially
other massless elements.
Vibration isolation is a method to reduce oscillations in a mechanical system
(object) where additional devices that weaken connections between the object and
the source of vibrations are introduced into the system [2, 16, 17]. Such devices are
called vibration isolators. If the source of excitation is located inside the object, then
the excitation is force. Otherwise, if the source of excitation is located outside the

Introduction

xxxv

object, then the excitation of the mechanical system is kinematic, and the
corresponding vibration isolation is kinematic. A simplied schematic of a vibration isolator is shown in Fig. 12. Weakening of connections between the object
and foundation is achieved by an elastic element.
Fig. 12 Simplest models of
passive vibration protection

c
a

m
k

b
k

ma
ka

m
b

Vibration damping is a type of method to reduce oscillations in an object that

involves introducing additional devices that facilitate the dissipation of energy [2,
16, 18]. Such devices are called dampers. This method can be interpreted as a way
of altering the objects structure. A vibration isolator with a damper is shown in
Fig. 12b.
Vibration absorption involves reducing oscillations in a system by introducing
devices called absorbers into the system [2, 16, 19, 20, 21]. Absorbers create an
additional excitation that compensates for the primary excitation and reduces the
objects vibration by transferring the oscillation energy onto the absorber. An object
m with an elastic element k, damper b, and absorber maka is shown in Fig. 12c. In
all of the cases shown in Fig. 12, oscillations can be caused by dynamic or
kinematic excitations.
In the class of passive vibration protection systems one can identify optimal
passive systems. Here we are talking about the best type of additional device or best
set of system parameters concerning vibration isolation, vibration damping and
vibration absorption. One is free to choose the desired optimality criteria to quantify
the vibration protection process. Some of these criteria may include the minimum
dimensions of the system, the shortest time in which the desired level of oscillations
is achieved, and many others [22, 23].
Changing the Parameters of the Object and Structure of Vibration Protection
Devices The essence of this method is to tune out the resonant modes. This is
accomplished by changing the frequency of the objects oscillations without using
additional devices, as well as using additional passive elements, in particular,
employing devices that facilitate energy dissipation. Using these techniques allows
us to eliminate the resonance regime and, as result, to reduce amplitude of
vibration.
Active Vibration Protection refers to an automatic control system in the presence
of additional sources of energy [2326]. A schematic of a typical active VP system
is shown in Fig. 13. The vibration protection object of the mass m is connected to
support S using block 1 of passive elements. The active part of the VP system

xxxvi

Introduction

contains sensors 2 of state of object, devices 3 for signal conversion, and executive
mechanism 4 (actuator). The system is subjected to force and/or kinematical
excitation.
F(t)

Fig. 13 Functional scheme

for a one-dimensional VP
system: 1passive
components, 2sensors,
3device for signal
conversion, 4actuator

x1 (t)

u pas
1

uact
4

x (t)

One major advantage of active vibration protection systems is their ability to

optimally reduce (or eliminate) vibrations while adhering to constraints. For example, one can set the goal to suppress vibrations in the shortest possible time while
adhering to the constraint of only consuming a certain amount of energy.
Parametric Vibration Protection This type of vibration protection pertains to
linear dynamic systems subjected to excitations. The types of excitations are not
discussed. This method is based on the Shchipanov-Luzin invariance principle,
which is one of the modern methods of control theory [27, 28]. For a certain set of
parameters, one or more generalized coordinates of the system do not react to the
excitation. In other words, these coordinates are invariant with respect to external
excitation. The Shchipanov-Luzins principle provides us with a method to determine the system parameters which lead to realization of invariance conditions.

Estimating the Effectiveness of Vibration Reduction

The effectiveness of vibration protection can be estimated by the reduced levels of
vibrations of the object or by reduced dynamic loads transmitted upon the object or
foundation. For this purpose the different approaches can be used. Among them,
particularly, are estimation according the kinematical parameters, transmitted
forces, energetic parameters [29].
Assume that a steady-state harmonic process is observed in the system objectvibration protection device. In this case it is convenient to compare the kinematical parameters at any point a in the presence of a vibration protection device or in
its absence. If the amplitude of vibrational displacement at point a is ya then
k*

yVPD
a
:
ya

The expression above demonstrates how one can construct a dimensionless coefcient k* either in terms of the velocity y_: or acceleration y

Introduction

xxxvii

k*

yVPD
y_ VPD
a
a
ya
y_ a

The reduction in vibrations can be characterized by the effectiveness of the vibration protection coefcient
ke 1  k* :
As ke increases, the effectiveness of the VP device also increases. In the presence of
a VPD, the resulting vibrations in the system are fully suppressed when ke 1.
The effectiveness of vibration protection in the case of steady-state forced
vibration subjected to Ft F0 sin t may be evaluated via the dynamic coefcient
(DC), which is the ratio of an amplitude A of sustained period motion to the static
displacement st of the object, caused by amplitude force F0, i.e., DC A=st.
Another important indicator of vibration protection effectiveness is the dynamic
response factor, which represents the relation of two forces that are transferred upon
the foundation. These are amplitude of force in the presence of a VP device and the
amplitude of distributing force. A transmissibility coefcient allows us to estimate
the effectiveness of the VP device considering the like parameters (particularly, the
forces) in two different points of a system.
Using these methods, one can construct measures on the effectiveness of a VP
device for kinematic excitation. In this case, the effectiveness coefcients for the
relative and absolute motion should be considered separately. The effectiveness of
vibration protection can be evaluated in the logarithmic scale. The criteria of the
effectiveness of vibration protection on the basis of the energetic parameters take
into account the vibration power, the energy loss, etc. In any case, the effectiveness
criteria of vibration protection is dened as the ratio of two parameters in the
presence of a vibration protection device and its absence.

Frequency Spectrum: Linear, Log, and Decibel Units

In industrial settings, mechanical vibrations are observed in a wide frequency
spectrum. Vibrations with frequencies in the 816Hz range are known as low
frequency vibrations, 31.563Hz are medium frequency vibrations, and 125
1000Hz are high frequency vibrations. The entire frequency spectrum is partitioned
into frequency intervals. These intervals are referred to as octaves, and larger
intervals are known as decades.
An octave is an interval where the ratio of the upper frequency to the lower
frequency is 2 [30]. If f1 and f2 are the lower and upper frequencies of a band, then
the whole octave (1/1) and its parts are determined as follows:
1=1 octave :
1=3 octave :

p
f 2 2f 1 ; 1=2 octave : f 2 2f 1 1:4142f 1 ;
p
p
f 2 3 2f 1 1:2599f 1 ; 1=6 octave : f 2 6 2f 1 1:1214 f 1 :

xxxviii

Introduction

The interval in octaves between two frequencies f1 and f2 is the base 2 logarithm of
the frequency ratio:
Octf 1 f 2 log2 f 2 =f 1 3:322 log f 2 =f 1 octave:
Here symbol log represents base 10 logarithm.
For example, if f 1 2Hz, f 2 32Hz; then interval f 1  f 2 covered
3:322 logf 2 =f 1 1 3:322 log16 4 octaves:
In industrial settings vibrations are usually observed in 810 octaves.
A decade is the interval between two frequencies that have a frequency ratio of
10. The interval in decades between any two frequencies f1 and f2, is the base
10 logarithm of the frequency ratio, i.e.,
Decf 1 f 2 logf 2 =f 1 :
The frequency characterizing a frequency band [f1, f2] as a whole is usually
represented as a geometric mean of the two frequencies, and is equal to
f gm

p
f 1f 2:

The spectral content of vibrations is evaluated in octaves and one-third of octave

frequency bands. The octaves, three 1/3-octave frequency bands for each octave,
and corresponding geometric mean of the frequencies are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Boundary values of frequency band, 1/3 frequency bands for each octave, and
corresponding geometric mean frequencies [2]
Boundary values
of frequency band, Hz
Octavea
1/3 octaveb
0.71.4
0.70.89
0.891.12
1.121.4
1.42.8
1.41.78
1.782.24
2.242.8
2.85.6
2.83.5
3.54.4
4.45.6
5.611.2
5.67.1
7.18.9
8.911.2
f2/f1 2
p
f 2 =f 1 3 2 1:25992

Geometric mean
frequencies, Hz
0.8
1.0
1.25
1.6
2.0
2.5
3.15
4.0
5.0
6.3
8.0
10

Boundary values
of frequency band, Hz
Octavea
1/3 octaveb
1122
11.214.1
14.117.8
17.822.4
2244
22.428.2
28.235.6
35.544.7
4488
44.756.2
56.270.8
70.889.1
88176
89.1112.2
112.2141.3
141.3177.8

Geometric mean
frequencies, Hz
12.5
16
20
25
31.5
40
50
63
80
100
125
160

Introduction

xxxix

Existing standards provide data on the maximum allowable vibration levels in

terms of the root-mean-square (rms). Next we present formulas for calculating rms
for several different methods of representing variables.
The rms value of a set of values xi , i 1, n is the square root of the arithmetic
mean (average) of the squares of the original values, i.e.,
xrms

r

1 2
x1 x22    x2n :

The corresponding formula for a continuous function (or waveform) f(t) dened
over the interval T 1  t  T 2 is
f rms

T2
1
2

f t dt:
T 2  T 1 T1

The rms value for a function over all time is

f rms

1 T
lim
f t2 dt:
T!1
T 0

The rms value over all time of a periodic function is equal to the RMS of one period
of the function [30]. For example, in the case of f t a sin t, we get
p
f rms a= 2.
Example The function f t a sin t is considered in interval T. Calculate the
2

mean square value f and rms value frms.

The mean square value for a function over all time is
2

1 T
1 T
f t2 dt lim
a sin t2 dt
T!1 T 0
T!1 T 0

a2 T 1
a2
1  cos 2tdt ;
lim
T!1 T 0 2
2

f lim

p
so the rms value becomes f rms a= 2.
Three types of units can be used to measure vibrations and graphically represent
the corresponding physical quantities. These units are linear, logarithmic, and
decibel.
Linear units provide a true picture of the vibration components in terms of the
domain. The linear scale allows us to easily extract and evaluate the highest
components in the spectra. At the same time, low frequency component values
could prove to be challenging for analysis. This is because the human eye can
distinguish components in the spectra that are 4050 times lower than the maximum
component. Any components lower than that are generally indistinguishable.

xl

Introduction

Therefore, one adapts the linear scale if the spectrums components of interest are
all of the same order.
Logarithmic Units If the spectrum contains frequency components of very large
range (several different orders of magnitude), then for their graphical representation, it is convenient to plot the logarithm of the magnitude on the y-axis, and not
just the magnitude itself. This will allow us to easily interpret and represent on a
graph a signal whose maximum and minimum values differ by more than 5000.
Compared to a linear scale, this will increase the graphs range by at least a factor of
100. The other advantage of the logarithmic scale is the following: incipient faults
of a complex mechanical system are manifested as spectral components with very
small relative amplitude. The logarithmic scale can allow us to discover this
component and watch its development. Compared to a linear scale, the disadvantage of the logarithmic scale is that one must always remember to take the
exponential of the values when attempting to determine the true amplitudes from
the graph.
Decibel The magnitude of any physical quantity (velocity, pressure, etc.) may be
estimated by comparing it with the standard threshold (or reference level) of this
quantity. The decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that is used to express the ratio
between two values of the same physical quantity. The decibel is a dimensionless
parameter determined by the formula:
L 20lg= 0 dB;
where is a generalized representation of vibrational acceleration, velocity, displacement, etc., and is measured in the standard corresponding units ISO 1683
(International Organization for Standardization) [31];
0 is the reference level corresponding to 0 dB.
Thus, the decibels is a characteristic of oscillations that compares two physical
quantities of the same kind (Table 2).
In this table a, , d are current values of the acceleration, velocity and
displacement.
Reference quantity 0 109 m=s leads to the fact that all indicators of a
vibrational process measured in dB are positive. However, various other
reference quantities are used, in particulary d 0 8  1012 m; 0 5  108
m=s, a0 3  104 m=s2 [2].
Table 2 Preferred reference quantities are expressed in SI units (lg log10) [10, 31]
Description
Vibration acceleration level

Denition (dB)
LA 20lga=a0

Reference quantity
a0 106 m=s2

Vibration velocity level

LV 20lg=0

0 109 m=s

Vibration displacement level

LD 20lgd=d 0

d0 1011 m

Vibration force level

LF 20lgF=F0

F0 106 N

Introduction

xli

Decibels and corresponding values of accelerations and velocities are presented

in Table 3.
Table 3 Conversion between
decibels, acceleration (m/s2),
and velocity (m/s); Reference
levels dened in ISO 1683

Decibel (dB)
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200

Acceleration (m/s2)
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
1
10
102
103
104

Velocity (m/s)
1010
109
108
107
106
105
104
103
102
101
1
10

If the decibel units are used to evaluate vibrational levels, as opposed to linear
units, then much more information about the activity levels of vibration becomes
available. Also, decibels represented on a logarithmic scale are generally more
visually appealing than linear units represented on a logarithmic scale.
Decibels and Their Relation to Amplitude Since the decibel is a relative logarithmic unit of measuring vibration, it allows us to easily perform comparative
measurements. Assume that a measured quantity is increased n times. With this,
n
the level of vibration is increased by xdB,: therefore, L x 20lg . We can
0

express this relationship as L x 20lgn 20lg , or x 20lgn: If n 2, then

0
x 6 dB: Thus an increase of any kinematic value by 6 dB mean doubling its
amplitude. If n 10, then x 20dB:
Now assume that the vibration level is changed by k dB. In this case we have two
relationships:
1
L1 20lg ,
0
2
L2 L1 k 20log :
0
2
2
2
Therefore, k 20lg . Amplitude ratio 10k=20 : If k 3 then 1:4125:
1
1
1
These properties allow us to study trends in evolution of vibrations. The relationships between changes in levels of vibrations (in dB) and the corresponding
amplitudes are shown in Table 4.
These data can be presented on a logarithmic scale as shown in Fig. 14

xlii

Introduction

Table 4 Changes in vibrations levels (in dB) and the corresponding amplitude ratios
Change in level (dB)
0
3
6
10
12
18
20
24

Amplitude ratioa
1
1.4
2
3.1
4
8
10
16

Amplitude ratioa
31
60
100
310
1000
3100
10,000
100,000

Change in level (dB)

30
36
40
50
60
70
80
100

Some amplitude ratios are rounded

105

Amplitude ratio

104

103

102

101

100

10

20

30 40 50 60 70
Change in level (dB)

80

90

100

Fig. 14 Changes in vibrations levels (in dB) and the corresponding amplitude ratios

Conversion Triangle Let us consider a case of harmonic vibration of frequency

f (in Hz). If we consider the kinematic relationships between displacement (D),
velocity (V ) and acceleration (A), then the relationship between their amplitude
values D, V, and A, in standard international units, is A 2f 2 D, A 2f V,
V 2f D.
Generalized Measurement Units In the case of harmonic vibrations with frequency f (Hz) for an accepted reference quantity, it is easy to establish a relationship
between vibration acceleration level LA, velocity LV and displacement LD, measured in dB. Let the reference quantities be [2]
a0 3  104 m=s2 ,

0 5  108 m=s, d 0 8  1012 m:

Introduction

xliii

We determine an expression for LA in terms of LV. According to the conversional

a
2 f
triangle, we have a 2 f , therefore LA 20lg 20lg
. This expression
a0
3  104
contains velocity ; therefore, the reference quantity for 0 5  108 m=s should
be introduced in the denominator. After that, the expression for LA becomes
!
2 f

2
LA 20lg
20lg

f
3  104
5  108 35  104





5  2
20lg

20lg
20lgf :
5  108
3  104
Finally we get
LA LV 20lgf  60 dB:
Relationships between LV and LD, LD and LA may be similarly derived.

Problems
1. Dene the following terms: (1) Source of vibration; (2) Vibration protection
object; (3) Two groups of internal factors that cause vibrations; (4) Passive
vibration protection; (5) Active vibration protection; (6) Vibration isolation,
vibration damping, vibration absorption; (7) Force and kinematic excitation;
(8) Decade, octave, decibel; (9) Displacement (velocity, acceleration) level.
2. Explain the idea of parametric vibration protection
3. What are the main elements of the design diagram for passive and active
vibration protection systems?
4. Describe the principal approaches for estimating the effectiveness of vibration
protection.
5. Describe the physical relationships for the principal linear passive elements.
6. Describe the principal parts of the statement of the optimal active control
vibration problem.
7. Establish relationships between vibration velocity level LV, frequency f Hz and
displacement LD. Give results in dB. Assume the basic levels are
0 5  108 m=s, d 0 8  1012 m.
Answer: LV LD 20lgf  60 dB:
8. Establish relationships between vibration displacement level LD and acceleration LA. Give results in dB. Assume the basic levels are
a0 3  104 m=s2 , d 0 8  1012 m.
Answer: LD LA  40lgf 120 dB:
9. Calculate the number of octaves in a single decade.
Answer: Octf 1 f 2 log2 f 2 =f 1 3:322 lg10 3:322 octaves.

xliv

Introduction

10. Find the ratio f2/f1 that corresponds to four octaves.

Answer:
Octf 1 f 2 log2 f 2 =f 1 3:322 lgf 2 =f 1 4 ! lgf 2 =f 1
1:2041 ! f 2 =f 1 101:2041 16:
11. Find the number of decades in the frequency interval 10160 Hz.
Answer: Decf 1 f 2 lgf 2 =f 1 lg16 1:204 decades.
12. Compose a conversion table of vibration levels (dB) to the value of the velocity
(m/s); take 0 5  108 m=s:

Solution. If L 90 dB, then L 20lg

90 dB ! lg

8
5  10
5  108

4:5 !
104:5 31622:7 ! 0:00158 0:158  102 m=s:
5  108
Answer: Conversion table of vibration level L (dB) to the value of the
velocity (m/s); 0 5  108 m=s:
dB
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
factor

m/s
0.050
0.056
0.063
0.071
0.079
0.089
0.099
0.112
0.026
0.141
102

dB
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99

m/s
0.158
0.177
0.199
0.223
0.251
0.281
0.316
0.354
0.397
0.446
102

dB
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109

m/s
0.50
0.56
0.63
0.71
0.79
0.89
1.00
1.12
1.26
1.41
102

dB
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119

m/s
1.58
1.77
1.99
2.23
2.51
2.81
3.16
3.54
3.97
4.46
102

dB
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129

m/s
5.0
5.6
6.3
7.1
7.9
8.9
10.0
11.2
12.6
14.1
102

13. At a frequency f 100Hz, the amplitude of displacements is x 8 mm.

Calculate the vibration acceleration level La (dB). Assume the basic level is
d 0 8  1012 m.
x
0:008
Solution. Lx 20lg 20lg
180dB ! La Lx 40lgf  120
d0
8  1012
180 40lg100  120 140dB:
Answer: La 140 dB.

References
1. Gusarov A.A. , Susanin V.I., Shatalov L.N. etc. (1979). Automatic balancing machine rotor.
Moscow: Nauka.
2. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol.6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Chief Editor) (19781981)Vibration in Engineering, Vol.16. Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
3. Chelomey, V. N. (Chief Ed.). (19781981) Vibrations in engineering. Handbook (Vols. 16).
Moscow: Mashinostroenie.

Introduction

xlv

4. Frolov, K. V., & Furman, F. A. (1990). Applied theory of vibration isolation systems.
New York: Hemisphere.
5. Clough, R. W., & Penzien, J. (1975). Dynamics of structures. New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Crawford, F. S., Jr. (1965). Waves. Berkeley physics course (Vol. 3). New York: McGrawHill.
7. Crandall, S. H. (Ed.). (1963). Random vibration (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
8. Lalanne, C. (2002). Mechanical vibration and shock (Vols. 14). London: Hermes Penton
Science.
9. Ilinsky, V. S. (1982). Protection of radio-electronic equipment and precision equipment from
the dynamic excitations. Moscow: Radio.
10. Grifn, M. J. (1990). Handbook of human vibration. London: Elsevier/Academic Press. Next
editions 1996, 2003, 2004.
11. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
12. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. Berlin,
Germany: Springer.
13. Panovko Ya. G., & Gubanova, I. I. (2007). Stability and oscillations of elastic systems:
Modern concepts, paradoxes, and errors. NASA TT-F, 751, 1973 (6th ed.). Moscow: URSS.
14. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, England: Addison-Wesley.
15. Burton, P. (1979). Kinematics and dynamics of planar machinery. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
16. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
17. Mead, D. J. (1999). Passive vibration control. Chichester, England: Wiley.
18. Nashif, A. D., Jones, D. I. G., & Henderson, J. P. (1985). Vibration damping. New York:
Wiley.
19. Korenev, B. G., & Reznikov, L. M. (1993). Dynamic vibration absorbers. Theory and
technical applications. Chichester, England: Wiley.
20. Korenev, B. G., & Rabinovich, I. M. (Eds.). (1984). Dynamical analysis of the buildings and
structures. Handbook. Moscow: Strojizdat.
21. Reed, F. E. (1996). Dynamic vibration absorbers and auxiliary mass dampers (Chapter 6). In
C. M. Harris (Ed.), Shock and vibration handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
22. Balandin, D. V., Bolotnik, N. N., & Pilkey, W. D. (2001). Optimal protection from impact,
shock and vibration. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
23. Athans, M., & Falb, P. L. (2006). Optimal control: An introduction to the theory and its
applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. Reprinted by Dover in 2006.
24. Komkov, V. (1972). Optimal control theory for the damping of vibrations of simple elastic
systems. Lecture notes in mathematics (Vol. 253). Berlin, Germany: Springer.
25. Fuller, C. R., Elliott, S. J., & Nelson, P. A. (1996). Active control of vibration. London:
Academic Press.
26. Kolovsky, M. Z. (1999). Nonlinear dynamics of active and passive systems of vibration
protection. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
27. Solodovnikov, V. V. (Ed.). (1967). Technical cybernetics (Vols. 14). Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
28. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGrawHill.
29. Kljukin, I. I. (Ed.). (1978). Handbook on the ship acoustics. Leningrad, Germany:
Sudostroenie.
30. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
31. ISO 1683:2015. AcousticsPreferred reference values for acoustical and vibratory levels.

Part I

Passive Vibration Protection

Chapter 1

Vibration Isolation of a System with One

or More Degrees of Freedom

This chapter describes some general concepts, including design diagrams of vibration
protection systems, the various means of vibrational excitation, and the complex
amplitude method. We consider types of linear classic single-axis vibration isolators
and special types of isolators (equal-frequency vibration isolator, isolator with dry
friction, etc.) [1, 2].

1.1

Design Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

In general, a vibration protection (VP) system consists of three elements: source of

excitation, vibration protection object and vibration protection device. The object
of vibration protection may be a solid body, having one or more degrees of freedom,
or it can be an elastic body. In general, the effect of vibration isolation is to weaken
the ties between the source of vibration and the object of vibration protection.
The design diagram of a vibration protection system is a fundamental concept in
the theory of vibration protection [3, 4]. The adoption of a design diagram is based
on a number of assumptions. These assumptions take into account the following
peculiarities of the system:
1. The object of vibration protection and its model
2. The type of foundation that supports the object (rigid or elastic)
3. The elements of passive VP device (stiffness elements, dampers), their quantity,
and the types of connections
4. Mathematical models of passive elements (linear, nonlinear)
5. Restrictions on motion (unilateral/two-way, symmetrical/non-symmetrical)
6. The type of excitation of vibration (force, kinematic, harmonic, polyharmonic or
impact)

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_1

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

Selecting a design scheme for the vibration protection object is constrained by

the objectives and precision analysis of the system.
Let us consider an absolutely rigid body of mass m, which together with the VP
device is installed on the structure (support S). Assume that the motion of the object
occurs along one direction. The object m is subjected to a force excitation F(t) (Fig. 1.1).
1. Assume that the support S is unmovable, or that its mass ms is ms  m, or that its
stiffness is much greater than that of the stiffness of the VP device. In this case,
the design diagram has one degree of freedom. It is shown in Fig. 1.1a.
2. Now assume that by using the same VP device, the object is xed to the wing of
an aircraft. In this case, the mass of the surrounding parts of the support may be
less than the mass of the object, and the stiffness of support may be comparable
to the stiffness of the objects VP device. In this case, the design diagram of the
system object-support should be presented as a system with two degrees of
freedom (Fig. 1.1b).
Fig. 1.1 Design diagrams
of passive vibration
protection with two types
of supports. (a) absolutely
rigid support.
(b) deformable support.
VPD vibration protection
device, S support, mS mass
of support, SS stiffness
of support

F(t)

F(t)

VPD

VPD

mS
Support
SS

In this way, the degrees of freedom of the VP system are determined not only by
the degrees of freedom of the object itself, but also by the properties of the support.
Among VP devices, we should identify a class of VP systems where a system
with an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom permits the displacement of bodies
introduced into the system in only one direction. This is known as a single-axis
system, and this case is presented in Figs. 1.1 and 1.2. As the main passive
components, each design diagram in Fig. 1.2 contains an elastic element (stiffness)
and an element in which a dissipation of energy (damper) occurs.

b
F(t)

x(t)

(t)

m
m

m
k

k
b

m
b

m
b

m1
k1

b
k

b1

k1

b1

Fig. 1.2 Vibration isolation schemes. (a) Simplest case for vibration protection of an object with
mass m; (b) VP system with limited motion; (c, d) cascading regular connection; (e) irregular
connection

1.2 Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic Excitation and Vibration. . .

In the case of a multi-cascade vibration isolation system, additional masses

(Fig. 1.2c) or massless elements (shown as a shaded rectangle in Fig. 1.2d, e) are
included in the design diagram; thus the compound of the elements can be either
regular or irregular. A regular connection means that each subsequent mass
(or massless element) is connected only with the previous mass (Fig. 1.2c, d).
Also, the restrictors of displacements (Fig. 1.2b), as well as a lever with a xed or
moving support point [5], may be included in the vibration protection system.
A diagram forcedisplacement for an elastic element may be linear or
nonlinear. Elements that dissipate energy include a viscous damper or a dry friction
damper. Also, their forcevelocity characteristics can be linear or nonlinear.
Using restrictors of displacement and/or passive elements with nonlinear characteristics leads to nonlinear VP systems.
Each of the systems in Fig. 1.2 may be subjected to a dynamic (force) F(t) and/or
kinematic excitations (t).
By utilizing passive elements m, k and b, massless members, and restrictions (oneor two-sided), it is possible to construct a vast number of different vibration isolators.
If the vibration system consists of inclined symmetrical elastic elements [6], then the
isolator remains a single-axis system but acquires important new features.
The analysis of a linear vibration protection system which is subjected to
harmonic force and kinematic excitation can be signicantly simplied. For this,
the original design diagram should be replaced by an equivalent mechanical
network (substitution scheme). This problem is considered in Chaps. 2 and 3.

1.2

Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic

Excitation and Vibration Protection Criteria

A linear one-sided springmassdamper system is considered, and the equations of

state of the object at a force and kinematic harmonic excitation, the solution to the
equations of state, and their analyses are presented. Different performance criteria
for vibration protection and the conditions for their implementation are discussed.
Consider a mechanical system which consists of a mass m, supported by an
elastic element with stiffness k [N/m] and damper b [N s/m]. The system is
subjected to either a force excitation F(t) or kinematic excitation (t). The elements
bk represents a VP device. The main problem consists in determining the conditions under which vibrations are reduced.
We assume that the system is linear [5, 7]:
1. There are no restrictions on displacement
2. The relative displacement of the ends of the elastic element is proportional to a
force applied at its endpoints Rk k  x
3. The relative velocity of the ends of the damper is proportional to force applied to
its ends Rb b  x_:

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

1.2.1

Simplest Mechanical Model of a Vibration Protection

System

A springdamper connected in parallel represents the simplest non-inertial,

one-axis vibration isolator (Fig. 1.3). The system is subjected to harmonic force
Ft F sin t (Fig. 1.3a) or kinematic excitation t 0 sin t (Fig. 1.3b).
Coordinate x(t) of absolute motion of the mass m is measured from a static
equilibrium position (SEP).

c
F(t)

SEP

m
k

F(t)

x(t)

SEP

m
k

x(t)

mx

(t)

kx

bx

x(t)

Fig. 1.3 Single-side vibration isolator. (a) Force excitation, (b) kinematic excitation, and (c) freebody diagram for the case of force excitation and xed support

In the case of force excitation, the force arising in the isolator is

R kx bx_ ;
where x is the deformation of the elastic element and x_: is the velocity of
deformation. A free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 1.3c.
In the case of kinematic excitation, the force arising in the isolator is


R kx  b x_  _ ;
where x  is the relative displacement of the mass m, and x_  _: is the relative
velocity of the endpoints of the damper. Now the cases of force and kinematic
excitation will be considered separately.

1.2.2

Force Excitation. Dynamic and Transmissibility

Coefcients

The differential equation of damped, forced vibration is

mx bx_ kx Ft:

1:1

We will consider the harmonic excitation Ft F0 sin t, where F0 is the amplitude of disturbing force F(t), is the frequency of excitation. In equivalent form,
this equation becomes

1.2 Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic Excitation and Vibration. . .

x 2nx_ 20 x P0 sin t, 20 k=m, 2n b=m, P0 F0 =m;

1:2

where 0 is the circular natural frequency of undamped vibration.

The solution to this equation is x x1 x2 , where x1 is the general solution of
the homogeneous equation (1.1), and x2 is a particular solution of the complete
equation (1.1).
Solution x1 decreases with time and tends to zero. For x2 we look for a solution of
the form
x2 A sin t  ;

1:3

where A and are unknown constants. Differentiating with respect to t, we get

x_ 2 A cos t  , x2 A2 sin t  :
Substituting the expressions for x2 and corresponding derivatives into the left side
of (1.1) and introducing the notation t  , we obtain


A 2 20 sin 2nA cos P0 sin cos cos sin :
For this equation to be satised at any value of , i.e., at any instant of time t, the
factors of sin and cos should be separately equal. Hence


A 20  2 P0 cos ,
2nA P0 sin :
First squaring and adding these equations, and then dividing one by the other, we
obtain:
F0 =m
F0 =k
q ,
A q

2
20  2 4n2 2
1  m2 =k2 b2 2 =k2

1:4

2n
b=k
:

tan 2
0  2 1  m2 =k
Equations (1.3) and (1.4) describe the steady-state vibration of the mass m.
The above equation (1.4) may be expressed in terms of the following quantities:
critical damping bcr 2m0 , damping factor b=bcr , and parameter
b=k 2=0 .
F0 =k
,
A q
2
2 2
2
2
2
1  =0 4 =0
2=0
:
tan
1  2 =20

1:5

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

It is possible to dene several different metrics that evaluate the effectiveness of the
vibration protection process.
1. Assume that the goal of the vibration protection process is to reduce the
amplitudes of forced steady-state vibrations of the mass m. The dynamic coefcient (DC) represents the ratio of the amplitude of the mass displacement
A (due to disturbing force F(t)) to the displacement st of the mass caused by
static action of the amplitude of the disturbing force F0 [8]. That is,
DC

A
1
q ;
st
1  z2 2 42 z2

1:6

where st F0 =k ; the dimensionless parameters are z =0 , n=0 .

In fact, [7].
The graph of the dynamic coefcient as a function of dimensionless frequency
z =0 and relative damping n=0 is shown in Fig. 1.4. The effectiveness
of vibration protection according to DC  1 is provided in the range of z =0
p
p
 2 for all values of n=0 d=2 km. This region is shown by a shaded
p
color in Fig. 1.4. The smallest parameter for which DC  1 for all z is 1= 2.
DC
5.0
4.5

DC =

(1 z ) + 4
2 2

2 z2

=0.0

4.0
3.5
0.1
3.0
0.15
2.5
2.0

1.5
0.25
1.0

(2, 1)

1 2

1 2

0.5
1.0
0.0
0.25

0.5

0.75 1.0 1.25 2 1.5

1.75 2.0

z=/0

Fig. 1.4 Dynamic coefcient (DC) as a function of dimensionless frequency z and relative
damping n/0

1.2 Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic Excitation and Vibration. . .

p
p
With this value of , DC 1= 1 z4 < 1 for all z. Thus for > 1= 2 the
vibration protection is effective for the entire range of dimensionless frequencies
0 < z < 1.
p
To determine the effectiveness of vibration protection for < 1= 2 we
should consider the case when DC 1; we can conclude that in this case
p
vibration protection is effective when z > 21  22 . For example, if 0:7
q


then z > 2 1  2  0:72 0:2. That is, for a xed value of z, the effectiveness
increases as the level of dampening grows.
2. Assume that the goal of vibration protection is to reduce the force that is
transmitted onto an immovable support of the vibrating system [9]. This force
can be represented by bx_ kx. It can be shown that amplitude value of this force is
Rf X

q
k2 b2 ;

1:7

where




F0
F0

 q
,
X

2
k  m jb
k  m2 2 b2

p
1:

1:8

It is clear that amplitude values A and X are equal. A detailed derivation of this
formula will be presented in Sect. 1.3 (Complex Amplitude Method).
Transmissibility coefcient (TC) [3, 4] presents the ratio of the forces
amplitude Rf that is transferred onto the foundation, to the amplitude F0 of the
force that is applied to the mass
Rf
TC

F0

s
1 42 z2
:
1  z2 2 42 z2

1:9

The transmissibility coefcient graph as a function of dimensionless frequency

parameter z =0 and relative damping n=0 is shown in Fig. 1.5. The
effectiveness of vibration protection according to the criterion TC  1 is
p
provided in the range of z  2 for any damping; this region is shown by a
shaded color in Fig. 1.5. For every z in this region, the weaker the damping, the
more effective is the vibration protection; the most effective vibration isolator is
ideal elastic, for which 0.
Thus, in the case of force harmonic excitation, vibration protection is simultaneously achieved for two criteria, DC  1 and TC  1 , if the ratio of
p
frequencies z =0 is greater than or equal to 2. Damping in this frequency

10

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

10
8

TC
=0.05

0.10

0.20

2
0.50

( 2,1)

1
0.8
0.6
0.01-0.05

0.4

0.10

0.3
TC =

0.2

0.1

0.20

1+ 4 2z2

(1 z ) + 4 z
2

2 2

0.50
z = 0

0.1

0.2

0.3 0.4

0.6 0.8 1

8 10

Fig. 1.5 Transmissibility coefcient (TC) as a function of dimensionless parameter z and relative
damping n/0

range plays a different role: increased damping leads to a decrease in DC and an

increase in TC. A great number of numerical results related to the effectiveness
of vibration isolation are presented by Crede and Ruzicka [1].
If there are several forces with different frequencies acting upon the system, it
is necessary to provide a sufciently small transmissibility coefcient for the
force with the smallest frequency. In doing so, the vibration protection effect
will be much greater for forces with high frequencies.

1.2.3

Kinematic Excitation. Overload Vibration Coefcient

and Estimation of Relative Displacement

The design diagram of the system with one degree of freedom subjected to motion
of the foundation (t) is shown in Fig. 1.3b. A body of mass m performs a complex
motion [10]. Absolute motion, transport motion, and relative motion are determined
by coordinates x, and x  , respectively.
The force that arises in the spring is proportional to the springs deformation
kx  . The force that arises in the damper is proportional to relative velocity of

1.2 Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic Excitation and Vibration. . .

11



the dampers end points b x_  _: . Summing these forces, we obtain the following
differential equation:


mx b x_  _ kx  0:

1:10

Let us consider the absolute and relative motion of the mass.

1. Absolute motion. Equation (1.10) becomes
mx bx_ kx k b_ :
Let t 0 sin t ; then the equation with respect to absolute coordinate
x becomes [7]
mx bx_ kx 0 k sin t b cos t 0

q
k2 b2 sin t

eq sin t ;

1:11

q
where eq 0 k2 b2 , tan b=k.
Equation (1.11) is similar to (1.1), so for amplitude A of absolute coordinate
x we get
eq
A q :
k  m2 2 b2

1:12

The amplitude of absolute acceleration x becomes

q
2
2
2

eq
0 k b
2 X q q :
k  m2 2 b2
k  m2 2 b2
2

1:13

We dene the effectiveness of vibration protection in absolute acceleration

according to the following relation:
.
abs
object
Aacc
K acc
Asup
acc ;

1:14

where Aobject
is the amplitude of absolute acceleration of the object, and Asup
acc
acc
2
0 is the amplitude of acceleration of the support.
m.
In fact, this coefcient Kabs
acc denes the overload of an object with mass
p
Using dimensionless parameters b=2m0 , z =0 , 0 k=m,
we get

12

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

abs
K acc

p
1 42 z2
q :
1  z2 2 42 z2

1:15

We can see that TC for the case of force harmonic excitation Ft F0 sin t
and Kabs
acc for kinematic harmonic excitation are equal.
2. Relative motion. The relative coordinate of the object is z x  . The differential equation (1.10) for coordinate z becomes [7]


m z bz_ kz 0:

1:16

If we still assume that t 0 sin t, equation (1.16) can be written as

mz bz_ kz m0 2 sin t:

1:17

Equation (1.17) is similar to (1.1), so for amplitude Z of relative coordinate z we

obtain
m0 2
:
Z q
k  m2 2 b2

1:18

Let the effectiveness of vibration protection be dened by the following relation:

sup
relat
ob
K displ
Arel
disp =Adisp ;
sup
where Arelob
disp is the amplitude of relative displacement of the object, and Adisp is
the amplitude of displacement of the support.
p
Using dimensionless parameters b=2m0 , z =0 , 0 k=m,
we obtain

z2
relat
K displ
q :
1  z2 2 42 z2

1:19

This relationship can be plotted as shown in Fig. 1.6. The effectiveness of

relat
vibration protection (VP) under the criterion K displ
 1 is satised for the entire
p
p
frequency spectrum if > 1= 2. If < 1= 2, then VP is effective for the range
p
of frequencies 0 < z < 1= 21  22 . For a xed frequency z, the degree of
effectiveness of VP increases as the level of damping increases. In the worstcase scenario, when 0, the VP is effective in the frequency range
p
0 < z < 1= 2. The shaded zone represents the region where vibration protection is effective.

1.2 Linear Viscously Damped System. Harmonic Excitation and Vibration. . .

13

relat
Kdispl

4.0
3.75
3.5

relat
Kdispl
=

3.25

z2

(1z2)2+4 2z2

3.0
2.75
2.5

=0.0

2.25
0.125

2.0
1.75

0.25

1.5
2 4 0.5

1.25
1.0
1 2

0.75
1.0

0.5
0.25
0.0

0.5

1 2

1.0

2.0
1.5

2.0

2.5

z = 0

Fig. 1.6 Relative displacement coefcient as a function of the dimensionless parameter z and
relative damping n/0

Results related to vibration protection of a kmb system (Fig. 1.3a, b) are

presented in Table 1.1 [4, 11]. The rst and third columns of the table contain
results for the cases of force and kinematic harmonic excitation with constant
amplitude. The second column of the table contains results for the case of force
excitation when the amplitude of excitation is a function of the disturbance frequency. This can occur when the excitation force is caused by unbalanced rotating
parts of machines. In this case, me is the unbalanced mass and e is eccentricity.
The table contains differential equations for absolute motion x(t) of the object
(rst row), amplitude of the corresponding steady-state response (second row),
and expressions for estimating vibration protection effectiveness (rows 36).
2z
The following notation is used in the Table 1.1: phase angle tan 1
,
1  z2
F0
static displacement st .
k
r

k
n
b
The dimensionless parameters are z
, 0
p ,
;
0
m
0 2 km
b
1
2n , q.
m
1  z2 2 42 z2
It is easy to see that expressions for DC, TC, and VP in the second and third
column coincide.

Vibration protection
VP 20logTC, dB

Amplitude of force transmitted on

foundation Rf bx_ kx
Transmissibility coefcient (TC)

Dynamic coefcient (DC)

The steady-state response in absolute

motion xt A sin t ; Ar
amplitude of relative displacement

Exposures
Equation of absolute motion

p
Rf
z2 1 42 z2
me e2
p
VP 20logz2 1 42 z2

p
VP 20log 1 42 z2

TC

p
TC FR0f 1 42 z2

st

me
e
m
A
z2
DC q

1  z2 2 42 z2
p
Rf me e2 z2 1 42 z2

z2
A q ,
1  z2 2 42 z2

Ft me e2 sin t
mx bx_ kx me e2 sin t

F0
k
A
1
DC
q
st
1  z2 2 42 z2
p
Rf F0 1 42 z2

st
A q,
1  z2 2 42 z2

Ft F0 sin t
mx bx_ kx F0 sin t

p
Rf
z2 1 42 z2
m0
p
VP 20logz2 1 42 z2
TC

Ar
z2
q
0
1  z2 2 42 z2
p

Rf m0 z2 1 42 z2
DC

mx bx_ kx k b_ Relative
coordinate
xr x  : mxr bx_ r kxr m0 2 sin t
z 2 0
Ar q
1  z2 2 42 z2

t 0 sin t

Table 1.1 Vibration protection characteristics of damped system with one degree of freedom (Fig. 1.5a, b) [4, 11]

14
1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

1.3 Complex Amplitude Method

1.3

15

Complex Amplitude Method

The steady-state motion of a linear system subjected to harmonic excitation can be

analyzed effectively by the complex amplitude method. This method was developed by Kennelly and Steinmetz (1893) [12], and a signicant contribution to the
theory and technical development of the method was provided by Mitkevitch and
Puhov [13]. At the core of this method is a geometric interpretation of complex
numbers, i.e., representation of a vector in the form of the sum of both of its
projections, onto the real and imaginary axes [11].

1.3.1

Vector Representation of Harmonic Quantities

Consider a vector ~
Z, originating at point O and rotating with constant velocity .
The axes x, y represent the complex plane (x: real axis, y: imaginary axis). This
scenario is shown in Fig. 1.7.
Fig. 1.7 Representation of
vector ~
Z and its components
on the complex plane

y
Z

Q
t
O

The projection of Z onto the real and imaginary axes at any point in time is given by
xt Z cos t,
yt Z sin t:

1:20

These functions x(t) and y(t) are harmonic functions of amplitude Z and circular
frequency . The vector Z may be represented as a complex number in a trigonometric or exponential form, as follows:
~
Z Z cos t j sin t Z e jt ;
p
where j 1, and e is the base of the natural logarithm e 2:718.
Now the functions x(t) and y(t) which describe the harmonic motion may be
represented as real and imaginary parts of the complex number ~
Z


xt Re Z e jt ,



yt Im Z e jt :

1:21

16

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

With this, we can obtain the relations


d  jt 
Ze
,
dt

2

d  jt 
xt Re 2 Z e
,
dt
x_ t Re


d  jt 
Ze
;
dt

2

d  jt 
yt Im 2 Z e
:
dt
y_ t Im

We have the obvious relationships

d  jt 
Ze
jZ e jt j ~
Z,
dt
d2  jt 
Z:
Ze
j2 Z e jt 2 ~
dt2
Therefore, every subsequent differentiation of the vector ~
Z multiplies the vectors
length by a factor of and rotates the vector by 90
in a counterclockwise direction.
Figure 1.8 shows a vector diagram for the vector ~
Z and its derivatives 0:5.
Fig. 1.8 Vector diagram
representing displacement,
velocity, and acceleration

y
Z
j Z

t
O

2 Z

If we assume that x x0 sin t, then the vector diagram can be constructed in

terms of functions


x_ x0 cos t x0 sin t ,
2

x x0 2 sin t:

If, for a particular scenario, we have several vectors that are rotating with the
same angular velocity , then we are only interested in their relative position. This
is why vector diagrams are constructed only for a particular instance in time,
usually at t 0.
One of the simplest ways of solving linear differential equations in the case of
harmonic excitation is based on the following method. If the linear differential
equation
dn x
dn1 x
dx

a
   an1 an x Ft
1
dtn
dtn1
dt

1:22

1.3 Complex Amplitude Method

17

has real (either constant or time-dependent) coefcients ai, and F F1 jF2 ,

where F1 and F2 are also real, then the solution to this equation will be complex:
x x1 jx2 , where x1 and x2 will be solutions to (1.22), with the right-hand side
equal to F1 and F2, respectively.

1.3.2

Single-Axis Vibration Isolator

We now demonstrate the complex amplitude method for analysis of steady-state

oscillations of the system shown in Fig. 1.9.
Fig. 1.9 Design diagram of
the simplest mkb system

b
m

x(t)
F(t)

The x coordinate is measured from the SEP. The disturbing force is given by
Ft F sin t. The motion of the system is described by the following equation:
mx bx_ kx F sin t:

1:23

We introduce the complex disturbing force ~

F F e jt . Thus, the real disturbing
force is F sin t Im ~
F. Since the steady-state motion of the system occurs with
the same frequency , but lags in phase by angle , we represent the complex
coordinates in the form
~
X X e jt :
On the basis of the established theory, the real displacement becomes
xt Im ~
X X sin t  :

1:24

As such, the analysis of steady-state motion is reduced to determining the complex

amplitude of displacement X X ej
 . In fact, we must determine the absolute
value of the complex amplitude X X and the phase angle argX. Assume
that x X e jt , x_ jX e jt , and x 2 X e jt . Substitute these formulas, along
with ~
F F e jt , into the original equation (1.23), and simplify by a factor of eit.
The complex amplitude then becomes
X

F
:
k jb  m2

18

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

Now it is easy to determine the real amplitude and phase angle





F
F

 q
,
X

2
k  m jb
k  m2 2 b2
F
b
tan 1
:
arg
2
k  m2
k  m jb

1:25

Expressions (1.24) and (1.25) fully determine the steady-state motion of the system
(1.23).
Example Construct the vector diagrams for the system in Fig. 1.9. Assume
the values for the parameters of the system and excitation are m 10 kg,k 500
N=m, b 300 N s=m, Ft F sin t, F 50 N, 4 rad=s.
F
50
0:04 m,
X q q
2
k  m2 2 b2
500  10  42 300  42
tan 1

b
300  4
tan 1
tan 1 3:529 1:295 rad 74:2
:
k  m2
500  10  42

Figure 1.10 presents positions of vectors of the displacement ~

X, velocity i ~
X , and
X for four different cases, depending on the location of the mass m and
acceleration 2 ~
direction of its velocity ; the dotted line shows the static equilibrium condition.

SEP

Im

j X

t-

t-

Re

Re

O
j X

2 X

Im

t-
X

2 X

Im
2
X

2 X

j X

Re
j X

Re
t-

Fig. 1.10 Vector diagrams of the displacement, velocity, and acceleration for different locations of
the mass m and the direction of its velocity . (a) mass is located below SEP, and velocity is directed
down; (b) mass is located below SEP, and velocity is directed up; (c) mass is located above SEP, and
velocity is directed up (d) mass is located above SEP, and velocity is directed down

1.3 Complex Amplitude Method

19

In case (a), the displacement x and velocity x_: of the mass are positive
(directed downwards), while acceleration a x is negative. The vector ~
X is
~
directed in such a way that its complex component Im X is positive, which
corresponds to the direction of displacement x (if the disturbing force was F cos t,
then xt Re ~
X ). The vector i ~
X is oriented in such a way that its complex


~
component Im i X is positive, which corresponds to the direction of velocity x_: .
Finally, the vector 2 ~
X is directed in such a way that its complex component Im
 2 
~
 X is negative. This corresponds to the direction of acceleration a x.

1.3.3

Argand Diagram

We now turn our attention to the vector force diagram (Argand diagram)
[7, 14]. We set t 0. With this, the orientation of the vector ~
F is determined by
the angle 74:2
.
In constructing the vector diagram, we must take into account the following: the
elastic force is proportional to the displacement x and has the opposite direction.
The force in the damper is proportional to the velocity x_: , and again has the opposite
direction. The vector calculations are as follows:


k ~
X kX 500  0:04 20 N,


jb ~
X bX 300  4  0:04 48 N,
 2 
m ~
X m2 X 10  42  0:04 6:4 N:
The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 1.11. The diagram shows that equation (1.23) is
satised for all times t.
Fig. 1.11 Vector diagram

Im

kX
F

jb X

Rf

Re

m X

This diagram is closed. The sum of the projections of all vectors onto the real and
imaginary axes is:
50 cos 1:295  20 6:4 20:01  20 0,
50 sin 1:295  48 48:1  48 0:

20

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

An advantage of this diagram is that it allows us to easily calculate the force

bx_ kx, which is transferred onto the support. The amplitude value of this force is
Rf X

q
k2 b2 :

1:26

The ratio of Rf to the amplitude of F is known as the transmissibility coefcient

(TC). Additional detail regarding TC is presented in Chap. 12.

1.3.4

System with Two Degrees of Freedom

Let us briey discuss the application of the complex amplitude method for a system
with more than one degree of freedom. A non-deformable rigid bar AB is supported
by two springs of stiffness coefcients k1 and k2 (Fig. 1.12). This mechanical
system is subjected to kinematic excitations z1 and z2. The vertical displacements
of the points A and B and the center of mass are y1, y2, and y0, respectively
Fig. 1.12 Design diagram
of passive vibration
protection of a system with
two degrees of freedom

y1
A

y0

y2
B

Center mass

k1

l1

k2
l2

z1

z2

It is obvious that
y1 y0  l1 ,
y2 y0 l2 :

1:27

To construct the equations of motion of the system, we will apply Lagranges

equations [10]


d T
T U

Qi ,

dt q_ i
qi qi

i 1, . . . , n

1:28

where T and U are kinetic and potential energy of the system, respectively;
qi and q_ i are the ith generalized coordinate and velocity, respectively;
Qi is the generalized force corresponding to qi;
t is time; and n is the number of degrees of freedom. In our case, n 2
From the set of coordinates that dene the state of the system , y0, y1, y2, we
must choose only the independent coordinates. There are several ways to accomplish this. Given these coordinates, and considering the relations of equation (1.27),
the remaining coordinates can be determined as well.

1.4 Linear Single-Axis Vibration Protection Systems

21

Let the generalized coordinates be the displacement of the center of mass

q1 y0 and angle of rotation of the body q2 . The kinetic and potential
energy of the system are
1
1
T My20 J2 ;
2
2

1:29

1
1
U k1 y1  z1 2 k2 y2  z2 2 ;
2
2

1:30

where M and J are the mass of the rod and moment of inertia about the center of
mass, respectively.
Lagranges procedure


d T
T U

Q y0 ,

dt y_ 0
y0 y0

 
d T
T U

Q

dt _

1:31

leads to the following differential equations:

My0 k1 k2 y0 k1 l1 k2 l2 k1 z1 k2 z2 ,


J
k1 l21 k2 l22 k1 l1 k2 l2 y0 k1 l1 z1 k2 l2 z2 :

1:32

These equation may be rewritten in matrix form.

To determine the dynamic coefcient and transmissibility coefcient in the case
of harmonic excitation of supports, we must perform the following procedure:
1. Assume that kinematic exposure is of the form Z 1 eit and Z2 eit , where Z 1
and Z 2 are complex amplitudes. Write the expressions for generalized
coordinates y0 and in their complex forms Y 0 eit and eit .
2. Substitute these expressions into equation (1.32), and solve them for the complex amplitudes Y 0 and .
3. Calculate the amplitudes of generalized coordinates as the absolute values of
complex amplitudes Y0 and .
4. Formulate the required criteria for vibration protection effectiveness.

1.4

Linear Single-Axis Vibration Protection Systems

Here, a single-axis vibration isolator with elastic suspension is considered. The

concept of reducing a vibration isolator in general form to a simple vibration
isolator is presented and the necessary conditions discussed.

22

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

1.4.1

Damper with Elastic Suspension. Transmissibility

Coefcient

The effectiveness of a vibration protection system can be increased if we introduce

an additional spring with stiffness k1, connected in series to a damper b. This system
is shown in Fig. 1.13. Assume that the system is subjected to a dynamic excitation
F sin t [11, 15].
Fig. 1.13 Single-axis
vibration isolator with
elastic suspension

F(t)

m
b
k

x(t)

k1

x1 (t )

The equation that describes the motions of the mass m is given by

mx bx_  x_ 1 kx F sin t:

1:33

Here, x and x1 are the displacement of the object and nodal point, respectively.
Since the damper b and spring k1 are connected in series, the force that arises in
the damper is equal to the force that arises in the elastic element k1, i.e.,
bx_  x_ 1 k1 x1 :

1:34

Substituting this relationship into equation (1.33) leads to

mx k1 x1 kx F sin t:

1:35

Differential equation (1.35) contains two unknown functions x and x1. From this
equation we obtain
x1

1
1
:::
F sin t  mx  kx ! x_ 1 F cos t  m x  kx_ :
k1
k1

Substituting the expression for x_ 1 in equation (1.35), we obtain a third-order

ordinary differential equation for the displacement x(t)
k k1
kk1
Fk1
F
::: k1
cos t:
x_
x
sin t
x x
m
b
m
mb
mb

1:36

We have increased the number of degrees of freedom of the system by introducing

an elastic element into the system. The system shown in Fig. 1.13 has 1.5 degrees of
freedom.

1.4 Linear Single-Axis Vibration Protection Systems

23

We now represent the excitation F(t) and displacements x(t), x1(t) in complex
form F e jt, X e jt , and X1 e jt , respectively, where F, X, and X1 are complex
p
amplitudes, and j 1. Substituting these expressions into equations (1.33) and
(1.34) leads to
k  m2 jb X  jbX1 F ,
jbX k1 jb X1 0 :
The solutions to these equations are given by
X

Fk1 jb
,
k1 k  m2 jbk k1  m2

jbF
:
X1
2
k1 k  m jbk k1  m2

1:37

The real amplitudes are

q
1 42 z2 =k2
F
X r

2
k
2
2
2
2
2
e
e
1  z 4 z 1 1=k  z =k
F
2 z=e
k
X1 r

2
k
2
2
2
2
2
e
e
1  z 4 z 1 1=k  z =k

1:38

r
k1
b

k
e
where k , p , z
, 0
.

m
k
2 km
0
The dynamic coefcient is dened by the ratio of amplitude X of mass m to the
static elastic displacement of mass m (caused by the amplitude of excitation force F).
The dynamic coefcient is given by
q
1 42 z2 =e
k2
X
r
DC

2 :
F=k
2
1  z2 42 z2 1 1=e
k  z2 =e
k

1:39

Transmissibility Coefcient The force that is transferred onto the foundation is

equal to
Rf t kxt k1 x1 t:
The complex amplitude of the force is Rf , where

1:40

24

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

Rf kX k1 X1

Fkk1 jb jk1 b
:
k1 k  m2 jbk k1  m2

1:41

The real amplitude of this force is

r

2
F 1 42 z2 1 1=e
k
Rf r

2 :
2
2
2
2
2
e
e
1  z 4 z 1 1=k  z =k

1:42

The transmissibility coefcient becomes

r

2
1 42 z2 1 1=e
k
Ff
TC r

2 :
F
2
2
2
2
2
e
e
1  z 4 z 1 1=k  z =k

1:43

Limiting Case Let us assume that k1 is omitted from the system. This implies that
the damper b is rigidly connected to the foundation, i.e., k1 1. In this case,
equations (1.39) and (1.43) reduce to equations (1.6) and (1.9), respectively.
In cases where z =0 is large, the systems with suspension in Fig. 1.13
become more effective than the system in Fig. 1.3. For example, when z 10,
z 10, e
k k1 =k2 2, 0:4 , we get TC 0.030 [11].
In the case of the system in Fig. 1.3, where e
k 1, for the transmissibility
coefcient we obtain TC 0.081. This means that the introduction of a spring with
stiffness k1 , as shown in Fig. 1.3, leads to a 2.7-fold decrease in the force that is
transferred onto the support.

1.4.2

Simplication of Vibration Isolators

A single-cascade vibration isolator kb is shown in Fig. 1.3. We will refer to this

type of system as a simple vibration protection device (SVPD). Introducing additional elements into an SVPD or connecting simple vibration isolators allows us to
construct a vast number of vibration isolators (single-cascade or multi-cascade,
regular or no regular structure, etc.) consisting of a set of kb elements. The
resulting vibration isolators can contain additional masses m or massless elements.
In special cases, complex vibration isolators can be reduced to simple vibration
isolators. This allows the use of the previously derived formulas for the coefcients
of efciency. Several typical isolators that can be reduced to SVPDs are shown in
Table 1.2. The symbol (*) represents normalized values.

kn

k2

b2

b4

k4

b1 k1

b3 k3

k2

b2

k4

b4

b1 k1

nth cascade

1st cascade

nth cascade

bn kn

b1 k1

k3

b3 k3

b3

b2 k2

bn

b1 k1

1st cascade

b1 k1

Suspension scheme

k 1 k 3 b1 b3

1 ,
k*
b*
k 2 k 4 b2 b4

2 ;
k*
b*

ck
bk

k , k 1, 2;
c1* b1*
ki
bi

i , i 3, 4;
k2* b2*

k i bi
i , i 2, 3
k * b*

k i bi
i , i 1, 2, . . . , n
k * b*

Condition for reducing complex

vibration isolator to SVPD

k2 k3
k2 k3

k 1 k 3 k 2 k 4
k1 k2 k3 k4

k1 k2
k3 k4

k1 k2 k3 k4

k1

ki

1
X1

i1

Equivalent parameter
Stiffness
n
X
ki

Table 1.2 Reduction of complex vibration isolators to an equivalent simplied form [4]

bi

b2 b3
b2 b3

b1 b3 b2 b4
b1 b2 b3 b4

b1 b2
b3 b4

b1 b2 b3 b4

b1

bi

1
X1

i1

Damping
n
X

1.4 Linear Single-Axis Vibration Protection Systems

25

26

1.4.3

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

Vibration Isolators Which Cannot Be Simplied

There is an extensive class of single-axis vibration isolators that cannot be reduced

to simple systems. The simplest examples of these types of isolators are shown in
Fig. 1.14. These vibration isolators contain additional member k or b or both kb
elements together. The schemes in Fig. 1.14 do not include additional masses m, but
do include a massless element. These elements introduce additional constraints on
the types of motion observed in the systems. One such constraint is described by
equation (1.34) [4].
Fig. 1.14 Complex singleaxis vibration isolators, not
reducible to simple

m
k1

k
k1

k
k1

The most effective method for analyzing such systems is that of mechanical
impedance, and representing such design diagrams as mechanical networks.
Methods of representing a design diagram as a corresponding mechanical network
will be considered in detail in later chapters.
The coefcients of effectiveness DC, TC, and Krelat
displ for vibration isolators shown
in Fig. 1.14b, c, subjected to dynamic and kinematic excitation, are discussed in [4].

1.4.4

Special Types of Vibration Isolators

Many different types of vibration isolators can be constructed using arbitrary

combinations of passive elements (masses, dampers, springs, massless elements,
levers), and include linear/nonlinear, single-axis/multi-axis, and single/multicascade vibration protection (VP) systems. The nonlinearity may be due to structural features of the system (e.g., a system with restrictors) or to nonlinear characteristics of elasticity and/or damping. Several different nonlinear single-axis VP
systems with one degree of freedom are shown in Fig. 1.15. In each subgure we
show a specic component that causes nonlinearity.
(a) Iorishs equal-frequency vibration isolators contain a nonlinear elastic
element whose stiffness depends on the objects mass (Fig. 1.15a) [16, vol. 3,
17, vol. 2]. Introducing such an element allows us to achieve a constant
frequency of vibrations with various masses installed on the same elastic
support. This feature will allow us to drastically reduce the nomenclature of
the types of vibration isolators that are manufactured.

1.4 Linear Single-Axis Vibration Protection Systems

k(x)

d
m

27

x
b (x )

DF

Fig. 1.15 Some types of nonlinear single-axis vibration isolators. (a) Iorish vibration isolator; (b)
isolator with restrictors; (c) isolator with nonlinear viscous damper; (d) isolator with dry friction
(DF) member

(b) Isolator with restrictors. During small oscillations, the systems mass
behaves as though it were linear. However, during large oscillations, the
mass may come in contact with restrictors that prevent its motion. This leads
to nonlinear effects [17, vol. 2].
(c) Isolators with nonlinear damper. Here we describe several types of dampers
and dissipative forces.
Quadratic law of inelastic resistance. The dissipative force and mathematic
model of the system can be described by
R bx_ 2

and x 

b 2
x_ 2 x 0:
m

Power law of inelastic resistance. In this case:

R bx_ jx_ jn1

and x

b
x_ jx_ jn1 2 x 0:
m

(d) Coulomb friction (dry friction). In this case the motion is described by
mx kx f mg signx_ ;
where g is the gravitational acceleration, signx_ 1, if x_ > 0; signx_
1, if x_ < 0.
Additionally, it is possible to construct vibration isolators using any combination
of the nonlinear isolators described abovefor example, a vibration isolator
consisting of an element with nonlinear stiffness and an element with dry friction.
In the case of a system with one degree of freedom, such a system would be
described by a second-order nonlinear differential equation. Methods of linearizing
such systems are described in Chap. 9. Various types of nonlinearities and their
classications are discussed in [17, vol. 2, 18, 19].
The spring (elastic element of VPD) may be treated as an element with distributed mass. In this case, the single-axis model of the VP system contains a lumped
mass (vibration protection object) and a deformable rod. This means we get a mixed
mathematical model of the vibration protection system. This model is characterized
by coupled equations: a partial differential equation, which describes the longitudinal vibrations of the rod, and an ordinary differential equation, which describes
the motion of the object.

28

1.5

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

Vibration Protection System of Quasi-Zero Stiffness

Let us consider a linear vibration protection mkb system, as shown in Fig. 1.3a.
As was illustrated previously (see Sect. 1.2), if mass m is subjected to harmonic
excitation F0 sin t, then the transmissibility coefcient (TC) is determined by
formula (1.9)
R0
kR

F0

s
1 42 z2
1  z2 2 42 z2

where R0 is the amplitude of force transmitted on the foundation, z =0 , 0

p
p
k=m, b=2 km. The graph of TC is shown in Fig. 1.5. If TC < 1, the
application of the vibration protection system is effective; if TC  1, the VP system
is inappropriate. We can see that, within the framework of this model, it is
p
impossible to reduce vibrations at z < 2.
Taking damping into account, the TC can be reduced in the zone where it is
p
greater than unity, i.e., at z < 2, and increased (in comparison to the case where a
p
damper is absent) where TC < 1, i.e., at z > 2.
To increase the effectiveness of vibration isolation, the elastic member should
have minimal rigidity.
If damping is neglected, then a limiting value of the frequency 0 0 (detuning
z =0 1 ) leads to the transmissibility coefcient kR 0. Thus, the zero
stiffness of an mk system provides a zero transmissibility coefcient. This conclusion is physically justied. Indeed, the absence of an elastic element leads to the
absence of a carrier material for transmission of the forces onto the support.
Decreasing the natural frequency vibration of the mk system inevitably leads to
an increase in its dimensions. Thus, on one hand, in order to increase the efciency
of the VP system, it is necessary to reduce its frequency of free vibration. On the
other hand, we cannot increase the size of the VP system. The contradiction
between the limited dimensions of the VP system and the natural frequency is
eliminated in the VP systems with quasi-zero stiffness [6]. This term will be
explained below.
Let us consider the von Mises truss in order to explain the effect and concept of
quasi-zero stiffness [20, 21]. This truss consists of two elastic elements of stiffness
EA (Fig. 1.16a). The truss is loaded by force P. The elements of the truss prior to the
load being applied are indicated by dotted lines; the positive vertical displacement
y of the joint is directed downwards. We assume that a signicant displacement of
the joint is possible; for this, the elastic rods can be represented as springs. Despite
the fact that we have a two-member joint, this structure presents a statically
indeterminate system [22]. Indeed, from the equilibrium equation of the joint we
obtain

1.5 Vibration Protection System of Quasi-Zero Stiffness

29

N P=2 cos ;

1:44

where N is the internal force in the elements, and is the angle between the axis of
the new position of the element and the vertical axis. The static indeterminacy
arises from the fact that the angle is different from the initial 0 and is dependent
upon the force value P.

bP

y2

y
EA

y1 K

cP

P(y)

kres= 0
y1

y2

Fig. 1.16 (a) von Mises truss; (b) force characteristics P( y); (c) relationship P( y) for system with
quasi-zero stiffness

Next we form the equation of deformation. The shortening of each rod is

l

a
a
:

sin 0 sin

The internal force in the elements is

N



EAl
sin 0
EA 1 
:
l0
sin

1:45

If we equate the right-hand sides of (1.44) and (1.45), we obtain



sin 0
cos :
P 2EA 1 
sin

1:46

We express the force P in terms of the linear displacement y [21]

2

1
6
7
P 2EAf y; a; 0 4q  cos 0 5,
2
tan 2 0 f y; a; 0
y
f y; a; 0 1  tan 0 :
a

1:47

30

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

This nonlinear relationship P Py is the result of the geometric nonlinearity of

the system, i.e., the nonlinearity caused by a large deformation [18]. The graph
forcedisplacement P Py is shown in Fig. 1.16b. Draw a tangent to the curve
P( y) at point K. On some portion y1  y2 this tangent line can be interpreted as a
direct linearization, which means that within this portion, the relationship force
displacement becomes linear. We now introduce an additional linear spring; its
characteristic is shown by a dotted line in Fig. 1.16c. Let the stiffness of this spring
be equal to the slope of the tangent in Fig. 1.16b. In this case, the resulting stiffness
kres within the portion y1  y2 is equal to zero, and the corresponding segment of
graph P Py becomes horizontal. This stiffness is shown by the bold line in
Fig. 1.16c. The corresponding system is called a system with quasi-zero stiffness.
The term quasi emphasizes the limited area of the linearization. The peculiarity
of this system is that, even with zero stiffness, it is able to perceive the load; the
ordinates of the horizontal portion of the graph P Py in Fig. 1.15c are non-zero.
The idea of using systems with quasi-zero stiffness to reduce vibrations was
proposed by Prof. Alabuzhev in 1967 [6]. Let us consider the simplest vibration
protection system of quasi-zero stiffness. The principal diagram of the system
consists of mass m, which can move in a vertical direction, the main elastic element
with stiffness k1, and two corrected elastic elements, each of stiffness k2
(Fig. 1.17a). The lengths of these elements in a non-deformable state are L01 b
b and L02 a 0 . Suppose that in the SEP, the corrective elements assume a
horizontal position. In this position, all the elements are pre-stressed, and initial
interference ts are b L01  b and 0 L02  a. The position of the object is
measured from the SEP (point 0). The lengths of the main and corrective elements
p
in an arbitrary state are L1 x b and L2 x2 a2 .

F
m

k2
x

0
b

L2

F2

SEP

k1

F
m
mg

F2=k2L2

F1=k1L1

a
Fig. 1.17 (a) Design diagram of a VP system with quasi-zero stiffness; (b) free body diagram for
object m

We will now establish a relationship between the vertical force applied to the
mass, and its displacement x. The free body diagram is shown in Fig. 1.17b.
The increments of the lengths of the main and corrective elements are
L1 L1  L01 b x  b b x  b;
p
L2 L2  L02 x2 a2  a 0 :

1:48

1.5 Vibration Protection System of Quasi-Zero Stiffness

31

The forces arising in the elastic elements are

F1 k1 L1 k1 x  b;
p

F2 k2 L2 k2 x2 a2  a  0 :

1:49

The equilibrium equation (projection on the x-axis) is

F mg F1 2F2 sin :

1:50

Substituting (1.48) and (1.49) into (1.50) leads to an expression for the force
characteristics of the system


a 0
F k1 x 2k2 x 1  p :
x 2 a2

1:51

We now nd the equivalent stiffness of the system in the direction of the vertical
displacement x of a body.
To do this, we must differentiate expression (1.51) in terms of x. This leads to the
expression

keq

dF
d
2k2 xa 0
a a 0 7
6

k1 x 2k2 x  p k1 2k2 41  q5:

2
2
dx dx
x a
x 2 a2 3
2

1:52
It is clear that the rigidity of the system consists of two parts. The rst is the stiffness
k1 of the basic element, and the second is determined by the stiffness k2 of the
corrective elements, the geometric parameter a, the initial interference t 0, and
q
2
the position x of the object. If a a 0 < x2 a2 3 , then the stiffness of the
system keq > k1 . Otherwise, the equivalent stiffness of the system is less than the
stiffness of the main element, i.e., keq < k1 . This means that the corrective device
has the effect of negative stiffness. Moreover, it is easy to nd a condition in which
the equivalent stiffness of the system keq 0. This means that at the xed parameters k1, k2, a, 0, there exists such position x of the object where keq 0, but the
system is able to take the load.
The dimensionless equivalent stiffness associated with the stiffness of the main
element is
0
k*eq

1
*0

keq
1
k2
0
x
B
C *
1 2k*21 @1  q
A, k21 ; *0 ; x* : 1:53


2 3
a
k1
k1
a
1 x*

32

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

In the SEP x 0, this stiffness is

k*eq 1  2k*21 *0 :
This means that in the position x 0, the stiffness keq of the system is dependent on
parameters k2/k1 and 0/a. In particular, when 2k*21 *0 1, the stiffness k*eq 0. In
this case, the bearing capacity of the VP system is determined by the preload of the
main element and its stiffness, i.e., Fx0 k1 b. From (1.53) it is easy to determine
a maximum displacement x* of the object such that the equivalent stiffness keq
becomes less than a predetermined value.
Knowing the equivalent stiffness of the system, it is easy to write the equation of
the motion of the object and integrate it numerically using a software program such
as MATLAB. The results of numerical integration of differential equations for a
system with quasi-zero stiffness that is subjected to different excitations, such as
harmonic, polyharmonic, and shock, are presented in [6]. This book also contains a
large number of design diagrams of a VP system of quasi-zero stiffness, their
detailed classication, and the most important relationships. The effectiveness of
a VP system of quasi-zero stiffness is discussed in [23], which shows in particular
that if a system of quasi-zero stiffness in Fig. 1.16 is subjected to force harmonic
excitation, the amplitude of vibration will be almost two orders less than in the case
of linear elasticity. Of course, the features of such systems allow us to construct a
compact VP system. A detailed analysis of systems of quasi-zero stiffness is
presented by Carrella et al. [24, 25].
One of the major disadvantages of systems of quasi-zero stiffness is the small
range of displacement where the stiffness is equal to zero. This drawback can be
signicantly mitigated if we apply a two-cascade system of compensating springs
[23]. In this case, the portion of quasi-zero stiffness increases signicantly. Other
disadvantages of the VP system of quasi-zero stiffness are described in [6].

Problems
1.1. Describe the elements of linear and nonlinear vibration protection systems.
1.2. Describe the features of vibration protection systems installed on a deformable support.
1.3. Explain the concepts of relative, transport, and absolute motion (velocity,
acceleration) in cases where kinematic excitation is present.
1.4. Give the denitions of dynamic factor and transmissibility coefcient.
1.5. Explain the essence of the method of complex amplitude; describe the
concepts and limitations of this method.
1.6. Describe the representation of displacement, velocity, and acceleration on the
vector diagram.
1.7. Perform an analysis of dynamical system mx kx F sin t by the complex
amplitude method.

Problems

33

1.8. Express the equation mx bx_ kx f t in terms of undamped natural

p
p
frequency 0 k=m and damping ratio b=2 mk.
1.9. Explain the procedure for solving linear differential equations with a harmonic right-hand side by the complex amplitude method
dn x
d n1 x
dx

a
   an1 an x F sin t
1
n
n1
dt
dt
dt
1.10. Explain the concept of the Argand diagram and its features and benets.
1.11. Explain the features of Lagrange equations and their application for deriving
an equation of motion.
1.12. The generalized coordinates of a linear system with two degrees of freedom
are q and s. Potential and kinetic energy are completely quadratic forms of
generalized coordinates and generalized velocities, respectively:
U



1 2
1
aq q 2aqs qs as s2 , T kq q_ 2 2kqs q_ s_ ks s_ 2 Raleigh form:
2
2

Derive an equation of free vibration neglecting energy loss. Determine the

partial frequencies and form a condition for non-zero amplitude (characteristic equation). Hint: q A1 et , s A2 et .!


a2qs
aq
as
Answer: 4 n2s n2q 2 n2s n2q 
, jnj2q , jnj2s .
kq ks
kq
ks
1.13. Transform the characteristic equation from previous problem (1.12) to form
z2  1z 1  0, z 2 =n2q , n2s =n2q , a2qs =aq as . Construct a plot of the roots of the characteristic equation (Weins diagram) in the
coordinates  z.
1.14. Using the characteristic equation (Weins diagram), calculate z1  z2 at
1.
p
Answer: z1  z2 2 .
1.15. Derive the differential equation for system (Fig. P1.15) which consists of
elastic member k, two dampers b1 and b2, and two massless elements. The
system is subjected to force F and corresponding velocity . Consider velocity as an input and force F asthe output.
b1 b2 dF
b1 d
F b2
.
Answer:
dt
k
k dt
b1
b2

Fig. P1.15

34

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

1.16. Construct a graph of the dynamic coefcient for a damper with elastic
suspension (Fig. 1.15, text). Compare with the results presented in Fig. 1.6.
Estimate the inuence of elastic member k1.
1.17. Construct a graph of the transmissibility coefcient for a damper with elastic
suspension (Fig. 1.15, text). Compare with the results presented in Fig. 1.7.
Estimate the inuence of elastic member k1.
1.18. Derive the differential equation of vibration for a damper with elastic suspension (Fig. 1.15, text) subjected to kinematic excitation. Consider a limit
case k1 1.
1.19. A uniform rod of mass m and moment of inertia I is supported as shown in
Fig. P1.19 The system is subjected to force excitation F(t). Derive a mathematical model of the object and present it in matrix form. Adopt generalized
coordinates x(t) and (t).
F(t) a
x(t)

(t)

b1

k1
l

k2

b2

Fig. P1.19

Answer:
Mx Bx_ Kx Ft

"
#
Ft
m 0
x
, F
, M
,

Fta
0 I


k1 k2
b2  b1 l
k2  k1 l
b1 b2
, K
:
B
b2  b1 l b1 b2 l2
k2  k1 l k1 k2 l2
&
x

&

1.20. A non-deformable rigid bar AB is supported by two springs of stiffness

coefcients k1 and k2 (Fig. P1.20).
The mass of the rod and moment of inertia about the center of mass are
M and J. The system is subjected to kinematic excitation z1 and z2. The
vertical displacements of the points A and B and the center of mass are y1, y2,
and y0, respectively. Derive differential equations that describe the motion of
the system.

References

35

y1

A
k1
z1

y0

Center mass

l1

y2

l2

k2
z2

Fig. P1.20 Design diagrams of passive vibration protection of a system with two degrees of
freedom

Hint: Generalized coordinates are the displacement of the center of mass q1

y0 and angle of rotation of the body q2 . Displacements are in terms of
generalized coordinates y1 y0  l1 , y2 y0 l2 .
 


d T
T U
d T
T
Lagranges equations

Qy0 ,


dt y_ 0
y0 y0
dt _

U
Q

The kinetic and potential energy of the system are

1
1
T My20 J2 ,
2
2

1
1
U k 1 y 1  z1 2 k 2 y 2  z2 2 :
2
2

Answer:
My0 k1 k2 y0 k1 l1 k2 l2 k1 z1 k2 z2 ,


J
k1 l21 k2 l22 k1 l1 k2 l2 y0 k1 l1 z1 k2 l2 z2 :
1.21. Describe characteristics of nonlinear single-axis vibration isolators
(Fig. 1.17, text).
1.22. Describe the fundamental features of the von Mises truss.
1.23. Describe the concept of a system with quasi-zero stiffness.

References
1. Crede, C. E., & Ruzicka, J. E. (1996). Theory of vibration isolation (Chapter 30). In Handbook:
Harris, C.M.(Editor in Chief). (1996) Shock and vibration (4th ed). New York: McGraw Hill.
2. Mead, D. J. (1999). Passive vibration control. Chichester, England: Wiley.
3. Harris, C. M. (Ed.). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed). New York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.) (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol.6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Chief Editor), (1978-1981) Vibration in Engineering, Vols. 1-6. Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
5. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

36

1 Vibration Isolation of a System with One or More Degrees of Freedom

6. Alabuzhev, P., Gritchin, A., Kim, L., Migirenko, G., Chon, V., & Stepanov, P. (1989).
Vibration protecting and measuring systems with quasi-zero stiffness. Applications of vibration series. New York: Hemisphere Publishing.
7. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliff, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
8. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
9. Steidel, R. F., Jr. (1989). An introduction to mechanical vibrations (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
10. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
BROOKS/CO, Thomson Learning.
11. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
12. Liangliang, Z., & Yinzhao, L. (2013). Three classical papers on the history of the phasor
method [J]. Transactions of China Electrotechnical Society, 28(1), 94100.
13. Popov, V. P. (1985). Fundamentals of circuit theory. Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola.
14. Clough, R. W., & Penzien, J. (1975). Dynamics of Structures. New York: McGraw-Hill.
15. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
16. Birger, I. A., & Panovko, Ya. G. (Eds.). (1968). Strength, stability, vibration. Handbook (Vols.
13). Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
17. Chelomey, V. N. (Editor in Chief) (19781981). Vibrations in engineering. Handbook (Vols.
16). Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
18. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
19. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Non-classical vibrations of arches and beams. Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
20. Mises, R. (1923). Uber die Stabilitats-probleme der Elastizitatstheorie. Zeitschr. angew Math.
Mech., s. 406462.
21. Panovko, Ya. G., & Gubanova, I. I. (2007). Stability and oscillations of elastic systems:
Modern concepts, paradoxes, and errors (6th ed.). NASA TT-F, 751, 1973, M.: URSS.
22. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
23. Zotov, A. N. (2005). Vibration isolators with the quasi-zero stiffness. Neftegazovoe Delo,
RSS, .3. Standards.
24. Carrella, A., Brennan, M. J., Kovacic, I., & Waters, T. P. (2009). On the force transmissibility
of a vibration isolator with quasi-zero stiffness. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 322, 45.
25. Carrella, A., Brennan, M. J., & Waters, T. P. (2007). Static analysis of a passive vibration
isolator with quasi- zero stiffness characteristic. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 301, 35.

Chapter 2

Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks

for a System with Lumped Parameters

An analysis of steady-state vibration of linear dynamical systems subjected to

harmonic force and/or kinematic exposure can be reduced to analysis of mechanical
two-term networks (M2TN), also known as replacement schemes, which are equivalent to the original scheme. The two representations of the system are equivalent in
the sense that both representations can be described by the same differential
equations. The theory of analogy [14] is what makes such an interchange possible.
The advantage of representing a dynamical system as a replacement scheme is that
its construction for multi-element dynamical systems is fairly simple and consists in
analyzing M2TN by algebraic methods [5], whereas analysis of the original design
diagram must be performed by solutions to differential equations. Another advantage of representing systems through M2TN is that theorems often used to analyze
electrical circuits (Kirchhoffs rule, Thevenin and Nortons theorem, principle of
superposition, etc.) can also be applied to replacement schemes.
The mechanical impedance concept plays a particularly important role here. The
impedance method can be used in a straightforward manner in the analysis of linear
mechanical systems subjected to three types of excitation: periodic, shock, and
stationary random [6]. The method allows us to obtain a full picture of the
distribution of internal forces in all the elements of a dynamical system and the
kinematic characteristics of the systems nodal points, and to easily formulate
criteria on the effectiveness of vibration protection.
Here we focus our attention on analyzing dynamical systems with lumped
parameters.

2.1

Electro-Mechanical Analogies and Dual Circuits

The fundamental properties of oscillating motions of systems of various natures

(mechanical, electrical, acoustical) are characterized by the fact that under certain
assumptions, their motions are described by differential equations with the same
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_2

37

38

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

structure. These systems are known as analogues. For such objects, properties
from one system can be generalized to another system. A widely used method is
the mechanical impedance method (based on electro-mechanical analogies) when
analyzing vibrations, and in particular, vibration protection of mechanical
systems.
The mathematical machinery used to study vibrations of mechanical systems
with s degrees of freedom is Lagranges equation [7]
d T
dt q_ j

!


U

Qj ,
qj q_ j

j 1, . . . , s;

2:1

where q and q_ are generalized coordinates and velocity; t is time; T, U, and are the
kinetic energy of the system, potential energy, and Rayleighs dissipative function,
respectively; and Qj is a generalized force which corresponds to the jth generalized
coordinate.
Maxwell showed that Lagranges equation could be applied to the analysis of
electrical systems as well. In an electrical system, active elements include voltage
and current of the source, while passive elements include resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.
Lagranges equations that are applied to electrical circuits and electromechanical systems have an energetic base, and are called Lagrange-Maxwell
equations.
d T e
dt q_ j

!


Ue e

ej ,
qj
q_ j

j 1, . . . , s:

2:2

The structure of (2.1) and (2.2) are the same. Generalized coordinates qj of the
electrical system (or the electrical component of the electro-mechanical system) are
the electrical quantities (current in the circuit, potential of a node).
The kinetic energy T of the mechanical system corresponds to the energy Te of
the magnetic eld. The potential energy U corresponds to the energy of the electric
eld Ue, the dissipative function of the mechanical system to the dissipative
function of the circuit e, and the generalized force Qj to the electromotive force ej.
Next, we provide relations between voltage and current for elements of electrical
circuits.
To understand the nature of the electro-mechanical analogy and the fundamental
concept of mechanical networks on which the analogy is based (and will be
extensively used going forward), we consider the simplest m, k, b mechanical
system with one degree of freedom (Fig. 2.1). Let the generalized coordinate q be
the linear displacement x(t).

2.1 Electro-Mechanical Analogies and Dual Circuits

39

Fig. 2.1 Simplest mkb

mechanical system

F (t )

m
k

x(t )

For this system we have

1
T mq_ 2 ;
2

1
U kq2 ;
2

1
bq_ 2 ;
2

Qx Ft:

Lagranges procedure leads to differential equation mx bx_ cx Ft. This

equation may be presented in equivalent form as an integro-differential equation

dx_
bx_ k x_ dt Ft:
2:3
m
dt
A similar equation can be used to describe the processes occurring in the simplest
electrical circuits. Assume that the passive elements L, R, and C are connected in
series, and the entire circuit is under a voltage u(t) (Fig. 2.2a).

R
C

u(t)

i(t)

Fig. 2.2 Dual electrical circuits. (a) connection in series; (b) parallel connection

The voltage drops across the circuit elements are

uL L

di
,
dt

uR iR,

uC

1
C

i dt u0:

According to Kirchhoffs voltage law (loop equations), the algebraic sum of all
the voltage drops u in any loop is equal to zero [8]. In our case
uL uR uC  ut 0. Summing the voltage drops in the elements of the circuit,
we get

di
1
L Ri
i dt ut:
2:4
dt
C
The structure of (2.3) for the mechanical system shown in (Fig. 2.1) and (2.4)
for the electrical circuit (Fig. 2.2a) are found to be the same. It is evident that the

40

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

analogy of force F(t) is voltage u(t). The forcevoltage analogy establishes the
following
relationships
for
mechanical
and
electrical
quantities:
m $ L, b $ R, k $ C1 .
Now assume that the passive elements are connected in parallel and that the
entire circuit is energized by the current source (Fig. 2.2b). The equation for the
electrical circuit can be constructed based on Kirchoffs current law (node equations); that is, the algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node of a
circuit is zero [8]. In our case, iL iR iC  it 0. Substituting in the expressions for currents given in Table 2.1 leads to the following integro-differential
equation

du 1
1
C u
u dt it:
2:5
dt R
L
It is clear that the structure of (2.3) for the mechanical system (Fig. 2.1) and (2.5) for
the electrical circuit (Fig. 2.2b) is the same. It is evident that the analogy of force
F(t) is current i(t). The forcecurrent analogy establishes the following relationships
for mechanical and electrical quantities: m $ C, b $ R1 , k $ L1 .

Table 2.1 Components of electrical circuits and the relation between voltage and current
[2, 9, 10]
Element
Voltage
source u

Symbol

u (t )

Current
source i

Resistor

i (t )

Voltage
Voltage u(t) does
not depend on the
current that passes
through it

Current
Current i(t)
depends on the
elements of the
electrical circuit

Voltage depends
on the elements of
the electrical
circuit

Current i(t) does

not depend on
voltage at its
terminals

u iR

i u=R

u
Capacitor

+ C

1
C

idt u0

iC

du
dt

Remarks
An active element
which maintains
constant voltage
u(t) at its poles,
regardless of the
current owing
through it
An active element
which maintains
current i(t), regardless of the voltage
passing through its
terminals
A passive element
in which energy
dissipates
A passive element
in which electric
energy accumulates

u
Inductor

L
u

uL

di
dt

1
L

t
0

udt i0

A passive element
in which electromagnetic energy
accumulates

2.1 Electro-Mechanical Analogies and Dual Circuits

41

Pairs of corresponding electrical circuits (Fig. 2.2a) and (Fig. 2.2b) are called
duals. The set of analogies that have been found in dual circuits is presented in
Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Analogies for dual
electrical circuits

Analysis of loop equations

Kirchhoffs voltage law
Current
Voltage source
Inductance L
Resistance R
Capacitance C

Electro-mechanical forcevoltage
presented in Table 2.3.

and

Analysis of node equations

Kirchhoffs current law
Voltage drop between nodes
Current source
Capacitor C
Conductivity 1/R
Inductor L

forcecurrent

analogies

are

Table 2.3 Analogies between mechanical and electrical systems [2]

System
Mechanical
Electrical
Forcevoltage
analogy
Electrical
Forcecurrent
analogy

Generalized
coordinates
and forces
x(t), F(t)

Coefcients of
differential
equations
m b
k

q, e(t)

C1

T e 12 Lq_ 2 U e 12 C1 q2

e 12 Rq_ 2

di
dt

R1

L1

T e 12 Cu_ 2 U e 12 L1 u2

e 12 R1 u_ 2

u,

Kinetic
energy
T, Te

Potential energy
U, Ue

Dissipative
function
, e

T 12 mx_ 2

U 12 kx2

12 bx_ 2

The fundamental question is thus how we apply these analogies to the analysis
of mechanical systems. First, we can replace the original mechanical system with
its electrical circuit analog, and construct the corresponding differential equations
with their subsequent solutions. This approach is discussed in detail in [2]. The
second approach consists in transforming the design diagram of the mechanical
system, also known as a mechanical network, to resemble an electrical circuit.
This will allow us to apply laws and algebraic procedures analogous to those
used in analyzing electrical circuits. This approach is discussed, for example, in
[3, 1113]. In what follows, we focus on the second approach; this will allow us
to explore in detail the applicability of the method to problems of vibration
protection.

42

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

2.2

Principal Concepts of Mechanical Networks

Here we introduce the basic concepts for the analysis of dynamical systems using
the mechanical impedance method. It is assumed that the dynamical system contains lumped parameters, is linear, and is subjected to harmonic dynamic or
kinematic excitation [1417].

2.2.1

Vector Representation of Harmonic Force

Harmonic force F0 cos t can be represented on a complex plane in the form of a

rotating radius vector (Fig. 2.3a). The length of this vector (in the context of
complex numbers, its magnitude) is equal to the amplitude of the disturbing force
F0. The angular velocity of rotation is the frequency of excitation. At any given
time t, the position of the radius vector is dened by the angle t, which is measured
from the positive direction of the axis in a counterclockwise direction. The assigned
harmonic force in complex form can be represented as [8]
Ft F0 cos t jF0 sin t:

2:6

Various applications of complex numbers (acoustics, electricity, mechanics, etc.)

p
for imaginary unit 1 use a letter j or i [5].
In polar form, the force F may be represented as F F0 ejt .

Imaginary
axis

Im

a0 = j 0
F0

t
F0 cos t

0
2

F0 sin t

t
Real
axis

0 sin t

( 0

0 sin t

0 cos t
x 0 = 0 j

Re

)sin t

Fig. 2.3 Representation of harmonic force F (a) and kinematic parameters of the points (velocity
, displacement x, and acceleration a) (b) on the complex plane

2.2.2

Kinematic Characteristics of Motion

Assume that the velocity of a point varies according to a harmonic relation

0 cos t. This velocity may be represented in terms of a radius vector with
angular velocity , as shown in Fig. 2.3b. The points velocity in complex form is

2.2 Principal Concepts of Mechanical Networks

0 cos t j sin t 0 ejt :

43

2:7

The above expression for velocity allows us to compute the acceleration a and
displacement x, and to represent these quantities as radius vectors on a complex
plane.
The acceleration is given by a _ 0  sin t j cos t. The projection of
the radius vector of a onto the real axis is 0 sin t; the angle between radius
vector and a is /2. In polar form, the acceleration is given by
a _

d
0 ejt 0 j ejt :
dt

2:8

The factor j indicates that the rotation of the radius vector is in a counterclockwise
direction by an angle /2. Since x_ , the displacement can be computed by

0
2:9
x dt 0 cos t j sin tdt sin t  j cos t:

0
sin t; therefore,

the angle between the radius vectors of and x is /2. In polar form, this is

0
x dt 0 ejt dt ejt j0 ejt ;
2:10
j

The projection of the radius vector onto the real axis is equal to

Thus the factor j indicates rotation of the radius vector clockwise (the negative
direction) by an angle /2.

2.2.3

Impedance and Mobility of Passive Elements

In dynamical systems, we can identify three main types of passive elements, which
are elements that do not have an internal source of energy. These are inertial
elements, elastic elements in which energy is stored, and elements in which energy
dissipates. Every passive element (spring, damper, mass) that is included in a
dynamical system will be treated as a two-terminal element. Below we will
consider systems whose inertial element performs a rectilinear motion [3].
Elastic Element Assume that the elastic element is linear, i.e., the elastic force Fe
which arises in the spring is proportional to the relative displacement of two
endpoints Fe kx1  x2 , where k is stiffness [kN/m]. In equivalent form, this
relationship is x1  x2 nF, where n [m/kN] is mobility n k1 .
Damper (Mechanical Resistance) Assume that the damper is also linear (viscous
damper), i.e., the viscous damping force Fd which arises in the damper is

44

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

proportional to relative velocities of two endpoints, Fd bx_ 1  x_ 2 , where

b [kN s/m] is a damping parameter.
In these two denitions for elastic element and damper, we can clearly observe
the concept of a two-terminal system (two-terminal pair) [9], which will play an
important role later on. A schematic representation of a passive element as a
two-terminal element is shown in Fig. 2.4. Forces F1(t) and F2(t) act upon terminals
1 and 2, respectively. These terminals are characterized by vectors of displacement
x1(t) and x2(t) and velocities 1 x_ 1 and 2 x_ 2 , respectively.
1 = x1

2 = x 2

x1(t)

x2(t)

x1

x2

F2(t)

F1(t)

F
x

Fig. 2.4 Passive element and its representation as a two-terminal network (the type of element is
not shown)

Inertial Element In the case of a mass m, the rst terminal coincides with the mass
itself, while the location of the second terminal is not clear. The difference in
velocities will be dened in the two terminals. One of these terminals is located on
the mass, while the other is located on a xed plane (or on the ground).
In the case of a rotational system, we have quantities that are analogous to a
translational system (Table 2.4).
Table 2.4 Analogies between physical parameters in two types of mechanical motion
Parameters
Displacement
Load
Inertial characteristic
Elastic constant
Damping constant

Translational motion
Linear x
Force F
Mass m
Spring coefcient k
Damping coefcient b

Rotational motion
Angular
Torque M
Moment of inertia I
Spring coefcient kr
Damping coefcient br

Spring laws for translational and rotational motion are Fs kx1  x2 and


Ms kr 1  2 , damping law is Fd bx_1  x_2 and Md b _ 1  _ 2 , and
Newtons second law is F mx and M I .
If these relationships are satised, regardless of the amplitude of the applied
loads, the elements are called linear. A bilateral element is one in which loads are
transmitted equally in both directions. A mechanical system consisting of bilateral
lumped passive elements may be presented as a network of standard two-terminal
elements.
For example, let two linear elastic elements of stiffness k1 and k2 be connected in
series and subjected to force F. Deections of each element are 1 F1 =k1 ,

2.2 Principal Concepts of Mechanical Networks

45

2 F2 =k2 . Total deection of both springs is tot 1 2 F1 k1 F2 =k2 .

Since the connection is in series, the forces that arise in each elastic element are
F1 F2 F. For equivalent springs, we have eq tot 1 2 , so the equivalent stiffness is
keq

F
F
k1 k2

:
eq F1 =k1 F2 =k2 k1 k2

In the case of two parallel springs, we have F F1 F2 and 1 2 , so

keq k1 k2 .
Among the fundamental concepts of linear dynamical systems are impedance
(resistance, dynamic stiffness) and mobility. The concept of impedance was introduced by Oliver Heaviside in the 1890s.
Mechanical impedance is a complex quantity which is dened as a ratio of
harmonic exciting force to velocity
Z F=:

2:11

The units of Z are Force  Time=Length FT=L. The inverse quantity of impedance is called mobility and is dened by
Y Z 1 =FL=FT :

2:12

It is important to note that another denition of impedance, namely forcedisplacement is Z F/x , with units of ZF=x F=L, may be found in the literature
[14, 1820]. An alternate denition similarly exists for mobility, known as
displacementforce, with units Y x=F L=F. The corresponding denitions
will be discussed in greater detail in Chap. 12.
If force and velocity are found only for a particular point in the system, we then
deal with input (or driving-point) impedance (mobility). Transfer impedance
(mobility) between two points means that the velocity and a force are measured
at the different points of a system, or the force and velocity are measured at the
same point but in different directions.
Here we construct an expression for impedance (mobility) of the passive elements. These elements include mass m, stiffness k, and damper b. The action of the
harmonic force can be expressed as
F F0 cos t j sin t F0 ejt :

2:13

A damper is a device for which the relative velocity between endpoints

proportional to the force applied; the relative velocity of point A
FA
A  B , where b is called the damping coefcient (Fig. 3.5a).
b
FA
point B is xed B 0, the transmitted force FB is equal to FA, so A .
b
the case of harmonic force FA F0 ejt , the velocity is

is
is
If
In

46

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

F0 ejt
0 ejt :
b

2:14

This implies that the radius vector of the force and velocity rotates with the same
angular velocity , and the phase shift is equal to zero (Fig. 2.5a). The impedance of
FA
the damper becomes Z
b. The impedance of mechanical resistance is equal
A
to the damping constant b.

a
FA

ImZ

ImY

FB
ReZ

A
Im

F0
0=F0/b
t
Re

ReY

1/b

b
Z

1/b

Fig. 2.5 Viscous damper and its representation (a) on the complex plane; (b) impedance and its
amplitude; (c) mobility and its amplitude [11]

The impedance Zb and mobility Y b 1=b of the damper on the complex plane
and their amplitude versus frequency of vibration are shown in Fig. 2.5b, c. For all
frequencies, the absolute value of impedance (mobility) is constant.
An elastic spring is a device for which the relative displacement between
endpoints is proportional to the force applied; the relative displacement of point
FA
A is x xA  xB , where k is called the stiffness coefcient (Fig. 2.6a). If
k
point B is xed, then xB 0, and the transmitted force FB is equal to FA, so the
F0 ejt
x0 ejt . This implies that the radius vector
displacement of point A is xA
k
of displacement rotates in phase with the force.

a
FA

b
k

FB

ReZ

ImY

ImZ

=0

ReY

Im
0=F0/c

/2

F0
t

Z =k

Re

Y = k

Fig. 2.6 Elastic spring and its representation (a) on the complex plane; (b) impedance and its
absolute value; (c) mobility and its absolute value [11]

2.2 Principal Concepts of Mechanical Networks

47

In order to calculate the impedance of the spring, we must calculate the velocity.
jF0 ejt
. The factor j means that velocity precedes
For point A, we have A x_ A
k
the applied force by an angle of /2 (Fig. 2.6a). Indeed, the last formula may be
jF0 ejt
F0 ejt=2 . The impedance of the spring becomes
represented as
k
k
F0 ejt
k
k
j , and mobility is Y jk . These quantities are pure imagiZ

A
nary numbers. The impedance Zk and mobility Yk of the spring on the complex
plane and their amplitude versus frequency of vibration are shown in Fig. 2.6b, c.
Mass Two representations of a mass m are shown in Fig. 2.7a. In the rst scheme,
similar to damper and stiffness, the mass is represented according to the
two-terminal principle. In the second scheme, the mass is also represented as a
two-terminal element, but one of the terminals of the two poles is free. In this case,
FB 0.

FA

A
m
A

FA

FB

c
ImY

ImZ

=0

ReZ

A
Im

Zm

F0
t
/2

Ym

Z m = m

Re

0=F0/k

ReY

Ym = 1 m

Fig. 2.7 (a) Mass and its representations on the complex plane;, (b) impedance and its absolute
value;, (c) mobility and its absolute value [11]

The acceleration of the mass is proportional to the applied force; that is,
FA F0 ejt
xA

. We can obtain the expression for velocity by integrating the

m
m
equation
x_ A

F0 ejt
j0 ejt :
jm

The factor (j) implies that the velocity lags behind the applied force by an angle of
/2 in phase.

48

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

The relationship between force and velocity on a complex plane is shown in

F0 ejt
jm, and the
Fig. 2.7a. The impedance of the mass becomes Zm
A
mobility is Y m 1=jm j=m. This impedance/mobility of the mass is an
imaginary number that is dependent on the frequency and mass. The impedance Zm
and mobility Ym of the mass m on the complex plane and their amplitude versus
frequency of vibration are shown in Fig. 2.7b, c.
We can see that the resistance of the mass increases if the frequency of excitation
increases (Fig. 2.7b) while the resistance of the elastic member decreases (Fig. 2.6b).
Combinations of Passive Elements Two passive elements may be connected in
parallel or in series, and such pairs of passive elements may be replaced by one
equivalent element. Thus equivalent impedance can be expressed in terms of the
impedances of the separate elements.
A parallel connection of two passive elements indicates that the relative velocities of the two elements are identical. In this case, the sum of the forces that arise in
the two elements is equal to the full (applied) force. If the impedance of each
element is Z1 and Z2, then the equivalent impedance is equal to the sum of the
impedances in each element, i.e.,
Z Z1 Z2 :

2:15

A series connection of two passive elements indicates that the force that arises in
each element is equal to the force that is originally applied. The impedance Z of the
equivalent element can be calculated by the formula
1
1
1
:
Z Z1 Z2

2:16

For example, let two linear elastic elements of stiffness k1 and k2 be connected in
series. This mechanical system may be replaced by one element with equivalent
stiffness coefcient keq:
1 j j j
k1 k2

! keq
:
Z k1 k2 keq
k1 k2
A large collection of connections of passive elements with lumped parameters and
corresponding expressions for impedance and mobility is presented in [11].

2.3

Construction of Two-Terminal Networks

In this section we describe a step-by-step procedure for representing the initial

design diagram of a dynamical system in the form of an equivalent mechanical
two-terminal network (M2TN). This procedure eliminates the need to construct an
electrical circuit representation.

2.3 Construction of Two-Terminal Networks

2.3.1

49

Two-Terminal Network for a Simple Vibration Isolator

First, we provide a detailed construction of M2TN for a single-axis vibration

isolator under the inuence of force excitation (Fig. 2.8a) [8, 9, 16]. This structure
is supported by a xed plane, and the system is said to be in a state of support;
(in the case of a system that is suspended, it is said to be in a state of suspension).
We assume that every passive element has two poles (terminals). For a spring and
damper, the presence of these poles is obvious. For a two-pole representation of a
mass, one of the terminals is located on the mass, while the other is located on a
xed plane, to which the dynamical system is attached. Ordering (enumeration) of
the nodes of the system is arbitrary. Terminals 2 and 4 of two parallel members 12
and 34 have the same velocities. These terminals coincide with terminal
5 (Fig. 2.8b). On the line, corresponding to the support plane, we represent
terminals 6, 1, and 3 (bold line 613), and we also, represent elements m, k, and
b with terminals 5, 2, and 4, respectively. The connection of terminals 2, 5, and 4 in
a node reects the fact that these poles have identical velocities. The horizontal line
above the mass m means that terminal 5 of the two-pole element 65 (the mass m) is
free (Fig. 2.8c).

F (t )

F (t )
5

2
1

c
F

F
5

5
2

k
6

F (t )

Fk

Zc

Zm

Fk+Fb
Fm

k
6

d
4

Fb
Zb

e
7

F (t )

F (t )

Zk

Zm

Zb

k
6

6,7

Fig. 2.8 Mechanical system with lumped parameters under force excitation. (a) The system in a
state of support and construction of an equivalent mechanical two-terminal network (bd).
(e) The system in a state of support and suspension, and corresponding mechanical two-terminal
network N (f)

This diagram consists of two forces F. The force F that is applied at terminal 5 is
the excitation force, while the force shown on line 613 represents the response.
Forces F rotate as shown by the dotted line. Next, we connect two forces F (active
and response) and show this as a symbol of the source of the force F(t). The nal
M2TN with impedances of the mass, stiffness, and damper is presented in Fig. 2.8d.

50

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

The diagram shows the numbering of the poles for each element and corresponding
impedances, and also shows the distribution of forces within the different branches
of the M2TN and elements of the system.
Thus the original mechanical system shown in Fig. 2.8a is transformed to the
system in Fig. 2.8d. The new system fully corresponds to an electrical circuit with
parallel connections of the inductor L, resistor R, and capacitor C elements (Fig. 2.2b).
Let us now investigate the mkb system in a state of support and suspension
(Fig. 2.8e). The top part of the structure can be considered as part of the stationary
bottom support, with points 1 and 3 (Fig. 2.8a). As in the case of Fig. 2.8a, the
damper b is connected to the mass m (point 4) and to the stationary support (point 3).
The rst terminal of the mass itself is point 5, while the second terminal is point 7. The
lines of gravitational attraction 56 and 57 have the same direction, and this is why
the M2TN (Fig. 2.8d, ) for both mechanical systems shown in Fig. 2.8a e is the same.
Indeed, if in Fig. 2.8e we exclude the damper, the remaining mk part represents
M2TN in the form of parallel, two-terminal elements with impedances Zm and Zk.
Here, the velocity v of mass m is transferred onto the damper. This means that the
damper is subjected to a kinematic excitation, and the additional impedance Zb thus
appears in the M2TN, connected with Zm and Zk in parallel. We can obtain a similar
result if we exclude the elastic element and construct M2TN for elements m and b.
Thus, the simple vibration isolators mkb in a state of support (Fig. 2.8a) and state
of suspension (Fig. 2.8e) have the same M2TN representations (Fig. 2.8d, f).
Let the mkb system be subjected to a kinematic excitation (t) (Fig. 2.9a). The
corresponding M2TN is shown in Fig. 2.9b.

b
Qkb
m

Q
b

(t )

(t )

Qb

Block 1

Qk
k

Qm

Fig. 2.9 Single-axis vibration isolator subjected to kinematic harmonic excitation t sin t:
(a) Design diagram and (b) equivalent mechanical two-terminal network. Qm, Qk, and Qb are
forces acting on the mass, stiffness, and damper; Qkb is the force acting on the block 1; Q is the
total force

Distinct from force excitation as shown in Fig. 2.8a, kinematic excitation acts on
the elastic element and the damper. Thereafter, the excitation is transferred onto the
mass. Thus, both spring and damper are connected in parallel (block 1), and this
block is connected to mass m in series. Since both blocks (block 1 and the block
representing the mass) are connected in series, the original force and the output
force are equal. That is, Q Qbk Qm .
Figure 2.10a presents three passive elements, connected in series. The
corresponding M2TN is shown in Fig. 2.10b [21]. The force F is initially perceived
by the elastic element, and is then transferred onto the mb elements block. In this

2.3 Construction of Two-Terminal Networks

51

case, the input and output velocities for element k will be different, while the output
velocity of this element (terminal 3) and input velocity for block mb (terminals
2, 5) will be equal. If we change the positions of elements b and k in Fig. 2.10a, then
we must change places of elements with impedances of Zk and Zb in the M2TN [16].
Fig. 2.10 Passive elements
connected in series under
force excitation at the
free end: (a) Design
diagram and (b) the
corresponding M2TN

a
6

Zk

3,5

F (t )

Zb

Zm

F (t )

From Figs. 2.8 and 2.9, it is evident that for the same system, the mechanical
network representations under force and kinematic excitation will be different.
Moreover, these mechanical networks will be different if force is applied at
different points of the system.
Let us consider the mbk system and corresponding mechanical two-terminal
networks (Fig. 2.11a, b). The two systems have the same structures, but in the case
shown in Fig. 2.11a, the force F(t) is applied to the mass, while in Fig. 2.11b, the
force is applied at the point between the damper and stiffness [16].

10
6,8

F(t)

F(t)
1

Zb

Zb
F(t)

Zm

F(t)

Zk

Zm

Zk
2

10

Fig. 2.11 System of mbk elements subjected to force F(t) at mass m (a), and at point where
stiffness and damper are connected (b)

52

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

Here we provide a brief description of these systems. In case (a), the velocities at
terminal 3 of the mass and the input velocity at segment 345 are equal. That is,
m bk b k . For elements Zb and Zk, we have Fb Fk . In case (b), the
input velocities in the spring (block 67) and dampermass segment (blocks 89
10) are equal ( k bm b m ). In elements Zb and Zm,we have Fb Fm .

2.3.2

Two-Cascade Vibration Protection System

A mechanical system with two degrees of freedom subjected to a force excitation is

shown in Fig. 2.12a. As we have done in the above-described cases, to construct the
M2TN, we must number the input and output terminals of each two-port element.
Line 1081 corresponds to a xed support plane. The construction and nal M2TN
are presented in Fig. 2.12b, c.
First, we consider only the action of F(t). Since terminals 4, 6, and 9 belong to a
single element, they are connected at the joint in the M2TN.
Output terminals 5 and 3 of block 1 and input terminals 7 and 2 belong to a single
member (m2); therefore, terminals 5, 3, 7, and 2 of the M2TN are connected in a joint.
It is easy to see from Fig. 2.12a that if we introduce a damper b2 parallel to
elasticity k2, we must then introduce element b2 (with impedance Zb2 ) in parallel to
members k2m2 (block 2) in Fig. 2.12c.

m1

F (t )

b F (t )

k1

m1

5
2
k2

m2
k2

7 2
1

k1
3

m2

Q(t)

10

10

F (t )

Q(t )

Block 1

F (t )

6
4

m1
Zm1

Zb b

Zk1 k1

Block 2

5
3 m
2

k2
Zk2

Zm2
10

Q(t)

Fig. 2.12 Mechanical system with two degrees of freedom under force excitation (a); construction and nal M2TN (b, c)

2.3 Construction of Two-Terminal Networks

53

If the system contains a source of force Q(t), then this source, along with
elements m2 and k2 (block 2), must be connected in parallel; this is illustrated in
the example in Fig. 2.8. Additional force Q(t) and additional source is shown by a
dotted line in Fig. 2.12.
Analysis of the system in Fig. 2.12 is performed in the following order. First, we
nd the impedance Z2 of block 2 (parallel elements k2m2). We then determine the
impedance Z1 of block 1, followed by the impedance of the series of blocks 1 and 2,
and the total impedance of the system. We determine velocities and displacements
of points 4(6,9) and 3(5,7,2) and the forces transmitted onto each element according
to the denition of impedance. If the systems analysis is performed for given
numerical values of each element, then the result of each operation will be
presented in a complex form j. It is easy to determine the amplitude and
phase for each characteristic; these procedures will be presented in Sects. 2.4
and 2.5.
There may be a case in which one of the forces acts upon the massless platform
at point 2, as shown in Fig. 2.13a. The corresponding M2TN is shown in Fig. 2.13b.

Zk

4,3

b
2

Q(t )

F (t )
5

3
4

Zb

Zm

Zk

c 4,3

F (t )

Zm
5

Q(t)

Zb
1

Fig. 2.13 (a) Passive elements connected in series under force excitation; (b) force F(t) acts on
the mass m; (c) force Q(t) acts on the massless platform at point 2 and corresponding M2TN

2.3.3

Complex Dynamical System and Its Coplanar Network

A special type of two-cascade vibration protection system is shown in Fig. 2.14a

[16]. The peculiarity of this system is that the mass m1 is not associated with the
previous mass m2, but with a xed support. The entire system in Fig. 2.14a may be
presented as a combination of two simple structures. One of these is the m2k2b2
system, subjected to force F(t) (Fig. 2.14b), while the second is the m1k1b1
system, subjected to kinematic excitation (t) (Fig. 2.14c). This excitation is rst
applied onto the damper b1, and then transmitted onto the elements m1 and k1. Since
the input velocities for these elements (terminals 8, 9) and output velocity of
element b1 (terminal 8) are same, terminals 8, 11, and 9 are connected in a node,
and elements m1 and k1 are connected in parallel.

54

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

a
6

k2

1
1

10

12

b2
m2

F (t )

b2
m2

k1

F (t )

b1
8

k1

(t )

b1

m1

m1

11

Block 1

Block 2
5

F (t )

m2

k2
6

(t )

b2
1

8,11

b1
m1

k1
12

10

Fig. 2.14 Complex dynamical system. (a) Design diagram; (b, c) combination of two parts of
entire diagram; (d) corresponding mechanical M2TN. The force F(t) acts on the m2k2b2 system
(block 2) and velocity (t) acts on block 1; (d) Corresponding M2TN

The term complex system does not refer to the number of elements the system
contains or to the number of degrees of freedom, but rather to the method that is
used to connect different elements of the system. Figure 2.12 present systems
characterized by introducing additional elements that were connected with previous
cascades. For example, if the main elements were m2k2, then the additional
elements k1b must be connected with m2, and the additional element m1 must be
connected with k1b. Figure 2.15a, b presents a coplanar system [16]. Here, if we
exclude the damper b1, we are left with a three-cascade system constructed on the
principle described in Fig. 2.12. Here, however, we construct the system in a
different way: additional mass m1 is connected not only to mass m2, but also to
mass m3. Thus the damper b1 connects the rst and third cascade elements. This is
called a crossover connection. Generally, complex systems are characterized by
connections of elements of a given cascade to another cascade that is not adjacent.
The corresponding M2TN is presented in Fig. 2.15b. An alternate denition of a
complex system will be given in Sect. 2.6.
The addition of branch 1b12 in the M2TN indicates that this is a crossover
connection. There are a few peculiarities involved in analyzing such systems. Block
1 (Fig. 2.15b), consisting of elements b1, k1, and k2 forms a connection by a triangle
with vertices 1, 2, and 3 (Fig. 2.15c). The impedance of branch 12 is Z12, and the
impedances of branches 13 and 23 are Z13 and Z23, respectively. It is easy to
transform the triangular connection into a star-shaped connection; the
corresponding impedances Z1, Z2, and Z3 are determined using known formulas
in terms of Z12, Z13, and Z23 [15, 16].

2.4 Mechanical Network Theorems

55

k3

Block 1
b1

m3
k2

k1

b1

m1

F (t )

k1

m3

m2

k3

Block 2
1

F(t)

m1

F (t )

k2

m2

b1

Z13

Z2

Z1

2
Z3

k1

m1

Z12
k2

m3

k3

Z23

F (t )

m1

m2

m3

k3

m2

Fig. 2.15 Coplanar dynamical system. (a) Design diagram; (b) coplanar M2TN; Damper b1
forms crossover connection; (c) triangular connection; (d) equivalent M2TN

Z1 Z12 Z 13

Z12 Z 13
,
Z23

Z2 Z12 Z 23

Z12 Z 23
,
Z13

Z1 Z23 Z 13

Z23 Z 13
:
Z12

Block 1 (Fig. 2.15b, c) in the equivalent form of block 2 is shown in Fig. 2.15d.
Now the coplanar network diagram (Fig. 2.15b) is transformed to the form shown in
(Fig. 2.15d), for which we can easily calculate the partial and total impedances, and
provide a detailed dynamic analysis.
Note that another type of crossover connection can be found in [16].

2.4

Mechanical Network Theorems

This section contains important theorems reecting the fundamental properties of

mechanical networks. Here we provide methods for calculating impedance and
mobility of elements in parallel, series, or mixed connections.

56

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

2.4.1

Combination of Mechanical Elements

As mentioned above, passive two-terminal elements can be interconnected in

parallel, series, or mixed connections [11, 15].
Theorem 1 If elements are connected in series, the relative displacement of the
extreme (rst and last) elements is equal to the sum of the relative displacements of
the ends of each element.
Figure 2.16a shows the series connection of the passive elements 1, 2,. . ., n,
subjected to force F. The force arising between two members n and n  1 is Fn. The
relative velocity of the ends of the member n is n.

a
F

x
0

x1

2 0

x2

xn-1

Fn
xn

F2 Fn-1

2 . . .

Fig. 2.16 Connections of the elements: (a) series connection; (b) parallel connection

Displacements at the nodal points are x0, x1, x2, . . . , so the relative displacements
of the endpoints of each element is
x1 x1  x0 ,

x2 x2  x1 , . . . , xn xn  xn1 :

Therefore,
xn  x0

x:

2:17

Consequence If elements are connected in series, the relative velocity (relative

acceleration) of the extreme elements is equal to the relative velocity (relative
acceleration) of the endpoints of each elements
n  0

an  a0

a:

2:18

Theorem 2 If elements are connected in series, the force that acts upon each
element is equal to the total force applied to the system.

2.4 Mechanical Network Theorems

57

F1 F2    Fn F:
Theorem 3 If two elements with impedance Z1 and Z2 are connected in series,
the total impedance of the connection equals
Z

Z1 Z2
:
Z1 Z2

2:19

Indeed, by denition, Z 1 F=1 and Z2 F=2 , so 1 F=Z 1 and 2 F=Z 2 .

Since total velocity 1 2 , the total impedance is given by
Z

F
F
Z1 Z2
F F
:
1 2 Z1 Z2 Z 1 Z2

Theorem 4 If elements with mobility Y1, Y2, . . ., Yn are connected in series, the total
mobility of the connection equals
Y Y1 Y2:

2:20

Indeed, the total mobility is

Y =F 1 2 =F Y 1 Y 2 ;
It is easy to show that when two elastic elements with stiffness coefcients k1 and k2
are connected in series, they become equivalent to one elastic element with stiffens
coefcient keq. That is, k1eq k11 k12 .
Theorem 5 If elements are connected in parallel, the relative displacement of
their endpoints is equal to the relative displacement at the ends of each element.
x1 x2    xn x:

2:21

Consequence If elements are connected in parallel, two points that are connected
have the same relative velocity (and the same relative acceleration).
Theorem 6 If elements are connected in parallel, the sum of forces acting
upon each element is equal to the total external force acting upon the connection.
F1 F2    Fn F:

2:22

Theorem 7 If elements with impedance Z1, Z2, . . ., Zn each are connected in

parallel, the total impedance of the connection equals
Z Z1 Z2    Zn :

2:23

58

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

Theorem 8 If two elements with mobility Y1 and Y2 are connected in parallel,

the total mobility of the connection equals
Y

Y1Y2
:
Y1 Y2

2:24

It is easy to show that if two elastic elements with stiffness coefcients k1 and k2 are
connected in parallel, they become equivalent to one elastic element with stiffness
coefcient keq k1 k2 .
Summary formulas for computing the impedance/mobility for passive elements
connected in series and in parallel are presented in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5 Computation of impedance/mobility for typical connections [22, vol. 5]
Impedance Z

Mobility Y

Z1
Z2
Z = Z1 + Z 2

2.4.2

Z=

Y1

Z2

Z1

Y2

Z1Z 2
Z1 + Z 2
Y=

Y1

Y2

Y = Y1 + Y2

Y1Y2
Y1 + Y2

Kirchhoffs Laws

Electro-mechanical analogies allow us to apply Kirchhoffs laws for electrical

circuits to mechanical networks. These laws may be applied to any network
conguration, regardless of whether the elements of that network are linear or
nonlinear, time-invariant or time-varying [8, 23].
Kirchhoffs Force Law For a given network, we assign an arbitrary direction to the
forces in each branch and designate this direction by an arrow. We assign a positive
sign to the forces whose direction points toward a joint (common connection of the
several elements) and a negative sign to the forces whose direction points away
from the joint. It can be stated that, if any joint of the network is subjected to
n forces, then the algebraic sum of all the forces at any joint of the network is zero:
n
X

Fi 0 at a joint:

2:25

i1

Kirchhoffs Velocity Law If a closed loop of the network has n elements, then the
algebraic sum of all the relative velocity drops in any closed loop of the network is
equal to zero.

2.4 Mechanical Network Theorems

n
X

59

i 0 around a closed loop:

2:26

i1

Kirchhoffs laws hold for instantaneous values and can be used to write differential
equations of motion for any system [11].
The following theorems are applicable for linear networks with bilateral elements. The term linear network refers to a network that contains ideal elements
(i.e., mass, elastic and dissipative elements) whose characteristics m, k, and
b remain constant, regardless of the vibrations amplitude. A bilateral (symmetric
or two-sided) element refers to an element in which forces are transmitted equally in
both directions [11].

2.4.3

Reciprocity Theorem

For a system of linear bilateral elements, the following holds true: the velocity of
point i caused by the force of a particular frequency acting at point k is equal to the
velocity of point k caused by the force of the same frequency acting at the point, i.e.,
ik ki . This theorem indicates that a linear system of bilateral elements transmits
energy equally in both directions. A graphical representation of this theorem,
12 21 , is shown in Fig. 2.17. Here, the elements of both systems and their
impedances are the same.
12

F
k1

m1

k2

m2

21

k1

m1

k2

m2

Fig. 2.17 Notation for reciprocity theorem

This theorem complements the overall group of theorems of reciprocity [1, 11,
24, 25].

2.4.4

Superposition Principle

If a system of linear bilateral elements includes several sources of harmonic

vibrations, and the initial conditions of the system are zeroes, then the response
(displacements, velocities, accelerations, forces) for any point of the system is equal
to sum of responses caused by each source, considered each one individually [9].

60

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

This theorem may also be used with non-harmonic excitation. In this case, the
excitation should be presented by Fourier series [11].
Mechanical two-terminal networks are not just another representation of a
mechanical system equivalent to an entire design diagram ( e.g., a graphical system
[8, 22, vol. 5]). They provide a convenient apparatus to study the systems properties as the connections in the original system are modied.
Additional theorems of Thevenin and Norton regarding equivalent systems are
presented in [11].

2.5

Simplest One-Side mkb Vibration Isolator

Here we provide a detailed analysis of the mkb systems subjected to harmonic

force and kinematic excitation, in which the mechanical impedance method and
theory of M2TN are applied.

2.5.1

Force Excitation

Design diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2.18a. Assume that the system is
linear, i.e., the elastic force Fk, arising in the spring, and viscous damping force Fb
are expressed by Fk kx, and Fb bx_: , respectively. The system is subjected to
harmonic force Ft F sin t. The mechanical network in the case of force
excitation is shown in Fig. 2.18b. A feature of this network is that all passive
members are connected in parallel.

F (t )

m
k

x(t )

SEP

F (t )

Zm

Zk

Zb

Fig. 2.18 Single-axis vibration isolator subjected to force excitation Ft F sin t (a) and its
equivalent mechanical two-terminal network (b). Zm, Zk, Zb are impedance of the mass, spring.
and damper, respectively

The partial complex impedances of the passive members of the mechanical

network are
Z m jm,

Zk jk=,

Zb b:

The total complex impedance of the system, according to Table 2.4, is

2.5 Simplest One-Side mkb Vibration Isolator

61

Z Zm Zk Zb b j

2 m  k
:

The real and the imaginary parts of an impedance are called the resistance and
reactance, respectively.
The complex velocity is

F
F

:

Z j m  k b

The complex amplitude of displacement of the mass m and corresponding amplitude of displacement are
X

j k  m2 jb

F
X q
k  m2 2 b2

These expressions correspond with (1.4), The dynamic coefcient in dimensionless

parameters is presented in the form of (1.5).
The resonant frequency is given by
r
k
2
ImZ 0 m  k 0 0
:
m
The velocity of the point where the three elements are connected is

F
F
F

Z b j 2 mk
b

j
2 m  k

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by complex conjugate number

b  j2 m  k, we get

Fb  j2 m  k
,


2
b2 2 m  k :

The forces applied to each element are given by [16]:

2:27

62

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

Fb  j2 m  k F2 m2 m  k jb

2:28

k Fb  j2 m  k
Fc2 m  k jb

;

2:29

Fm Zm jm
Fk Z k j

Fb Z b b

Fb  j2 m  k
:

2:30

The total displacement of points 2, 4 and 5 (Fig. 2.8) is

x

j Fb  j2 m  k
F2 m  k jb


:
j

2:31

Expressions (2.28)(2.30) are presented on the complex plane (Fig. 2.19a). The
structure of these formulas shows that for any specic frequency of vibration ,
vectors Fm and Fk are parallel to each other, have opposite directions, and are
perpendicular to vector Fb. The same gure shows radius vectors of displacement
x and velocity v. These vectors are perpendicular to each other, which means that
the displacement is maximal when the velocity is zero. As the frequency of the
excitation force increases, all the vectors rotate in a clockwise direction, while
maintaining their relative positions.

a Im F

= 100 sec 1

Fm

b
Re F

Fb = bX

Fk
x

Fk = kX

Fb

Ff

X = 0.931510 3 m

Fb = 9.315kN

F
j

Fk = 0.931kN

t
X

Fm = 18.63kN

Fm = m 2 X

Fig. 2.19 (a) Representation of forces, velocity, and displacement in a complex plane. (b) Argand
diagram

Next we show some numerical examples. Assume that

F 20 kN,

k 1000 kN=m,

m 2 kN s2 =m,

b 100 kN s=m:

If 100 s1 , then according to (2.27)(2.31), we get the following values,

in complex form:
F 20 kN, k 1000 kN=m, m 2 kN s2 =m, b
100 kN s=m:

2.5 Simplest One-Side mkb Vibration Isolator

63

Fm 0:867619 10j,
Fk 0:0433819 10j,
Fb 0:433810  19j,

2:32

0:00433810  19j,
x 0:4338  104 19 10j :
Equations (2.27)(2.31) allow us to calculate the modulus of the corresponding
complex values
v
h
i
q u
uF2 2 m  k2 b2
F
u
jxj X Rex2 Imx2 t h
i2 q,
2
2
2 m  k2 b2
2 m  k b
jj X, jFm j m2 X, jFk j kX, jFb j bX:
With the given values we get
20
0:9315  103 m:
jxj X q

2
2
1002  2  1000 100  100

Using the last expression (2.32), we get the same result:

X 0:4338  104

p
192 102 0:9315  103 m:

The amplitudes of the forces are

jFm j 18:63 kN,

jFk j 0:9315 kN,

jFb j 9:315 kN:

Next we determine the phase angle between the excitation force Ft F cos t and
displacement x (or force Fm). To accomplish this, we represent the complex force
Fm(t) in the form Fm F cos t . From expressions (2.28) or (2.31), we
b
[7]. For the given parameters, 27:75
.
immediately obtain tan 2
mk
Equilibrium of all forces in a steady-state condition is presented by the Argand
diagram (Fig. 2.19b) [19, 26]. Polygon F  Fk  Fb  Fm is closed. Indeed, if Fk and
Fm are parallel to the x-axis, then

64

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

X
X

Fx F cos  Fk Fm 20  cos 27:75

 0:931 18:63
18:63 18:63 0;
Fy F sin  Fb 20  sin 27:75
 9:31 0:

The dotted line represents the amplitude of the force Ff which is transmitted onto
the foundation, tan b=k.

This example corresponds to the case in which p  1. It is easy to show the

k=m
p
p
Argand diagram for cases in which = k=m 1 and = k=m 1 [19].
From this, we can compute the coefcients of effectiveness of vibration protection. The dynamic and transmissibility coefcients are given by
DC

X
0:9315  103
F
20
m 0:02 m
0:0466, where st

st
k 1000
0:02
q p
F2k F2b
0:93152 9:31152
Ff
TC

0:468
F
F
20

This means that the amplitude of force which is transmitted onto the support
contains 47 % of the amplitude of the disturbance force.

2.5.2

Kinematic Excitation

The design diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2.20a. The system is subjected to
harmonic kinematic excitation t 0 sin t. The mechanical network is shown
in Fig. 2.20b [3], where compliance n of the elastic element is n k1 . A feature of
this network is that the compliance n and damper b are connected in parallel (block
1); this block is connected in series with passive member m.

b
Qnb

a
Q

m
k

(t )

(t )

Qb

Block 1

Qn
n

Qm

Fig. 2.20 Single-axis vibration isolator subjected to kinematic harmonic excitation t sin t
(a) and it equivalent mechanical two-terminal network (b). Qm, Qn, and Qb are forces acting on the
mass, spring, and damper, respectively; Qnb is the force acting on block 1; Q is the total force

2.5 Simplest One-Side mkb Vibration Isolator

65

The impedances of two parallel elements n and b are

Z1 Zn Zb

1
b:
jn

The impedance of two series blocks (nb) with impedance Z1 and mass m with
impedance Zm jm is
Z

Z1 Zm
1=jn b  jm
;

Z1 Z m 1=jn b jm
Z

1 j2z  jm
;
1  z2 j2z

p
where z =0 , 0 1= mn. The dimensionless parameter in terms of quality
Q0 1=0 nb is 1=2Q0 .
The forces which act on block 1 and element m are Qnb Qm Q, while for
parallel members n and b we have Qnb Qn Qb .
The velocity of the mass is m QZmm Y m Q Y m Z. Since the mobility of the
1
mass Y m jm
, then
m

1 j2z
:
1  z2 j2z

2:33

The absolute displacement of the mass m is

xm

m
1
1 j2z
j1 j2z
1 j2z

j0
:
2
2
j j 1  z j2z 1  z j2z
1  z2 j2z

The amplitude of the absolute displacement becomes

p
1 4z2 2
jXm j 0 q :
1  z2 2 4z2 2

2:34

a jb
,
In order to derive this relationship, we use a well-known formula: if A
c jb
p
a2 b2
then jAj p.
c 2 b2
The amplitude of the absolute acceleration becomes
p
1 4z2 2
W 0 2 q
1  z2 2 4z2 2

2:35

66

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

The coefcient of vibration isolation is given by [27]

k

p
1 4z2 2
W

:
2
0
1  z2 2 4z2 2

2:36

If we assume that the goal of vibration protection is to reduce the relative displacement of the mass m, then in this case the coefcient of vibration isolation becomes
 rel 
X 
z2
k m q :
2:37
0
1  z2 2 4z2 2
Analysis of more complex systems may be performed is a similar way.

2.6

Complex One-Sided mkb Vibration Isolators

Passive elements mkb are the source materials (blocks) for constructing complex
vibration protection systems. In this section, the term complex refers to the fact that
the design diagram cannot be transformed into the simplest design diagrams shown
in Fig. 2.18. Several typical VP system are considered below. These include a
vibration isolator with elastic suspension, and two-cascade and multi-cascade
vibration protection systems. Each dynamical system is presented as an M2TN.
For this analysis, we employ the mechanical impedance method.

2.6.1

Vibration Isolator with Elastic Suspension

We can expand the capabilities of a simple one-axis VP system by introducing an

additional elastic element connected in series with a damper; we assume that this
system is subjected to force or kinematic excitation (Fig. 2.21a). Equivalent
mechanical two-terminal networks for both types of excitations are shown in
Fig. 2.21b, c [3].
Let us consider the case of force excitation (Fig. 2.21a, b). The impedance of two
series-connected members k1 and b is
Z k1 b

Z k1 Z b
jk1 =  b
jk1 b

:
Z k1 Zb jk1 = b b  jk1

2.6 Complex One-Sided mkb Vibration Isolators

F (t )

F (t )

m
b
k
(t )

67

Zm

Zb

Zk

Zk1

x(t )

k1

x1 (t )

k1

b
m

(t )

Fig. 2.21 Vibration isolator with elastic suspension. (a) One-sided vibration isolator with an
elastic suspension. (b, c) Equivalent mechanical two-terminal networks in the case of force and
kinematic excitation, respectively

The total impedance of the structure

Z Z m Z k Z k1 b
k
k1 b
k1 2 m  k jb2 m  k  k1
:
jm  j  j

b  jk1
b  jk1

2:38

Velocity is determined by FZ, so for complex displacement, we obtain the

following expression:
x

Fk1 jb

:
2
j k1 k  m jbk k1  2 m

2:39

This result coincides with formula (1.13).

In the case of kinematic excitation, we note the following steps: partial impedance of two elements in series Zk1 b , partial impedance of two elements Z k1 b and Zk,
total impedance (elements Z k1 b , Zk and Zm). The distribution of forces between each
member and the computation of velocities and coefcient of vibration isolation may
be easily determined as shown above.

2.6.2

Two-Cascade Vibration Protection System

Figure 2.22a shows a two-cascade system for vibration isolation. The

corresponding M2TN is shown in Fig. 2.22b. We show a similar procedure for
this system, particularly the computation of dynamic coefcient F Ff =F, where
Ff is the force transmitted onto the foundation.

68

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

F (t )

Block 234

m1

234

k1, Z2

34

k1
m2

m1
Z1

F (t )

Block 34

k2
Z3

m2
Z4

k2
Fig. 2.22 Single-axis two-cascade vibration isolator subjected to force excitation Ft F sin t
(a) and corresponding M2TN (b)

The impedances of passive members m1, k1, k2, and m2 are denoted by Z1, Z2, Z3,
and Z4, respectively, as
Z 1 jm1 ,

Z 2 jk1 =,

Z3 jk2 =,

Z 4 jm2 :

We provide a detailed analysis of this system in a generalized form, using the

notation Zi , i 14. The enumeration of impedance begins with elements of the
M2TN that are furthest from the source elements k2 and m2.
The impedance of block 34, which consists of two parallel members with
impedances Z3 and Z4, is Z 34 Z 3 Z4 . Element Z2 and block 34 are connected
in series, and therefore
Z 234

Z2 Z34
Z 2 Z 3 Z 4

:
Z2 Z34 Z 2 Z 3 Z4

The total impedance of the system is

Z Z1 Z 234 Z1

Z2 Z 3 Z 4
Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4

:
Z2 Z3 Z4
Z2 Z3 Z4
2:40

We begin the enumeration for velocities at elements closest to the source of

excitation. By denition, the velocity of the system is given by

F
F Z 2 Z 3 Z 4

:
Z Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4

2:41

At joint 1, the input velocity 34 and output velocities 1 and 234 are equal, so
1 234 . Velocity 234 is an input velocity for block 234. The output velocity
for the member with impedance Z2 is 34 234 . At joint 2, the input velocity
34 and output velocities 3 and 4 are equal, so 34 3 4 . The force transferred
onto block 234 is F234 Z234 234 Z 234 .

2.6 Complex One-Sided mkb Vibration Isolators

69

The output force for the member with impedance Z2 is F34 F234 Z234 , and
this is the force perceived by block 34. Since velocity 3 34 , then the force that is
perceived by elastic member c2 with impedance Z3 is
F3 Z3 3 Z 3 34 Z3

F34
Z 234
Z3
:
Z34
Z34

The substitution of Z234, Z34, and leads to an expression for the force acting upon
the spring in terms of the impedances of the separate elements:
F3 F

Z2 Z3
:
Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4

2:42

The substitution of impedances for specied elements leads to an expression for the
force transmitted onto the foundation:
F3 Ff k 1 k 2
2

F k1 k22

 m1 k1  m1 k2  m2 k1 2 m1 m2

The dynamic coefcient is given by

F

Ff
1


1
1
F
2
1  2 m1 k1 k2  2 mk22 2 mk11 m
k2 :

2:43

Special cases:
1. Let m2 0 In this case we obtain a system consisting of mass m1 and two series
elastic members with stiffness k1 and k2.
2. Let m2 0 and k2 0. In this case we obtain the well-known expression
F

Ff
1

:
1  2 m1 =k1
F

2:44

The system in Fig. 2.22 can be used to analyze the properties of vibration isolation
system m1, k1 which is installed on the deformable base that is modeled elements k2,
and m2. This issue will be discussed in detail in Sect. 3.2.2.
Figure 2.23a presents a modied two-cascade vibration protection system. The
difference here compared to Fig. 2.22 is that the harmonic force is applied to the
intermediate mass. This construction is known as a dynamic absorber (suppressor).
The corresponding M2TN is shown in Fig. 2.23b. Utilizing the theory of M2TN, we
determine the vertical displacement of m2 and demonstrate the main properties of
the dynamic absorber.

70

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

m1
k1
F (t )

m2
k2

234

k1

Z3
k2
Z2

m2
Z1

Block 34

m1
Z4

F (t )

Fig. 2.23 Dynamic absorber. (a) Design diagram, and (b) corresponding M2TN

The impedance of block 34 is Z34

Z3 Z4
. The total impedance of the system
Z3 Z4

and corresponding velocity are

Z3 Z4
Z1 Z2 Z 3 Z4 Z3 Z 4

:
Z3 Z4
Z3 Z4
F
Z3 Z4
F
:
Z
Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4 Z 3 Z 4

Z Z1 Z 2 Z34 Z1 Z 2

At joint 1 we have 1 234 , so

1

F Z 3 Z 4
:
Z 1 Z 2 Z3 Z 4 Z3 Z4

The displacement of mass m2 is

x1 

j1
j
F Z 3 Z 4

Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 Z 4 Z 3 Z 4

Since Z3 jk1 = and Z 4 jm1 , we get



F k1 m1
1
x1
:
Z 1 Z 2 Z3 Z 4 Z 3 Z4
If mk11 2, then the displacement of mass m2 is equal to zero. This device will be
considered in more detail in Chap. 6 (dynamic absorber), Chap. 8 (invariance
principle), and Chap. 12 (structural theory).
The nal expression for the displacement is
x1

Fk1  2 m1
:
k1  2 m1 k1 k2  2 m2  k21

2:45

Problems

71

The system in Fig. 2.22 shows a realization of vibration isolationthe weakening

of the connection between the object of VP and the foundation. The system shown
in Fig. 2.23 contains an additional device m1k1, and demonstrates a different
concept. This device produces an additional force, which compensates a given
harmonic force (t). The analysis of both systems is carried out in a similar manner.
In the case of a multi-element system, we often do not have to perform a full
system analysis, but rather we can determine the forces and accelerations in several
points of the system.
This can be done by utilizing Thevenins and Nortons theorems [11, 22, vol. 5].
These allow us to represent the original system in the form of a simplied system
with the source of force and velocities, respectively. The choice of theorem to apply
depends on the design type of the original system. These theorems hold true for
systems consisting of bilateral elements, and for these types of systems, we can
introduce the M2TN concept.
Features and Advantages of M2TN
1. Mechanical two-terminal networks allow us to carry out a detailed analysis of a
linear dynamical system by algebraic methods instead of deriving and solving
corresponding differential equations.
2. The construction of M2TN and its use for analysis of dynamical systems does
not require the construction of an equivalent electrical circuit.
3. For a specied dynamical system, the structure of M2TN is dependent on the
type of excitation (force or kinematic excitation) and the location at which the
harmonic force is applied.
4. In the case of crossover connections, we must modify the network to go from
triangular connections to star connections. These transformation are
performed by methods described in Sect. 3.3.
Analysis of dynamical systems containing both classic passive elements (mass,
spring, and damper) and levers can be found in [16]. A historical review of the
development of impedance and mobility methods in structural dynamics is
presented by Gardonio and Brennan [14].

Problems
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.

Explain the essence of electro-mechanical analogies. Provide examples.

Discuss the concept of dual electrical circuits.
Formulate the Kirchhoff Laws.
Explain the concepts of the mechanical two-terminal passive elements and
mechanical impedance and mobility. Present the corresponding formulas for
passive elements and the graphical representation.
2.5. Explain what is meant by a coplanar dynamical system.

72

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

2.6. Discuss formulas for computing impedance and mobility in the following
cases:
(a) series connection and (b) parallel connection of elements. Consider the
special cases of elements (two springs, two dampers).
2.7. Explain the essence of mechanical two-terminal networks of a linear dynamical system.
2.8. Describe the Argand diagram.
2.9. Construct the M2TN for dynamical systems shown in Fig. P2.9a, b.

F(t)
m1

m1
F(t)
Fig. P2.9

2.10. Figure P2.10 presents a mechanical mkb system. Construct the M2TN,
compute the impedance, and provide the total dynamic analysis.
F (t )

x(t )
SEP

Fig. P2.10

2.11. Figure P2.11 presents a mechanical mk system. Construct the M2TN,

compute the mobility, and provide the total dynamic analysis.
v(t)
k
m
Fig. P2.11

2.12. Two-cascade mechanical systems are presented in Fig. P2.112ac. Construct

the M2TN and compute the impedance.

References

73

k2

k2
m2

k1

c
k2
m2

m2

k1
m1

F2(t)
m1

k1

F2(t)
m1
F1(t)

F1(t)
Fig. P2.12

2.13. The mechanical system shown in Fig. P2.13 is subjected to kinematic excitation; v(t) is velocity. Construct the M2TN and compute the mobility [16].
m
k2

k1

b
v(t)

Fig. P2.13

Answer: Y bk2  2 m j2 k1 m  k1 k2 2 k2 m=k2 mjb k1 .

References
1. Olson, H. F. (1958). Dynamical analogies (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand.
2. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
3. Lenk, A. (1975). Elektromechanische systeme. Band 1: Systeme mit konzentrierten
parametern. Berlin: VEB Verlag Technnic.
4. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
5. Brown, J. W., & Churchill, R. V. (2009). Complex variables and applicationsSolutions
manual (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
6. Fahy, F., & Walker, J. (1998). Fundamentals of noise and vibration. New York: CRC Press.
7. Newland, D. E. (1989). Mechanical vibration analysis and computation. Harlow, England:
Longman Scientic and Technical.
8. Gupta, S. C., Bayless, J. W., & Peikari, B. (1972). Circuit analysis with computer application
to problem solving. Scranton, PA: Intext Educational.

74

2 Mechanical Two-Terminal Networks for a System with Lumped Parameters

9. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
10. Williams, R. L. (2014). Mechanism kinematics & dynamics and vibrational modeling. Mech.
Engineering, Ohio University.
11. Hixson, E. L. (1996). Mechanical impedance. In Handbook: Shock and Vibration. Harris C.M.
(Editor in Chief). McGraw Hill, 4th Edition, 1996, (Ch. 10).
12. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Free vibrations of beams and frames. Eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
13. Skudrzyk, E. J. (1972). The foundations of acoustics. New York: Springer.
14. Gardonio, P., & Brennan, M. J. (2002). On the origins and development of mobility and
impedance methods in structural dynamics. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 249(3), 557573.
15. Bulgakov, B. V. (1954). The vibrations. Gosizdat: Moscow.
16. Druzhinsky, I. A. (1977). Mechanical networks. Leningrad, Russia: Mashinostroenie.
17. Kljukin, I. I. (Ed.). (1978). Handbook on the ship acoustics. Leningrad, Russia: Sudostroenie.
18. Bishop, R. E. D., & Johnson, D. C. (1960). The mechanics of vibration. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
19. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
20. Liangliang, Z., & Yinzhao, L. (2013). Three classical papers on the history of the phasor
method [J]. Transactions of China Electrotechnical Society, 28(1), 94100.
21. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
22. Chelomey, V. N. (Ed.). (1978-1981). Vibrations in engineering. Handbook (Vols. 16).
Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
23. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
24. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
25. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
26. Clough, R. W., & Penzien, J. (1975). Dynamics of structures. New York: McGraw-Hill.
27. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol. 6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief) (19781981). Vibration in Engineering (Vols.1-6).
Moscow: Mashinostroenie.

Chapter 3

Mechanical Two-Terminal
and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed
Systems

This chapter further develops the theory of the mechanical two-terminal network
(M2TN) as applied to vibration protection of mixed systems. Such systems contain
an arbitrary deformable structure (DS) and are tted with vibration protection
(VP) devices. Formulas are derived for determining the fundamental characteristicsinput and output (transfer) impedance and mobility. The type of system and
its peculiarities are not specied, nor is the structure of the VP devices or their
parameters and location. Impedance and mobility are realized in constructing an
optimal synthesized M2TN, with the number of its passive elements as optimality
criterion.
This chapter also includes the following two topics: (a) the theory of mechanical
four-terminal networks (M4TN) and its crossover application for passive mechanical elements with lumped parameters, and (b) the mechanical eight-terminal
network (M8TN) for describing transverse vibration of an inertial uniform beam.

3.1

Fundamental Characteristics of a Deformable System

with a Vibration Protection Device

An arbitrary deformable system (Fig. 3.1) at point 1 is subjected to the action of a

harmonic force F1. Restrictions on the type of DS (beam, frame, plate), its peculiarities (variable stiffness, local holes and/or boss structures), and boundary conditions
are not specied. Such an elastic system is considered only in terms of its crossover
elastic properties, while neglecting the inertial properties. The DS at point 2 is
connected with a VP device. This device presents any combination of lumped masses
m, elastic elements of stiffness k, and dampers b.
In the general case combining the elements m, k, and b, the impedance Z( j) of the
VPD is dened for a system with lumped parameters by constructing an M2TN. The
rules for calculating impedance and mobility are provided in the previous chapter.
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_3

75

76

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Fig. 3.1 Design diagram

of a deformable system
(DS) with a vibration
protection device (VPD)

F1
1

DS

2
2

F2
VPD

The challenge is to construct an 2TN that is a model of the entire mixed

system. Unlike objects in the previous chapter, this includes an elastic system with
distributed parameters. While this fact greatly complicates the task, because of the
general advantages of the mechanical impedance method (I), the statement of
the problem is attractive.
Let us recall the advantages of MIM: the derivation of differential equations of
the system DS + VPD is replaced by a simple construction of the corresponding
M2TN, while for solutions to differential equations of motion, we use the algebraic
operations over impedances of the M2TN. Additionally, the M2TN concept allows
us to easily make changes in the system itself, obtain visual analytical results in the
VP device, and in particular, to facilitate evaluation of the effect of vibration
protection.

3.1.1

Input and Transfer Impedance and Mobility

The input and transfer impedances Z and mobility Y are considered to in the set of
the fundamental characteristics of the system. They are dened by
Z inp j

F
F
1
2
, Ztr j , Y inp j , Y tr j ;
1
2
F
F

3:1

where 1 and 2 are velocities of points 1 and 2 of DS in directions F(t) and 2.

To derive expressions for these characteristics, we must perform some additional
procedures. The reaction of the VP device which is transferred upon DS is F2.
Velocity at point 2 of DS is 2. We assume that DS is linear. According to the
superposition principle, the displacements along the rst and second directions are
y1 11 F1  12 F2 ,
y2 21 F1  22 F2 ;

3:2a

where ik is the unit displacement, and ik is the displacement in direction i due to

the unit force, which acts in the direction k. Note that ii > 0; ik i 6 k may be
positive, negative, or zero, and thus ik ki . The computation of unit displacement
ik for a linear deformable system may be found in [1].

3.1 Fundamental Characteristics of a Deformable System with a Vibration. . .

77

Since displacement y2 and velocity 2 are related by 2 jy2, the second

equation of (3.2a) becomes
1 j11 F1  12 F2 ,
2 j21 F1  22 F2 :

3:2b

To calculate the input impedance/mobility, we must determine the corresponding

force and velocity. The reaction arising in the VP device is F2 2 Z j21 F1 
22 F2 Z. From this equation we nd a force in the VP device of
F2

j21 Z
F1 :
1 j22 Z

3:3

The velocity of point 1 and the corresponding displacement are related by

1 jy1, so taking into account (3.2a), we get

1 j 11 


j212 Z
F1 :
1 j22 Z

Similarly, velocity 2 becomes



j21 22 Z
2 j 21 
F1 :
1 j22 Z
Now we can derive expressions (3.1) for fundamental characteristics if DS is
equipped with a VP device of impedance Z. Input mobility and impedance are [2]



j212 Z
Y inp j j 11 
;
1 j22 Z
Zinp j Y 1
inp j

1 j22 Z
j11 j2 DZ

, D 11 22  212 :

3:4a
3:4b

Transfer mobility and impedance are



j21 22 Z
Y tr j j 21 
;
1 j22 Z
Z tr j Y 1
tr j

1
22

Z:
j21 21

3:5a
3:5b

Impedance of the VP device may be presented as

Z j U jV;

3:6

where U and V are the real and imaginary parts of the complex number Z( j).

78

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The input impedance of the DS with VP device becomes

Z inp j

1 j22 U jV
j11 j2 DU jV

3:7

If we eliminate the imaginary part in the denominator, the input impedance can be
expressed as follows:
Zinp j ReZ inp ImZ inp ,
ReZ inp A1 212 U,



ImZ inp A1 1  2 22 V 11  2 DV  2 22 DU 2 ,

3:8

A 2 D2 U 2 11  2 DV :
For the type of DS, the boundary conditions and peculiarities determine the unit
displacements, while the VP device structure and its parameters m, k, and
b determine the real and imaginary parts U and V of impedance Zj U jV:
Changing the structure of VP device leads only to a change in the parameters
U and V, while the structure of the impedance/mobility expression remains
unchanged.
Now it is easy to construct two important functionsthe impedance ReZ inp( j)
of DS on the plane ReZinp  ImZinp , and the impedance modulus Z inp 
q
2 
2
ReZ inp ImZinp of DS, depending on the excitation frequency .
The frequency equation is




1  2 22 V 11  2 DV  2 22 DU 2 0:

3:9

The resulting expressions allow for a unied consideration of static and dynamic
problems. Numerous examples are presented in [2].
Example 3.1 The uniform cantilever beam with elastic support is loaded by force F1
(Fig. 3.2). The length of the beam is l. Determine the reaction of the elastic support.
Fig. 3.2 Design diagram of
a beam with an elastic
support

F1
a

b
1

2
EI, l

k
F2

Solution This is a statically indeterminate system. Let the elastic support be

treated as a redundant constraint. The unit displacements in the primary system are

3.1 Fundamental Characteristics of a Deformable System with a Vibration. . .

22

79



l3
a3
3b
, 21
1

:
2a
3EI
3EI

The impedance of elastic support is Z k/j. According to (3.3), for the required
reaction we obtain [1]
F2

j21 Z
F1 a3 1 3b=2a
 :
F1 3
1 j22 Z
l 1 3EI= l3 k

Example 3.2 Design diagrams of the beams with different types of VP devices at
the free end are shown in Fig. 3.3a, b. Calculate the frequency of vibration.

EI, l

EI, l
k

k
m

Fig. 3.3 Design diagrams of a uniform beam with different types of VP devices. (a) beam with
lumped mass at the end and with elastic support; (b) beam with k-m device

Solution For the scheme in Fig. 3.3a, the velocities of the mass and the top end of
the spring are the same; therefore, the km connection should be considered
parallel. The impedance of M2TN for the mk elements is
Za j Zm Z k

j2 m k
:
j

The frequency of vibration may be determined from equation Zinp j 0.

According to (3.4b), we have
1 j22 Z 0

or

1 j22

j2 m k
0:
j

Since 22 l3 =3EI, then

s
k 3EI=l3
:

m
For the scheme in Fig. 3.3b, the velocities of the mass and spring at the end of a
beam are different; therefore, the km connection should be considered series.
Impedance is given by

80

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Za j

Zm Zk
jmk

:
Zm Z k j2 m k

jmk
The frequency equation becomes 1 j22
0 ; nally, we obtain
j2 m k
s
3EIk

.

m 3EI l3 k
Example 3.3 The cantilevered beam in Fig. 3.4 is subjected to harmonic force F1 at
point 1. Calculate the coefcient of vibration protection F F2 =F1 .
Fig. 3.4 Design diagrams
of a uniform beam with mk
VP device

F1

b
m

EI, l

2
k
F2

Solution The velocity of point 2 that belongs to mass m and stiffness k, is the same.
Therefore, on the M2TN, the elements m and k are connected in parallel. Partial
impedance of the mk system is
Zmk Zm Z k

j2 m k
:
j

The transmissibility coefcient is given by

F

F2
j21 Zmk

:
F1 1 j22 Zmk

After elementary transformation, we obtain

F

21 k  m2
:
1 22 k  m2

If 0 (static problem), then

F

21 k
:
1 22 k

3.1 Fundamental Characteristics of a Deformable System with a Vibration. . .

81

If a b l=2, we obtain the well-known result [1].

F

5

  :
16 1 3EI= kl3

Example 3.4 A cantilevered beam is subjected to harmonic force F(t) which acts
upon a lumped (boss) mass m2 that is located at the end of the beam. The system is
equipped with an additional device k1m1, which is attached at the point where the
force is applied. Analyze the motion at endpoint A of the beam (Fig. 3.5a).
Fig. 3.5 (a) Design
diagrams of a DS with a VP
device; (b) connection of m2
and group k1m1; (c) M2TN
Z m2 elements

DS

m2

F(t)

k1-m1

m2

m2

k1
m1

k1
m1

Solution This structure consists of two partsan elastically deformable beam, and
device m2k1m1. The input impedance of the entire system, according to (3.4b), is
Z inp j

1 j22 Z VPD
j11 j2 DZ VPD

where Z VPD U jV is the impedance of the VP device m2k1m1.

Since the point of the application of force (point 1) and the attachment point
(2) of the VP device are the same, 11 22 , and we get
D 11 22  212 0,

Z inp j

1 jZVPD
:
j

We now calculate impedance m2k1m1. Point A is common for mass m2 and group
k1m1. Therefore, m2 and group k1m1 are connected by node A, i.e., the element m2
and group k1m1 are connected in parallel (Fig. 3.5b). Elements k1m1 perceive the
same force, so these elements are connected in series. Only a fragment of the M2TN
for VP problem is shown in Fig. 3.5c.
The partial impedances are

Zm2 jm2 , Zk1 m1

k1
 jm2
Z k 1  Z m1
jk1 m1
j

:
Z k 1 Z m1 k 1
k 1  2 m 1
jm2
j

82

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The total impedance of VP device is



j
m2
Z VPD
m
k
m
2
1 1
tot


k 1 m1
:
k1  2 m1

Thus the real and imaginary parts of the impedance of the VP device are
U 0, V m2

k 1 m1
:
k1  2 m1

Next, we can calculate the total input impedance Zinp( j) of a mixed structure. The
velocity and displacement y of point A are
A

Ft
,
Z inp j

yA

t
:
j

Since U 0, we get
y A t

Ft

:
k1 m1
2
1  m2
k1  2 m1

After an elementary transformation, we obtain

yA t

Ftk1  2 m1
,
k1  2 m1 k1 k2  2 m2  k21

1
k2 :

We obtained a result that was previously derived for a dynamic absorber (Formula
(2.45), Sect. 2.6.2); the deformable system plays the role of elastic element k2 in
Fig. 2.22. Thus, endpoint A of the beam remains xed if the absorber vibration
p
frequency 1 k1 =m1 coincides with the excitation frequency .
The resulting expression is valid for any linear DS (beam, plate) with arbitrary
boundary conditions, distribution of stiffness, or presence of features (local weakening, boss-structures, rigid inserts).
A feature of the above procedure is as follows: the analysis requires us to
determine unit displacement at the point where the disturbing force is applied;
according Fig. 3.1, the passive elements m2k1m1 should thus be rejected. Therefore, for the given problem, we have l3/3EI.

3.1.2

Impedance and Mobility Relating to an Arbitrary Point

There are cases when the coefcient of efciency of vibration isolation must be
determined for a point n which does not coincide with the point where the force is
applied (point 1) and where the VP device is attached (point 2; Fig. 3.1).

3.1 Fundamental Characteristics of a Deformable System with a Vibration. . .

83

By denition, the transfer impedance and mobility are

Z 1n j F1 =n ,

Y 1n j Z 1
1n j n =F1 :

As before, we construct an expression for velocity

n jn1 F1  n2 F2 :

3:10

This expression, taking into account (3.3), becomes



jn2 21 Z
n j n1 
:
1 j22 Z

3:11

Thus the mobility of the system becomes



jn2 21 Z
Y 1n j j n1 
F1 :
1 j22 Z

3:12

Taking into account expression (3.6) and adopting the notation p j, (3.12)
becomes
Y 1n j

p3 n1 22  n2 21 V p2 n1 22  n2 21 U pn1
:
p2 22 V p22 U 1

3:13

The impedance of the system is given by

Z 1n j

p2 22 V p22 U 1
, D1 n1 22  n2 21 :
2
1 V p D1 U pn1

p3 D

3:14

It is easy to verify that expression (3.14) generalizes formulas (3.7) and (3.5b) for
input and transfer impedance, respectively. Indeed:
1. Let point n coincide with point 1 of the application force, and then
n1 11 , n2 12 ! D1 D. In this special case we obtain expression (3.7).
2. Let point n coincide with point 2 of the attached VP device; then
n1 21 , 22 22 ! D1 0. In this special case we obtain expression
(3.5b).

84

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

3.2

Deformable Support of a Vibration Protection System

The design diagram of a vibration protection system with one degree of freedom
(Fig. 2.2a) suggests the following assumptions: the mass of the foundation is
signicant compared to the mass of the object, and the stiffness of the foundation
is signicant compared to the stiffness of the elastic element. In this case, the
foundation can be considered non-deformable. However, in some cases these
assumptions are unrealistic. For example, if an engine is mounted on a vessel, the
mass of the support and associated structures is less than the mass of the object, and
the foundation stiffness is commensurate with the stiffness of vibration isolation
elements. A similar situation arises in the case of a turbine mounted on a jet wing [3].
In these cases the design diagram of a system object-support should be changed.
Analysis of VP system with deformable foundation leads to a system with a nite
number of degrees of freedom.

3.2.1

Free Vibrations of Systems with a Finite Number

of Degrees of Freedom

Let us consider an arbitrary deformable structure with lumped masses (Fig. 3.6).
The behavior of such structures may be described by different types of differential
equations. We will consider differential equations in terms of unit displacements;
damping is neglected.
F1in = 1

F2in

F1in

m1
y1
Fnin

m2

m1

mn

yn

m1

m2

11 21

y2

F2in = 1

mn

n1

m1

m2

12 22

mn

n2

m2

1n 2n
Fnin = 1

mn

nn

Fig. 3.6 Design diagrams and unit states

In the case of free vibration, each mass is subjected only to forces of inertia. The
displacement of each mass may be represented as [1, 4]
y1 11 F1in 12 F2in    1n Fnin ,
y2 21 F1in 22 F2in    2n Fnin ,
...
yn n1 F1in n2 F2in    nn Fnin :

3:15

3.2 Deformable Support of a Vibration Protection System

85

where ik is displacement in ith direction caused by a unit force acting in the kth
direction.
Since the force of inertia of a mass mi is Fiin miyi , the differential equations
(3.15) become
11 m1y1 12 m2y2    1n mnyn y1 0,
3:16

...
n1 m1y1 n2 m2y2    nn mnyn yn 0:

Each equation of (3.16) presents a compatibility condition. The differential equations of motion are coupled dynamically, because the second derivative of all
coordinates appears in each equation.
In matrix form, this system may be presented as
Y 0;
FMY

3:17a

where F is the exibility matrix (or matrix of unit displacements), M is the diagonal
mass matrix, and Y represents the vector displacements
2

11

6
6 21
F6
4...
n1

12

. . . 1n

22
...

. . . 2n 7
7
7,
... ...5

n2

. . . nn

m1

6 0 m
2
6
M6
4... ...

...

...

mn

... 0 7
7
7,
... ...5

y1

6y 7
6 27
Y 6 7:
6...7
6 7
6y 7
n
3:17b

Frequency Equation The solution of a system of differential equations (3.17a) is

given by
y1 A1 sin t 0 , y2 A2 sin t 0 , y3 A3 sin t 0 ;

3:18a

where Ai is the amplitude of the corresponding masses mi, and 0 is the initial phase
of vibration.
The second derivatives of these displacements over time are
y1 A1 2 sin t 0 , y2 A2 2 sin t 0 , yn An 2 sin t 0 :
3:18b
By substituting (3.18a) and (3.18b) into (3.17a) and reducing by2 sin t 0 we get

86

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

m1 11 2  1A1 m2 12 2 A2    mn 1n 2 An 0,
m1 21 2 A1 m2 22 2  1A2    mn 2n 2 An 0,
...

3:19a

m1 31 2 A1 m2 32 2 A2    mn nn 2  1An 0:
The (3.19a) are homogeneous algebraic equations with respect to unknown amplitudes A. Trivial solution Ai 0 corresponds to the system at rest. A nontrivial
solution (non-zero amplitudes Ai) is possible if the determinant of the coefcients
of amplitude is zero
2
6
6
D6
6
4

m1 11 2  1
m1 21 2

m2 12 2

...

mn 1n 2

m2 22 2  1 . . .

mn 2n 2

...

...

...

...

m1 n1 2

m2 n2 2

...

mn nn 2  1

3
7
7
7 0:
7
5

3:20

This equation is called frequency equation in terms of displacements. The solution

to this equation 1, 2, . . ., n represents the eigenfrequencies of a structure. The
number of frequencies of free vibration is equal to the number of degrees of
freedom.
Mode Shapes of Vibration and Modal Matrix Equations (3.19a) are homogeneous algebraic equations with respect to unknown amplitudes A. This system does
not allow us to nd these amplitudes. However, we can nd the ratios between
different amplitudes. If a structure has two degrees of freedom, then system (3.19a)
becomes
m1 11 2  1A1 m2 12 2 A2 0,
m1 21 2 A1 m2 22 2  1A2 0:

3:19b

From these equations we can nd the following ratios:

A2
m1 11 2  1

m2 12 2
A1

or

A2
m1 21 2
:

A1
m2 22 2  1

3:21a

If we substitute the rst frequency of vibration 1 into any of the two equations
(3.21a), then we can nd A2 =A1 1 . Then we can assume that A1 1 and calculate
the corresponding A2 (or vice versa). The numbers A1 1 and A2 dene the
distribution of amplitudes at the rst frequency of vibration 1; such distribution
is referred to as the rst mode shape of vibration. This distribution is presented in

3.2 Deformable Support of a Vibration Protection System

87

the form of a column vector 1 whose elements are A1 1 and the calculated A2;
this column vector is called the rst eigenvector 1. Thus (3.19b) for 1 denes the
rst eigenvector to within an arbitrary constant.
The second mode shape of vibration, or second eigenvector, which corresponds
to the second frequency vibration 2 can be found in a similar manner. We can then
construct the modal matrix 1 2 
We can see that the number of relations in (3.21a) for a system with two degrees
of freedom equals unity. If a structure has n degrees of freedom, then the number of
relationships of type (3.21a) equals n  1. In this case, the ith eigenvector (ith mode
shape, ith normal mode of vibration) represents the ith column of the modal matrix
1 2 . . . n .
Example 3.5 The design diagram of a frame is shown in Fig. 3.7. Find the
eigenfrequencies and shape vibration mode.

P1=1

2EI

P2=1

1l
q2

q1
EI

M2

M1

1h
l

1.0

1.0
1.1328

1- first mode

0.8828

2 - second mode

Fig. 3.7 (a) Design diagram of a frame and unit states with corresponding bending moment
diagram; (b) mode shapes of vibration

Solution The system has two degrees of freedom. The generalized coordinates are
q1 and q2. We must apply unit forces in the direction of q1 and q2, and construct the
bending moments diagram. Following this, we apply the Vereshchagin rule [1].
Unit displacements are

88

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

11

12

EI
3

dx

M1  M1
1 1
2
1
 1ll 1l 1lh1l

2EI 2
3
EI
EI

l
l h
;

6EI EI
M2  M2
1 1
2
h3
 1hh 1h
;

EI 2
3
EI
3EI
M1  M2
1 1
h2 l
:
 1hh1l
21
EI 2
2EI
EI

22

X M1 M1

l3
. In this case, 11 130 ; 22 160 ; 12 21 120 .
6EI
The equations for calculation of amplitudes (3.19a) are

Let h 2l and 0

130 m2  1A1 120 m2 A2 0,

120 m2 A1 160 m2  1A2 0:
Let

3:21b

1
6EI

. In this case, equation (a) may be rewritten in the form

0 m2 m2 l3
13  A1 12A2 0,
12A1 16  A2 0:

3:21c

The frequency equation becomes


13 
12
D
13  16   144 0:
12
16 
The roots in decreasing order are 1 26:593; 2 2:4066. The eigenfrequencies
in increasing order are
s
r
6EI
EI
1
0:4750
,
3
1 ml
ml3

s
r
6EI
EI
1:5789
2
:
3
2 ml
ml3

The mode shape vibration may be determined on the basis of equations (b).
For the rst mode (1 26:593), the amplitude ratios are
A2
13 
13  26:593

1:1328,

12
12
A1
A2
12
12

1:1328:

16 
16  26:593
A1

3.2 Deformable Support of a Vibration Protection System

89

Assume that A1 1, so the rst eigenvector becomes b 11

b 1 1:1328 cT .
For the second mode (2 2:4066), the amplitude ratios are

21 cT

A2
13  2:4066
0:8828,

12
A1
A2
12
0:8828:

16  2:4066
A1
The modal matrix is then dened by

1
1:1328


1
:
0:8828

The corresponding mode shapes of vibration are shown in Fig. 3.7b.

For a system with two degrees of freedom, analysis of frequencies may be effectively performed using the concepts of partial frequency [46], and Wiens graph [5].

3.2.2

Generalized Model of Support and Its Impedance

In a general case, the deformable foundation acts as mass, stiffness, and damper.
First, for simplicity, we will model the deformable support as a mass m1 mounted
on the elastic element of stiffness k1, while damping of the support is neglected. The
design diagram is shown in Fig. 3.8 [3, 7].
Fig. 3.8 Object m2k2
mounted on the deformable
support

P(t)
m2
z2

k2
m1
k1

z1
Support

The mass m2 of the object and the stiffness k2 of the elastic element of vibration
isolation are dened by project parameters. However, the mass m1 and stiffness k1
of support and associated structure can be determined only by experiment. To
accomplish this, the support is excited by a vibrator, and mechanical input impedance forcedisplacement is determined.

90

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

If damping is neglected, the mathematical model of the system, at harmonic

excitation P0 cos pt with frequency p, becomes
m2z2 k2 z2  z1 P0 ejpt ,

p
1,

m1z1  k2 z2  z1 k1 z1 0:

3:22

Idealization of the base will be more complete if we introduce a term which takes
into account the damping of the support, i.e., m1z1 bz_1  k2 z2  z1 k1 z1 0,
into the second equation of (3.22). However, we initially restrict ourselves by
considering the system only as given in (3.22).
The response of the system is given by z1 A1 ejpt , z2 A2 ejpt ; substituting this
into (3.22) leads to the following system of equations:
m1 p2 A1  k2 A2  A1 k1 A1 0,
m2 p2 A2 k2 A2  A1 P0 :

3:23

Following [3], for support we introduce the impedance forcedisplacement

Zsup m1 p2 k1 :

 A1
From the rst equation of (3.23), we obtain A2 Z sup k2
. Substitution of this
k2
expression into the second equation of (3.23) leads to the amplitude of support
A1

P0


:
m 2 p2
Zsup 1 
 m2 p2
k2

The force which is transferred onto the foundation is Psup Zsup A1 . For the
coefcient of vibration protection we then obtain

Psup Z sup A1

P0
P0


Z sup

Zsup

:
m2 p2
2
1
 m2 p
k2

3:24

If we take into account viscous damping b, then the impedance of support Zsup
m1 p2 k1 jpb becomes a complex value. The absolute values of impedance
forcedisplacement and angle are [3]

 q
Zsup  k1  m1 p2 2 p2 b2 , tan

pb
:
k 1  m 1 p2

3:25

3.2 Deformable Support of a Vibration Protection System

91

Equations (3.24) and (3.25) contain fundamental mechanical characteristics of a

support. The features of the foundation (local holes or boss-structures, variable
stiffness, connection of separate parts, etc.) will be reected at the experimental
determination of impedance of the base.

3.2.3

Support Models and Effectiveness Coefcient

of Vibration Protection

Let us consider special cases of support.

1. The support is characterized only by the elasticity properties k1 6 0,
m1 0, b 0. In this case, the impedance of the support is Z sup k1 . The
coefcient of vibration protection is given by

k1
1
1
k1 k2
p


, :

, 20
2
2
k

1
2
m2 p
p
2 1
2
2
k1 1 
 m2 p2 1  2 1  2
k1
k2
0
3:26

r
k2
The partial frequency of the system is 2
. From the condition whereby
m2
the denominator is zero,
1  2

k1 k2
0;
k1

we obtain an expression for the resonance frequency

res

r

p 
k1

:
2 res
k1 k2

The cut-off frequency is determined from the condition jj 1. The trivial case
cut 0 corresponds to 1. For the case in which 1, we have
cut

p p
2k1 =k1 k2 < 2:

The graph of the dynamic coefcient is plotted in Fig. 3.9a. Here we can observe
that, in comparison to the rigid base (dashed-lines 1), the resonance peak of the
frequency response is shifted to the left of the value 1. Efcient operation of
p
the vibration protection device < 1 is observed at  2.

92

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

c
res

1
0

res 1 cut 2

res 1 cut 2

1
A
0

cut1

res 2 cut2

Fig. 3.9 Dynamic coefcients for different types of deformable support: (a) k1 6 0, m1 0, b
0; (b) m1 6 0, k1 0, b 0; (c) b 6 0, k1 0, m1 0

2. The support is characterized only by inertial properties m1 6 0, k1 0, b 0.

In this case, Zsup m1 p2 .
The coefcient of vibration isolation is given by



m1 p2

m1 p2
1
1
p2
2


:
m
2
2
22
m2 p
m2 p
m2 1  2 2
2
1

 m2 p
1
m1
k2
k2
m1
3:27

The resonance frequency equals

res


r
p 
m2
 1 :
2 res
m1

For purely inertial support, there are two cut-off frequencies:

cut1

r
m2
,

m1

cut2

r
m2 p
> 2:
2
m1

The graph of dynamic coefcient (Fig. 3.9b) begins at 0 m1 =m1 m2

(point A). We can see that, in comparison to the rigid base (dotted line in
Fig 3.9a), the resonance peak of the frequency response is shifted to the right

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

93

of the value 1. In this case, efcient operation of the vibration protection

device lies in the range 0  cut1 and > cut2 .
3. The support is characterized only by the damping properties
b 6 0, k1 0, m1 0. In this case, Z sup jpb. Coefcient of vibration protection is

jpb
1
1


,

2
2
jm2 p
m 2 p2
m
p
m
p
2
2
2
2
1


jpb 1 
1

 m2 p
b
k2
k2
jpb

p2
:
22

3:28a
The absolute value of the vibration isolation coefcient is given by
1
,
jj r
2 m2 k2
2
2
1 
b2

2
2,
2
2

r
k2
2
:
m2

3:28b

The graph of functions given in (3.28b) is shown in Fig. 3.9c. The resonance
peak of the frequency response is shifted to the left of the value 1, and
corresponds to the resonance tuning
res

q
1  m2 k2 =2b2 :

Tuning of the cut-off frequency is determined from the condition res 1. The
coefcient of vibration isolation at resonance is determined by the formula
1
res s :
m2 k2 m22 k22

b2
4b4
Here we can observe that the coefcient of vibration protection at resonance has
a nite value.
Formulas (3.24) and (3.25) allow us to easily consider the deformable support
as a system with two parameters in the combinations m1k1, m1b, and k1b, and
with the three parameters m1k1b [3].

3.3

Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

This section deals with further study of impedance Z( p) and mobility Y( p) for a
deformable system with attached vibration protection devices. Our problem is to
construct the optimal mechanical two-terminal networks that realize the

94

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

fundamental characteristics of a DS with arbitrary VP devices. The Foster and

Cauer methods are applied.

3.3.1

Problem Statement of Optimal Synthesis.

Brunes Function

Implementation of the derived expressions for impedance and mobility is

performed by passive elements m, k, and b. Since the number of possible
implementations is not unique, we will take as an optimality criterion a minimum
number of passive elements constituting M2TN. Because the expressions for
impedance Z( p) and mobility Y( p), p j, contain complex numbers, their
implementation is not a simple procedure.
The input impedance of the DS with a VP device with impedance Z U jV is
Zinp j

p2 22 V p22 U 1
N p
;

3
2
p DV p DU p11 Mp

3:29

where ik are unit displacements, D 11 22  212 , p j. Impedance Z of the VP

device is presented in a general complex form. The expressions for input mobility,
as well as for transfer impedance and mobility, were derived previously and are
presented in Sect. 3.1.1.
We will note the main features of expressions for input impedance of the DS
with a VP device [2].
The rational function of impedance Z( p) is a positive real function of complex
frequency p (Brunes function) [810]. Indeed:
1. All the coefcients at p in the numerator and denominator are real and
non-negative.
2. The highest (and lowest) degrees of the numerator and denominator degrees)
differ by 1.
3. The real parts of zeroes and poles of expression Zinp are located in the left halfplane; recall that the values of p at which N p 0 are called the zeros of the
function Zinp, and the values of p for which Mp 0 are called the poles of the
function.
This means that a physical realization of the obtained expressions (3.4a), (3.4b),
(3.5a), and (3.5b) with passive elements is possible. In other words, a mechanical
system, including deformable elements (beams plates, etc.) with VP devices of any
structure, may be presented as a set of passive elements. These elements, together
with the deformable system, are connected in form of a M2TN. For these networks,
all laws and rules used for the system with lumped parameters will be valid. Note
that if the function Z( p) is Brunes function, then its inverse function Y( p) Z1( p)

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

95

is also physically realizable [10]. Brunes function is discussed in greater detail in

the following example.
Example 3.6 Function H p N p=Mp p2 4=p3 9p is Brunes function. Indeed:
1. All coefcients of p2 4 and p3 9p are real and non-negative, and the highest
(and lowest) degrees of the numerator and denominator differ by one.
2. All zeroes (p01 2j and p02 2j) and all poles (pp1 2j, pp2 3j, and pp3
3j) of the function H are located on the imaginary axis, and they are simple
3. Derivatives of the function H( p) at the zeroes are


dH p
p4 3p2 36
 2 2
0:4;
dp p2j
p p 9 p2j
and residuals of the function H( p) at the poles are real and positive. Indeed,
Res H p
p0




N p 
p2 4 
4
p2 4 
5
,
Res

:
dMp=dpp0 3p2 9p0 9 p3j
3p2 9p3j 18

The real part of the function is

ReHppj


4  2
Re
0:
j9  2

Thus, the function H( p) is one that can be realized by passive elements [10].
Deformable systems with a vibration protection device which do not contain
active elements satisfy Brunes conditions. The physical network described by
(3.29) can be synthesized by the Foster and Cauer techniques [9, 10].

3.3.2

Fosters Canonical Schemes

In the theory of linear electrical circuits, there are well-known canonical schemes
for representing expressions of operator function of the circuits using the fewest
possible passive elements [10]. In the case of the VPS, the operator functions are
input/transfer impedance and mobility. Electro-mechanical analogies allow us to
convert an electrical circuit into a mechanical network. One of the advantages of
representing a DS with a VP device in the form of a mechanical network can be
explained as follows. A mechanical network comprises two parts; one of which
denes the properties and parameters of the DS itself, and the other which corresponds to the VP device.

96

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

First, consider the case of the mechanical system where the VP device is ideal,
i.e., energy dissipation in the device is neglected.
Fosters method is based on representing the systems operator function (impedance/mobility) H( p) as a linear combination of the simplest functions
H p H 1 p    H n p. According to this formula, the mechanical networks
which realize the impedance/mobility involve a minimal number of passive elements. This method is applicable for implementation of Brunes functions: the
function of impedance of an arbitrary deformable system with a vibration protection device, which does not contain active elements, satises Brunes conditions.
Fosters rst canonical electrical circuit represents a series connection of inductor L1, capacitor C0, and one block of parallel-connected L2  C2 elements
(Fig. 3.10a).

a
L

C0

k2

L2

F (t )

k0

m2

C2
Fig. 3.10 First canonical Fosters scheme and corresponding M2TN which realizes impedance
(3.29) for the case when U 0. (a) Electrical circuit and (b) its mechanical network

The formal application of electro-mechanical analogies forcevoltage, L-m,

C1k, Table 2.3, leads us to the rst form of canonical M2TN. This network
represents a parallel connection of mass m1 and stiffness k0, and series connection of the k2m2 elements (Fig. 3.10b).
Since the VP device is ideal (damping is neglected), in the general expression
(3.7) for input impedance Zinp( j) we assume that U 0. The challenge is to
implement the expression
Z inp j
21

p2 22 V 1
22 p2 21

,

p3 DV p11
D p p2 22

1
,

22 V

22

11
:

DV

3:30

by the passive elements.

Impedance of the ideal systemparticularly (3.30) can be represented as
follows [2, 10, 11]:
Z p L1 p

A0
A2 p

:
p p2 22

3:31a

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

97

Since the rst term L1 p contains the factor p, this term corresponds to the inductor;
A0
the second term
corresponds to the capacitor C0, and the third term to the block
p
( 1) with parallel L2C2 elements (Fig. 3.10b).
General formulas for the parameters of the electrical circuit are [10]
Z p
,
p!1 p

L1 lim
A2

A0

1
lim pZp,
C0 p!0

1
p2 22
lim
Zp,
C2 p2 !22 p2

L2

1
:
22 C2

3:31b

These procedures lead to the expressions for electrical parameters L1 , C0 , C2 , L2 in

terms of parameters of operator function Z( p). For operator function (3.30), which
is related to a DS with a VP device, we get
Z p
1 p2 22 V 1
lim
0,
p!1 p
p!1 p p3 DV p11

L1 lim
A0

1
p2 22 V 1
1
lim pZ p lim p 3
;
p!0 p DV p11
C0 p!0
11

1
p2 22
p2 22 p2 22 V 1
212
lim
Z

lim


;
C2 p2 !22 p2
p3 DV p11 D11
p2
p2 !22
1
1
212
2
12
V:
L2 2
2 C2 11 =DV 11 D 211
A2

3:32
We now turn our attention to passive mechanical elements. The rst term in (3.31a),
L1 p, corresponds to mass m1 ; since L1 0, the mass m1 should be eliminated
from the diagram in Fig. 3.10b. The second term in (3.31a) contains
p in the denominator;
 2
 thus the term A0/p corresponds to stiffness k0. he third
2
term A2 p= p 2 corresponds to series m2k2 elements.
To derive the formula A2 212 =D11 , we take into account expressions for
frequencies 21 and 22 of (3.30) and the expression D 11 22  212 . The frep p
quency of the block L2C2 is 2 1=L2 C2 k2 =m2 . In mechanical terms, the
element L2 corresponds to mass m2. Finally, the M2TN that realizes the input
impedance (3.30) of the DS with ideal VP device is presented in Fig. 3.11.
Fig. 3.11 Mechanical
two-terminal network
which realizes impedance
(3.30) of an arbitrary DS
with ideal VP device of
impedance Z jV at
point 2

Deformable system
k2
F (t )

k0
Zk0

Zk2

VP device
m2
Zm2

98

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The parameters of M2TN and corresponding impedances are

k0

1
,
11

Z k0

k0
,
j

k2

212
,
D11

Z k2

k2
,
j

m2 V

212
211

Z m2 jm2

It is evident that stiffness k0 and k2 are dependent on the unit displacements of the
deformable system. Mass m2 is dependent on the imaginary part V of the impedance
of the VP device and factor 212 /211 , where 12 is displacement in direction 1 due to
the action of unit force applied at point 2; locations of points 1 and 2 are shown in
Fig. 3.1.
It is easy to check whether the synthesized 2TN has an input impedance given
in (3.30). Indeed, the partial impedance of two series k2m2 elements is
Z m2 k 2

Z m2 Zk2
pV212
:

2
Z m2 Zk2 11 p VD 11

Impedances Z k0 and Zm2 k2 are connected in parallel; therefore, the total impedance of
2TN in Fig. 3.11 is
Z Z k 0 Z m2 k 2

p2 V22 1
:
pp2 VD 11

The mechanical two-terminal network in Fig. 3.11 presents a scheme of substitution

of an arbitrary deformable system with an ideal vibration protection device. Features of the DS are reected by unit displacements ik. Among the features of the DS
are the type of system (beam, plate, etc.), boundary conditions, stiffness distribution, the application point of the disturbing force, and the point where the VP device
is installed. Features of the structure of an ideal VP device are taken into account by
the imaginary part V of its impedance. If we assume that VP device is absent
(V 0), the input impedance of the DS, as one would expect, is Z k0 , i.e., is
determined only by the elastic properties of the system.
The structure of the M2TN consists of two parts. One is determined only by the
parameters of the DS, and the other by the imaginary part V of the VP device
impedance. Changing the parameter impedance V of the VP device leads only to a
change in the substitute mass m2, leaving the structure M2TN unchanged.
Fosters second scheme can be applied for implementation of the mobility of a
DS with an ideal (U 0) VP device using the passive elements. This circuit
presents a parallel connection of inductor L0 and capacitor C1, and series connection of the L2C2 elements (Fig. 3.12a).

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

99

b
m0

C2
L0

(t )

L2

k2

m2

Fig. 3.12 (a) Second canonical Fosters circuit and (b) corresponding M2TN which realizes the
input mobility (3.33a)

Note that if the impedance can be realized by passive elements, implementation

of the inverse function, mobility, is also possible [10]. The challenge is to implement the expression of input mobility Y( p) using the passive elements


p3 DV p11
D p p2 22
Y inp p Z p 2

,
22 p2 21
p 22 V 1
1

22

11
,

DV

21

1
22 V

3:33a

Input mobility (3.33a), in terms of the electrical parameters, may be presented in the
following form [10]:
Y p C 1 p

1
p
 :
 2
pL0
p 21 L2

3:33b

The general formulas for the parameters of the electrical circuit are
C1 lim

p!1

Y p
,
p

1
lim pY p,
L0 p!0

3:33c

1
p2 21
1
lim 2
Y p, C2 2 :
L2 p2 !1 p2
2 L 2

These procedures lead to the following expressions for electrical parameters C1 ,

L0 , L2 , C2 in terms of parameters of a deformable system:
Y p
D
,
p!1 p
22

C1 lim
L1
2

L1
0 lim pY p 0,
p!0

p2 21
2
lim
Y p 122 ,
2
p
p2 !21
V22

2
C2 12
22

A mechanical two-terminal network which corresponds to the circuit in Fig. 3.12a

is shown in Fig. 3.12b.

100

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The parameters of the M2TN and corresponding mobilities are

k1

D
,
22

m0 1,

m2 V

Y k1

j
;
k1

Y m0 0,

Y m2

222
,
212

1
,
jm2

k2

22
,
212

Y k2

j
:
k2

According to (3.6), the vibration protection device is described by the elements

involving factors U and V.
The nal M2TN that realizes the input mobility (3.33a) of the DS with an ideal
VP device (U 0) is shown in Fig. 3.13.
Deformable system
k

(t )

Yk

m2
Ym2

k2
Yk2

Vibration protection
device

Fig. 3.13 Mechanical two-terminal network which realizes input mobility (3.33a) of an arbitrary
DS with ideal VPD of impedance Z jV at point 2

It is easy to check whether the synthesized 2TN has an input mobility shown
in (3.33a). Indeed, the partial impedance of two series k2m2 elements is
Y m2 k2

Y m2 Y k 2
p212
:

Y m2 Y k2 22 p2 V22 1

The input mobility of the total system becomes

Y inp p Y k1 Y m2 k2

pp2 DV 11
:
p2 22 V 1

This result coincides with (3.33a).

3.3.3

Cauers Canonical Schemes

Cauers method, which is widely used for the synthesis of electrical circuits
[10, 12], can be applied to realize the operator function (impedance/mobility) of a
DS with a non-ideal VP device. This implies that the impedance Z of the VP device
contains real and imaginary parts, i.e., Z U jV; the impedance of an arbitrary

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

101

device, consisting of any number of linear elements, can be presented primarily in

this form. As with Fosters method, only passive elements are used for the implementation of operator functions.
Cauers method allows us to represent the operator function as a continued
fraction, which leads to a minimal number of elements of the mechanical network
needed to realize the impedance/mobility.
In a general case, operator function can be presented as the ratio of two polyN p
. The decomposition of the operator function into H( p)
nomials, i.e., H p
M p
as a continued fraction is
H p H 1 p

1
H 2 p

1
H 3 p   

3:34a

1
H 1 p

1
H p

This decomposition is performed by sequentially selecting the fraction elements

Hi( p). To do this, a polynomial N( p) is divided by a polynomial M( p), then a
polynomial M( p) is divided by the remainder r1( p) of the rst division, then the
remainder r1( p) of the rst division is divided by the remainder r2( p) of the second
division, and so on. This procedure is performed until the remainder of the last
division becomes zero. The corresponding mathematical procedure may be
presented in the following form:
H p

N p
r 1 p
1
H 1 p
H 1 p
M p
M p
Mp=r 1 p

H 1 p

H 1 p

1
H 2 p

1
r 1 p=r 2 p
1

H 2 p



1
H 3 p

3:34b

1
r 2 p=r 3 p

According to expressions (3.34a) and (3.34b), we can construct the electrical

circuit. Here, several different variants are possible.
Cauers rst circuit scheme contains inductors L1 , L3 , . . . , L1 in the longitudinal branch of the circuit and capacitors C2 , C4 , . . . , C2 , C in the cross-branches.
If H( p) represents impedance Z, then according to (3.34a), we get
H 1 p pL1 , H2 p pC2 , H3 p pL3 , . . . ,

H 1 p pL1 , H p pC :

102

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

If H( p) represents mobility Y, then

H 1 p pC1 , H 2 p pL2 , H 3 p pC3 , . . . , H 1 p pL1 , H p pC :
Cauers second circuit contains capacitors C1 , C3 , . . . , C1 in the longitudinal
branch of the circuit and inductors L2 , L4 , . . . , L2 , L in the cross-branches. If
H( p) is impedance Z, then according to (3.34a) we get
H 1 p pC1 1 ,
H 1 p pC1 1 ,

H 2 p pL2 1 ,

H3 p pC3 1 , . . . ,

H p pL 1 :

If H( p) is mobility Y, then
H1 p pL1 1 ,
H 1 p pC1 1 ,

H 2 p pC2 1 ,

H 3 p pL3 1 , . . . ,

H p pL 1 :

The subsequent application of the electro-mechanical analogies leads to the

mechanical two-terminal networks.
Here are the nal results for input impedance and mobility in the case of a
deformable system with a VP device of impedance Z U jV. Detailed, and
somewhat cumbersome, procedures for these calculations may be found in [2].
The input impedance (3.7) in the form of the continued fraction is
Z inp j

p2 22 V p22 U 1
1

3
2
11
p DV p DU p11 11 p
D 2 p
12

1
1
V

3:35a

212
212
p

U
211
211

The parameters of the passive mechanical elements and corresponding impedances

Z are
k0

1
2
2
, k2 12 , m V 12
,
11
D11
211

Z k0

k0
k2
, Z k2 , Zm jm,
j
j

bU

212
;
211

3:35b

Z b b:

The corresponding M2TN that realizes impedance (3.7) is shown in Fig. 3.14.
This M2TN remains valid for arbitrary deformable systems (DS; beam, plate)
and vibration protection devices.

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

103

An important feature of a synthesized M2TN is that it contains two parts, one

that is dependent on the properties and parameters of the DS, and the second
describing the VP device only. As this takes place, the elements of the VP device,
their number, and the means by which they are connected may be arbitrary. The
impedance computation procedure for a VP device and its crossover representation
in the form Z U jV is discussed in Chap. 2.
In our case the VP device is not ideal, and thus a dissipation of energy occurs in
this device. This is why in the M2TN we have an additional element, damperb,
which is connected in parallel with a reduced mass m. The damper b reects
the real part U 6 0 of the impedance Z of the VP device, while mass m is the
imaginary part. The parameters b and m have a common coefcient 212 /211 , which
occurs because the response of the VP device is transferred onto a deformable
system at one point. We can connect the two elements in a single block (Fig. 3.14b).
The reduced coefcient of impedance Z U jV at point 1, where excitation is
applied, is equal to kZ 212 =211 . If points 1 and 2 coincide, then kZ 1.

Deformable system
k2

F (t)

k0
Zk0

Zk2

Vibro-protective device
m
Zm

b
Zb

VPD
Z*=kz Z
Z=U+jV

Fig. 3.14 (a) M2TN which realizes input impedance (3.35a) of an arbitrary DS with VP device of
impedance Z U + jV at point 2; (b) Z*-reduced impedance, kz (12/11)2

Assume that we need to change the parameters, structure, and location of the VP
device. In this case, the structure of M2TN and parameters related to the DS remain
unchanged, and only unit displacement and parameters U and V of impedance Z of
the VP device are altered (Fig. 3.14a).
The input mobility Y( p) may be presented in the form [2]
Y p Z1 p

p3 DV p2 DU p11
D

p
22
p2 22 V p22 U 1

1
:
222
222
222
pV 2 U 2 2
12
12 p12
3:36

The corresponding M2TN is shown in Fig. 3.15.

104

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Deformable system

Vibro-protective device

(t )

Yk

m2
Ym2

k2
Yk2

b
VPD
Y*= kY Z-1

b2
Yb

Z=U+jV

Fig. 3.15 (a) Mechanical two-terminal network, which realizes input mobility (3.36) of an
arbitrary DS with VP device of impedance Z U + jV at point 2; (b) Y* (H*)1 ky/(U
+ jV) is reduced mobility, ky (12/22)2

The parameters of the M2TN and corresponding mobilities are

k1
Y k1

22
2
, m2 V 22
,
D
212
j
;
k1

Y m2

1
,
jm2

k2

22
,
212

Y k2

b2 U
j
,
k2

222
;
212

Y b2

1
:
b2

The elements m2 and b2, which reect the properties and structure of the VP device,
are presented as a VPD block in Fig. 3.15b. The real part of the impedance Z is
presented by damper b, and the imaginary part by mass m. The reduced
coefcient of mobility Y to point 1 is equal to kY 211 =212 .

3.3.4

Support as a Deformable System with Distributed Mass

Let us consider a uniform beam with arbitrary boundary conditions (Fig. 3.16).
The beam is subjected to harmonic excitation at point 1. A vibration protection
device (not shown) with impedance Z U + jV is attached at arbitrary point
2. We need to construct an M2TN of this structure, taking into account the
distributed mass of the beam.
Fig. 3.16 Fragment of the
uniform beam with
distributed mass

P(t)

dm
x

dx

If the length of the beam is l and total mass is M, then a mass of innitesimal
portion dx is equal to dm M=ldx.
Impedance Zdm of the elementary mass (reduced to input 1), the transformed
coefcient dm, and total impedance ZM of the distributed mass are

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

105



M
Z dm j dx dm ,
l

dm

ZM jMM ,

1
l211

21x
,
211
21x dx:

An M2TN with distributed mass and a VP device at point 2 with impedance

Z U + jV is shown in Fig. 3.17 [11].

F (t )

Deformable system
k2
k0
Zk0

MM

Zk2

Vibroprotective device

m
Zm

b
VPD
Z*= VPD Z
Z=U+jV

Distributed
mass of the DS

Fig. 3.17 (a) Mechanical two-terminal network for an arbitrary elastic system with uniformly
distributed mass and VP device of impedance Z U + jV at point 2 (see Fig. 3.1); (b) Z*-reduced
impedance of VP device, transformation coefcients of mass and VP device are M and
VPD (12/11)2

As before, the M2TN consists of two separate partsa deformable system and a
vibration protection device. The distributed mass of the beam is reected on the
M2TN by passive element MM. Formulas (3.35b) should be used for computation
of passive elements k0, k2, m, b.
Example 3.7 A cantilevered uniform beam of length l and mass M is subjected to a
harmonic force at the free end. The unit displacement and transformation coefcient are [1]

1  2
3lx  x3 ;
6EI
l
1
33
0:2357:
M 2
2 dx
4  35
l11 0 1x
1x x1

The original system is equivalent to the cantilevered massless beam with lumped
mass M0 0.2357M and excitation force at the free end. This result is precise. An
approximate coefcient, M 0:25, is presented by Lenk [13].
The M2TN in Fig. 3.17a for the given example should be simplied. The
corresponding M2TN contains only two passive elements: elastic element k0 and
lumped mass MM. The elastic element k2 from the scheme in Fig. 3.17a should be
excluded, since VPD is absent, and therefore, 12 0. The total impedance of the
1
system becomes Zj Zk0 Z M
jM, where the unit displacement
j11

106

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

3

l
is 11 3EI
. The precise frequency of free vibration is determined from condition
q
3EI
Z 0, or 1 j2 11 M 0 ! 2:06 Ml
3.

Example 3.8 A simply supported beam with uniformly distributed mass m0 is

subjected to harmonic force acting at the middle point (Fig. 3.18). Construct the
equivalent beam with lumped mass at the middle point and calculate the frequency
of free vibration.
Fig. 3.18 Design diagram
of the beam and its
equivalent scheme

P(t)
EI, m0

1
l/2

x
l

P(t)
EI
M
l/2

The unit displacements, transformation coefcient, and equivalent mass are [1]
11



l3
x 4 x3

1x x1
, x 2 0, l=2;
16EI l 3 l3

1 l 2
17
17
M 2
dx , M m0 l:
35
35
l11 0 1x

l3
,

48EI

Condition 1 j2 11 MM 0 leads to the expression for principal frequency

r r
r
48  35 1 EI
2 EI
, which coincides with precise formula 2
.

17 l2 m0
m0
l
Example 3.9 Let us consider a rectangular plate with sides a and b, and thickness h.
The modulus of elasticity and Poissons coefcient of the plate material are E and ,
respectively. A harmonic force is applied at point 1 with coordinates (x0y0;
Fig. 3.19a, b).

y
P(t)

P(t)
dm

b dy
y

(x0y0)

x
a

m
y1

M
x dx

(x0y0)

M
x

x1
a

Fig. 3.19 Design diagram of the rectangular plate. (a) Uniformly distributed mass M; (b) lumped
mass m

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

107

If the total mass of plate M is uniformly distributed within the area of the plate
(Fig. 3.19a), then innitesimal mass dm of the portion dx-dy is dm M=abdxdy.
The total impedance related to input 1 with coordinates x0, y0 and the transformation coefcient are

1
Z M jM,
21x dxdy:
ab211

If the plate is simply supported along all sides, then unit displacement is
mx0
ny0
1 X
1 sin
sin
4 X
Eh3
a
b sin mx sin ny , D
:
1x


2
a
b
121  2
D 4 ab m1 n1
m 2 n2

a2 b2
For computation of the principal mode of vibration, we must place m n 1. In
this case we get

21x dxdy

2
D 4

11

1
1

a2 b2

2 , 11

x0
y
sin 2 0
sin 2
a
b :
2


1
1 2
D 4 ab

a2 b2
4

Impedance of the total mass M, transformed to input 1 becomes

ZM jM,

4 sin 2

1
x0
y :
sin 2 0
a
b

The M2TN contains only two passive elements: elastic element k0 and lumped mass
MM. Therefore, the total impedance Z* of the system is
Z * Z k0 Z M

1
jM:
j11

From condition Z 0, we obtain the well-known expression for principal frequency

of vibration [14]

 s
2 a2 b2
Dab

:
M
a2 b2

108

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Lumped Mass m Assume that the lumped mass m is placed at the point with
coordinates x1,y1 (Fig. 3.19b). The impedance transformed to input 1 with coordinates x0,y0 is equal to
Z m jmm ,

20x
:
200

Let the plate be simply supported along all sides. In this case,
x0
y
sin 0
sin
4
x
y
a
b
sin ,
0x

 sin
a
b
D 4 ab
1
1 2
2
2
a
b

00

x0
y
sin 2 0
sin 2
4
a
b :



D 4 ab
1
1 2

a2 b2

If the mass of the plate itself is M, then the total impedance transformed to input
1 (x0,y0) is
Zj Zk0 ZM Zm ,
Z k0

1
,
j00

Z M jMM ,

20x
200

Condition Z 0 leads to the frequency of free vibration

v
u
1
1 u
Dab
t

x1
y :
a 2 b2
sin 2 1
M 4m sin 2
a
b


2

If a plate has i equal lumped masses m at points with coordinates xi yi, then the
frequency of vibration becomes

2

v
u
1
1 u
Dab
u

X
xi
y :
a2 b2 tM 4m
sin 2 i
sin 2
a
b
i

If the masses are located symmetrically, as shown in Fig. 3.20a, then for frequency
vibration we obtain

2

1
1

a2 b2

s
Dab
:
M 4m

3.3 Optimal Synthesis of the Fundamental Characteristics

109

mr

dm
dy

yf

y
x
b/4

a/4

x1

yin

Fig. 3.20 Rectangular plate with specic location of mass. (a) lumped masses m, (b) uniform rib
with distributed mass

Rib of the Mass Mr Let us consider a uniform rectangular plate of mass M. The
boss-structure in the form of a uniform rib of the mass Mr (distributed mass mr) and
length l is attached to the plate as shown in (Fig. 3.20b). The rib is parallel to the
y-axis, and the coordinates of the initial and nal points are yin and yf. Assume that
the plate is simply supported along all sides.
The impedance of innitesimal mass dm and total mass Mr, transformed to the
arbitrary input point 1 (not shown), are
Zdm jmr m dy,

mr

Mr
:
l

The transformation coefcient is

m

20x
,
200

x0
y
x1
y
sin 0 sin
sin 1 ,
a
b
a
b
4
N

2 :
D 4 ab 1=a2 1=b2

0x N sin

00 N sin 2

x0
y
sin 2 0 ,
a
b

The impedance of the rib reduced for input point 1 is

x1
sin 2
a
Z Mr jmr
m dy jmr
x0
y Ay;
yin
sin 2 0
sin 2
a
b


yf
y
1
2b
yf  yin
yf yin
2
dy
y  yin 
sin
cos
A y
sin
:
b
2 f

b
b
yin
yf

110

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

In this case, M2TN consists of three passive members: elastic element k0, lumped
mass MM of the plate, and lumped mass Mrm of the rib.
The total impedance Z* of the system plate + rib becomes
Zj Z k0 ZM ZMr :
Condition Z 0 leads to the frequency of free vibration

v
u
1
1 u
Dab
t

:
x1
a2 b2
A y
M 4mr sin 2
a

Special Cases Let yin 0, yf b. In this case, Ay b=2, and for the frequency
vibration we obtain

v
u
1
1 u
Dab
t

x1 :
a2 b2
M 2Mr b sin 2
a


2

If x1 0 or x1 a (the rib is placed on the support along a side b), then the rib has no
inuence on the frequency of the free vibration.

3.4

Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical

Four-Terminal Network

An arbitrary one-dimensional vibration protection device may be considered as a

two-terminal passive block. The behavior of the endpoints of the device is
interdependent. Assume that the condition of each endpoint is characterized by
two parameters. By analogy with an electrical four-terminal network, such a device
is known as a mechanical four-terminal network (4N). The difference between
an M2TN and an M4TN is not the distinction between the structure and properties
of the systems, but the way in which these properties are described. This means that
the same system may be treated as either an M2TN or M4TN [15]. At the heart of
the M4TN theory lies an important concept: in vibration analysis of complex
mechanical systems, we are not interested in the internal structure of the M4TN
itself, but only in the relationship between the forces and velocities at the input and
output of the network [2, 1517]. The connection of two or more M4TNs leads to
one equivalent M4TN with new parameters.

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

3.4.1

111

Mechanical Four-Terminal Network for Passive

Elements with Lumped Parameters

The generalized model of M4TN is presented in Fig. 3.21a. This scheme does not
disclose the internal structure of the mechanical system, which can be arbitrary. The
input and output of the system are marked as 1 and 2. The system is subjected to an
input harmonic disturbing force F1 and an output force F2. The force F1 and
response F2 result in velocity 1 at the input and velocity 2 at the output. Positive
forces are directed inward in the M4TN. Positive velocities are directed from input
to output. Figure 3.21a shows the positive forces and velocities [18].

a
F1

b
1

A
C

B
D

F2

FF = F2

F = 2

Zf

Fig. 3.21 (a) Black-box representation of an M4TN; (b) the transfer of a force and velocity on the
foundation of the impedance Zf

The mathematical model of an arbitrary M4TN may be presented in A-form

(principal form [17])
F1 AF2 B2
1 CF2 D2

3:37

where A, B, C, and D are characteristic

of the M4TN. In matrix form,

parameters

F2
F1
this system of equations is
A0
, where the matrix of M4TN is
1
2

A
A0
C


B
:
D

3:38

The principal form allows us to determine the force and velocity at the input of
M4TN if output force and velocity are known; other forms of M4TN presentation
are considered below.
For the A-form, we have AD  BC 1. In the general case, all entries are
functions of the disturbing frequency [17]. Elements on the main diagonal are
dimensionless, and the elements C and B are transient mobility and impedance by
channel 12.
We will now consider the following passive elements with lumped parameters:
absolutely rigid rod, lumped mass, elastic member, and viscous damper. Table 3.1
contains characteristic parameters A, B, C, and D for these typical linear passive
elements [19, 20].

112

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Table 3.1 Simplest passive elements and their characteristic parameters of M4TN in A-form
Characteristic
parameters of
M4TN
A
B
C
D

Absolutely
rigid rod
1
0
0
1

Lumped
mass m
1
jm
0
1

Elastic member with

stiffness coefcient k
1
0
j/k
1

Resistance element of
damping coefcient b
1
0
1/b
1

In matrix form, the presentation of the absolutely rigid rod, mass m, stiffness k,
and damper b in the A-form is given by
"

F1
1

F1
1

"

1
j=k

#"

0
1

F2

"
,


F2
,
2

F1

"

jm

#"

F2

;
1
2
0
1



F1
1 0 F2

:
1
j=b 1 2

3:39

Indeed, in the case of an absolutely rigid rod, the force and velocity are transmitted
without change, i.e.,
F1 1  F2 0  2 ,
1 0  F2 1  2 :
Mass Two terminals, input 1 and output terminal 2, may be shown on the mass. If
mass is considered an absolutely rigid body, then 1 2. In this case, the forces at
the input and output, F1 and F2, are related by the relation F1 F2 + jm 2.
We can obtain relations for the stiffness element and the damper in a similar
manner [7].
Equation (3.37) relates that pair (F1, 1) to (F2, 2). The two unknown parameters are (F1, 1). Such a system is called an A-form. It is also possible to consider
other parameters as unknowns. If we resolve system (3.37) for other parameters, we
will obtain different forms (other than A-form) [17].
These forms have specic names.
Z-form In this case, (3.37) should be resolved with respect to input and output
forces

F1
F2


1
Z
:
2

3:40a

These entries may be represented in terms of entries A, B, C, and D of the matrix A0

as follows:

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

113


C1
:
DC1

AC1
Z
C1

3:40b

All elements of the matrix Z represent impedances.

Y-form In this case, equations (3.37) should be resolved with respect to input and
output velocities

1
2


F1
;
F2

3:41a

where each entry of the matrix Y has units of mobility. These entries may be
represented in terms of entries A, B, C, and D of the matrix A0 as follows:

DB1
B1


B1
:
AB1

3:41b

All elements of the matrix Y represent mobility. It is easy to verify that ZY


1 0
; i.e., Y Z1 .
0 1
In addition, the mathematical model of M4TN may be presented in H-, G-, and
B-forms

F1
2


1
H
,
F2

1
F2


F1
G
,
2

F2
2


F1
B
:
1

3:41c

With regard to matrices Y and Z, all entries for matrices H, G, and B may be
represented in terms of entries A, B, C, and D of the matrix A0 [15]. For Z, Y, H and
G-forms, the positive direction of the velocities should be shown in the opposite
direction (Fig. 3.21a). The choice of one or another form of M4TN for analysis
depends on the pair of knownunknown parameters.
It is possible to represent the M4TN in the equivalent T- and -forms. These
forms and corresponding relationships are shown in Fig. 3.22.

T-scheme

Z1

Z2

Z1
Z3

- scheme

Fig. 3.22 Representation of an M4TN in T- and -forms

Z2

Z3

114

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

For T- and -schemes, we have the following relationships between Zi and

characteristic parameters A, B, C, and D of M4TN in A-form:
For the T-scheme:
Z 1 A  1=C,

A Z 1 Z1 =Z3 ,

Z 2 D  1=C,

B Z 1 Z2 Z1 Z2 =Z 3 ,

Z 3 1=C:

C 1=Z3 ,

D 1 Z 2 =Z 3 :

For the -scheme:

Z1 B,

A 1 Z1 =Z2 ,

Z2 B=D  1,

C Z1 Z 2 Z 3 =Z2 Z3 ,

Z3 B=A  1:

D 1 Z1 =Z2 :

B Z1 ,

Deformable System as M4TN An arbitrary deformable system at point 1 is

subjected to harmonic force F1; the vibration protection device of any structure is
installed at point 2 (Fig. 3.23). The type of system and its peculiarities and boundary
conditions can be arbitrary, and they are not specied. As with previous cases, the
elastic system is considered only in terms of its elastic properties, while neglecting
the inertial properties.
Fig. 3.23 Design diagram
of deformable system with
vibration protection device

F1
1
1

DS

2
2

F2
VPD

The response of the VP device transmitted to the DS is F2. The velocity at point
2 of the DS is 2.
Assume that for this system the superposition principle can be applied; therefore,
the displacements along the rst and second directions are
y1 11 F1  12 F2 ,
y2 21 F1  22 F2 ;
where ik are unit displacements.
Displacements and velocities are related as follows:
1 jy1 ,

2 jy2 :

3:42

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

115

In order to present a DS as the M4TN in the A-form, the system of equations (3.42)
is solved for F1 and 1. For this, from the second equation (3.42) we nd that


1
2
22 F2
F1
;
21
j
and substitute this expression into rst equation (3.42). Finally, we obtain

22
,
21

F1
1

A0

1
,
j21


F2
,
2


B
:
D

A
A0
C

C j

11 22  212
,
21

11
:
21

As for any M4TN, detA0 AD  BC 1. All information about the system and its
boundary conditions and peculiarities is contained in the unit displacements. For
computation of ik in the case of beams, frames, and arched systems, it is most
appropriate to apply the MaxwellMohr method in the form of multiplication of the
bending moment diagrams (Vereshchagins rule) [1]. If a deformable system presents a plate, the expressions for the unit displacements can be found in [21]. In the
general case of DS (e.g., a plate of an arbitrary shape with non-classical boundary
conditions), the unit displacements can be found by the nite element method.
If the locations of the applied force (point 1) and the VP device (point 2) are
coincident, then the elements of the matrix A0 become
A D 1,

B j1 ,

C 0:

If DS is a xed-free uniform beam of length l and bending stiffness EI, and points
1 and 2 are the points of free ends, then l3/3EI . If DS is a simply supported
uniform beam of length l and bending stiffness EI, and points 1 and 2 are the points
in the middle of the beam, then l3/48EI.
The model of M4TN in Y-form has the following entries [2]:
Y 11 j11 ,

Y 12 j12 ,

Y 21 j21 ,

Y 22 j22 :

Here we can see that Y 12 Y 21; this may be explained by the adopted direction of
the positive inputoutput velocities. Note that the unit displacements are determined without taking into account the VP device.

3.4.2

Connection of an 4N with Support of Impedance Zf

Assume that the M4TN at the output point 2 is connected with a foundation of
impedance Zf (Fig. 3.21b). Let us derive the relation between the input and output

116

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

velocities of the M4TN with foundation of impedance Zf. From the rst equation of
(3.37), we have F2 A1 F1  B2 .
According to the denition of impedance,
2 Ff =Zf F2 =Zf :
Therefore, the output velocity in terms of the parameters of an M4TN in A-form, the
impedance of support structure, and the input force become [17]
2

F1
:
AZ f B

3:43

Substituting expressions for output force F2 and velocity 2 into the second equation (3.37) leads to the following expression:
1 F1

CZ f D
:
AZ f B

3:44

The input mechanical impedance of M4TN, together with impedance Zf of the

support part, becomes
f

Z1

F1 AZ f B
:

1 CZ f D

3:45

Special Cases
1. If the impedance of the support part Zf is very large, the output point 2 of the
M4TN is then practically unmovable. In this case, the input impedance becomes
Z 01 A=C:

3:46

2. If the impedance of support part Zf 0 (output point 2 of the M4TN is free), then
the input impedance becomes
Z*1 B=D:

3:47

The inverse values C/A and D/B are called the input mobility of the M4TN with
xed and free output terminals, respectively [17].

3.4.3

Connections of Mechanical Four-Terminal Networks

The simplest passive elements with known characteristic coefcients (ble 3.1)
allow us to construct the vibration protection devices of arbitrary structure. The
theory of M4TN allows us to determine characteristic coefcients of the complex

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

117

VP device. We shall distinguish the following regular connections of the 4TN:

the cascade, parallel, and branched connections. They are shown in Fig. 3.24. Other
types of connections may be found in [11, 1517].

F in

Fin

A1 B1
C1 D1
F1 out
F2in

A1 B1
C1 D1
F1out

A2 B2
C2 D2

F out

1in

F1in

1 out
2in

in

2in

F2in

A2 B2
C2 D2

out
1

F out

in

F2out

Z
F

d
out

out

out

A B
C D

A B
C D

Fig. 3.24 Typical connections of two M4TNs: (a) series (cascade) connection; (b) parallel
connection; (c, d) branched systems

Cascade (series) connection (Fig. 3.24a) For this connection, the output terminal
of the rst M4TN is connected to the input terminal of the second M4TN. In this
case,
F1out F2i ,
1out 2i :
If two M4TN are connected by cascade, and both are presented in the A01 and A02
forms, then the characteristic matrix of one equivalent M4TN is equal to
A0 A01 A02 :

3:48a

In expanded form, the matrix A0 of equivalent M4TN becomes

A
A0
C

B
A1 A2 B1 C2

D
C1 A2 D1 C2


A1 B2 B1 D2
:
C 1 B2 D 1 D 2

3:48b

Equation (3.48a) applies to any number of series-connected elements recorded in

the A-form.

118

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Parallel Connection (Fig. 3.24b) For this connection, the following relations may
be written:
Finp F1i F2i ,

Fout F1out F2out ,

inp 1i 2i ,

out 1out 2out :

Two parallel M4TNs (Fig. 3.24b) which are presented in the A01 A02 -form are
equivalent to one M4TN with the resulting matrix in A-form given by

A0

A
C


B
;
D

where
A1 C2 A2 C1
A1  A2 D1  D2
, B B1 B2
,
C1 C2
C1 C2
C1 C2
C1 D2 C2 D1
, D
:
C
C1 C2
C1 C2
A

3:49

If each M4TN is presented in the Z1 and Z2-form, then the matrix Z of the equivalent
M4TN is
Z Z1 Z2 :

3:50a

In expanded form, the matrix Z in terms of the parameters of initial matrices in the
A-form becomes
"
Z

1
A1 C1
1 A2 C 2

1
C1
1  C2

1
C1
1 C2

1
D1 C1
1  D2 C2

#
:

3:50b

Expression (3.50a) applies to any number of parallel-connected M4TNs recorded in

the Z-form.
Some Special Cases
1. Assume that among the simplest blocks forming the composite M4TN, the block
with the mass element is absent. In this case, the entries of the matrix A of the
equivalent M4TN are B 0, A D 1. If blocks are connected in series, then
the entry C of the equivalent M4TN is equal to the sum of the characteristic
coefcients Ci of the simplest M4TN

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

n
X

Ci :

119

3:51a

i1

If blocks are connected in parallel, the entry C for equivalent M4TN may be
calculated by the formula
n
X

C1

C1
i

3:51b

i1

2. If the simplest blocks are massless elastic elements, then according to (Table 3.1,
line 3) and expression (3.51a), the equivalent compliance of the blocks
connected in series is equal to a sum of the compliance of separate elastic
elements
k1
eq

n
X

k1
i :

3:51c

i1

If blocks are connected in parallel, then, according to (3.51b), the equivalent

stiffness is equal to the sum of the stiffness of individual elastic elements
kpar
eq

n
X

ki :

3:51d

i1

3. If the simplest blocks are dampers only, then according to (Table 3.1) and
expressions (3.51a) and (3.51b), the resulting damping coefcients for series
and parallel connections, respectively, are
bser
eq

n
X

!1
b1
i

3:52a

i1

bpar
eq

n
X

bi :

3:52b

i1

4. If stiffness coefcient of elastic element k ! 1 and viscous coefcient of

damper b ! 1, then according to Table 3.1, all characteristic parameters of
these blocks and absolutely rigid rod (column 1) coincide.
Example 3.10 An elastoviscous block presents a combination of two elements,
spring k and damper b (Fig. 3.25a). We will consider this block as an M4TN. The
problem is to calculate the parameters of the M4TN in the A-form.

120

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Fig. 3.25 Simplest

mechanical systems.
(a) non-inertial k-b system;
(b) inertial element m with
k-b system

b
k

These two elements are connected in parallel

The matrix
A0 of

(Fig. 3.24b).



1
0
1 0
and A0b 1
elastic element k and resistance b are A0k
j=k 1
b
1
(Table 3.1). According to (3.49), the parameters of the equivalent M4TN are
A
C

A1 C2 A2 C1 1  b1 1  jk1

1,
C1 C2
jk1 b1

B B1 B2

C1 C2
jk1  b1
1
j
j

k
e
C1 C2 jk1 b1
k jb
k
b
j

A1  A2 D1  D2
0,
C1 C2
C1 D2 C2 D1
1:
C1 C2

3:53a
Expression e
k k jb and the inverse expression


1
b
e
1
,
k 1 k jb1
k
k

2 b2
k2

are called the complex stiffness and complex compliance of the block, respectively.
The formula for characteristic entry C and for complex compliance for the
elastoviscous block as an M4TN may be presented as follows:


1 j
j 1
j 1



C1 C2
b k

C
k b k b 
C1 C2 j 1 j 1 1 j


k b
k b b k





1
b
1 b

j
:

k
k k
2 b 2 k
1 2
k

3:53b

Elastoviscous blocks may be connected in parallel or in series.

1. If n elastoviscous blocks are connected in parallel, the total complex stiffness of
the equivalent block is [17]
e
k

n
X
i1

e
ki

n
X
i1

ki j

n
X
i1

bi keq jbeq :

3:54

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

121

The equivalent stiffness and damping, keq and beq, should be calculated by
formulas (3.51d) and (3.52b). Parameters of corresponding M4TN are
A D 1, B 0; expressions (3.53a) allow us to calculate the entry C.
2. If n elastoviscous blocks are connected in series, the total complex stiffness of
the equivalent block is
k

n
X

!1
k1
i

ser
kser
eq jbeq :

3:55

i1
ser
The equivalent stiffness kser
eq and viscous damping beq for a complex M4TN may
be determined using (3.51c) and (3.52a); in this case, we assume that the
relationship ki =bi const for all n connections [17]. This relation holds true
for the equivalent M4TN. The parameters of corresponding M4TN are
A D 1, B 0. In this case, expressions (3.53a) and (3.53b) allow us to
calculate the entry C.

Example 3.11 A vibrating mk system (Fig. 3.26) is subjected to input harmonic

force F1. Determine the output force (reaction of support) F2, considering support
to be absolutely rigid.
Fig. 3.26 Inputoutput
notation of M4TN for mk
system

F1 1
m
k
2
F2

The entire system is considered a series connection of two M4TNs. The rst of
these M4TNs is mass m, and the second is spring k. The matrix of equivalent
M4TNs is A0 A1 A2 ; according to (3.48a) and Table 3.1, we get

A0 A1 A2

1
0

jm
1

1
j=k

0
1  2 m=k

1
j=k


jm
:
1

The matrix relationship between input and output parameters is

F1
1

A0

F2
2

Following this, we can write F1 1  2 m=kF2 jm2 . Since the support is

unmovable, then 2 0, and for the reaction of support we immediately obtain
F2

F1
F1

,
1  2 m=k 1  2 =20

20

k
:
m

122

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Example 3.12 A massspringdamper system is shown in Fig. 3.25b. A combination of these passive members may be treated as the series connection of two
M4TNs. The rst of these is M4TN1 for mass m only, while the second M4TN2
is for parallel members stiffness k and damper b. According to formulas (3.48b),
and taking into account expressions for M4TN2 for the members k and b (Example
3.10, Eq. (3.53b)), we have

A0 Am Akb

 "
1

jm
 1 b j
1
k k

1 ,

2 b 2
:
k2

Finally, the entries of matrix A of M4TN become

m1
b 2 m 1
j
, B A1 B2 B1 D2 jm;
k
k k 
b 1 1 b
j

j , D C1 B2 D1 D2 1:
C C1 A2 D1 C2
k k
k k k
A A1 A2 B1 C2 1  2

More complex mechanical systems (two and three cascades) consisting of passive
elements m, b, and k and their equivalent M4TN can be found in [17].
Branched Systems The simplest branched systems are shown in Fig. 3.24c, d.
Harmonic force F is distributed between both branches. The forces which act on
each M4TN are proportional to the impedance Z0 and Z00
0

00

FF F ,
0

F
Z
00
00
F
Z

00

Since the total impedance of parallel M4TN is Z Z Z , the input velocity is the
same for both branches:
0

00

F
F
F
00
0
00 :
Z Z
Z
Z
0

3:56

Special Case Assume that the output point 2 of both M4TNs is free (Fig. 3.24c). In
this case, according to formula (3.43), the output velocities of both M2TNs are [17]
0

F
2 0
B
0

00

F
2 00 :
B
00

Since each M4TN has free motion, then

0

B
Z 0
D
0

00

B
Z 00 :
D
00

3:57

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

123

The force acting on each M4TN is

0

00

00

00

FZ
F
FD B
FZ
FD B
00
0
00
00
00 0
00
0 ; F
0
00
00 0
00
0 :
Z
Z Z
D
B

B
D
Z

Z
D
B
B D
1 Z0

Output velocities for each M4TN in terms of input force and characteristic parameters B and D of each M4TN are
0

00

00

F
FD
F
FD
00
2 00 00 0
0
00 0
00
0
00
0 :
B
D B B D
B
D B B D
0

3:58

00

In a general case, the output velocities 2 6 2 . The velocity ratios are dependent
only on parameter D of each M4TN.
0

00

2 D
00
0 :
2 D
0

00

00

If parameter D D , then 2 2 , and the branched system in Fig. 3.24d is

transformed into a system with parallel M4TN (Fig. 3.24b) and a common output
terminal.
Assume that a multi-cascade dynamical system is subjected to an excitation on
one of the intermediate cascades. In this case, the disturbance extends in both
directions. Such a system should be considered as branched. Thus, the multicascade vibration protection device, depending on the point of application of
force (velocity), may be treated as a series connection of M4TN or as a branched
system.
Example 3.13 A two-cascade system is subjected to harmonic excitation
(Fig. 3.27a). In terms of M4TNs, this dynamical system may be considered a
branched system. Two M4TNs form the given system (Fig. 3.27b).

b
inp
Finp

m1
k1
m2
k2

A B
C D

k1
F (t )

out

m1
=0
Fout

F
2

A B
C D

inp
Finp

m2
k2
out = 0

Fout

Fig. 3.27 Two-cascade dynamic system. (a) Design diagram of dynamic vibration absorber;
(b) presentation of absorber as a ramied system consisting of two M4TN

124

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The rst M4TN consists of k1m1 elements connected in series. This M4TN in
0
A0 -form is represented by characteristic parameters A0 , B0 , C0 , and D0 . In Fig. 3.27b,
the M4TN is rotated by 180
with respect to the elements in the starting position
0
0
(Fig. 3.27a). The input force is Finp F .
0

The second M4TN consists of two series elements m2k2 with matrix A0 ; its
characteristic parameters are A00 , B00 , C00 , and D00 . The input force of this M4TN is
00
00
Finp F .
Let us determine the total impedance of the system. For this we must nd
matrices A0 for each M4TN.
Elements k1m1 Since the force acts rst on the stiffness k1 and then on the mass
m 1,
0

A0 Ak 1 Am 1

0
1

1
0

1
j=k1

jm1
1


jm1
:
2 m1 =k1 1

1
j=k1

The relationships between the input and output parameters of the rst M4TN are
0

Finp 1  Fout jm1  out ,

0

inp


 0
j 0
 F 1  2 m1 =k1 out :
k1 out
0

Since the output terminal of this M4TN is free, Fout 0, and the impedance of this
M4TN becomes
0

Finp
0

inp

jm1
:
1  2 m1 =k1

Elements k2m2 The characteristic matrix A0 was derived in Example 3.11:

1  2 m2 =k2
A0
j=k2
00


jm2
:
1

00

It is easy to verify that DetA0 DetA0 1.

The relationships between the input and output parameters of the second M4TN
are
00

00

00

Finp 1  2 m2 =k2  Fout jm2  out ,

j 00
00
0
inp  Fout 1  out :
k2

3.4 Vibration Protection Device as a Mechanical Four-Terminal Network

125

00

Since the output terminal is unmovable, then out 0, and the impedance of this
M4TN becomes
00

00

Finp

inp

k2 1  2 m2 =k2
:
j

00

The total impedance is Z Z Z . The total velocity and input velocities of each
M4TN are
0

00

inp inp F=Z:

Displacement of the mass m2 is
00

x2 

jinp
jF
F1  2 m1 =k1


:
2
Z  m1 k2 1  2 m1 =k1 1  2 m2 =k2

After elementary rearrangements, we get

x2

k 1 

2 m

Fk1  2 m1
:
2
2
1 k1 k2  m2  k1

3:59

If k1  2 m1 0, then mass m2 remains in rest; this means that the part k1m1
represents a dynamic absorber for the given system. Formula (3.59) was obtained
earlier.
Example 3.14 A cantilever beam of length l and bending stiffness EI is equipped
with an additional k1m1 device and a lumped mass M at the free end; the system is
subjected to harmonic force F acting on the mass M (Fig. 3.28a). Analyze this
problem as a branched system consisting of two mechanical four-terminal networks
(Fig. 3.28b).

F (t )
inp
Finp

EI, l
k1

Finp

Finp

EI, l

A B
C D

inp
Finp

A B
C D

k1

m1

m1
out

=0
Fout

Fig. 3.28 Dynamic vibration absorber. (a) design diagram; (b) Dynamic structure as a branched
system

126

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The rst M4TN with characteristic parameters A0 , B0 , C0 , and D0 consists of two

M4TNs connected in series; they are separately related to the mass and cantilever
beam. Thus, the lumped mass-beam system may be presented in A-form as follows:

AM-beam AM Abeam

1
0

1
1=j

0
1

1
jM

0
1


l3
1=j jM
,
1
3EI

The characteristic parameter B0 is the impedance of this part of the structure, i.e.,
0

1
jM:
j

The second M4TN with characteristic parameters A00 , B00 , C00 , and D00 consists of
two M4TNs connected in series; they are separately related to the elastic element k1
and mass m1. This connection was considered previously (Example 3.13, elements
jm1
00
k1m1). The impedance of this connection is Z
, so the total
1  2 m1 =k1
impedance of the entire system is
Z tot

1
jm1
jM
:
j
1  2 m1 =k1

The displacement of the endpoint of the beam is

x

1 0
1 F
1

j
j Ztot j

F
1
j

jM

jm1
:
1  2 m1 =k1

After elementary rearrangements, we get

x

Fk1  2 m1
,
k1  2 m1 k1 k2  2 m2  k21

k2

1 3EI
3 ,

m2 M:

We can see that complex k1m1 acts as a dynamic absorber. It is clear that mass
M may be excluded from the rst M4TN and included in the second M4TN.
Complex System M4TN-Additional Structure A vibration protection device
is mounted between the machine (the source of vibration) and the support. Assume
that the impedance of support is Zf. We will consider the VP device as an M4TN
with characteristic parameters A, B, C, and D.
The input of the M4TN is a force P1 and velocity 1. The output of the VP device
is a force P2 and velocity 2 (Fig. 3.29). The problem is to determine the input
impedance, taking into account the additional device at the output terminal of the
VP device.

3.5 Mechanical Multi-Terminal Networks for Passive Elements with Distributed. . .

127

Fig. 3.29 M4TN with

support of impedance Zf

P1
A B
C D

P2

Zf

The representation of 4N in A-form is

P1 AP2 B2 ,
1 CP2 D2 :

3:60

The output condition P2, 2 and the impedance of the support Zf are related by
P2 2 Zf . Substituting this relation into (3.60) leads to the expression for the input
impedance of the system, taking into account Zf
Zinp Z 1

P1 AZ f B
:

1 CZ f D

P1 B
.
1 D
2. If Zf 1 (xed end of M4TN, or support is not deformable), then
P1 A
Z inp Z1
.
1 C

Special Cases 1. If Zf 0 (free end of M4TN), then Z inp Z1

The M4TN theory can be successfully applied to the analysis of mechanical

lters, i.e., the devices for damping vibration in certain frequency ranges. Detailed
information on the calculation of lters is presented by Johnson [22], Druzhinsky
[15], and Bulgakov [16].

3.5

Mechanical Multi-Terminal Networks for Passive

Elements with Distributed Parameters

The class of the passive elements of a systems vibration protection can be

expanded if we introduce elements with distributed parameters. Among the simplest continuous elements are the uniform elastic rod, beam, and plate. Below we
consider a representation of an elastic rod in the form of an M4TNs. Two models
are considered, which describe the longitudinal and transversal vibration of the
uniform rod.

128

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

3.5.1

M4TN for Longitudinal Vibration of Rod

Let us consider the uniform elastic rod of length l and cross-sectional area A. The
element performs harmonic longitudinal vibration (Fig. 3.30a).

b
E, , A, l

F1, 1

F2, 2

F1
1

A
C

B
D

F2
2

Fig. 3.30 (a) Parameters of longitudinal vibration of a uniform rod; (b) Generalized model of
uniform rod in form of M4TN

This passive element may be presented in standard A0-form of M4TN [20, 22]

F1
1

cos l
jc0 EA1 sin l

jEAc1
0 sin l
cos l

F2
2


3:61

where
is the propagation constant (wave number), =c0
is the frequency excitation,
c0 is the wave propagation velocity of compressiontension in the material of the
p
rod, and c0 E=
E and are the modulus of elasticity and density of material.
Entries B and C of the matrix A0 have units of impedance and mobility,
respectively. We can see that the detA0 1. The equation of the M4TN in A0form may be transformed to one of the other formsfor example, Z or Y forms.
This mathematical model may be applicable for the uniform spring of total mass
M lA, while neglecting friction.
Example 3.15 A dynamical system consists of mass m, spring with stiffness
coefcient k, and a deformable rod with parameters E, A, l, and ; the bending
deformation of the rod is neglected (Fig. 3.31).
Fig. 3.31 Complex
dynamical system
consisting of lumped mass
m, stiffness k, and
deformable rod

F1 1
m
k
E,A,,l
2=0
F2

3.5 Mechanical Multi-Terminal Networks for Passive Elements with Distributed. . .

129

The system is subjected to harmonic force F(t). Calculate the transmissibility

coefcient F2/F1.
We will consider this structure as a series connection of three M4TNs. The
equation between input and output parameters is

F1
1

A0


F2
:
2

The resulting matrix A0 of the characteristic coefcients is

A0 Am Ak Arod

where l l=c0 , c0
bility ratio becomes

jm
1

1
j=k

0
1


cos l
jEAc1
0 sin l
;
jc0 EA1 sin l cos l

p
E=. Since 2 0, the expression for the transmissi-

F2

F1

1

2 m
c0
sin l:
cos l  m
1
k
EA

3:62

If the rod is absolutely rigid, then c0 ! 1, E ! 1, cos l ! 1, and

l
2 ml
0.
lim c0 sin
l; lim
c0 !1
E!1 EA
c0
Thus, the second term in the denominator is equal to zero. Therefore, we
ultimately obtain the well-known expression
F2

F1


1
2 m
1
:
k

3:63

Example 3.16 A dynamical system consists of a deformable rod with parameters E,

A, l, and , and an additional device with impedance Zr (Fig. 3.32). The top end of
the rod (input point 1) is subjected to harmonic force F1 and velocity 1.

Fig. 3.32 Complex

dynamical system with a
deformable rod and
additional end device
of impedance Zr

F1 1
E,A,,l
F2

Zr

130

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

The force and velocity at the bottom end, F2 and 2, are transferred onto the input
of the device of impedance Zr.
The dynamic coefcients are given by [23]
f

F2
1
,

cos l jZ0 =Zr sin l

F1

2
1

;
cos l jZr =Z 0 sin l
1
s

E
, c0
, Z 0 c0 A:
c0

3:64

Impedance Z0 corresponds to a rod of innite length.

If the elastic element of stiffness k is placed between the bottom point 2 and the
support, then Z k Z r jk=, and for complex j(Z0/Zr) we obtain the value
k
. The dynamic coefcient f increases with an increase in the cross-sectional
c0 A
area A of a rod, while the dynamic coefcient decreases.
The input impedance, taking into account impedance Zr, becomes
Z inp

3.5.2

F1
Zr cos l jZ 0 sin l
cos l jZ 0 =Z r sin l
Zr
:
Z0
Z0 cos l jZ r sin l
cos l jZ r =Z0 sin l
1

3:65

Mechanical Eight-Terminal Network for Transversal

Vibration of a Uniform Beam

Earlier we examined the following description of the rod:

1. In the form of an M2TN with parameters of force F (moment M ) on the input
and velocity (angular velocity ) on the output
2. In the form of an 4TN with parameters F and (or M, ) on the input and
output.
However, there may be cases when we need to represent a complete description
of the beam vibration with parameters M, F, , on the input and with the same
parameters on the output. Such problems are of interest in the design of mechanical
lters and VP systems in various elds of technology, particularly in electronics
[22]. The statement of the problem is to represent the beam in a form that allows us
to take into account all these parameters.
Let us consider a uniform beam of bending stiffness EI, length l, and density of
material . This beam will be treated as a mechanical eight -terminal network
(M8TN; Fig. 3.33). At the input of the M8TN (point 1), we have two groups of
parametersthe force and kinematic parameters. The force parameters are the

3.5 Mechanical Multi-Terminal Networks for Passive Elements with Distributed. . .

131

moment M1 and force F1; the kinematic parameters are the linear and angular
velocities (1, 1). At the output of the M8TN (point 2), we have M2, F2, 2, 2. In
each problem we have specic given parameters, and they can be related to only the
input, only the output, or both input and output.
M1 1

E, I,, l

1
F1

2
1

F2

M2

M1
1
F1
1

M2
2
F2
2

M8TN
1

Fig. 3.33 Transversal vibration of beam, notation, and its generalized model as M8TN

The equation of state, as in the case of the M8TN, may be represented in

different forms. Assume that the parameter vector at the output, 2, 2, M2, F2 is
known. The corresponding mathematical model of M8TN is written in the form
1 ; 1 ; M1 ; F1 T A8 2 ; 2 ; M2 ; F2 T :

3:66

Here the symbol T represents the transpose operation.

By analogy with the A-form of the M4TN, this notation will be referred to as the
generalized form, or A8-form. The matrix A8 has an important property: detA8 1.
Solving the system (3.66) with respect to the vector F1, M1, F2, M2 leads to a
representation of M8TN in the form of an impedance matrix
F1 ; M1 ; F2 ; M2 T Z 8 1 ; 1 ; 2 ; 2 T

3:67

If we invert this relationship, we then obtain a representation of M8TN in the form

of an mobility matrix
1 ; 1 ; 2 ; 2 T Y 8 F1 ; M1 ; F2 ; M2 T :

3:68

Other representations of M8TN are possible. Each form is dependent on the vector
of the given and unknown parameters.
By analogy with M4TN, various regular connections of M8TN are possible. The
simplest is the cascade connection; in this case, the output terminals of the rst
M8TN are connected to the input terminals of the same parameters for the second
0
00
M8TN. For a cascade connection, we have the relationship S2 S1 , where
0
S represents M, F, , . The symbol S2 represents a set of output parameters
00
(an index 2) of the rst (one prime) 8N, while S1 represents a set of the input
parameters (index 1) of the second (two primes) 8N.
For each 8N we can write the equations of state in the A8-form
0

S1 A8 S 2 ;

00

00

00

S 1 A8 S 2 :

132

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

0

00

Taking into account condition S2 S1 , we can write

h 0 0
i
h 00 00 00 00 iT
0
0 T
0
00
1 ; 1 ; M1 ; F1 A8 A8 2 ; 2 ; M2 ; F2 :

3:69

If two M8TNs are connected by cascade, the matrix A of the equivalent M8TN is
then equal to the product of two matrices A8 for each M8TN. Some results for a
uniform beam are presented below.
Massless Beam Let us consider a uniform massless beam of length l and bending
stiffness EI; parameter n0 l3 =EI:
The equation of the 8N in A8-form, according to [13], is S1 A8 S2 , where
S is vector S MFT
2

l

7 6
6
6 1 7 6 0
76
6
7 6
6
6 M1 7 4 0
7
6
6F 7
0
1

jn0 =2l jn0 =6

n0 =l2

32

7
76
jn0 =2l 76 2 7
7
76
76 M 7:
l
56 2 7
7
6
6F 7
1
2

3:70a

If we resolve this set of equations with respect to output state vector S2, we obtain
2

7 6
6
6 2 7 6 0 1
76
6
7 6
6
6 M2 7 4 0 0
7
6
6F 7
0 0
2

jn0 =2l
jn0 =l2
1
0

jn0 =6

32

7
76
jn0 =2l 76 1 7
7:
76
7
6
l 7
56 M 1 7
7
6
6F 7
1
1

3:71

Solving system (3.70a) or (3.71) with respect to the vector with components
F1M1F2M2, we obtain the representation of the M8TN in the form of an impedance
matrix, i.e.,
F1 ; M 1 ; F2 ; M 2  T
2
12
6
6l
j 6
6
Z8
6
n0 4 12
6l

Z 8 1 ; 1 ; 2 ; 2 T ;
3
6l 12 6l
7
4l2 6l 2l2 7
7:
6l 12 6l 7
5
2l2

6l

3:70b

4l2

Now we can represent the M8TN in the form of a mobility matrix

1 ; 1 ; 2 ; 2 T Y 8 F1 ; M1 ; F2 ; M2 T ,

Y 8 Z1
8 :

3:72

3.5 Mechanical Multi-Terminal Networks for Passive Elements with Distributed. . .

133

The above equations allow us to establish the relationship between the coordinates
of the state vector at two different points of the system.
Example 3.17 A redundant beam of length l and bending stiffness EI is subjected to
moment M1 on support 1 (Fig. 3.34). Determine the reactions of support.
Fig. 3.34 Design diagram
of redundant beam and its
analysis as M8TN

M1 1
1
F1

F2

M2

E, I, l

Solution The input and output of the system are denoted by 1 and 2. The positive
direction of the kinematic and force characteristics are shown in Fig. 3.34.
According to (3.71), and taking into account boundary conditions 1
2 2 0, we get
n0
n0
M1 j
F1 0,
2l
6
n0
n0
F1 0,
2 1  j 2 M 1 j
2l
l
M2 M1  lF1 ,
2 l1  j

F 2 F1 :
The solution of this system is F1

3 M1
M1
, M2 
[1].
2 l
2

Inertial Beam Let us consider a uniform elastic beam of mass M lA , where l is

the length of the rod, A is the cross-sectional area, I is the moment of inertia of the
cross-sectional area, and is the density of the material. The beam performs
harmonic transversal vibration. The fundamental matrix equation for the dynamic
condition of this beam can be represented in the following form [22]:
2

F1 ; M1 ; 1 ; 1 T 0:5GF2 ; M2 ; 2 ; 2 T ;

H3
6
6
6
F1
6
6 H l
7
6
1
6 M1 7 1 6

7 6
6
6
6 7 26
4 1 5
j l3
6
6 H2
6
K3
1
6
4
j l2
H 4
K2
2

H 2
l
H3
j l2
H4
K2
j l
H1
K

K3
H 1
j l3
H4

K2
jl2

H3
H2

3
K2
H4
jl2 7
72
7 F 3
2
K 7
76
H 2
76 M2 7
7
j l 76
7;
76
74 2 7
5
l 7
H1 7
7 2
7
5
H3

3:73

134

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

where
H 1 sin sinh, H2 sin  sinh, H 3 cos cosh, H 4 cos  cosh,
A 2 4
l :
K EI, 4
EI

Other forms of M8TN for transversal vibration of a uniform beam are presented
in [13].
Example 3.18 A uniform cantilevered beam of length l is subjected to lumped
force F at the free end (input, point 1). Compute the input impedance and frequency
vibration of the beam.
Since M1 0 (by condition) and 2 2 0 (boundary condition at the
clamped support, output, point 2), from system (3.73) we then have
1

H 3 F2  H 2 M 2 ,
2
l


1
j l3
j l2
H2
F

H
M
1
2
4
2 :
2
K3
K2

F1

3:74a

Additional equation
M1



1
l
H1 F2 H3 M2 0:
2

3:74b

H1 l
F2 . System
H3
(3.74a) then allows us to represent our beam in the form of an 4N
Since M1 0, from expression (3.74b) we then obtain M2 


F1
1

2
1
H3 H1 H2
2H 3 H 2 H3  H1 H 4

Input impedance becomes

Zinp j

0
0


F2
:
2

3:75

F1
H 23 H 1 H 2

. After elementary
1 H 2 H 3  H 1 H 4

rearrangement, we get
Z inp j j

3 EI
1 cos cosh
:
3 sinh cos  sin cosh
l

3:76

The condition ImZinp j 0 leads to the frequency equation 1 cos cosh 0

[4].
Some classical results are presented below.

3.6 Effectiveness of Vibration Protection

135

(A) A uniform cantilevered beam is subjected to moment M1 at the free end. The
input impedance "momentlinear velocity" equals
Z inp j

M1
2 EI H 2 H 1 H2
j 2 32
:
1
l H 2 H 3 H4

For this structure, the input impedance "momentangular velocity" equals

Zinp j

M1
EI H 3 H 2  H 1 H 4
j
:
l H 1 H 2 H 24
1

(B) A uniform redundant simply supported-clamped beam is subjected to

moment M1 at the movable support. The input impedance moment-angular
velocity equals
Z inp j

M1
EI H 3 H 2  H 1 H 4
j
:
l H 1 H 2 H 24
1

The frequency equation is tan tanh.

3.6

Effectiveness of Vibration Protection

The theory of M4TN allows us to derive general formulas for dynamic coefcients
and represent them in terms of characteristic parameters of the VP device and
impedance Zf of the support.
Let us consider a one-dimensional dynamical system. This system includes a
machine as a source of harmonic vibration, a vibration protection device, and
support, as shown in (Fig. 3.35). The VP device is treated as an M4TN in A-form
with characteristic parameters A, B, C, and D; the impedance of the machine and
foundation are ZM and Zf, respectively.
Fig. 3.35 Design diagram
of a machine, M4TN as VP
device, and support

ZM
1

P1
A B
C D

P2

Zf

136

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

For the inputoutput parameters of the VP device, as 4TN in A-form, we have

the following equations:
P1 AP2 B2 ;

3:77

1 CP2 D2 :

3:78

1. Since the output parameters and impedance of support are related by P2 2 Zf ;,

from (3.77) we then obtain a relationship between input and output forces for the
VP device and the impedance of support
P1 AP2 B



P2
B
! P1 P2 A
:
Zf
Zf

The dynamic coefcient of the force is

P2 =P1

P2
Zf
1

:
P1 AZ f B A B=Zf

3:79

The logarithmic difference in forces on the VP device, in decibels (dB), is

 


 P1 

B 



3:80
LP1 =P2 20log  20logA :
Zf
P2
From (3.78) we obtain a relationships between the input and output velocities for a
VP device
1 C2 Zf D2 ! 1 2 CZf D
Thus, the transmissibility coefcient of the velocity becomes
2 =1

2
1
:

1 CZ f D

The logarithmic difference of velocities on the VP device, in dB, is

 
 1 
L1 =2 20log  20logjCZ f Dj:
2

3:81

3:82

Expressions (3.79) and (3.81) represent dynamic coefcients in a complex form.

This allows us to calculate a phase shift between the output and input signals (force
and/or velocity) [17].

3.6 Effectiveness of Vibration Protection

137

The modulus of the transmissibility coefcients is

P2 =P1 jA B=Z f j1 ;

3:83

1

2 =1 jCZ f Dj :
These formulas do not allow us to determine the phase shift.
Effectiveness of a Vibration Protection Device Consider two ways to install the
machine on the support. In the rst case, a VP device is installed between the machine
and the support as shown in Fig. 3.35. The corresponding force and velocity transferred onto the support are denoted by Pf and f. In the second case, the machine is
installed on the support without a VP device. The corresponding force and velocity
transferred onto the support are denoted by Pf and f . Assume that the exciting force
caused by the machine is not dependent on the presence/absence of a VP device. The
VP device is presented in A-form with characteristic parameters A, B, C, and D. The
efciency of the installed VP device is characterized by the value [20]
 *
 *


 Pf 
 f 
AZf B Z M CZf D





:
U 20log  20log  20log

ZM Zf
Pf
f

3:84

The general expression (3.84) shows that the effectiveness of a VP device is

determined not only by the structure and parameters of the device itself, but also
by the impedance ZM of the machine. In the simplest case, the machine is treated as
a lumped mass M with impedance ZM jM. There are times when M does not
represent the total mass, but only its portion, which is called effective mass [20].
This concept will be discussed in greater detail in Chap. 12.
At low frequencies, where there are no wave processes in the VP device, formula
(3.84) may be simplied. Unfortunately, a theoretical estimation of the frequency from
which wave phenomena in the VP device should be taken into account is difcult [20].
A vibration protection device such as M4TN and support may be treated as a
complex system. This system has input point 1 and output point 2. Impedance
measured at point 1, while taking into account support with impedance Zf, may be
calculated by formula
Z VPD-f

AZ f B
:
CZ f D

3:85

Thus, if a VP device is installed between the machine and the support, the support
impedance modulus decreases; this decrease is characterized by the coefcient


 Zf 
:
20log
3:86
ZVPD-f 

138

3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

Various simplications of the general expression (3.84), as well as an estimation of

the two-cascade VP systems, may be found in [17, 20]. These issues are beyond the
scope of this book.

Problems
3.1. What kinds of restrictions should be imposed on the dynamical system in
order that the system can be presented in the form of an M4TN?
3.2. Describe the difference between the 2N and M4TN.
3.3. Describe the essence of the (a) rst and second Foster methods and (b) rst
and second Cauer methods.
3.4. Derive the characteristic parameters of M4TN in A-form for mass, stiffness
and damper.
3.5. Explain the difference between the various forms of M4TN.
3.6. The generalized

 presentation of a dynamical system as M4TN in A-form is

A B
A0
. Explain the meaning of all the entries, their units, and the
C D
fundamental relationships between entries.
3.7. Mathematical model of M4TN in A-form to transform into (a) E-form; (b) Hform; (c) B-form.
" #
" #
"
#
F1
F2
A1 BA1
E
, E
;
Answer: a
1
2
CA1 C1
" # "
#" #
" # "
#" #
F1
1
F2
D B F1
BD1
D1
b

; c

2
F2
2
1
C A
CD1 D1
3.8. Explain the classical connections of the M4TN, and present fundamental
relationships for these connections.
3.9. Explain the difference between an M4TN for systems with lumped and
distributed parameters.
3.10. Determine parameters A, B, C, and D of the equivalent M4TN in A-form if
two linear blocks of parallel elements k1b1 and k2b2 are each connected
(a) in parallel and (b) in series.
3.11. A mechanical mkbk1 system is shown in Fig. P3.11. Present this system in
M4TN and calculate the entries of the A-matrix.
Hint: The mkb system and element k1 are connected in series.

m
k

b
k1

Fig. P3.11

References

139

3.12. A mechanical mkbb1 system is shown in Fig. P3.12. Present this system in
M4TN and calculate the entries of the A-matrix.
Hint: (1) Characteristic entries A, B, C, and D for m, k, and b elements are
presented in Table 3.1; (2) the mkb system and element b1 are connected in
parallel.

m
b1

Fig. P3.12

3.13*. Construct a mechanical two-terminal network which realizes impedance

p2 6p 8
. Apply Cauers procedure [15].
Z p
0:01p2 0:4p 0:03

References
1. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
2. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (1985). Application of the mechanical impedance method for
analysis of supporting parts of machines with dynamic loads. Kiev: UkrNIINTI
No. 983, Uk-85.
3. Ilinsky, V. S. (1982). Protection of radio-electronic equipment and precision equipment from
the dynamic excitations. Moscow: Radio.
4. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
5. Migulin, V. V., Medvedev, V. I., Mustel, E. R., & Parugin, V. N. (1988). Fundamentals of the
theory of vibrations. Moscow: Nauka.
6. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Free vibrations of beams and frames. Eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
7. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
8. Brune, O. (1931). Synthesis of a nite two-terminal network whose driving-point impedance is
a prescribed function of frequency. MIT Journal of Mathematics and Physics, 10, 191236.
9. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
10. Popov, V. P. (1985). Fundamentals of circuit theory. Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola.
11. Karnovsky I. A., & Lebed, O (1989). Representation of discrete mechanical systems in the
form of four-port networks. In book: The problems of static and dynamic operation of the
bridges. Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine: DIIT.

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3 Mechanical Two-Terminal and Multi-Terminal Networks of Mixed Systems

12. Cauer, W. (1934). Aquivalenz

von 2n-Polen ohne Ohmsche Widerst
ande. Nachrichten
d. Gesellschaft d. Wissenschaften G
ottingen, math-phys. Kl., N.F. (vol 1, pp. 133).
13. Lenk, A. (1977). Elektromechanische systeme. Band 2: Systeme mit verteilten parametern.
Berlin, Germany: VEB Verlag Technnic.
14. Leissa, A. W. (1969). Vibration of plates. Scientic and Technical Information Division
NASA.
15. Druzhinsky, I. A. (1977). Mechanical networks. Leningrad, Russia: Mashinostroenie.
16. Bulgakov, B. V. (1954). The vibrations. Moscow: Gosizdat.
17. Kljukin, I. I. (Ed.). (1978). Handbook on the ship acoustics. Leningrad, Russia: Sudostroenie.
18. Gupta, S. C., Bayless, J. W., & Peikari, B. (1972). Circuit analysis with computer application
to problem solving. Scranton, PA: Intext Educational.
19. Blevins, R. D. (2001). Flow-induced vibration (2nd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
20. Judin, E. Ya. (Ed.). (1985). Noise control. Handbook. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
21. Roark, R. J., & Young, W. C. (1975). Formulas for stress and strain (5th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
22. Johnson, R. A. (1983). Mechanical lters in electronics. New York: Wiley.
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(1996). Shock and Vibration. McGraw Hill, 4th Edition, 1996.

Chapter 4

Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

This chapter deals with fundamental functions of linear dynamical systems

including the transfer function, Greens function, Duhamels integral, and standardizing function. We show their application to different problems dealing with
dynamical systems.

4.1

Transfer Function

The transfer function is a fundamental concept and one that is widely used in
various engineering disciplines such as vibration theory, control theory, and
dynamics of linear systems [14].

4.1.1

Analysis in the Time Domain

Consider a linear dynamical system with lumped constant parameters. Linearity

means that if the system is subjected to excitation ut Au1 t Bu2 t, the
response of the system for any constants A and B is xt Ax1 t Bx2 t. Here,
xi(t) is the response of the system caused by excitation ui(t).
The state of such a system is described by a set of ordinary linear differential
equations with constant coefcients with respect to generalized coordinates x1, . . ., xn.
Often, the subject of investigation is not the behavior analysis of all generalized
coordinates, but only one. In this case, it is recommended that a system of equations is
presented in the form of one differential equation with respect to this variable. In
typical cases, such transformation to one equation is possible [4]. In this case, for the
required coordinate, we obtain the linear differential equation

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_4

141

142

a0

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

dn
dn1
d
dm
x

a
x

a
x





a
x

b
u    bm u,
1
n1
n
0
dt
dtn
dtn1
dtm

m  n;
4:1

where x(t) is the response of the specied coordinate system subjected to the
excitation u(t). The excitation u(t) and response x(t) are known as input and output,
respectively.
d
Equation (4.1) can be conveniently written using the differential operator p .
dt
For this, the ith derivative is formally replaced with pix, while p0 1, which
indicates no differentiation. Expression (4.1) can then be rewritten as
 n



a0 p a1 pn1    an1 p an x b0 pm b1 pm1    bm1 p bm u:
4:2
The transfer function W establishes a relationship in operator form between the
response x (output) and the excitation u (input) of a linear stationary system [1]
W p

x K p b0 pm    bm

:
u D p a0 p n    an

4:3

Knowing the excitation u of the system and transfer function W( p), we can
determine the response of the system, i.e., x W pu.
Preliminary remarks concerning the transfer function are provided below.
1. For stationary objects with lumped parameters, the transfer function is a rational
function (4.3) of a complex variable p.
2. The numerator and denominator of a transfer function are the characteristic
polynomials of a system. The roots of the characteristic polynomial in the
denominator
Dp a0 pn a1 pn1    an1 p an 0
are called the poles of the transfer function, while the roots in the numerator
K p b0 pm b1 pm1    bm1 p bm 0
are called the zeroes.
3. In physically realizable systems, the order of the numerator m of a transfer
function cannot exceed the order of its denominator n.
4. As the nature of the input and output signals can be different, the units of the
transfer function are dependent upon the excitation and response. It is obvious
that the concept of mechanical impedance and its inverse, mobility, can be
treated as special cases of transfer function for mechanical systems. Other
special types such as dynamic stiffness, compliance, and transmissibility will
be considered in Chap. 12.

4.1 Transfer Function

143

To determine the transfer function (4.3), we applied a formal reception.

However, the resulting expression for transfer function can be justied. If the initial
conditions for system (4.1) are zeroes, then the Laplace transform [5] of expression
(4.1) immediately leads to expression (4.3). Thus, the transfer function serves to
link the two Laplace transformsthe input excitation U( p) and response of the
system X( p).
Let us note another important interpretation of the transfer function. Assume that
the linear system at rest is subjected to a unit impulse excitation. This excitation is
called the -function or Dirac delta function, and the corresponding response is
called the impulse transient function. In general, the transfer function is the Laplace
transform of the impulse transient function.
Let us now consider a case in which an instrument is mounted on a movable
base, and the objective is to reduce the vibration of the instrument. Here, the input is
a kinematic disturbance of support, while the output is a motion of the instruments
frame. The transfer function describes internal properties of the instrument itself
and properties of support, as well as the type and properties of connections between
the instrument frame and support.
The transfer function contains all the theoretical information about the model of
the system. Therefore, analysis of the transfer function allows us to study the model
properties and, hence, properties of the system itself. Note that there are software
packages that allow us to operate with transfer functions with coefcients equal to
unity at the highest derivative of polynomials K( p) and D( p). In engineering
practice, it is more convenient to apply the canonical form of a transfer function,
in which the free terms of characteristic polynomials are equal to unity.
The transfer function is especially useful for computation of the steady-state
response to a harmonic input excitation.
p
The substitution p j, j 1 leads to an expression for a transfer function
in complex form
W x=u j

x b0 jm b1 jm1    bm

:
u
a0 jn a1 jn1    an

4:4

This complex function may be presented as follows (procedures regarding

complex numbers are presented in Appendix A):
W x=u j

xt;
P jQ:
ut;

4:5

The modulus and phase of this complex function are


 q
W x=u j P2 Q2 ;
argW x=u j tan 1

Q
:
P

4:6

144

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

Example 4.1. Determine the steady-state response of a linear system

mx bx_ kx Ft, subjected to a force harmonic excitation Ft F0 sin t.
The input and output are F(t) and x(t), respectively. The transfer functions in
operator and complex form are
W x=F p

1
,
mp2 bp k

W x=F j

1
:
k  m2 jb

1
The modulus of transfer function is jW jj q.
k  m2 2 b2
If the force is changed by a harmonic law Ft F0 cos t, then the amplitude of
steady-state vibration is equal to the product of amplitude F0 of the force on the
modulus of transfer function |W( j)|, i.e.,


F0
A W x=F jF0 q :
k  m2 2 2 b2
This relationship may be presented in the form
st
A q :
1  z2 2 42 z2
where st F0 =k is a static deection due to the amplitude force F0; and the
p
dimensionless parameters are z =0 , 0 k=m, and n=0 , 2n b=m.
This expression coincides with formula (1.8).
We now formulate some expressions of transfer functions for a linear vibration
protection system with one degree of freedom, shown in Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 4.1 Vibration
protection system

F (t )
m
k

x(t )

(t )

1. Assume that the system is subjected to force excitation F(t). The equation of
motion will generally be of the form mx bx_ kx Ft. The force transferred
onto the support is F0 bx_ kx.
Let us determine the transfer function considering F(t) and F0 as input and
output, respectively. The equation of motion and transferred force in operator
form is



mp2 bp k x Ft

and F0 bp kx:

4.1 Transfer Function

145

Eliminating x from these equations, we obtain

0 bF_ 0 kF0 bF_ kF:
mF
This linear differential equation establishes a relationship between the input,
excitation force F(t) and force F0 (which is treated as response), acting on a xed
base. The transfer function is
W F0 =F p

bp k
:
mp2 bp k

4:7

2. Now let the system shown in Fig. 4.1 be subjected to kinematic excitation (t).


The equation of motion is mx b x_  _ kx  0, or in equivalent form,
mx bx_ kx b_ k:

4:8

The relative displacement of the mass m is

xt  t ! x :

4:9

Equation (4.8) with (4.9) in operator form becomes




mp2 bp k bp k:

This equation then takes the form




mp2 bp k m:

4:10

This linear differential equation describes the relation between the displacement
of support (t) and the relative displacement of the body (t). Considering and
(t) as the input and output, the corresponding transfer function becomes
W = p 

m
:
mp2 bp k

4:11

The force Fr(t) that is transmitted to the mobile support is Fr t b_ k. In

operator form, this becomes
bp k Fr t:
Eliminating from (4.10) and (4.12), we obtain


r bF_ r kFr m b:::
mF
k :

4:12

146

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

This linear differential equation describes the relation between the displacement
of support (t) and force Fr(t) acting on the support. In operator form, this is



mp2 bp k Fr mbp k:

The transfer function force Fracceleration of support a becomes

W Fr =a p 

mbp k
:
mp2 bp k

4:13a

Example 4.2. The linear mechanical kmb system is subjected to the kinematic
excitation x1 at endpoint A, as shown in Fig. 4.2. The system is considered to be
originally at rest. We must determine the displacement x2 of the mass m in terms of
excitation x1. Assume that the excitation presents a unit step function.
x2

x1

k
A

k(x1- x2)

b x 2

x1
1
t

Fig. 4.2 Vibration protection system with viscous damper

It is clear that mx2 kx1  x2  bx_ 2 , or

mx2 bx_ 2 kx2 kx1 :

4:13b

We will treat x1 and x2 as input and output, respectively, so in operator form, this
equation becomes



mp2 bp k x2 kx1 :

4:13c

The complete solution of (4.13c) is the sum of the steady-state and transient
solutions
x2 t xst2 t xtr2 t:

4:13d

In order to determine the steady-state solution, in expression (4.13c), the terms that
take into account the velocity and acceleration of x2 must be set such that they are
equal to zero, i.e., mp2 bp 0. Indeed, displacement xst2 must reach a xed
steady-state position, and when xst2 reaches a constant value, the velocity and
acceleration become zero [6]. As a result, we obtain kxst2 kx1 , or xst2 1.

4.1 Transfer Function

147

We now turn to the denition of the second term in (4.13d). The transfer function
of equation (4.13c) is
W x2 =x1 p

k
:
mp2 bp k

4:13e

The poles of the transfer function are the roots of the denominator of the transfer
p
function, i.e., mp2 bp k 0. Putting this in terms of k=m and
p
b=2 km, we get
p2 2p 2 0:
p
The roots of this equation are p   2  1. The transient solution xtr2 (t)
depends on whether the damping ratio is greater than unity, equal to unity, or
smaller than unity.
1. If > 1 (overdamped case), the roots are real and the transient response is
xtr2

A1 e

t

A2 e

t

q
2  1:

In this case, no oscillations are possible.

2. If 1 (critically damped motion), the roots are real and equal, p1, 2 . In
this case, the transient response is
xtr2 A1 et A2 t et :
3. If < 1 (underdamped case), the roots are complex, and the transient response is
 q

xtr2 A et sin 1  2 t :
This case leads to oscillatory motion. Two constants A and must be determined
from the complete solution (4.13d)
 q

x2 t xst2 t xtr2 t 1 A et sin 1  2 t :

4:13f

The initial conditions are x2 0 0, x_ 2 0 px2 0 0. After elementary

rearrangement, we obtain [6]
A 1=

q
1  2 ,

tan 1

q 
1  2 = cos 1 :

The total solution is determined by the expressions (4.13f) and (4.13g).

4:13g

148

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

The application of the concept of transfer function provides a distinct advantage in analysis of dynamical systems. A discussion of these advantages should
note the different types of problems (determining the system response, stability
analysis of dynamical systems, etc.) for which the transfer function concept is
widely used, and the effective algorithmic procedures for their solution [2, 4]. In
the case of complex dynamical systems, this method is an indispensable tool for
compiling inputoutput relations for arbitrary points of a system.

4.1.2

Logarithmic Plot of Frequency Response.

Bode Diagram

Analysis of dynamical systems can be effectively performed on the basis of a

transfer function in the frequency domain [2, 6, 7].
Complex transfer function (4.5) can be presented in polar form
W j Ae j :

4:14

Here, A jW jj is called the magnitude (or amplitude or modulus, or absolute

value) of transfer function W( j), and () is the phase (or angle or argument) of W
( j). Since W( j) is a complex frequency characteristic, A() and () represent
the amplitudefrequency and phasefrequency characteristics, respectively. The
principal value of expression (4.14) is
lnW lnA j,

 <

4:15

The curve lnjW j lnA can be plotted in terms of frequency . However,

instead of ln A(), we will plot value 20 log A(), where the base of the logarithm is
10. This quantity is called the log-magnitude and is abbreviated Lm. Thus, the
log-magnitude of the transfer function is
LmW 20 logA 20  loge  lnA 20  0:434ln A:

4:16

The corresponding graph LmW 20logA considered as a function of log

is called the log amplitudefrequency characteristic (curve) or Bode diagram.
Similarly, the graph (), which is considered as a function of the same variable
log , is called the log phasefrequency characteristic. The both graphs are drawn
on semi-log paper: for frequency , the log scale is used, while the linear scale is
used for amplitude A() in decibels (db) and for phase angle () in degrees.
The value LmW 1 db means that 20logA 1. In this case, A
log1 1=20 1:1220. If LmW mdb , then A 10m=20 . If value LmW increases
by n decibels, then ratio A2/A1 becomes

4.1 Transfer Function

149

A2 10mn=20

10n=20 :
A1
10m=20
A change in frequency by an octave (decade) means that the frequency changes by a
factor of 2 (10). In the case of an octave frequency change, the shift of the curve
Lm() along the horizontal axis equals log2  log log2 0:3010.
If the frequency changes by a decade, the shift of the curve Lm() along the
horizontal axis equals log10 1. One decade comprises 1=0:301 3:32 octaves.
Therefore, a change of 20 db/decade is equivalent to a change of 6 db/octave.
Let us nd the log-magnitude Lm() and angle () versus log frequency log
() for various typical transfer functions.
1. For frequency-invariant gain K, the log-magnitude is LmW 20logK. The
log-magnitude plot presents a horizontal line. The angle K 0
, if K > 0 and
K 180
, if K < 0 [6].
2. Assume that the transfer function is W p 1p . Logarithmic magnitudefrequency characteristic [6]
 
1
LmW 20logjW j 20log  20log:
j
This is a linear function with respect to log . The negative slope is 20 db/decade
or 6 db/octave.
3. For transfer function W p p, the log-magnitudefrequency characteristic
becomes LmW 20logjW j 20logjjj 20log. The angle is constant and equal to 90
. In the case of W p pn the log-magnitude characteristic LmW() presents a straight line with a slope of 20n db=decade, and the
angle is constant and equal to n90
.
Example 4.3 Construct the log-magnitude and phase angle curve for a system with
k
.
transfer function W p
Tp 1
Solution Logarithmic magnitudefrequency characteristic


 k 
 20logk  20logjjT 1j
LmW 20logjW j 20log
jT 1
p
20logk  20log 1 2 T 2 :
p
At low frequencies,  1=T, we can apply the approximation 1 2 T 2  1, so
Lm  20logk const.
p
At high frequencies, 1=T, we have
1 2 T 2  T, so Lm 
20logk  20logT. Therefore, if we apply the appropriate approximation for the
lower and higher frequencies, the approximate graph Lm() contains two straight
lines, called asymptotes.

150

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

Their equations are Lm  20logk const and Lm  20logk  20logT.

Their intersection occurs at 1=T; this point called a corner frequency. The exact
curve is shown by a dotted line. Maximum errors of approximation 3db occur
at 1=T. For this frequency,  tan 1 T 45
(Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3 Log-magnitude
curve, together with
asymptotes, corner
frequency (CF), and phase
angle curve, for transfer
k
function W p
Tp 1

Lm (db)
CF

20logk

log

=1/T
20 db/dec

j ()
log

0o
45o
90o

The graph Lm() shows the ratio of the amplitude of the response (output) to the
amplitude of the input signal over the entire frequency range.
Now let us consider an oscillating block. The transfer function between displacement and input force in operator form is
W F=x p

mp2

1
:
bp k

In complex form [1, 5]

W j

1
2

j
2
j 1
0
20

The log-amplitude value is


!1 


 j2 2

j 1
LmW 20logjW j 20log

2
0

 0
q

2
1
20log 1  T 20 2 2T 0 2 , T 0
:
0
p
For low frequencies 1=T 0 we have Lm 20log 1 0 db. For high
frequencies  1=T 0 , the log-magnitude is approximately Lm
20logT 0 2 40logT 0 db.

4.2 Greens Function and Duhamels Integral

151

For low frequencies, the log-magnitude value Lm() is represented by the

horizontal line, while the asymptote in the high-frequency region has a slope of
40 db/decade. Both asymptotes cross at the corner frequency 0. The phase
frequency characteristic is
 tan 1

2T 0
:
1  2 =20

At the corner frequency 0,the phase angle =2 rad. At 0, the phase
angle 0
; at 1, the phase angle becomes 180
.
Bode diagrams for typical transfer functions are presented in a number of
classical textbooks on the topic of dynamical systems, particularly [6]. They are a
very useful tool for representing the responsefrequency characteristics of an
arbitrary linear dynamical system consisting of blocks with standard transfer
functions. The Bode diagram is discussed in greater detail in Chap. 12.

4.2

Greens Function and Duhamels Integral

Greens function (impulse transient, inuence, and source functions) is a fundamental characteristic of a dynamical system. This function represents the response
of a linear system subjected to unit impulse excitation (-function) after the system
has been at rest [8, 9].
In the case of a dynamical system with lumped parameters, Greens function G
(t) is a function of time t. In the case of a system with distributed parameters (string,
beam, plate), Greens function G(x, , t) represents the displacement at point x, as a
function of time t, caused by the concentrated unit impulse applied at point
[10]. The function is named after the English mathematician George Green, who
introduced the theory in the 1830s.
The value of Greens function is that it allows us to nd the response x(t) of a
linear system subjected to arbitrary time-dependent excitation f(t)
x t

Gt  Fd:

4:17

This integral is known as the convolution integral or Duhamels integral, and its
expression is derived based on the superposition principle [11, 12]. The convolution
integral is especially advantageous for the integration of a few linear differential
equations with the same left-hand side and different right-hand sides. In this case,
Duhamels integral signicantly reduces computational work.

152

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

Greens function is dependent upon the mathematical model of the object (the
system with lumped or continuous parameters), the order of the differential equation, and its coefcients. The most complete collection of Greens functions for
various equations of mathematical physics is presented by Butkovskiy and
Pustylnikov [9].

4.2.1

System with Lumped Parameters

A mechanical linear mk system is described by the equation mxt kx 0.

Let us determine Greens function. This means that we must nd a solution for
this differential equation when the system is subjected to unit impulse excitation
S 1 at t 0. Assume that at the moment of impulse application, the system has
been at rest. In this case, one of the initial conditions is x0 0. To determine the
second initial condition, let us apply the theorem of change in linear momentum
[13]. If velocity x_ 0 0, the aftershock becomes x_ 0 0 , and then m0 
m  0 S 1. Thus the initial conditions become x0 0 and x_ 0 0 1=m.
A general solution for equations mx kx 0 is
x_ 0
sin t,
xt x0 cos t

r
k
;

so for Greens function we get

Gt

1
sin t:
m

4:18

The units of this function are [LF1T1]. In the case of a viscously damped mbk
system, the free vibration is described by mx bx_ kx 0; the corresponding
Greens function is [11]
1
Gt
expnt sin 1 t,
m1

p
1 2  n 2 ,

b
,
n
2m

r
k

: 4:19
m

Knowing Greens function, we can calculate the response of the system caused
by arbitrary excitation. Below we will consider force and kinematic excitation.

4.2.1.1

Force Excitation

Assume that the mk system is suddenly loaded by the force Ht 1, which then
remains on the system. Such function is called the Heaviside excitation. Duhamels
integral leads to the following result:

4.2 Greens Function and Duhamels Integral

153

1 t
xt Gt  Fd
sin t  Hd
m 0
0

1 t
1 t
sin t   1 d
sin t cos  cos t sin d

m 0
m 0


t
t
1
1
sin t cos d  cos t sin d

1  cos t
m
m2
0
0
t

1
1  cos t:
k
Since the static displacement caused by the excitation force is st
xt st 1  cos t;

1
1
, then
2
m k
4:20

where st is a static displacement of mass m due to the static action of the unit force.
The maximum displacement of the mass becomes xmax 2st , and for the dynamic
coefcient we obtain
din xmax =st 2:

4:21

We assume that the state of the system is described by the equation

x 2 x Ft=m f t;

4:22

with nonzero initial conditions. In this case, the general solution of (4.22)
becomes [14]
r

o
1 t
k
:
4:23a
xt x0 cos t sin t
f sin t  d,
0
m

The response of the system may be presented in equivalent form:

t
1
xt A sin t
f sin t  d;

r
2
A x20 02 ,

tan

x0
:
0

4:23b

The rst term takes into account only the initial condition, while the second
term represents a response due to arbitrary excitation f(t), i.e., Duhamels integral
[15, Ch.8].
Example 4.4. Calculate the response of the system (4.22) subjected to harmonic
excitation f t F0 =m sin . The general solution is

154

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

o
F0
xt x0 cos t sin t

sin  sin t  d:

After integration, we obtain [16]


o
F0


xt x0 cos t sin t   2
sin t  sin t :

m  2

4:24

The rst and second terms on the right-hand side describe the free vibration of a
p
system with a natural frequency k=m. The third term
x3

F
 0
 sin t
m 2  2

4:25

describes a harmonic vibration with a frequency of free vibration , but with

amplitude dependent upon the excitation force. This term is determined by the
amplitude of the excitation force, as well as the parameters of the system and
the excitation, and does not depend on the initial conditions. This term is called
the accompanying vibration [16]. The fourth term
x4

F
 0  sin t
m 2  2

4:26

is purely the forced vibration of the system.

If the initial conditions are x0 0, x_ 0 0, then equation (4.24) leads to




F0

st

 sin t  sin t
xt  2
sin t  sin t ,

1  z2
m  2

4:27
The dynamic coefcient becomes
din

1
x=st
1  z2

sin t  sin t :

4:28

If the natural frequency coincides with the frequency of the excitation force, i.e., if
, then expressions x3 and x4 are meaningless. Considering both of these terms
at , we obtain an uncertainty of type 0/0. Indeed, if , then
x3 x4 

F
 0
 sin t
m 2  2


F0
F0  sin t sin t
0


sin
t

 2
:
0
m
2  2
m  2

4.2 Greens Function and Duhamels Integral

155

Application of L Hopitals rule leads to the following result [16]

xt

o
F0
F0
sin t
t cos t
sin t 

2m2
2m

F0 1
sin t  t cos t :
xfree t
2m

x0 cos t

4:29

The forced vibration of the mass m is described by two terms, namely, term
F0
F0
t cos t. The coefcient of the harmonic
sin t and non-periodic term 
2m2
2m
function involved a time t. This term is called the secular, and its absolute value
increases indenitely over time. The coincidence of the frequency of the disturbing
force with the natural frequency of the system and the corresponding phenomenon
is called resonance.
The forced vibration (last term of (4.29)) can be obtained much more easily if we
apply Duhamels integral directly. Indeed, in the case , we have
F0
m

t
0



F0 1
sin t  t cos t :
sin  sin t  d
2m

According to equation (4.26), the forced vibration has the following important
properties:
1. The frequency of forced vibration is equal to the frequency of the disturbing
force, and is not dependent upon the parameters of system.
2. The amplitude of the forced vibration is not dependent upon the initial conditions and depends only on the parameters of system.
3. Even if the disturbing force F0 is small, a large forced vibration can be induced
when the frequency and frequency of the system are close to each other.

4.2.1.2

Kinematic Excitation

Now let us consider an mbk dynamical system subjected to kinematic excitation

(t) [11, 14]. The mathematical model for absolute displacement x is mx


b x_  _  cx  . This equation is presented in the following form:
mx bx_ kx k b_ ,
x 2nx_ 2 x 2 2n_ f 1 f 2 :

4:30

If (t) admits differentiation, then the right-hand side of (4.30) contains two analytic
functions. The rst, f 1 2 , corresponds to the disturbing force k which is
2n
applied to the mass, while f 2 2n_ 2 f_ 1 corresponds to the dissipative force

2n_ . In this case, Duhamels integral becomes

156

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

1
xt
1

ent f 1 f 2 sin 1 t  d,

p
2  n 2 ,

b
:
m
4:31

2n

Thus Greens function for the mbk dynamical system is

Gt

1
expnt sin 1 t:
m1

If damping is neglected n 0, then the convolution integral becomes

xt

f 1 sin t  d:

Let the excitation of the system be acceleration of the support. In this case we have
the following relationships for relative coordinates [14]:
xrel x  ;

x_ rel x_  _ ;

xrel x  ;

and so the differential equation for xrel becomes

mxrel bx_ rel cxrel m or
xrel 2nx_ rel 2 xrel  f t:

4:32

The solution to this equation is

xrel

ent

1

en sin 1 t  d:

4:33

If damping is neglected, then formulas (4.32) and (4.33) become [11]:

1
xt x t : xt 

4.2.2

sin t  d:

4:34

System with Distributed Parameters

Mechanical vibration protection systems often contain elements with distributed

parameters, such as beams or plates. Their behavior is described by partial differential equations. Application of the convolution integral to such elements is demonstrated below.
Let us consider a uniform beam with arbitrary boundary conditions [17, 18].
4

EI

w
w
m0 2 Xx; t
4
x
t

or a2

w w Xx; t
2
,
x4
t
m0

a2

EI
; 4:35
m0

4.2 Greens Function and Duhamels Integral

157

where w(x, t) is the transversal displacement of the beams point x at time t; m0 is

mass per unit length of the beam, E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam
material, and I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the beam. Greens
function is [10]
Gx; ; t

1
1 X
1
W n xW n sin n t;
m0 n1 n

4:36

where eigenfunctions Wn are orthonormal [10]. The expressions for free vibration
frequencies and eigenfunctions for beams with different boundary conditions can
be found in [17, 19].
If a beam is subjected to excitation force X(x, t), a general solution to equation
(4.35) using the convolution integral may be presented in the form [10]
wx; t

1
1 X
W n x:
m0 n1

l
0

W n udu

Xu;

1
sin n t  d
n

4:37

If the load is applied at time t 0, and varies along the length of the beam and in
time Xx; t qxFt, the expression (4.37) becomes
wx; t

1
1 X
W n x
m0 n1

l
0

quW n udu

l
0

1
sin n t  d:
n

4:38

Example 4.5 In the section x of the beam, an instantaneous lumped force X

x; t 1  x  t is applied. Here, the factor x  reects the fact that the
load is applied at the point , and the multiplier t t  0 reects the instant
application of the force at moment t 0. On the basis of the fundamental properties
of the -function [20]
l
0t

u  W n udu W n ,
sin n t  d sin n t;

from equation (4.38) for transversal displacement of the beam we obtain the
following expression:
wx; t

l
l
1
1X
1
W n x 1  u  W n udu sin n t  d
m0 n1
n
0
0
1
1X
1
W n xW n sin n t Gx; ; t :

m0 n1 n

As one would expect, we have obtained Greens function, which by denition is the
response of the system to an instantaneous concentrated force.

158

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

Example 4.6 The beam is subjected to a unit step excitation Xx; t

1  x  H t. This force is applied to the beam at time t 0 in section x ,
after which it remains on the beam. The term H(t) represents the Heaviside function
and reects the step characteristic in the time of the force. Since
l

H sin n t  d

1  sin n t  d

1
1  cos n t;
n

from (4.38) for transversal vibration of the beam we obtain

l
t
1
1X
1
W n x u  W n udu 1  H sin n t  d
m0 n1

n
0
0
1
1X
1
W n xW n 2 1  cos n t:

m0 n1
n

wx; t

Example 4.7 The beam is subjected to a lumped force F(t) at the point x . In this
case, the analytical expression for excitation is Xx; t 1  x  Ft.
A concentrated force F(t) is applied at point x ; in this case,
Xx; t 1  x  Ft.
l
l
1
1X
1
W n x 1  u  W n udu F sin n t  d
wx; t
m0 n1
n
0
0
l
1
1X
1
W n xW n F sin n t  d:

m0 n1
n
0
Assume that we have the following initial conditions for the beam:
wx; 0 g1 x,

w_ x; 0 g2 x:

In this case, the general solution contains two parts:

wx; t w1 x; t w2 x; t:

4:39

The rst term, w1(x, t), coincides with the convolution integral (4.37). The second
term, which contains the initial conditions, should be calculated by the formula


l
1
W n x W n u g1 u cos n t g2 u sin n t du:
w2 x; t
n
0
n1
1
X

4.3 Standardizing Function

159

Example 4.8 Let us consider a beam under any static load. The corresponding
elastic curve is wst(x). The given load is suddenly removed at t 0. Therefore, the
initial conditions are
wx; 0 g1 x wst x,

w_ x; 0 g2 x 0:

Since Xx; t 0, then w1 x; t 0, and for the second term of (4.39) we obtain [10]
w2 x; t

1
X

l
W n x cos n t W n uwst udu:

n1

Note the fundamental characteristics for a homogeneous simply supported beam of

length l and bending stiffness EI. The orthonormal eigenfunctions and frequencies
of vibration are
r
2
nx
,
W n x
sin
l
l

n2 2
n 2
l

r
EI
:
m0

For these boundary conditions, Greens function becomes

Gx; ; t

1
2 X
1
nx
n
sin
sin n t:
sin
m0 l n1 n
l
l

4:40

Like beams, rectangular plates with arbitrary boundary conditions are important
from a vibration protection perspective. The mathematical model and
corresponding Greens function for this mechanical system may be found in
[10, 14, 21]. The most complete systematic collection of Greens functions for
different equations of mathematical physics is presented in the handbook by
Butkovskiy and Pustylnikov [9].

4.3

Standardizing Function

The standardizing function is a method that allows us to transform the mathematical

model of a linear dynamical system with non-homogeneous initial and boundary
conditions into one with homogeneous conditions. This function represents a linear
combination of the initial and boundary conditions and the external excitation. The
convolution integral is applied to determine the response of the system. The most
effective application of the standardizing functions is for problems of active
kinematic vibration protection of a system with distributed parameters.
The differential equation of oscillations of a linear dynamical system with
distributed parameters may be presented in the generalized form

160

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

Lwx; t f x; t,

t > t0 :

4:41

The boundary and initial conditions are written as

Bwx; t gx; t,
I wx; t w0 x; t,

t > t0 ,
t t0 :

4:42

Here, L is the linear differential operator of a system, and B and I are operators
of the boundary and initial conditions, respectively. We assume that the excitation
function f(x, t) as well as the functions g(x, t) and w0(x, t) are given. The
problem in mathematical physics is to solve differential equation (4.41) under
conditions (4.42).
We know [9, 22] that this problem is equivalent to the following problem: nd
the solutions to differential equation
Lwx; t x; t,

t > t0

4:43

with the specied conditions

Bwx; t 0, t > t0 ,
I wx; t 0, t t0 :

4:44

This implies the following transformations of the problem: in the new formulation,
the left-hand side of equation (4.43) remains unchanged, the boundary conditions
B become homogeneous, the initial conditions I are zero, and the right-hand side of
equation (4.43), instead of f(x,t) in (4.41), contains the new function (x, t). This
function is known as the standardizing function, and it is a linear combination of
functions f(x, t), g(x, t), and w0(x, t). The advantage of such a replacement from a
mathematical point of view is that the convolution integral is applied to new
equation (4.43)
wx; t

Gx; ; t; ; dd:

4:45

0 D

With regard to the suppression of vibrations, the advantage of such

replacement is that the boundary conditions g(x, t) may be treated as kinematic
VP excitation.
Example 4.9 Derive the expression for the response of a system with a single
degree of freedom. Apply the concept of the standardizing function.
The equation of motion mx kx Ft, t > 0 is represented in the form
x 2 x Ft=m f t:

4.3 Standardizing Function

161

The initial conditions are x0 x0 , x_ 0 0 . Greens function is Gt

1
sin t.
m
The standardizing function, according to [9], is
0

t Ft m0 t mx0 t:
The expression for the response of the system then becomes
t

1
xt Gt  d
m
0

t h

i
0
F m0 mx0 sin t  d

Taking into account the properties of the -function, this expression leads to the
well-known formula
1
xt
m

F sin t  d

1
0 sin t x0 cos t:

Here, the rst term is the convolution integral.

Example 4.10 Transverse vibrations of a uniform simply supported beam are
described by partial differential equation
4

a2

w
f x; t:
w
x4

4:46

The initial conditions are

wx; 0 w0 x,

w_ x; 0 w1 x:

4:47

For this beam we have the following boundary conditions: the transverse displacements and bending moments on the left- and right-hand supports are
w0; t wl; t 0,

0; t w
l; t 0:
w

4:48

In problems of active vibration suppression (this approach is considered in Part 2 of

the book), we move away from conditions (4.48) and assume that the displacement
of supports and bending moments on the supports are possible. Thus, to change the
vibrational beam state and, in particular, to suppress (or reduce) its vibration, the
kinematic and/or dynamic method can be applied. The kinematic method involves
the displacement of the left- and/or right-hand supports, while the dynamic method
can be realized by applying a moment at the left- and/or right-hand supports. In this
case, instead of boundary conditions (4.48), the following nonzero boundary
conditions should be recorded

162

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

00

w0; t u1 t,

w 0; t u2 t,

wl; t u3 t,

w l; t u4 t:

4:49

00

Thus the beam is subjected to the external excitation f(x, t), and the behavior of the
beam is described by (4.46) with nonzero initial conditions (4.47) and nonzero
boundary conditions (4.49).
Standardizing function is a linear combination of the external excitation f(x, t),
initial and boundary conditions [9]
0

00

x; t f x; t w0 x t w1 xt a2 xu1 t a2 xu2 t
00

a2 l  xu3 t a2 l  xu4 t;
where is the Dirac delta function and prime represents a derivative.
Now, instead of solving problems (4.46), (4.47), and (4.49), we need to solve the
4
w
Fx; t, with zero initial and boundary condidifferential equation a2 4 w
x
tions. Duhamels integral is
wx; t

Gx; ; t; ; dd:

4:50

0 D

Greens function for a simply supported beam should be calculated by formula

(4.40) [10]
1
2 X
1
nx
n
sin
sin n t,
sin
m0 l n1 n
l
l
r
n2 2 EI
n 2
;
m0
l

Gx; ; t

where l is the length of the beam, m0 is mass per unit length, EI is bending stiffness,
and n is the frequency of free vibration, which corresponds to the nth form.
Procedure (4.50) leads to an expression for response displacement of a beam
dependent upon the unknown vibration protection kinematic u1(t) and u3(t), and
force excitations u2(t) and u4(t).
The fundamental handbook [9] contains over 500 differential equations for
systems with lumped and distributed parameters. For each equation, the transfer
functions, Greens functions, standardizing functions, eigenvalues, and
eigenfunctions are presented. Also, the readers should take into account on the
useful fundamental textbook [10].

Problems

163

Problems
4.1. Explain the concepts of Greens function, Duhamels integral, and the standardizing function.
4.2. Describe the relationships between arbitrary excitation and the response of a
system.
4.3. Determine Greens function for the viscously damped mbk linear system
mx bx_ kx 0.
p
1
b
,
Answer:
Gt
expnt sin 1 t, 1 2  n2 , n
m1
2m
r
k

.
m
4.4. The input of the system is ut F0 sin t. The transfer function is
2p 1
. Determine the steady-state response at 3.
W p 2
3p p 1
Hint
p
1 j2
1 42

;
q
;
W

W j

j
j
3j2 j 1 1  32 j
1  32 2 2
p
1 4  32

;
0:239; tan 1 2  tan 1
jW j3j q

2
1

32
1  3  32 32
2j 1

3
3 tan 1 2  3  tan 1
80:5
 6:6
87
;
2
1

3

3
p

1 42

Xt q F0 sin t tan 1 2  tan 1
1  32
1  32 2 2
0:239F0 sin t 87
:
Answer: Xt 0:239F0 sin t 87
:
4.5. Determine the displacement of the linear undamped system mx kx
Ft, Ft t. The initial conditions are x0 x_ 0 0. Apply Duhamels
integral.
q


a
1
k
Answer: xt m
2 t  sin t ,
m.
4.6. Determine the displacement of the linear undamped system mx kx Ft.
The disturbing force F(t) is shown in Fig. P4.6. The initial conditions are
x0 x_ 0 0. Apply Duhamels integral.
F(t)

Fig. P4.6

F0
t1

t2

164

4 Arbitrary Excitation of Dynamical Systems

Hint:
F1 t

F0
t,
t1

0  t  t1 ;

F2 t F1 t 

F0 t 2 t  t 1
,
t1 t2  t1

F3 t F2 t

F0
t  t2 ,
t2  t1

t1  t  t2 ;
t2  t:

Answer:


F0 1
1
c
sin

t
, 0  t  t1 ; 2 ,
t


m
t1 m2


F 0 t2 1
1
x2 t x1 t 
sin

t

t

t

t

, t1  t  t2 ;
1
1

t2  t1 t1 m2


F0 1
1
c
t  t2  sin t  t2 , t2  t, 2 :
x3 t x2 t

m
t2  t1 m2
x1 t

4.7. The undamped mk linear system is subjected to a step function with a rise
time t1, as shown in Fig. P4.7. Determine the response for homogeneous initial
conditions x0 x_ 0 0. Apply Duhamels integral.
F(t)

Fig. P4.7

F0
0

t1

1
Solution: Greens function Gt m
sin t k sin t

Answer:


F0 t
sin t
t < t1 : F F0 t=t1 , xt

;
t1

k t1

F0
sin t
1
1

sin t  t1 :
t > t1 : F F0 , xt
t1
t1
k
4.8. Determine the displacement of the linear undamped system mx kx Ft.
The disturbing force F(t) is shown in Fig. P4.8. Initial conditions are x0
x_ 0 0. Apply Duhamels integral.
Answer:
x t

F0 1
t  sin t,
k t1

t  t1 ;

k
2 ,
m

kx2 t
1

sin t  t1  sin t cos t  t1 ,

F0
t1

t > t1 :

References

165
F(t)

Fig. P4.8

F0
t1

4.9. Determine the standardizing function for linear differential equation

x ax_ bx f t. Initial conditions are x0 x0 , x_ 0 0 .
0
Answer: wt f t 0 ax0 t x0 t.

References
1. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
2. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
3. Bulgakov, B. V. (1954). The vibrations. Moscow: Gosizdat.
4. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow: Nauka.
5. Doetsch, G. (1974). Introduction to the theory and application of the Laplace transformation.
Berlin: Springer.
6. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
7. Gupta, S. C., Bayless, J. W., & Peikari, B. (1972). Circuit analysis with computer application
to problem solving. Scranton, PA: Intext Educational.
8. Lalanne, C. (2002). Mechanical vibration and shock (Vol. 14). London: Hermes Penton Science.
9. Butkovskiy, A. G., & Pustylnikov, L. M. (1993). Characteristics of distributed- parameter
systems: Handbook of equations of mathematical physics and distributed-parameter systems.
New York: Springer.
10. Nowacki, W. (1963). Dynamics of elastic systems. New York: Wiley.
11. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
12. Newland, D. E. (1989). Mechanical vibration analysis and computation. Harlow, England:
Longman Scientic and Technical.
13. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
BROOKS/CO, Thomson Learning.
14. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
15. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief) (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
16. Babakov, I. M. (1965). Theory of vibration. Moscow: Nauka.
17. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
18. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
19. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Free vibrations of beams and frames. Eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
20. Korn, G. A., & Korn, T. M. (1968). Mathematical handbook (2nd ed.). New York: McGrawHill Book; Dover Publication, 2000.
21. Leissa, A. W. (1969). Vibration of plates. Scientic and Technical Information Division NASA.
22. Butkovsky, A. G. (1983). Structural theory of distributed systems. New York: Wiley.

Chapter 5

Vibration Damping

This chapter deals with vibration damping of systems with lumped and distributed
parameters. The essence of this method consists in the fact that the system comprises a devices that absorbs the vibration energy. Different types of material
models and composite structures are discussed. We will consider the following
damping vibration protection methods based on the dissipation of vibration energy.
1. External vibration damping occurs in additional devices called vibration
dampers (or dashpots) that are specially introduced into the system. In these
devices, the resistance of the liquid and gaseous media leads to the dissipation of
vibration energy [1, 2].
2. Internal vibration damping is caused by the friction of the material of
the structure itself. This type of friction in particular should include the dissipation of energy in polymer materials with high damping properties. Such
material is applied to the surface of the structure or as a layer of the composite
structure [2, 3].
3. Structural damping. This type of damping can also be attributed to the internal
dissipation of energy caused by the action of dry friction forces. These forces
arise from the vibration on contact surfaces in various compounds (bolts, rivets,
etc.). [4, 5, vol. 1].
4. Aerodynamic damping [69]. With this type of damping, the structure itself is
changed in order to change the characteristics of the airow around the structure,
and this is accomplished by applying constructive measures. This can signicantly reduce the aerodynamic loads acting on the structure and, as a result, the
level of vibration [10, 11].
Note: Internal friction and aerodynamic damping as a whole play a positive role in
problems of vibration reduction. However, there are cases where internal friction
can cause dangerous vibrations (rotation of the rotor with an angular velocity
greater than critical) [4], as the aerodynamic forces can lead to destructive levels
of vibration, such as utter [5, vol. 3].

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_5

167

168

5.1

5 Vibration Damping

Phenomenological Aspects

This approach assumes the study of damping in terms of its inuence on the
dynamic behavior of the system, and as such, the physical mechanisms that create
the damping force are omitted [2]. At the forefront, we place the following problem:
how to describe the material in which the phenomenon of energy dissipation at the
vibration is observed. There are various mathematical models of material.

5.1.1

Models of Material

In the theory of elasticity, perfectly elastic materials are studied. These materials
obey Hookes law (the stress is proportional to the strain and does not depend on the
velocity, acceleration, or other derivatives of strain over time). For perfect liquids,
according to Newtonian uid law, the stress is proportional to the velocity of the
strain.
Materials for which mechanical stress is determined by strain and strain velocity
(or higher derivatives of strain with respect to time) are called viscoelastic materials. The models of viscoelastic bodies comprise two elements, springs and
dampers (Hookes and Newtons elements), which reect the properties of elasticity and viscosity, respectively. For small deformations, these elements and their
velocities are assumed to be linear.
Different ways of compounding such elements allow us to create different
models of viscoelastic bodies. The simplest model from a phenomenological
perspective includes a device in which the damping force is proportional to the
relative velocity of its ends. This model was used in previous chapters. Despite the
physical and mathematical simplicity of this model, it does not lead to obvious
physical paradoxes. However, the real process of vibration damping is much richer
and cannot be studied in the context of this model [2, 12].
The Maxwell model of viscoelastic material (1867) [16, vol. 1] involves a
purely viscous damper and a purely elastic spring, connected in series (Fig. 5.1a).
The mathematical model of such material can be represented by
d 1 d 1

;
dt E dt b

5:1

where , are the instantaneous values of stress and strain, respectively. Constant
E is the elastic modulus of the material, and b is its coefcient of viscosity.

Fig. 5.1 Mechanical models of material. (a) Maxwell model; (b) Voigt model; (c) standard linear
model

5.1 Phenomenological Aspects

169

The Maxwell model is typically applied in the case of small deformations.

The rst term describes the elastic deformation, and the second term the yield
strain. A disadvantage of the model is that it does not allow us to obtain an explicit
relationship of stressstrain, because the material ow is dependent not only on
the stress, but also on the duration of the stress.
1 d 1
0, and the solution to this
E dt b
E=bt
t=
equation is 0 e
0e
, b=E [13]. Thus, for the Maxwell model,
stress relaxation occurs over time according to an exponential law. The period
of material relaxation determines the time required to reduce the stress to
1=e 0:3678 of its original value 0.

Special Case If cons, then we get

The Voigt model consists of a dashpot in parallel with a spring (Fig. 5.1b) [5, 14,
15]. The model takes into account the delay in the elastic reaction after the external
excitation. The mathematical model of a particular body has the form
E b0

d
;
dt

5:2a

where and are stress and strain, t is time, E is modulus of elasticity, and b0
is a constant. The solution to the equation is


1  et= ,
E

b0
:
E

5:2b

This equation shows that after removing the stress, the sample returns to its original
shape, obeying an exponential law. This is a generalization of Hookes law E,
where the development of the elastic strain is accompanied by the development of
viscous deformation. Therefore, the constant b0 is called the coefcient of material
viscosity. In the case of a viscoelastic system with one degree of freedom, based on
the Voigt model, we obtain
N ky b

dy
;
dt

5:2c

where N and y are the generalized force and generalized coordinate, and k and b are
the coefcients of stiffness and viscosity, respectively. The advantage of the Voigt
model for real materials is that it allows us to detect a mismatch between a loading
line and the unloading line [4].
These models are not able to properly describe the viscoelastic properties of a
polymer material. In the case of a real material described by the Maxwell model, if
a stress retains its value, then the deformation of the viscosity element will continue
indenitely. If a real material is described by the Voigt model, then for a certain
stress there exists a deformation of the spring such that a piston of the viscosity
element is unable to continue in motion. If the viscous properties of the material are

170

5 Vibration Damping

more prominent than the elastic properties, the Maxwell model should be applied;
in the opposite case, the Voigt model is preferable. The Voigt and Maxwell models
are widely used for problems of vibration protection of mechanical systems.
Standard Linear Model The model in Fig. 5.1c provides a better approximation
for describing the relaxation properties of a material with strong viscous properties.
This model is described by equation [2]

d
d
E E ;
dt
dt

5:3

where E is modulus of elasticity. As a special case, we can obtain the Hooke model
0 and the Voigt model 0. We should also mention the Prandtl and
Kargin-Slonimsky models [15, vol. 1], which lead to considerable mathematical
difculties.

5.1.2

Complex Modulus of Elasticity

The concept of the complex modulus makes it easy to describe the behavior of
materials with linear viscoelastic properties [2]. Here we illustrate the application
of this concept to the standard linear model of viscous material, which is described
by (5.3).
If we assume that 0 e jt and 0 e jt , then from (5.3) we obtain
0 E0

1 j
E* 0 :
1 j

5:4

Thus, modulus E* presents a complex number

E* E

1 j
:
1 j

5:5

This expression is called a complex dynamic modulus of elasticity. For stress, we

obtain
 0

00
0 0 E jE ;
where the real and imaginary parts of E* are
0

E E

1 2
,
1 2 2

00

E E


:
1 2 2

5:6

5.1 Phenomenological Aspects

171

The real part E0 of the complex modulus characterizes the elastic energy stored in
the element, while the imaginary part E00 characterizes lost energy. Therefore, the
real part of complex modulus E* is called the storage modulus, and the imaginary
part is called the dynamic viscous or loss modulus. The complex dynamic modulus
of elasticity can be determined experimentally on a sample that performs a harmonic vibration.

5.1.3

Dissipative Forces

Regardless of the nature of the resistance, the direction of friction force (dissipative
force) is always opposite that of the velocity. The characteristics of dissipative
forces are determined by the forcevelocity relationship [2, 16, 17].
Viscous Damping The forces of viscous resistance arise in the case of small
vibrations of a body in a viscous medium (liquid or gas). The linear dissipative
forces are proportional to velocity, Fd b1 x_ . The characteristic of a linear dissipative force is shown in Fig. 5.2a, where tan b1 .
Quadratic Relationship (Fig. 5.2b) For large vibro-velocities, the characteristic
Fd x_ is described by the quadratic relationship Fd b2 x_ 2 sgnx_ .
Coulomb Damping (Dry Damping) The mechanical model consists of two
surfaces pressed together by force N. The frictional force arises at the relative
movement of the two surfaces. According to Coulombs law, the dry friction
force F is assumed to be proportional to the normal force N between the
surfaces of moving bodies, i.e., F f N, where f is the friction coefcient. We
believe that the friction force is constant and is not dependent upon the velocity
[2, 16, 18, 19]. The characteristic of Coulomb friction Fd b0 sgnx_ is shown
in Fig. 5.2c.
The relationships above allow us to represent the dissipative force as a function
of the velocity in the form Fd bi jxji sgnx_ , where i 1 for viscous damping, i 2
for quadratic damping, and i 0 for Coulomb damping [20].
Another way of representing the dissipative force will be considered in
Sect. 5.1.4.

Fig. 5.2 Characteristics of

the dissipative forces.
(a) viscous damping;
(b) quadratic damping;
(c) coulomb damping

Fd (x )

Fd (x )

Fd (x )
b0

x
b0

172

5.1.4

5 Vibration Damping

Dimensionless Parameters of Energy Dissipation

Energy dissipation can be estimated by various parameters. These parameters are

convenient when considering the example of a linear system with one degree of
freedom and viscous friction. The mathematical model is
mx bx_ kx 0;

5:7

where m, b, and k are the mass, viscous coefcient, and stiffness coefcient,
respectively.
Equation (5.7) may be presented in equivalent form
x 2nx_ 2 x 0;
p
where 2n b=m; k=m is the frequency of free undamped vibration.
The damping factor (damping ratio) is dened as the ratio of viscous coefcient b to critical damping bcr [21]

b
,
bcr

p
bcr 2 km,

b
b
n
:
p
2 km 2m

This equation may be rewritten in the form [17]:

x 2x_ 2 x 0:

5:8

Thus, (5.7) can be rewritten in two equivalent forms, namely, in terms of dimensional value n or dimensionless parameter .
The parameter determines the nature of the process. As mentioned in Sect. 4.1,
three cases are possible [14]:
1. The damping factor is equal to unity (critically damped, 1). In this case,
b2 4mk, so n . This is a case of damped motion.
2. The damping factor is greater than unity (overdamped case, > 1). In this case,
b2 > 4mk, so n < . This is a limitation of motion, i.e., damped non-oscillatory
motion, when a system asymptotically approaches the point of equilibrium.
3. The damping factor is less than unity (underdamped case, 0 < < 1). In this
case, b2 < 4mk, so n > . Here we have a damped oscillatory motion with a
constant period of oscillations
2
2
T q p
2
1  n=2 1 

5:9

and with decreasing amplitude. The vibration amplitude decreases in a geometric progression

5.1 Phenomenological Aspects

173

A1 A 2
As


  enT const:
A2 A 3
As1

5:10

The relationship x(t) is shown in Fig. 5.3a. The graph of function x(t) is bounded
by curves 1 and 2, with equations Aent and Aent , respectively. The parameter
s
x_ 0 nx0 2
A x20
, where x0 and x_ 0 are initial conditions. Note that A cannot
2  n 2
be called an amplitude.

b
x

x0

A1

(x0 , x0 )

A2

T
2
Fig. 5.3 Damped vibration: () graph of motion; (b) phase portrait

The phase portrait graphically depicts the inherent properties and the vibrational
behavior of the system. It is shown on the displacementvelocity plane. For
underdamped vibration, a fragment of the phase portrait is shown in Fig. 5.3b. One
spiral passes across each point of the phase plane. The point with coordinates x0 ; x_ 0
represents the initial conditions. The direction of motion of the point in the image is
indicated by the arrow. The equation of each curve is a logarithmic spiral, and the set
of spirals for any initial conditions are represented in the phase portrait [22]. This
portrait shows that the system asymptotically approaches the position of stable
equilibrium. This point is called a focus; the coordinates of this point are (0,0).
Decrement, according to (5.10), is dened as the ratio of any two successive
amplitudes oriented in the same direction.
Logarithmic decrement is dened as the natural logarithm of the ratio of any
two successive amplitudes [14]:
ln

As
nT,
As1

c
,
2m

2
,
d

q
p
2  n 2 1  2 :
5:11

In terms of damping ratio [17],

2
T p ;
1  2
Here, T and d are the period and frequency of free damped vibration.

5:12

174

5 Vibration Damping

Let As and Asi be the amplitudes of the s-th and (s + i) cycles, then

1
As
ln
:
i
Asi

5:13

The coefcient of energy absorption allows us to estimate energy dissipation

s
, where s is energy dissipated during the sth
[4]. It is dened as the ratio W
s
cycle, and Ws is stored (potential) energy at the beginning of the sth cycle,
with displacement As. The energy loss for one cycle is s W s  W s1

k 2
A  A2s1 .
2 s
The absorption energy coefcient is

A2s  A2s1
1  e2nT :
A2s

5:14

2
c
is the period of damped vibration n 2m
. The advantage
Here, T p
2
2
k=m n

of introducing this parameter is that it is not dependent upon the number s of the
cycle.
For small nT, the approximation e2nT 1  2nT is valid. Therefore [14],
2nT 2:

5:15

The loss coefcient determines the energy absorbed by the system during approximately one-sixth of the period [3]

:
2

5:16

The quality factor is a dimensionless parameter which is the ratio of vibration

energy stored at resonance to the energy dissipated per cycle [23]
Q 2

T max
:
E

5:17

This parameter characterizes the selectivity of the oscillatory system: the higher the
quality factor, the narrower the bandwidth of the external force, which can cause
intense vibrations of the system.
The Q-factor in terms of m, b, and k may be represented as
p
1
mk m

Q
b
2n 2
b

5:18

Table 5.1 depicts relationships between the dimensionless parameters of energy

dissipation. All formulas are presented without simplication. In addition, we note

 A2s1
A2s

A2s  A2s1
2 A2s
As
nT
ln
As1

A2s

Denition

2
p
1  2
2
p
1  2

4
p
1  2
2
p
4Q2  1
2
p
4Q2  1

Q
4
p
4Q2  1

Relative loss of energy

per 1/6 cycle

Notes
Relative loss of energy
per cycle

Logarithmic
decrement

Natural logarithm of the

ratio of any two successive
amplitudes

1
b
b
Damping factor

Ratio of viscous coefp

p
p

cient
2 16 2
2 4
2Q
bcr 2 mk
2 4 2
b to critical damping bcr
p
p
T max
1 p
1
2 16 2
24
Q
Ratio of vibration energy
Q-factor (qual2

2
Q 2
4
stored at resonance to the
ity
E
2
2
2
2
energy dissipated per cycle
factor) Q
p
p
p
2
2
2
Mathematical model mx bx_ kx 0, 2n b=m. Period of damped vibration T 2=d , d  n 1  , b=ccr , ccr 2 km,
p
b=2 km b=2m n=

Parameter
Absorption
energy
coefcient
Loss coefcient

Table 5.1 Dimensionless parameters of energy dissipation [24]

5.1 Phenomenological Aspects

175

176

5 Vibration Damping

dimensional parameter 1=ns, which is called time relaxation; this parameter

denes the time during which the amplitude of the oscillations decreases by
e 2.718 times [24].

5.2

Hysteretic Damping

The concept of hysteretic damping allows us to eliminate the contradictions

observed between the theoretical estimate of viscous damping and the experimental
data. Moreover, the use of a new concept enables us to simplify the problemsolving procedures. The sphere of application of the hysteretic damping concept is
limitedit can be applied to linear systems only in cases of steady-state harmonic
vibration. The number of degrees of freedom for the application of this concept
does not impose any restrictions [21, 23].

5.2.1

Hysteresis Loop

Internal resistance is manifested as a loss of deformation energy of inelastic

vibrations. There are various mechanisms by which internal friction emerges [2].
Numerous experimental studies [1, 2, 25, 26] have shown that internal friction is
dependent upon the magnitude of the deformation. The relationship between the
load and the deformation of the sample is nonlinear, and differs for loading and
unloading of the specimen. This phenomenon is called "hysteresis", a term coined
by Sir James Alfred Ewing, meaning that the system does not return to its original
state after the exposure is removed. Hysteresis occurs in ferromagnetic materials
and has been identied in many other elds, including biology, genetics, physiology, and economics.
In the case of cyclic deformation, the graph of the relationship damping force
displacement is presented as a spiral [4]; the idealized closed curve is called a
hysteresis loop [14, 19].
Let us now consider the simplest element, a viscous damper, with damping
force proportional to velocity, i.e., Fd x_ bx_ . The steady-state displacement
and velocity of the end of this element are xt A cos t  and x_ t
A sin t  .
The energy dissipated per cycle T 2= can be calculated by the general
formula [14]

W dis Fd dx:

5.2 Hysteretic Damping

177

After an elementary transformation, we obtain

T2=

dt
sin 2 t  dt
W dis bx_ dx  bx_ 2 dt bA2 2
dt
0
bA2 :

5:19

Now we will construct the hysteresis loop. The velocity in terms of displacement
may be expressed as follows:
p
p
x_t  A sin t   A 1  cos 2 t   A2  x2 :
The damping force is:
Fd x_ bx_  b

p
A2  x2  bA

r
x2
1  2:
A

The force Fd x_ has been presented in terms of displacement x. This equation

immediately leads to the following equation of the ellipse


x2
Fd 2

1:
bA
A2

5:20

The half-axes of the ellipse are A and bA. The corresponding hysteresis loop is
shown in Fig. 5.4a. The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop represents the energy
dissipated per cycle; the area of the ellipse Wd with half-axes a and b is W d ab,
which immediately leads to the result obtained above.
Now we consider the Voigt model, which will take into account the combined
effect of the resisting force bx_ and the restoring force kx, i.e., Fx; x_ Fdis x_
Fel x bx_ kx [2, 23].

Fd = bx

x(t)
b

Fmax

F (x, x )

b0

-b0

b A 2 x 2

d F (x, x )

bA

F (x )

Fd = bx

bA

x(t)

F (x, x )

x0 x
A

-A

Fig. 5.4 Hysteretic loops for different mechanical model: (a) viscous model; (b) viscous-elastic
model; (c, d) dry friction model and histeretic loop

178

5 Vibration Damping

The harmonic displacement and velocity are

xt A sin t,

x_ A cos t:

The total force arising in the two elements (spring and damper) is
Fx; x_ kx bx_ kA sin t bA cos t kx  b

p
A2  x 2 :

5:21

The graph of function F(x) represents the ellipse shown in Fig. 5.4b. For a perfectly
elastic system, the losses are absent (b 0), and the hysteresis ellipse degenerates
into a straight line nOs. The angle of inclination is tan 1 k.
Let us return to the general case (5.21). The maximum force Fmax
p
A k2 b2 2 is achieved at
x0 bA=

p
k 2 b 2 2 :

The case k 0 according (5.20) leads to the ellipse shown in Fig. 5.4a [23].
The hysteresis loop for a mechanical system described by equation mx bx_ kx
F cos t is presented in Fig. 5.4b. The change in mass at xed parameters k and
b leads to a change in the shape of the ellipse and the slope of the line nOs; however,
the area of the ellipse remains the same.
In the case of Coulomb friction, the dynamic characteristic has the form Fx; x_
b0 sgn x_ (Fig. 5.4c). The corresponding hysteretic loop is shown in Fig. 5.4d. The
area of the loop is 4Ab0 [20].

5.2.2

Hysteretic Damping Concept

The hysteretic curve in Fig. 5.5 and expression (5.19) W dis bA2 show that the
energy loss (i.e., the area of the hysteresis loop) is dependent upon excitation
frequency . If the frequency of the excitation tends towards zero, then the area
of the hysteresis loop also tends towards zero, i.e., the hysteresis loop degenerates
Fig. 5.5 Hysteretic spiral at
damping vibration and
idealized hysteretic loop for
one cycle

Fd

Fd

5.2 Hysteretic Damping

179

into a straight line. However, this result comes into contradiction upon experimentation. Indeed, even in a static test 0 of a viscoelastic sample, the line loading
and unloading do not match [27], which leads to a nonzero area of a tension
diagram.
To eliminate this contradiction, a mathematical model of the deformable element should be modied in such a way that the area of the hysteresis loop remains
constant and does not depend on the frequency of excitation [23]. This is achieved
by introducing a new concept called hysteretic damping. For this purpose, the
coefcient of viscous friction b should be replaced by hysteresis friction h/.
Thus, the force arising in the viscous damper bx_ is replaced by the force
hx_ =. The area of the hysteretic loop then remains unchanged W dis hA2 .
A mathematical model of hysteretic damping can be represented as [21]
Fd hkjxj 

x_
:
jx_ j

5:22

Here, the complex kjxj is the force of elasticity, and the complex hkjxj indicates that
the hysteretic dissipative force Fd is determined as part of the elasticity force.
The factor x_ =jx_ j shows that the force caused by hysteretic damping is in phase
with the velocity. Thus, hysteretic damping h can be dened as the damping force
(in parts of the elastic forces) which acts in phase with the velocity and is
proportional to the displacement.
The fundamental difference between a system with viscous damping and one
with hysteretic damping is that with viscous damping, the dissipation of energy in
one cycle, according to (5.19), is linearly dependent upon the vibration frequency,
while it is not dependent upon frequency in a system with hysteretic damping [2].
If a linear spring with stiffness coefcient k is connected to a viscous damper b in
parallel, then the two elements can be replaced by a single element with complex
dynamic stiffness k + jb [23]. In the case of a spring with hysteretic friction, this
element again may be treated as having complex stiffness K k + jh.
he meaning of complex stiffness is twofold. On one hand, the term indicates
that the stiffness represents a complex number consisting of real and imaginary
parts. On the other hand, it means that a single element has both properties of
elasticity and energy dissipation simultaneously [2].
It is important to remember that the hysteretic damping concept may be applied
for steady harmonic motion only.

5.2.3

Forced Vibration of a System with One Degree

of Freedom

The springmass system with hysteretic damping (Fig. 5.6) is subjected to

harmonic force F exp( jt).

180

5 Vibration Damping

Fig. 5.6 Mechanical mk

system with hysteretic
damping h

x(t)

h
m

Fexp( jt)

The displacement x of the mass m is governed by the equation [23]

mx

h
x_ kx F exp jt:

5:23

The left-hand side of (5.23) can be rearranged as follows:



h
h
h
mx x_ kx mx  jx kx mx k 1 j

k
x mx k1 jx,

h=k:

Thus equation (5.23) in an equivalent form is

mx k1 jx F exp jt:

5:24

The presentation of stiffness in a complex form is known as Sorokins approach [4].

An appropriate solution to (5.23) is
x Xe jt ,
x_ Xjje jt ,

5:25

x X2 e jt :
Therefore, equation (5.23) and its solution are
m2 k jhX F,
X

m2

F
:
k jh

5:26

Since the equation of motion is linear, the steady harmonic motion x Xe jt of

mass m may be presented as x Xe jt Fe jt . Receptance , or the
displacementforce compliance, is dependent upon the parameters of the system
and the frequency of excitation , but not upon the amplitude F of the disturbing
force [23]

X
1
k  m2
h

j
:
F m2 k jh k  m2 2 h2
k  m2 2 h2

5:27

5.2 Hysteretic Damping

181

Thus displacement x has two components. The rst component (real part of the
receptance) is in phase with the applied force, while the second (imaginary part of
the receptance) has a phase lag of /2 (rad) behind the applied force [23].
The modulus and phase shift of the receptance are
1
jj q,
k  m2 2 h2
h
tan
:
k  m2

5:28

The static displacement and the amplitude of harmonic displacement are

F
stat ,
k
F
X F q:
k  m2 2 h2

5:29

The dynamic coefcient by displacement is

X

X
k
F q :
stat
k  m2 2 h2

5:30

In dimensionless form, we get

1
,
X q

2
1  2 =20 2

k
, 20 ,
tan
m
1  2 =20

h
:
k

5:31

The amplitude of the force transmitted to the support is Fs kX kF. The

dynamic coefcient by force is F Fs =F. In fact, this is the transmissibility
coefcient. It is easy to see that X F .
According to (5.31), the maximum dynamic coefcient max is achieved at
0 , where and 0 are the frequency excitation and the frequency of the
free undamped vibration, respectively. In the case of viscous friction, the maximum
dynamic coefcient occurs at =0 < 1 (Fig. 1.4, Chap. 1).
In the case of hysteretic damping for very small values of /0, the phase angle
tends to tan 1 , while for viscous friction it tends to zero [23].
We now return to the Q-factor concept. For equation mx h x_ kx 0, the
solution is x A sin t, and so the maximum kinetic energy Tmax at resonance and
energy dissipation per cycle Wdis in the resonant condition are [23]

182

5 Vibration Damping

1
1
T max mx_ 2 mA2 20 ;
2
2
W dis hA2 :
The Q-factor is determined by
Q 2

T max k 1
:
W dis h

5:32

The amplitude at resonance is Xres F=h QF=k, and thus the dynamic coefcient at resonance and the Q-factor are equal [23]. As such, the Q-factor is a
quantitative characteristic of the resonance properties of the dynamical system.
The Q-factor shows how much greater the amplitude of a steady-state forced
vibration at resonance is than that of the forced vibration far from resonance. The
term far from resonance refers to a domain of frequencies that are so low that the
amplitude of the forced vibration can be considered independent of the excitation
frequency. This proposition is the basis for calculating the Q-factor. From Table 5.1,

line 5, we can see that if the logarithm decrement is small, the Q-factor is Q 

As
1
is the number of vibrations after
[28]. Since ln
, the integer part of

As1
which the amplitude decreases by e 2.71 times. Additional information about
the Q-factor can be found in [23, 28].

5.2.4

Comparison of Viscous and Hysteretic Damping

The principle results for steady-state harmonic vibration that occurs in an mk

system with viscous damping b and hysteretic damping h are presented in Fig. 5.7
and Table 5.2; the comparison is presented for the case of forced excitation
F(t) F cos t [2].

5.3

Structural Damping

Structural damping refers to a specic method of vibration reduction associated

with the development of friction forces arising in different types of connections that
leads to the loss of vibration energy [16]. As a rule, the logarithmic decrement
(LD) in cases of structural damping is signicantly greater for a whole structure
than for the partial elements of the structure, due to the friction forces in the
material itself [2, 5, vol. 3]. The nature of structural damping is quite complicated,

5.3 Structural Damping

183

b
x(t)

Re[Fexp(jt)]\

m2X

m2X
bX

F
t

Re[Fexp(jt)]\

x(t)

hX

F
t

kX

kX

h
=0

max

=0

max

1
/0

=0

/2

=0

/2

/0

/0

/0

Fig. 5.7 Dynamic mk system with viscous (a) and hysteretic damping (b). Argand diagram,
p
amplitudefrequency, and phasefrequency characteristics; b=2m0 , h=k, 0 k=m

and the theory is continually evolving [1, 16]. It is very important that the quantity
of structural damping can be regulated [1, 5, vol. 1]. In this section we consider
some typical schemes that will allow us to understand the phenomenon of structural
damping and to obtain analytical solutions [5; 16, vol. 1; 20].

5.3.1

General

There is a fundamental difference between the loss of energy in movable and

unmovable connections. In movable connections (bearings, guides, etc.), the
deformability of the elements of the kinematic pair is ignored. In unmovable
connections (riveting, pressing, carving, etc.), the friction forces at the contact
surfaces and deformation of the articulated elements must be taken into account
[4, 20]. Below we consider a case with unmovable connections.

184

5 Vibration Damping

Table 5.2 Comparison of dynamic displacement between systems with viscous and hysteretic
damping (Fig. 5.7) [2, 23]
Characteristics
Differential equation
Steady-state
vibration
Amplitude

Phase shift
Energy dissipated
per cycle
Resonance
frequency

Compliance (displacementforce)

Type of damping
Viscous (Fig. 5.7a)
mx bx_ kx F cos t
x A cos t  v

Hysteretic (Fig. 5.7b)

mx k jhx F cos t,
x B cos t  h

F
A q
k  m2 2 2 b2

F
B q
k  m2 2 k2 h2

b
k  m2
D bA2

h
k  m2
Dh hB2

tan

res

Resonance
amplitude
Static displacement
Dynamic coefcient

Q-factor

tan h

s


k
b2
1

m
2km

res decreases with increase b

k  m2
Re
k  m2 2 b2 2
b

res

r
k
(xmax occurs at =0 1)
m

res does not depend on h=k

k  m2
Re
k  m2 2 h2

1
s


2 2

2
1  0 42 0
0
0

h
Im 
k  m2 2 h2
Does not depend on the mass
F
F
Ares Q
h
k
Conditionally, sth F=k
1

s
2
2
1  0 2
0

max occurs at =0 < 1

Q m0 =b k=b0 1=2

max occurs at =0 1
Q k=h 1=

Im 

h k

k  m2 2 b2 2
Dependent on all parameters of
the equation
st F=k

The quantitative evaluation of structural damping is based on the computation of

energy that is dissipated in one cycle of vibration. This energy is equal to the area
of the hysteresis loop. The loss of energy per cycle can be computed analytically
only for simple connections [5, vol. 3]. Generally, for different connections,
structures, or machines, the hysteresis loop is constructed experimentally, and
very often uses the absorption coefcient 2, where is the logarithmic
decrement.
Experimental evaluation of energy dissipation and absorption coefcients allows
us to make the following conclusions [20]:

5.3 Structural Damping

185

1. Increasing the contact pressure leads to a decrease in the absorption coefcient.

2. The absorption coefcient is essentially independent of the vibration frequency;
this allows us to determine the frictional force on the contact surfaces according
the Coulomb law.
From the perspective of structural damping, the unmovable connections in the
nodes of machines are divided into two groups [4, 5, vol. 3]:
1. A connection with lumped friction, in which, under the inuence of some
critical value of the load, slippage occurs immediately across the contact area.
2. A connection with distributed hysteresis parameters, in which the area of
slippage changes with a change in the load.

5.3.2

Energy Dissipation in Systems with Lumped Friction

Two typical design diagrams for systems with lumped dry friction are shown in
Fig. 5.8. The friction force is fQ, where f is a friction coefcient.
In both cases, the mass m is subjected to the force P. The variable character of
the loading is determined by the dimensionless variable parameter  j1j. Assume
that the loading cycle is symmetrical [20].
For connections with lumped friction, the hysteresis loop consists of straight
segments. The area of the hysteresis loop for scheme (a) equals

4f QP  f Q
:
k

5:33

The maximum value max P2=k is reached at Q P/2f. If the loading is asymmetrical, the force P in the above formulas should be replaced by the value
Pmax  Pmin =2.

Fig. 5.8 Design diagrams

and corresponding
hysteretic loops:
(a) pressing the strip to the
base; (b) pressing the mass
to the base

Q
k

x
m

f
P
P

P
fQ

fQ

x
xmax

fQ

186

5 Vibration Damping

The area of the hysteresis loop for scheme (b) equals

4f Qxmax  f Q=k,

if xmax > f Q=k:

5:34

In this case, the maximum value max kx2max is reached at Q kxmax =2f . If
xmax < f Q=k, then max 0 [20].

5.3.3

Energy Dissipation in Systems with Distributed

Friction

For these systems, we should consider two typical cases [4]:

1. Systems with interaction of a purely frictional nature.
2. Systems with interaction of an elastic-frictional nature. In this case, the Coulomb
dry friction law is accepted for the contact surfaces, while Hookes law is
accepted for the material of elements that are in contact. As in the case of
systems with lumped friction, the excitation can be symmetrical or
non-symmetrical.
GoodmanKlumpp Problem [29] Let us consider the analytical construction of
the hysteresis loop when the interaction of two parts of a system is of a purely
frictional nature. A cantilever beam of length l and height 2h consists of two
unconnected layers; each layer has width b and thickness h (Fig. 5.9a). The layers
of the beam are compressed by constant pressure q. The beam is subjected to
symmetric cyclic loading by force P, which is applied at the free end; the variable
dimensionless parameter of the load satises condition 1   1. Consider all
the stages of one cycle.
1. If load P is small, the tangential stress 3P=4bh on the middle surface of
the rectangular beam (at the contact surface) is less than the limit stress 0. The

= 0

0 <<1
VI

1
0

II
III

<0

m0

y
P/2

<0
P/2

y1(0)

y3(0)

y2(1)

IV

-1

Fig. 5.9 (a) Design diagram of a cantilever beam; (b, c) different stages of beam deformation: (b)
beam deformation without slippage; (c) beam deformation with slippage on the middle surface; (d)
hysteresis loop

5.3 Structural Damping

187

beam deforms as a single unit, there is no slippage of the layers, and energy
dissipation does not occur (Fig. 5.9b). The vertical displacement of the free end
of the beam is y Pl3 =24EI , where I is a moment of inertia of the individual
strip. We can see that the relationship y y is linear. This stage on an
diagram is indicated at I (Fig. 5.9d). Increasing force P leads to an increase in the
stress . The rst phase ends when the shear stress reaches the limit tangential
stress 0 f q. This occurs at 0 P 4bh0 =3, and the corresponding vertical
displacement is y1 0 0 Pl3 =24EI .
2. Slippage between two surfaces of the beam begins at 0 , and occurs along
the entire length l. With a further increase in the load, the friction shear stress
remains constant and equal 0. The frictional forces make the process irreversible. Figure 5.9c shows that each strip of the beam is exposed to increasing load
P/2 and uniformly distributed moment of intensity m0 0 bh=2 30 P=8; the
force is applied at the free end of the cantilever strip, while a moment is
distributed along the entire length l of the strip. Note that the moment in the
process of increasing the load remains constant. The displacement of the free end
of the beam becomes
y2

Pl3 m0 l3
Pl3


4  30 :
6EI
3EI
24EI

5:35

The second phase ends when parameter 1. The corresponding displacement

of the free end of the beam is
y2 1 Pl3 4  30 =24EI :

5:36

This stage on diagram is indicated by II (Fig. 5.9d).

3. At the stage of unloading of the shear stress < 0 , the slippage effect disappears, and rigid coupling occurs between the surfaces. Reducing the load leads to
a reduction in frictional force. The shear stress and intensity of the uniformly
distributed moment become
0 

31  P 30 P 31  P
3P

0  1
4bh
4bh
4bh
4bh
m bh=2 3P0  1=8:

5:37
5:38

If 0, then m0 3P1  =8 and

y3

Pl3 ml3
Pl3


3  30 :
6EI 3EI 24EI

5:39

At complete unloading,
y3 0 Pl3 1  0 =8EI :

5:40

188

5 Vibration Damping

The third stage ends when jj 0 , which occurs at 1 1  20 .

The main features of the subsequent stages are as follows. The fourth stage
begins at 1 1  20 and ends at Pmin P, during which slippage of the beam
segments occurs. The fth stage corresponds to an increase in the load and the shear
stress in rigid anchoring layers, and ends at 0 . The sixth stage is characterized
by sliding layers, and beginning at 0 the cycles are repeated. All stages IVI
of the beam under cyclic loading are numbered and shown in Fig. 5.9d.
The area of the hysteresis loop is 2P0 y3 0. In expanded form, we obtain


8ql3 f
4
5:41

P  qbhf :
3
Eh2
The maximum dissipation of energy max P2 l3 =8EI occurs at q 3P=8f bh.
If q 0 or 3P  4qbhf 0, then 0. The coefcient of absorption is
max =W max . The maximum potential energy of the bending beam Wmax is
the area bounded by the y-axis, lines I and II, and vertical line y2(1) [4]:


W max P2 l3 4  320 =48EI :
Here we can see that energy dissipation is linearly dependent upon force .
This is because slippage occurs simultaneously over the entire surface.
Among the typical connections subjected to cyclic exposures, we should
include a riveted joint of two sheets with plates.
In this case, the elasticfriction interaction between parts of the structure is
carried out in the form of both friction force and elastic shear force (Fig. 5.10).
The plates can be introduced into the system as a means of intensifying the
dissipation of energy (Fig. 5.11a, b).
P

Fig. 5.10 Riveted connection

b
P

Fig. 5.11 Plates for promotion of energy dissipation

For the systems in Figs. 5.10 and 5.11, it is much more difcult to derive
the analytical solution than in the case of a purely frictional interaction.
The qualitative features of the calculation of energy dissipation for elastic
friction compounds is presented by Panovko [4].
Extensive information regarding the absorption capacity of various types of
connections and additional devices for high levels of energy dissipation is

5.4 Equivalent Viscous Damping

189

presented in [5, 20, vol. 3]. Different types of nonlinear damping are discussed
by Inman [30] and Henderson [31].

5.4

Equivalent Viscous Damping

Various damping laws that differ from the viscoelastic model lead to non-linear
models of vibration. The linear approximation of nonlinear damping allows us not
only to simplify the problem-solving procedure, but also to identify the inuence of
various system parameters on the vibration process characteristics.

5.4.1

Absorption Coefcient

Energy dissipation can be estimated using the absorption coefcient, which is given
by the ratio =W max , where is the energy lost per cycle of vibration, and
Wmax is the potential energy at the start of the cycle [20]. In the case of a linear
elastic element, W max kA2 =2, where k is the stiffness of the element and A is the
amplitude of vibration. Now the absorption coefcient becomes
 
2 = kA2 :

5:42

The hysteresis loop should be used to determine .

In the case of viscous damping, the energy lost per cycle, according to (5.19),
equals vd bA2 , where b is the viscous coefcient. Thus the absorption
coefcient becomes 2b=k.
In the case of Coulomb damping, the energy lost per cycle equals Cd 4Ab0 ;
therefore, the absorption coefcient is equal to 8b0 =kA.
We can see that in the case of viscous damping, the absorption coefcient
increases as frequency increases and is independent of amplitude, while in the
case of Coulomb damping, the absorption coefcient decreases as amplitude
increases, and is not dependent upon frequency.

5.4.2

Equivalent Viscoelastic Model

If a system has a small amount of damping, the nonlinear elastic-dissipative

characteristic Fx; x_ is replaced by its equivalent linear characteristic with viscous
damping beq, i.e., Fx; x_  kx beq x_ . Equivalent viscous damping corresponds to
elliptic diagram forcedisplacement, and it is selected so that the source and
replacement systems have the same absorptive capacity (equal area of diagrams)
and have equal maximum displacements [21].
In the case of viscous damping, the energy dissipation and absorption coefcient
are

190

5 Vibration Damping

vd bA2 ;
2b=k:
In the case of a system with arbitrary characteristic Fx; x_ , the energy lost per cycle
2
is determined according to (5.42) by the formula kA2 . From the condition for
the energy dissipation of source and linearized systems vd , we obtain
beq

k
:
2

5:43

The coefcient of equivalent viscous friction beq is expressed through the absorption coefcient , which can be determined experimentally. The advantage of
expression (5.43) is that, in this case, we should not take into account a source
characteristic Fx; x_ or a shape of the hysteresis loop, and we need use only
experimental data for absorption coefcient [20].
In the case of Coulomb damping, the absorption coefcient is 8b0 =kA,
and therefore the equivalent viscous friction becomes beq 4b0 =A. Here we
see that beq is not only dependent upon the characteristics of the dry friction force
b0, but also on the excitation frequency and the amplitude of the vibration.
The equivalent viscous damping for other dissipative characteristics of the
original nonlinear system can be found in [16, 30].
Now we will show the advantages of using the concept of equivalent friction.
Assume that the system is described by the equation mx bx_ kx F0 sin t. As
shown in Sect. 1.2.2, formula (1.4), the amplitude of the steady-state vibration is
F0 =m
,
A q
2
20  2 4n2 2

20 k=m,

2n

b
:
m

This expression may be immediately applicable to a system with nonlinear energy

dissipation. For example, in the case of Coulomb friction, we need an expression for
equivalent viscous damping beq 4b0 =A to substitute into the expression
above for b. As a result, we obtain the following equation
F0 =k
A s

2 ,
4b

1
0
1  z2 2
k
A2

z2

2
:
20

We can see that the required amplitude appears in the both sides of the equation.
After some transformation, we obtain
p
F0 1  2
4b0
A
,
:
k 1  z2
F0

5.5 Vibration of a Beam with Internal Hysteretic Friction

191

Panovko [4] proved that for the majority of engineering objects, structural damping
plays a predominant role in the overall balance of energy loss. He also found that in
solutions to many engineering problems of vibration theory, it is important to study
only the area of the hysteresis loop, and not its form.

5.5

Vibration of a Beam with Internal Hysteretic Friction

The inuence of internal damping on the transverse vibration of the beam is

considered below. Two approaches for taking into account internal energy dissipation are considered. In the rst method we use the Voigt model for beam material,
the second approach is based on Sorokins hypothesis [1, 4].
The free undamped transverse vibration of a uniform beam is described by the
linear differential equation
4

EI

y
y
m 2 0:
x4
t

5:44

Here, EI and m are the exural stiffness and mass per unit length of the beam, y is
the transverse displacement, and x and t are the spatial coordinate and time,
respectively. The rst term in (5.44) represents the elastic restoring force.
The simplest Voigt damping is easy to take into account if we introduce the force
of internal damping proportional to the rst power of the rate of change of the
elastic restoring force [32]. As a result, we obtain the following expression for the
force of internal resistance:
4

y
b
EI 4
t
x

bEI

y
;
tx4

5:45

where b is the proportional coefcient, or viscous damping coefcient. The differential equation of the free vibration of a uniform beam with viscous internal friction
becomes
4

y
y
m y
b

0:
4
4
x
tx
EI t2

5:46

This linear equation with constant coefcients can be easily solved, but the validity
of the accepted assumption requires experimental verication [32]. If a beam is
subjected to cyclical exposure, then good agreement between the theoretical results
and experimental data involves the application of the Sorokin method (complex
resistance method) [1, 18, 32]


S* S R S 1 j
,
2

j2 1:

5:47

192

5 Vibration Damping

In this case, the total internal resistance of S* consists of two components. The
components S and R represent the elastic restoring force and inelastic resistance,
respectively. Assume that resistance R is proportional to the elastic restoring force
S, but shifts in phase with S by /2, so that
Rj

S;
2

5:48

where is the absorption energy coefcient.

Since 2, where is the logarithmic decrement, the complex resistance
becomes

 

4

y
S* S 1 j
1 j EI 4 :

5:49

This formula is applicable in the case of a small . Its application is limited,

however, by the harmonic excitation, and special justication is required. It is
easy to verify that the formal application of this formula for the case of free
vibrations of a uniform beam leads to paradoxical results (see Problem 5.3) [32].
The forced harmonic vibration of a beam with complex resistance is described
by equation
m



2
4
y

j
EI 4 Fxe jt :
2
t

5:50

The steady-state solution to this equation is

yx; t

1
X

ak Xk xe jt :

5:51

k1

where ak are unknown coefcients, and X(x) is the eigenfunction of the equation of
free vibration without damping, i.e., EIyIV my 0. Extensive information
regarding eigenfunctions for beams with different boundary conditions is presented
in [23, 27, 33].
The substitution of (5.51) into (5.44) leads to
2
EIXIV
k x mk X k x;

5:52

where k is the kth frequency of the free vibration of the beam.

We expand the function F(x) on functions X(x)
F x

1
X
k1

where bk are unknown coefcients.

bk Xk x;

5:53

5.5 Vibration of a Beam with Internal Hysteretic Friction

193

Multiplying both sides of (5.53) by Xk(x), and integrating over the length l of the
beam, we obtain
l
l
FxXk xdx bk X2k xdx:
0

Therefore, the unknown coefcients bk may be calculated by the formula

l
l
B1
bk , B1 FxXk xdx, B2 X2k xdx:
B2
0
0

5:54

The substitution of (5.51) and (5.53) into (5.50) leads to the relationships




1
1
X
X
2
2
m
ak 1 j k  Xk x
bk Xk x:

k1
k1
Equating the coefcients at Xk(x) on the left- and right-hand sides of the equation,
we obtain
ak

In polar form, ak

bk
1
bk
1





2
m
m
2k  2 j 2k :
1 j k  2

5:55

bk
Rk e jk , where
m

1
Rk r ,
 2
2 2
k  2 2 4k

2
tan k   2 k 2  :
k 

Now the expression for transverse displacement of the beam becomes

yx; t

1
X
bk
Rk Xk xe jtk :
m
k1

5:56

The solution to equation (5.50) presents the real part of expression (5.56)
yx; t

1
X
bk
k1

Rk Xk x cos t k :

5:57



In the case of the kth resonance k , the term Rk = 2k and all remaining
R are small compared to Rk. Therefore, all terms of (5.57) except that containing
the resonant frequency can be discarded, and the expression for the displacement
takes the form

194

5 Vibration Damping

yx; t

bk
Rk Xk x cos t k
m

5:58

Thus, if the kth resonance is realized, the shape of the vibration coincides with a
corresponding eigenfunction of the free vibration (Vidlers rule) [4].

In the case of the rst resonance 1 , we have 1  , R1 2 , and

2
1
expression (5.58) becomes
yx; t

b1
X1 x sin 1 t:
m 21

5:59

Example 5.1. For a simply supported beam of length l, the rst eigenfunction is
X1 x sin x=l. The beam is subjected to distributed harmonic load q0 sin 1t.
In this case we have
l
l
B1 q0 X1 dx 0:6366q0 l, B2 X21 dx 0:5l, b1 1:2732q0 ,
0

r
2 EI
1 2
;
m
l
yx; t

1:2732q0 l4
x
0:04106 q0 l4
x
sin

sin 1 t:
sin
sin
t

1
3
l

l
EI
EI

As expected, the increase in logarithmic decrement reduces the displacement

of the beam. The maximum displacement in the middle of the beam is yl=2
0:04106 q0 l4
. The static displacement in the middle of the beam caused by a

EI
5 q0 l 4
uniformly distributed load q0 is yst l=2
The corresponding dynamic
384 EI
coefcient is

yl=2
0:04106= 3:1534

yst l=2
5=384

The result obtained is in good agreement with the experimental data.

A discussion of free vibration of beams with internal elastic resistance can be
found in [20].

5.6

Vibration of a Beam with External Damping Coating

Structures (beams, plates) fabricated from two or more layers are called composite
structures. If at least one layer comprises materials with pronounced damping
properties, the use of such structures can signicantly increase the absorption

5.6 Vibration of a Beam with External Damping Coating

195

energy coefcient of the composite structure. This method of increasing energy

dissipation is widely used in shipbuilding to reduce vibration in major components
and the elements connected to them [3], to reduce vibration in combat aircraft
containers [2], and to protect against vibration in circuit boards, radio-electronic
devices, and precision equipment [30].

5.6.1

Vibration-Absorbing Layered Structures

Thin-walled structures are widely used as damping surfaces in order to reduce

vibration. For this purpose, the system is coated with vibration protection layers
with high damping properties. These designs provide composite structures with
effective damping characteristics across a wide range of operating temperatures and
vibration frequencies. There are a number of different classication categories for
vibration-absorbing coatings. The most preferred is a classication of coating layers
according to the type of their deformation. From this perspective, the rst type of
vibration-absorbing coating involves damping layers in which energy dissipation is
observed at their tension and compression. This method was proposed by Oberst
[34], Nashif et al. [2], and Harris [35].
The simplest absorbing coating of the rst type is shown in Fig. 5.12a. This is a
structure with a one-sided external damping coating. Structures with symmetric
coatings are also possible. In the case of bending vibration, in the coating layer of a
structure the deformation of tension-compression arises.
The second type of vibration-absorbing coating consists of a damping layer in
which energy dissipation occurs by shear deformation of this layer. To create such
deformation, a thin reinforced laminate is placed on the upper surface of the
damping material. This sheet eliminates the motion of the upper surface of the
damping layer, resulting in the creation of shear deformation of the layer
(Fig. 5.12b). This method was proposed by Ross et al. [36].
Numerous modications of structures as shown in Fig. 5.12 are possible. Among
these are multi-layer symmetrical (or nonsymmetrical) structures, structures with or
without reinforcing laminates, and coatings using stringers or ribs, for example [3].
Analysis of composite beams (plates) with vibration-absorbing coating is carried
out to determine the effective stiffness, the frequency of natural vibration, and
absorption coefcient of the structure [24].

b 2 3

Fig. 5.12 Types of surface damping. Damping of the rst (a) and second type (b). 1 Fragment of
the bending structure, 2 damping material, 3 reinforcing laminate

196

5 Vibration Damping

The advantages of vibro-absorbing coating lie in the fact that the type of coating
deformation, tensioncompression or shear, and the number of layers, their thickness, and material can be easily varied to achieve the required level of absorption
coefcient [2]. Also worthy of mention is the low cost of vibration protection
coatings, their high reliability, and their ability to withstand substantial strain.
Physical Basis of Vibration Absorption There are various mechanisms of energy
absorption at cyclic deformation elements. These mechanisms are related to the
internal restructuring of micro- and macro-structures; a description of the various
damping mechanisms can be found in [1, 2, 25, 26]. We should note that energy
dissipation is accompanied by various effects, including magnetic and temperature
effects, resulting in atomic restructuring. All the effects of energy absorption
essentially have nonlinear character. An analysis of dynamic displacement taking
into account various effects and numerous factors (e.g., temperature, excitation
frequency, amplitude of vibration, pressure medium, mode of vibration) poses
serious problems. The hysteresis loop is currently considered an effective instrument for determining quantitative estimates of energy dissipation.
The physical and mechanical properties of the various vibro-absorbing coatings
can be found in [2].

5.6.2

Transverse Vibration of a Two-Layer Beam

Let us consider the simplest case, shown in Fig. 5.12a. Here we examine the case in
which a deformable coating layer is applied to one side of a beam. The problem is to
determine the loss factor for the composite structure. To solve this problem, we
must perform the following steps [2]:
1. Determine the exural stiffness of the equivalent uniform homogeneous beam.
2. Take into account the damping properties of each layer, and replace the elastic
modulus of each layer with the complex modulus.
3. Calculate the analytical expression for the loss coefcient of the composite
system.
4. Perform an analysis of the free and forced vibrations of the composite beam.

5.6.2.1

Bending of a Composite Beam

Beam 1 with cross-sectional dimensions b  h1 is coated with vibro-absorption

layer 2 of thickness h2 (Fig. 5.13). The moduli of elasticity of the material of the
beam and coating are E1 and E2. The energy loss coefcient for the material of the
beam is 1, for the coating material is 2, and for the entire composite structure is .
Assume that the connection between the beam and coating layer is xed, the
structural damping on the surface of the connection is absent, and bending of the

5.6 Vibration of a Beam with External Damping Coating

197

Fig. 5.13 Cross-section of

a composite structure

h2/2
a2

a1
y0

h1/2

c2

h2

C0
c1

h1
z

structure occurs as a whole unit. The central axis of the beam and the coating are
denoted by c1 and c2, respectively. The neutral axis of the composite section is C0.
The position of the neutral axis of the composite beam with n laminates is
n
X

y0

Ei Ai y i

i1
n
X

5:60

Ei Ai

i1

Here, Ai is the area of the cross-section of the ith laminate, and yi is the distance
between the centroid of the ith laminate and the z-axis. For two-layer beams, we
have
y0

E1 bh1  h1 =2 E2 bh2  h1 h2 =2 E1 h21 2E2 h1 h2 E2 h22

:

E1 bh1 E2 bh2
2 E1 h1 E2 h2

5:61

The distance between the axes (Fig. 5.13) is

a1 y 0 

h1
E2 h2 h1 h2

2E1 h1 E2 h2
2

a2 h 1

h2
E1 h 1 h 1 h 2
 y0
2 E1 h1 E 2 h2
2

5:62

The bending stiffness B1C of the beam and the damping layer B2C with respect to
neutral axis C0 of the composite beam are
 3



h1
2
2
h1 a1 ;
B1C E1 I 1 bh1 a1 E1 b
12
 3

h2
2
h2 a2 :
B2C E2 b
12
The stiffness of the composite beam is then given by
EI B1C B2C :

198

5 Vibration Damping

After a simple transformation, we obtain

EI
31 2
;
1 3
E1 I 1
1

5:63

where E2 =E1 , h2 =h1 , I 1 bh31 =12.

Relationship (5.63) allows us to determine the frequency of free vibration of a
two-layer beam with arbitrary boundary conditions [33].

5.6.2.2

Coefcient of Loss of a Composite Beam

Assume that the loss factors for the material of beam 1 and coating layer 2 satisfy
the condition 1 2 . For the composite structure as a whole and for the damping
layer we introduce the complex modulus of elasticity
E ! E1 j,

E2 ! E2 1 j2 ;

where 2 is the loss factor for the coating layer material and is an unknown loss
factor for the composite structure.
Following this, (5.63) becomes
EI
31 2 1 j2
:
1 j 1 3 1 j2
E1 I 1
1 1 j2

5:64a

The last term of (5.64a) may be presented as

D

31 2 1 j2
Re D Im D;
1 1 j2

where the real and imaginary parts are

Re D



31 2 1 22 2 2

Im D

1 2 22 2 2
31 2 2
1 2 22 2 2

Since 2 2 , we obtain
Re D

31 2
;
1

5:64b

5.6 Vibration of a Beam with External Damping Coating

Im D

199

31 2 1 2
1 2

5:64c

If in (5.64a) we equate the real parts of the left- and the right-hand sides and take
into account (5.64b), we obtain expression (5.63). If we equate the imaginary parts
and take into account (5.64c), we obtain the analytical expression for the loss
coefcient of the composite system

EI
31 2 2
3 2
:
E1 I 1
1 2

This equation can be presented as follows:

3 6 42 23 2 4


:
2 1 1 4 62 43 2 4

5:65

Formula (5.65) shows that the maximum loss factor of a two-layer structure is
achieved when the product of the real part of elastic modulus E2 and loss factor 2
has a maximum value [2].
Obviously, increasing the relative thickness h2 =h1 leads to an increase in the
damping properties of the coating. Therefore, for a loss coefcient of the
two-layer structure, we have the obvious inequality 1 < < 2 .

5.6.2.3

Free and Forced Vibration of a Composite Beam

Now we determine the frequency of free vibration of a two-layer composite beam.

Assume that the density of the material for the beam and coating layer are 1 and 2.
The density of the composite beam is
X
i Ai
1 ~

, ~ 2 :
X
1
5:66
1

1
Ai
The mass per unit length of the composite beam and the ratio of the masses are
m A 1 bh1 1 ~,

m=m1 1 ~:

2
;
1

5:67

The frequency of free vibration of uniform beam 1 and that of the composite
beam are
2
1 2
l

r
E1 I 1
,
m1

2
2
l

r
EI
:
m

5:68

200

5 Vibration Damping

The dimensionless frequency of the composite beam is



2

1
EI
:
1 ~ E1 I 1

5:69

Let us estimate the effect of the vibration protection layer. If E2 =E1 0:1,
h2 =h1 1:0, and ~ 2 =1 0:2, then the loss coefcient of the composite
beam equals 0:4982 . As this takes place, the bending stiffness and frequency
of free vibration of the composite beam are EI 2:19E1 I 1 and 1:351 ,
respectively.
For analysis of forced vibrations of two-layer beams, it is convenient to
use (5.50). The detailed solution of this equation is presented in Sect. 5.5; the
factor / according to Table 5.1 presents a loss coefcient for the two-layer
beam (5.65).
To increase the damping properties of the composite system, an intermediate
layer of a rigid but light material should be introduced between the beam and the
coating. The procedure for solving this type of problem remains the same [3].
A detailed study of the vibration-absorbing properties of different materials is
presented by [1, 2]. Extensive information has accumulated regarding the use of
vibration-absorbing coatings on various objects across a number of technology
elds. These have included vessels [3] and aircraft [2], jet engines blades [2],
circuit boards, and electronic equipment [30]. Vibrations of various machines and
engineering structures and their elements are presented in fundamental books [15,
vol. 3; 18].

5.7

Aerodynamic Damping

Wind ow can cause intense vibrations in high-rise structures. such as radio

and television towers, metal chimneys, monuments, and turrets, as well as
bridges and power lines. The character of airow around a structure and its
corresponding dynamic response are very sophisticated, and present serious
challenges in formulating analytical solutions. Therefore, experimental studies
often employ the use of wind tunnels to analyze the aerodynamic stability of
these structures and to evaluate the effectiveness of vibration damping [711].
Analytical solutions for the response of such structures to wind ow is known
only for a limited number of good structures (cylinder and truncated cones,
among others) [7, 9, 11, 37]. A detailed classication of aeroelastic phenomena
can be found in [10]. The phenomena that determine dynamic behavior are vortex
excitation, galloping, and utter. The Collar scheme presents a variety of interactions that occur among aerodynamic, inertial, elastic, and dissipative forces
[38]. Below we briey consider vortex excitation and galloping.

5.7 Aerodynamic Damping

5.7.1

201

The Interaction of a Structure with a Flow

As a result of wind effects on structures, we often observe two types of vibrations:

vortex excitation and galloping. For these vibrations, the eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions are close to their own [10].
Vortex excitation is observed during wind ow around cylindrical structures,
such as chimneys. This excitation is explained by the formation of the Karman
vortex in the wake region of the ow behind the cylinder. The vortices are
generated and move in alternating directions (Fig. 5.14) [37]. They periodically
separate (or shed) from the surface of the cylinder, and a harmonic lifting force
arises as a result. This force is in a direction perpendicular to the ow velocity.
The frequency f of vortex shedding is determined by the Strouhal number
Sh f d= 0:22;
where d is the diameter of the cylinder and is the velocity of the ow [6].
If the frequency of vortex shedding coincides with the natural frequency of the
structure, dangerous vibrations arise. These vibrations, called wind resonance,
arise at a specic wind velocity.
There are various models of behavior of a body in uid ow. One is the
empirical model of the quasi-linear cylinder. This system includes a cylinder as
a mechanical vibrating system, vortices as vibration amplier, and a nonlinear
damping characteristic, which limits the process of increasing vibration. Vibration of the cylinder affects the formation of vortices. We can see that there is a
retroactive effect of the vibrating body on the source of energy, which is typical
for a self-oscillating system. This model reects an important experimental
fact: the natural frequency of vibration of the cylinder controls the vibration
of the system cylinderwind ow. A feature of this model is that the vibration
of the cylinder occurs in a direction perpendicular to the velocity of wind
ow [6, 37].
The major feature in the study of vortex excitation is the fact that the aerodynamic forces acting on a xed or oscillating cylinder are dependent upon the
Reynolds number ( Re d=, where is the kinematic viscosity of the atmosphere) and cannot be determined theoretically [10].
Galloping is a self-oscillation that occurs when the wind ow acts on bluff crosssections of structures [39]. The pylons of power transmission lines are an example.
The pylons consist of different structural members including angles, channels, and
universal sections. The next examples of such structures involve towers with a
square or rectangular cross-section, with power lines covered in ice.
Fig. 5.14 Formation
of Karman vortices

202

5 Vibration Damping

Galloping is caused by ow separation at xed points of the section [10].

This phenomenon leads to the appearance of a constant shear force. In contrast to
the vibration in vortex excitation, galloping occurs at all wind velocities above the
critical velocity, which is determined by structural damping. An excellent explanation
of the galloping phenomenon is given by Den Hartog in [6]. An analytical solution for
galloping aeroelastic self-oscillations is presented by Kazakevich and Vasilenko [39].

5.7.2

Aerodynamic Reduction of Vibration

Aerodynamic damping presents a complex of constructive measures aimed at

changing the nature of ow past structures or their individual elements. This can
signicantly reduce the aerodynamic load on the structure and thus the level of
vibration. It is achieved by improving the structural form through the installation of
aerodynamic fairings, for example, or increased structural damping. The introduction of additional damping devices on the vibrating body leads to dramatically
increased complexity. Therefore, the most common method of investigation is
through experiments in wind tunnels. Let us consider some of the constructive
methods of aerodynamic vibration reduction [10].
1. Assume that a structure has a circular cross-section or consists of segments with
angular points. To reduce the wind load on the structure near the upper section,
the cross-section of the structure should decrease from base to apex.
2. A common method for breaking the simultaneity of vortex shedding along the
height of cylindrical and conic structures involves the use of wires wrapped in a
helical line along the height of the structure. Wires create a phase shift in vortex
shedding that leads to a marked reduction in levels of vibration. Four wires
create four helical lines with a shift of 90
to the base of the structure. For
vibration damping of such structures, it is possible to use spoilers, which are
rectangular plates arranged in a spiral on the upper part of the structure. The
application of spoilers is generally less effective than winding wires.
3. To reduce the alternating force in the upper part of a structure with corner points
of the cross-section (square, diamond-shaped, etc.), channels (or wind-holes) are
often provided near the corner points in the upper part of the structure.
4. Various means of vibration damping in cables, such as those often used to
construct power lines, are presented in [40]. The essence of these methods is
the elimination or reduction of vortex excitation. They include wire wrapping
around the cables and the installation of interceptors or rigid and inelastic spacers.
It is worth mentioning the dynamic Stockbridge damper, or shoe damper [6],
which consists of a piece of twisted cable about 30 cm in length, with weights on
the ends. This simple structure is attached to the cable at the antinode points and
leads to effective suppression of vibrations caused by a Karman vortex street.
Preventing wind-induced oscillation of structures is discussed by Blevins [8, 9]
and by Walshe and Wootton [41].

Problems

203

Problems
5.1. The absorption energy coefcient is determined as the ratio of s/Ws, where
s is energy lost per sth cycle, and Ws is stored (potential) energy at the start
of the sth cycle, with displacement As (see Table 5.1). Derive an expression for
the absorption energy coefcient as the same ratio, considering the potential
energy at the end of the sth cycle, with displacement As1 . Take into account
the small value of the logarithmic decrement. Explain the result.
Answer: 2 [4].
5.2. For mechanical system mx bx_ kx 0, express dimensionless parameters
, , , , Q in terms of the parameters of system m, b, k.
p
mk
b
.
Answer: p ; Q
b
2 km
2

5.3. Show that in the case of free vibration of a uniform beam, the equation my t2y
1 j= EIyIV 0 produces inconsistent results: the frequency of the
damped vibration exceeds the natural frequency of the system, neglecting
damping (Babakov paradox [32]).
Solution: Assume
yIV XIV xT t.

that

yx; t XxT t,

so

t,
yx; t XxT




Substitution mXxT t 1 j EI  XIV xT t 0. Separate variable

t
T
EI XIV x
 
p2 ,
1 j= T t
m X x

t p2 1 j= T t 0:
T

t p2 T t 0, where p is the frequency of a free vibration,

If 0, then T
neglecting damping.
If 6 0, then p2 1 j= p2d , where pd is the frequency of a free
vibration, taking into account damping.
r
 2
p2


> p2 .
The modulus of pd is pd p4

5.4. The system is described by equation x 2hx_ 20 x 0. Derive the equation

for the phase trajectory. Consider underdamped case h2 < 20 .
Hint: 1. Present the solution to the initial equation in form
q
M1 eht sin t 1 , x_ M2 eht sin t 2 , 20  h2 .

2. Present equation (a) in the form x_ y, y_ 20 x  2hy, and after that
exclude time t.
Answer:

dy
2 x 2hy
 0
[22].
dx
y

204

5 Vibration Damping

References
1. Pisarenko, G. S. (1962). Vibration of elastic systems taking account of energy dissipation in the
material (Wright Air Development Center Report WADD-TR-60-582).
2. Nashif, A. D., Jones, D. I. G., & Henderson, J. P. (1985). Vibration damping. New York:
Wiley.
3. Kljukin, I. I. (Ed.). (1978). Handbook on the ship acoustics. Leningrad: Sudostroenie.
4. Panovko, J. G. (1960). Internal friction at vibration of elastic systems. Moscow: Phys. Math.
5. Birger, I. A., & Panovko, Ya. G. (Eds.). (1968). Strength, stability, vibration. Handbook
(Vols. 13). Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
6. Den Hartog, J. P. (1985). Mechanical vibrations (4th ed.). New York: Mc Graw-Hill,
Dover, 1985.
7. Davenport, A. G. (1996). Vibration of structures induced by wind. In Harris, C. M. (Editor in
Chief), Shock and Vibration. Handbook (4th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
8. Blevins, R. D. (2001). Flow-induced vibration (2nd ed.). Malabar, FL: Krieger.
9. Blevins, R. D. (1996). Vibration of structures induced by uid ow. In Harris, C. M. (Editor in
Chief), Shock and Vibration. Handbook (4th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
10. Korenev, B. G., & Rabinovich, I. M. (Eds.). (1981). Dynamical analysis of the structures on
the special excitations. Handbook. Moscow: Strojizdat.
11. Bertin, J. J. (2001). Aerodynamics for engineers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
12. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
13. Ferry, J. D. (1970). Viscoelastic properties of polymers (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
14. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
15. Chelomey, V. N. (Editor in Chief). (1978-1981). Vibrations in engineering. Handbook (Vols.
16). Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
16. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
17. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
18. Korenev, B. G., & Rabinovich, I. M. (Eds.). (1984). Dynamical analysis of the buildings and
structures. Handbook. Moscow: Strojizdat.
19. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
20. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol.6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief) (19781981). Vibration in Engineering, vols.16. Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
21. Clough, R. W., & Penzien, J. (1975). Dynamics of structures. New York: McGraw-Hill.
22. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow: Nauka.
23. Bishop, R. E. D., & Johnson, D. C. (1960). The mechanics of vibration. London: Cambridge
University Press.
24. Judin, E. Ya. (Ed.). (1985). Noise control. Handbook. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
25. Muszynska, A. (1974). Internal damping in mechanical systems. Dynamika Maszyn. Polish
Academy of Science 164212.
26. Lazan, B. J. (1968). Damping of materials and members in structural mechanics. New York:
Pergamon Press.
27. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
28. Strelkov, S. P. (1964). Introduction to the theory of vibrations. Moscow: Nauka.
29. Goodman, L. E., Klumpp, J. H. (1956). Analysis of slip damping. Journal of Applied
Mechanics, 3.

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30. Ilinsky, V. S. (1982). Protection of radio-electronic equipment and precision equipment from
the dynamic excitations. Moscow: Radio.
31. Henderson, J. P. (1985). Vibration damping. New York: Wiley.
32. Babakov, I. M. (1965). Theory of vibration. Moscow: Nauka.
33. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Free vibrations of beams and frames. Eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
34. Oberst, H. (1952). Uber die D
ampfung Biegeschwingunge D
unner Blech durch fest Haftende
Belage. Acustica, 4, 181194.
35. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief) (1996). Shock and vibration Handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
36. Ross, D., Ungar, E., & Kerwin, E. M. Jr. (1959). Damping of plate exural vibrations by means
of viscoelastic laminate. In ASME (Ed.), Structural damping (pp. 4988). New York: ASME.
37. von Karman, T. (1963). Aerodynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill, Dover (1994).
38. Collar, A. R. (1959). AeroelasticityRetrospect and prospect. The Journal of the Royal
Aeronautical Society, 63(577), 115.
39. Kazakevich, M. I., & Vasilenko, A. G. (1996). Closed analytical solution for galloping
aeroelastic self-oscillations. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 65,
353360.
40. Korenev, B. G., & Smirnov, A. F. (Eds.). (1986). Dynamical analysis of the special engineering structures. Handbook. Moscow: Strojizdat.
41. Walshe, D. E., & Wootton, L. R. (1970). Preventing wind-induced oscillation of structures.
In Proc. Inst. Civil Eng. Paper 7289.

Chapter 6

Vibration Suppression of Systems

with Lumped Parameters

This chapter presents the theory of dynamic suppression of vibration of systems

with lumped parameters. First, in the example of the simplest dynamic absorber, we
consider the idea of suppressing of vibrations. Then we discuss the different types of
absorbers have been considered by Babitsky [1, 2], Haxton and Barr [3], and
Karamyshkin [4]. These include impact absorbers, gyroscopic vibration suppressors,
and autoparametric vibration absorbers. Such devices can also be effectively used for
reducing vibrations of systems with distributed parameters [5].

6.1

Dynamic Absorber

The simplest dynamic vibration absorber (anti-vibrator, vibration suppressor) presents a mass ma, which is attached to the primary mk system using an elastic
element of the stiffness ka (Fig. 6.1a). The dynamic vibration absorber was invented
in 1909 by Hermann Frahm (US Patent #989958, issued in 1911). A signicant
contribution to the development of the theory of the dynamic absorber was
performed by Ormondroyd and Den Hartog [6, 7]. Application of dynamic
absorbers can reduce or even completely eliminate vibrations of the principal
mass in the case of force and kinematic excitations.
Different variations of vibration absorbers are possible. If an auxiliary mass is
coupled to a primary system using elastic ka and viscous ba elements, then the
auxiliary system is referred to as an absorber with damping (Fig. 6.1b). The shock
vibrational absorber presents a mass attached to the principal system using the
friction element (Fig. 6.1c). Application of a dry friction damper (Coulomb friction
damping) is possible [8]. Frahms shock absorber vibration model (Fig. 6.1d) is
realized by a cylinder T attached to the principal mass m; inside the cylinder is the
stiffness, mass, and damper, connected in series.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_6

207

208

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

b
Main system

Absorber

Absorber

ka

k
ma

ba
ma

m
ka

d
Absorber

Absorber

ba

ma

ba
m

ka

ma

Fig. 6.1 Auxiliary dynamical systems as vibration absorbers. (a) dynamic absorber vibration
without damping; (b) absorber with damping; (c) viscous shock absorber; (d) Frahms shock absorber
Fig. 6.2 Pendulum scheme
of the torsional vibration
absorber of rotating shafts
Main
system

Absorber
vibration

Similar schemes can be constructed for the case of torsional oscillations. For
example, an analogue of the scheme in Fig. 6.1a is a torsional vibration absorber for
rotating shafts shown in Fig. 6.2 [9, vol. 3].
The disadvantage of these devices is a narrow zone of the suppressed frequencies. The absorber is most effective at the resonance mode of the principal mass.
That is why it is called an anti-vibrator or suppressor. When the frequency of the
excitation is variable, the absorber with xed parameters can be harmful.
Now let us consider the idea of the dynamic suppressor of vibration. A mechanical system with two degrees of freedom is shown in Fig. 6.3. The mass m0 is
subjected to harmonic exciting force P0 sin t (Fig. 6.3a).

b
0 sin t
k0
SEP

m0

x0

SEP

P0 sin t

x0

k1
SEP

x1

k0

x0 k0

m1

m0

x0
m0
P(t)
(x1 -x0) k1

x1

k1
SEP

x1

m1

m1
Fig. 6.3 Mechanical system with two degrees of freedom: (a) force excitation; (b) kinematic
excitation

6.1 Dynamic Absorber

209

We show that under certain relations between parameters m1k1 and the frequency of the exciting force, the mass m0 will remain stationary. From here on,
the m0k0 system is referred to as a principal system, while the auxiliary m1k1
system is called an absorber, or suppressor of vibration. The partial frequencies of
p
p
the principal and auxiliary systems are 0 k0 =m0 and a k1 =m1 .
Vibration of the system with two degrees of freedom is described by equations
m0x0 k0 k1 x0  k1 x1 P0 sin t,

6:1

m1x1 k1 x1  x0 0:

Displacements 0 and x1 of the masses are measured from the equilibrium position
(SEP).
The solution to these equations is of the following form
x0 A0 sin t,

6:2

x1 A1 sin t:

To determine the unknown amplitudes A0 and A1, expression (6.2) is substituted

into (6.1). As a result, we obtain a system of linear algebraic equations with respect
to amplitudes A0, A1
m0 2 k0 k1 A0  k1 A1 P0 ,

6:3

k1 A0 m1 2 k1 A1 0:

The amplitude of vibration of the mass m0 is determined by the formula

A0 D0 =D, where
"
D det

m0 2 k0 k1

k1

k1

m1 2 k1

#
;

D0 is the determinant, which is obtained from D, if the rst column will be replaced
by the free terms of (6.3)
"
D0 det

P0

k1

m1 2 k1

#
:

As a result we obtain
A0

P0 m1 2 k1
:
D

6:4

210

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

The amplitude A0 of the mass m0 becomes zero if k1  m1 2 0. Thus, if

p
parameters m1 and k1 are chosen such that k1 =m1 is equal to the frequency of
the excitation force, the amplitude A0 is zero, i.e., the primary mass m0 remains at
rest. Note that here the amplitude of vibration of the mass m1 is nonzero and has a
nite value [7, 10, 11].
The Physical Basis of a Dynamic Absorber The mass m1 moves according to the
law x1 A1 sin t. To determine the amplitude A1 we should consider the second
p
P0
equation of (6.3), and in this case, set k1 =m1 . As result, we get A1  ,
k1
P0
and the displacement of the mass m1 becomes x1 A1 sin t  sin t. Since
k1
mass m0 is at rest, the force arising in spring 1 is equal to Ft x1 k1 P0 sin t.
This is precisely the disturbing force P(t), which acts on the mass m0. All the energy
transmitted to the system by an external force is perceived by the absorber.
p
Thus the tuned relationship k1 =m1 gives rise to the fact that, at any given
time, the elastic force in the second spring is equal to the disturbing force P0 sin t
and is oppositely directed. Here the effect of vibration suppression is manifestin
other words, the compensation effect of the disturbing force applied to the main
mass m0. Changing the amplitude P0 of the external excitation affects only the
amplitude A1 of the displacement of the mass absorber m1, but the condition of the
total compensation of external harmonic excitation remains valid.
p
In the case of
k1 =m1 6 , two resonant states are possible [12] and the
dynamic absorber can potentially be harmful [9, vol. 3]. The natural frequencies
* are the roots of equation
"
det

k0 k1  m1 2

k1

k1

k 1  m1 2

0:

The resonance frequencies are determined as follows [1, 2]



2
*1, 2

2 1 2a

0
2

20  1 2a
2

)1=2

2a 20

m1
:
m0
6:5

r
k0
The frequency of vibration of the principal system and absorber are 0
,
m0
r
k1
:
a
m1
The last relationships (6.5) may be represented by Mohrs circle (Fig. 6.4) [13]

6.1 Dynamic Absorber

211

Fig. 6.4 Mohrs circle for

calculation of natural
frequencies * for given
partial frequencies 0, a
and mass ratio m1/m0

( )

( )

* 2
2

* 2
1

Diameter

a2 02

02

a2 (1 + )

Formula (6.5) will be valid for any relations /0. If a 0 then the resonance
frequencies are determined by the formula [7],
*1, 2
a

!2

1

2

r
2
:
4

6:6

A plot of dimensionless resonance frequencies, as a function of dimensionless

parameter m1 =m0 is shown in Fig. 6.5 [10, 14].
Fig. 6.5 Two
dimensionless natural
frequencies 1;2 /0
vs. parameter m1 =m0 ;
(1) a 0, (2) a 0/2

1*,2 0
1.6
1.4
2

1
1.2
1.0

0.8
0.6

1
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

The dynamic coefcient for the principal mass m0 in terms of /a, /0, and
stiffness ratio k1/k0 is [10]

dyn

A0
A0stat

2
2a




2
k 1 2
k1
1 2
1  2  ;
a
k 0 0
k0
1

6:7

where A0stat P0/k0 is a static displacement of the mass m0 due to the amplitude P0
of the exciting force.

212

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

An equivalent form of expression (6.7) in terms of /a, /0, and mass ratio
m1/m0 is [8]

dyn

A0
A0stat

2
1 2
a



,
2
2
2
1 2
1 2  2
a
0
0

m1
:
m0

6:8

Suppression of Vibration The tuned ratio of the absorber is f a =. The graph of

the dynamic coefcient for the principal mass m0 according to (6.7) is shown in
Fig. 6.6. If the absorber is tuned to the frequency of the exciting force
p
k1 =m1 , or tuned relationship f 1), we obtain the total suppression of the
vibration of the principal mass m0.

dyn
8
6
4
2
1
0

0.801
0.5

1* 1.0

1.248

2* 1.5

2.0

2.5

Fig. 6.6 Dynamic coefcient dyn for mass m0 vs. parameter * /a; 0.2, a 0

In the case of kinematic excitation (Fig. 6.3b), the vibration of the system is
described by (6.1); thus, instead of P0, we need to use k0 so that all the results
above will hold.
If the dynamical system presents a shaft, then torsional vibration can be
suppressed according the scheme shown in Fig. 6.2. In this simplest case, in
equations (6.1) we need to perform the following replacements: P0 is torque M0,
and 1, 2 are the angles of rotation of the two discs 1, 2. Parameter becomes
I 2 =I 1 , where I2 and I1 are the polar moment of inertia of the absorber and the
principal system, respectively.
The disadvantage of the dynamic absorber in Figs. 6.1a and 6.2 is obvious: it is
effective only in the case of a strictly xed frequency of the disturbing force. In
the case of harmonic excitation with a variable frequency, the vibration protection
system should involve a dynamic absorber with adjustable parameters. This is most
effective if the absorber parameters are automatically tunable to the frequency of
excitation (Zakora et al. [15]).

6.2 Dynamic Absorbers with Damping

213

Suspension System A possible case where a dynamic absorber m1  k1 is connected

not with the mass m0 of a principal system (Fig. 6.3) but with its elastic element k0
is shown in Fig. 6.7. This two-cascade dynamical system is the simplest design
diagram of an automobile suspension structure [16].
Fig. 6.7 Two-cascade
suspension system

SEP

m0

x0

P0 sin t

k0
SEP

m1

x1
k1

Analysis of this system should be performed as in the case of the system shown
in Fig. 6.3. The differential equations of this system are
m0x0 k0 x0  x1 P0 sin t,
m1x1  k0 x0 k0 k1 x1 0:
A solution is sought in the form of (6.2); this procedure leads to a set of linear
algebraic equations with respect to amplitudes. The amplitude of vibration of the
principal mass equals
A0

m0

m1 2 k0 k1
:
k0 m1 2 k0 k1  k20

Vibration of the principal mass will be eliminated if

2a

k0 k1
2 :
m1

As in the previous case, this frequency is a partial frequency of a system [4].

6.2

Dynamic Absorbers with Damping

This section is devoted to the analysis of dynamic absorbers that contain an energy
loss element. Dynamic absorbers with viscous friction, a special type of viscous
shock absorber (when the auxiliary system contains only a viscous damper, while
an additional spring is absent), and dynamic absorbers with Coulomb friction
damping are considered. Expressions for dynamic coefcients are presented.

214

6.2.1

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

Absorber with Viscous Damping

Energy dissipation is observed in real systems. Therefore, to evaluate the effectiveness of a vibration protection device, the model of a dynamical system should
contain a damper. In the case of a linear formulation of the problem, we assume that
the friction force in the damper is proportional to the relative velocity of the two
ends. Such friction is referred to as viscous [1, 4, 17].
The general model of the principal system with VPD is shown in Fig. 6.8.
Auxiliary mass ma is coupled with a principal mass m by a stiffness member ka
and viscous element ba (Fig. 6.8) [6, 7]. The vibration of system is excited by the
harmonic force Gt G0 e jt . In the case of kinematic excitation t 0 e jt of
the support, relationship G0 k 0 allows us to replace the kinematic excitation by
the equivalent force excitation.
Fig. 6.8 Vibration
absorber with viscous
dampers

(t)
k
SEP

b
m

x
ka
SEP

xa

G(t)
ba

ma

Numerical results show that if the auxiliary system contains the damper ba, then
the inuence of the damping b of the principal system on the dynamic coefcients
of the primary system is insignicant [4]. Thus we assume that the principal loss of
energy occurs in the auxiliary system (in the damper of the absorber). Therefore, we
set the damping in the principal system at b 0. As before, the mk system is
referred to as the principal system, while the auxiliary makaba system is referred
to as the dynamic absorber with viscous friction.
Under this assumption, vibration of the system is described by the coupled linear
differential equations [1, 7, 17]
mx ba x_  x_ a kx ka x  xa G0 e jt ,
maxa ka xa  x ba x_ a  x 0:

6:9

p
The partial frequencies of the primary system and absorber are 0 k=m and
p
a ka =ma respectively.
The easiest way to solve these equations is by the complex amplitude method.
Omitting the cumbersome transformations, below we present the nal results for the
dynamic coefcient (dimensionless amplitude) for the principal mass [1, 11, 18].

6.2 Dynamic Absorbers with Damping

v

2
u
u
1  20 42a 20
j Aj
t



2

2 ;
G0 =k
1  20 1  2  2 42a 20 1  2 1

215

6:10

where
A is the amplitude of vibration of the principal mass m.
=0 is the ratio of the excitation frequency to the vibration frequency of the
principal system mk.
0 =a is the ratio of the excitation frequency to the vibration frequency of the
auxiliary system maka.
ma =m is the ratio of the mass of the absorber to that of the primary system.
p
The relative damping is a ba =bcr , where bcr 2 ka ma is the critical damping
of the auxiliary system.
The dynamic coefcients are a function of four dimensionless parameters
=0 , 0 =a , a and ma =m. The graph of the dynamic coefcient
for the primary mass is shown in Fig. 6.9.
Two curves for a 0.1 and 0.32 are represented by solid lines. All curves pass
through two xed points S and T, independent of the damping parameter a.
A detailed analysis of expression (6.10) is presented by Den Hartog [7] and
Timoshenko et al. [11]. This analysis includes the location of points S and T, the
optimum damping parameter , and detailed procedures for tuning the absorber.

Fig. 6.9 Dynamic coefcient for principal mass m as a function of dimensionless frequency
; parameter of damping in the auxiliary system is a. The mass ratio ma/m 0.05; the
partial frequencies of the auxiliary and primary systems are equal, a 0 (Timoshenko [11],
Reed [8])

216

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

Limiting Cases
1. Assume that a 1; in this case the entire system with two degrees of freedom
is transformed into a system with one degree of freedom with total mass m + ma.
2. If the partial frequency of the absorber a is tuned to the frequency of the
excitation , i.e., 0 1, the dynamic coefcients for the principal mass are
then dependent upon the relative damping a of the absorber, as follows [1]:

2a
jAj
q

2 :
G0 =k
4
2
2 4a 1  2 1

6:11

For the case where 0 1, the highest efciency of the absorber is achieved at
the minimum dissipative loss of the damper. Thus, if a ! 0, then the amplitude of
the principal mass equals zero; this case is shown by a dotted line. A feature of this
case is the appearance of two resonance curves, shown by dotted lines. For the
given parameters, this happens at 0:895 and 1:12 (Fig. 6.9). Detuning of
the system may occur when changing the excitation frequency or while change
the parameters of the absorber ma, ka. This can lead to a dangerous increase in
vibration of the principal mass. The sensitivity of the system to a possible detuning
is determined by the dependence of the vibration frequencies of the system on their
parameters. To determine the vibration frequency, we need to equate the denominator of (6.10) to zero, set a 0, and solve this equation with respect to 1;2 .
We will then obtain expression (6.5).

6.2.2

Viscous Shock Absorber

The design diagram of a viscous shock absorber is shown in Fig. 6.1c. Assume that
the auxiliary system contains only a viscous damper, while an additional spring is
absent. To obtain an expression for the dynamic coefcient of the principal mass, let
p
us again consider expression (6.10). If we specify ka 0, then a ka =ma 0
and 0 1 ; its substitution into (6.10) leads to an uncertainty of 1/1 type.
0
Therefore, 0 should be provided in the form 0 . After a series of transa
formations, we obtain the following expression for the dynamic coefcient of the
principal mass [18, 1]:
dyn

v
u
u
A0
2 420

t 

2 ;

2
A0stat
2 1  2 420 1  2 1

where the dimensionless parameters are =0 ,

6:12

ma
ba
, and 0
.
m
2ma 0

6.2 Dynamic Absorbers with Damping

217

The graph of the dynamic coefcient as a function of the parameter /0 is

shown in Fig. 6.10.
Fig. 6.10 Dynamic
coefcient for mass m of
the primary system
vs. dimensionless frequency
/0

A0
A stat

8.0
0 =

0 =0.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

0 opt

0
0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Case 0 0 means breaking the link between the masses m and ma such that the
system has one degree of freedom, with mass m m0 and elastic element k, and
resonance occurs when parameter =0 1. Case 0 1 means a rigid connection between the masses m and ma, so in this case, the system has one degree of
freedom, with mass m m ma and elastic element k, and therefore the dimensionless resonance frequency will be less than unity.
Optimal parameter 0 opt provides the greatest value for a dynamic coefcient
at xed point T. This parameter and the corresponding dynamic coefcient are
[9, vol. 3]
0opt

r
1
,
22 1

6:13

max 1 2=:
A comparison of dampers and vibration absorbers is discussed by Panovko [9, vol. 3].

6.2.3

Absorber with Coulomb Damping

For the suppression of torsional vibrations, a device using a dry friction damper
[1, 8] is applied. The additional device contains a disc with a moment of inertia Ja.
This disc is attached to the disc of the principal system with moment of inertia J,

218

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

using the dry friction torque M. The torque is constant and directed opposite
relative angular displacements and a of the principal and auxiliary discs
(Fig. 6.11).
Fig. 6.11 (a) Dynamic
suppression of torsional
vibration by an absorber
with Coulomb damping; (b)
dry friction characteristic

b
Ja
k

M (j )

Nonlinear differential equations describing the motion of the system are

J
sgn_  _ a k M0 e jt ,
a  sgn_  _ a 0:
Ja

6:14

The function sgn indicates the sign of the velocity

sgn _ 1 if _ > 0,
sgn _ 1

if _ < 0:

The function M_ sgn is shown in Fig. 6.11b, where is a constant torque.

To nd the approximate periodical solution of nonlinear differential equations
(6.14) we will apply the balance harmonic method. Equivalent linear friction is
determined from the condition that the energy dissipated per one cycle in a
nonlinear element and equivalent viscous friction are equal [9, vol. 3]. We then
obtain the linearized equations
J
bae _ k M0 e jt ,
a  bae _ 0:
Ja

6:15

with new coordinate  a 0 e jt , and the equivalent damping parameter

for the auxiliary part of the system is
bae

4
:
j 0 j

The equivalent coefcients of viscous friction for various nonlinear friction laws
may be found in [9, vol. 3]. These include quadratic friction R _ 2 , nonlinear
viscous friction R k_ j_ jn , and internal nonlinear friction R kn .
Assume that the solution of (6.15) is in the form
t e jt ,

a t a e jt ;

6:16

6.3 Roller Inertia Absorbers

219

where and a are complex amplitudes. Substitution of (6.16) into the differential
equations (6.15) leads to the expression for amplitudes and a. For dynamic
coefcients, we obtain the following expressions [1]:
v

"

#
u
2
2
1


1 u
jj
0
t1  2 1 
,

M0 =k 1  20 
20
v
"
#2
u
2
u
1
1  0
j 0 j
 t1  2 1 

;
M0 =k 1  20 
20

6:17

Ja
, 0 p , .
M0
J
k=J
Since the radicand should be positive, from the second equation (6.17) we can
derive the condition for the absence of absorber locking

where



1 
1  20 
:
 1 

20 

6:18

With an increase in , the efciency of the absorber increases. As noted by Babicky

[1, 12], the absorber does not eliminate the possibility of an unlimited increase of
vibration at 0 1.
The optimum torque of the dry friction forces, providing the maximum energy
dissipation per cycle, is [1, 8]
p
2
J a 2 0 ;

where 0 is the amplitude of the angular vibration of the principal part of the shaft.
A comparison of the two absorbers, a vibration absorber with dry friction and a
viscous absorber, is discussed in [1, 14].

6.3

Roller Inertia Absorbers

In actual practice, the excitation frequency is inevitably different from the nominal
frequency. Moreover, the system can be inuenced by external excitations with
complex spectra. In these cases, the vibration of the system can be suppressed by a
device involving non-isochron elements. Such elements include a ball/cylinder that
is placed in a cavity of a particular shape, or a ring that is put on a rod. These
suppressors are capable of self-tuning to the frequency of external excitation. The
principle schemes of some roller inertia suppressors are shown in Fig. 6.12 [1, 19].
The main element of the suppressor is a body placed into a cavity of the object
which should act to suppress vibrations.

220

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

c
k

k
m
ma

P( t)

ma

1-1

P( t)
m

P( t)

ma

Fig. 6.12 Principal schemes of roller absorbers. Boll placed into the (a) spherical cavity,
(b) elliptic cavity, (c) cavity of the special form

The simplest suppressor is in the form of a free ball in the spherical cavity
(Fig. 6.12a), which is effective in the case of vibration excited by a harmonic force.
For suppression of vibrations in systems subjected to excitation with complex
spectra, the suppressor contains a free ball placed into the non-spherical cavity
(Fig. 6.12b) or a ball on an elastic member that is placed in the cavity of the special
form shown in Fig. 6.12c.
Let us consider the roller inertia absorber shown in Fig. 6.12a. The principal
system mk is subjected to harmonic force Pt P0 cos t . A ball with
radius r and mass ma is placed in a cavity with radius R.
The relative and transport motion of the mass ma is determined by angular
coordinate of the absorber and vertical coordinate x of the object (Fig. 6.13).
Fig. 6.13 Design diagram
of auxiliary mass

Ftrin
an

a
ma, r

Fnin

xtr

Fin

The normal and tangential acceleration in relative motion are

an R  r _ 2 ,
a R  r _ :

6:19

The acceleration of this mass ma in the transport motion is x. The differential

equations for the transport and relative motions are
X
m ma x
Fx ,
6:20
X

Ja
M:

6.3 Roller Inertia Absorbers

221

The moment of inertia of the auxiliary mass with respect to point O is

J a m a R  r 2 .
Projections of the normal and tangential inertial forces of the relative motion
onto the x-axis are
Fnin ma R  r _ 2 cos ,

6:21

sin :
Fnin ma R  r

The moment of the inertial force of the transport motion with respect to point O is
MO ma R  r x sin .
Differential equations (6.20) of the system in expanded form are


sin ;
m ma x kx P0 cos t R  r ma _ 2 cos
ma R  r x sin :
ma R  r 2

6:22
6:23

The principal mass will be stabilized if

x x_ x  0:

6:24

In this case, from (6.23) we obtain

a t 0 :

6:25

This means that mass ma of the suppressor executes a uniform rotation.

Substituting (6.24) in (6.22) allows us to set the ratio for the unknown a and 0
0 :

6:26

This formula establishes a relationship between the initial position of the absorber
mass and phase angle of excitation force.
If we substitute (6.24) and (6.25) in (6.22) and perform a transformation, we
obtain
ma R  r 2 cos a t 0  P0 cos t 0,

a 

6:27

or
ma R  r 2 P0 :

6:28

This relationship means that the centrifugal force ma R  r 2 fully compensates

the external force P0.
Thus relationships (6.26) and (6.28) provide for the tuning of the absorber to the
excitation frequency and lead to complete suppression of the vertical vibration of

222

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

the object. To eliminate the lateral displacement of the object, we need to apply the
two symmetrically arranged roller suppressors.
Assume that we observe a change in the amplitude P0 and the excitation
frequency , but the tuning ratios (6.26) and (6.28) are valid. In this case, the
complete suppression of vibrations is provided for the entire range of P0 and . For
example, if the vibration of the object is caused by rotation of the unbalanced mass
md, the amplitude of the disturbing force becomes P0 2 md , where is an
eccentricity. In this case, the tuned condition (6.26) becomes
ma R  r md :
If the excitation contains higher harmonics, it is necessary to create a spectrum
of the periodic response of the roller suppressor. For this purpose, we must replace
the circular cavity with the ellipse (Fig. 6.12b).
Assume that the vibrations are caused by the rotation of the unbalanced mass
with variable eccentricity. In this case, for suppression of vibration, we must apply a
roller absorber having an elastic element in its composition. This absorber should
be placed into the cavity of a complex shape; in Fig. 6.12c, the cavity presents a
truncated cone.

6.4

Absorbers of Torsional Vibration

Changing the number of revolutions of an engine causes torsional vibration of the

spinning shafts. In order to reduce vibration. either a centrifugal pendulum absorber
or Pringles vibration absorber may be applied. These absorbers have a remarkable
property: they change their resonant frequency with the change in the angular
velocity of rotation [4, 7, 10, 20].

6.4.1

Centrifugal Pendulum Vibration Absorber

Let us consider the essentials of a pendulum as a vibration absorber. The simplest

design diagram of a pendulum is presented in Fig. 6.14. A disc of radius R and
moment of inertia J is elastically connected to the engine shaft. The massless rod
AB of length r with auxiliary lumped mass ma at point B is pivotally attached at
point A of the disc.
Let the motion of the disc be a steady rotation with average angular velocity
plus a small harmonic vibration (superposed vibration)
sup t 0 sin t:

6:29a

6.4 Absorbers of Torsional Vibration

Fig. 6.14 Centrifugal
pendulum vibration
absorber

223

n
A

Fj

BA

nBA
B

Fi

Here, 0 is the amplitude of the superposed motion; this parameter is an indicator of

non-uniform rotation [1];
n is the frequency of torsional vibration of the shaft;
n1,2,. . . is the vibration ratio (or order of the vibration); this parameter represents
the number of cycle perturbations per one revolution of the shaft; in other words,
n indicates the order of the excited harmonic [7]. Thus, the expression for the
generalized coordinate (t) becomes
t t 0 sin nt:

6:29b

The torsional vibration of the shaft due to the action of the disturbing moment is
Mt k0 sin nt;

6:29c

where k is the torsional stiffness of the shaft between the engine and disc.
Let the position of pendulum AB be determined by a small angle from the
direction OA. We nd the frequency of vibration of the mass ma occurring around
this position OA. For this purpose, we will derive the differential equation of motion
of the mass ma.
The centrifugal pendulum is a system with two degrees of freedom. Let the
generalized coordinates be angles and . Normal and tangential acceleration of
point A are
aAn 2 R,

aA R;

d
;_
dt
d2
. The Coriolis acceleration is directed along AB; this acceleration is
dt2
neglected.
If point A is accepted for the pole, the acceleration of point B is then the
geometric sum of the acceleration of the pole and the acceleration of point B with
respect to pole A (Fig. 6.14)
where angular velocity and angular acceleration of the disc are

B A BA An A BA
BA
:

224

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

The acceleration of point B in the rotational motion of AB around pole A is

n
aBA
_ 2 r,

aBA
r:

The projection of the acceleration of point B onto axes i and j is

n
R_ 2 cos R
sin  r _ 2 ;
aBi an cos a sin  BA

aBj an sin a cos BA

R_ 2 sin R
cos r :

The inertial forces of the mass ma in the ith and jth directions are shown in Fig. 6.14;
they are
Fi ma Bi ,

Fj ma Bj :

According to the DAlembert principle,

X


cos r r 0:
MA ma R_ 2 sin R
Thus, the rst differential equation becomes
cos r 0:
R_ 2 sin R

6:30

Assume that is small, so sin , cos 1, and (6.30) becomes

R_ 2 R
r 0;
or

R 2
R
:
_ 
r
r

6:31

. They can be eliminated.

Nonlinear differential equation (6.31) contains _: and
For this purpose, let us consider (6.29b). The corresponding derivatives with
respect to time are
_ t 0 n cos nt ,
t 0 n2 sin nt:

6:32

Substitution of (6.32) into (6.31) leads to the linear differential equation of the
forced vibration with respect to angular displacement (t)

R 2
R
0 n2 2 sin nt:
r
r

6:33

6.4 Absorbers of Torsional Vibration

225

The partial frequency of the pendulum becomes

r
r
R R
:
a

r
n r

6:34

This remarkable result shows that the frequency a of the relative vibration of the
pendulum is variable, and that it is proportional to angular velocity of the rotating
shaft [7]. This means that if the frequency of torsional vibration changes,
automatic tuning of the absorber frequency a occurs [8]. Thus, for all frequencies
of shaft rotation, the vibration frequency a of the pendulum coincides with the
frequency n of the disturbing moment (6.29c), i.e., the pendulum is tuned to
the moment of nth order (or nth-order excitation) [20].
The solution of (6.33) is
t 0 sin nt:

6:35

Substitution of (6.35) into (6.33) leads to amplitude ratio

0 2a  n2 2

R 2 2
0
n :
r

6:36

The amplitude 0 of the superposed vibration of the disc (6.29a) becomes zero if
2a  n2 2 0 or

2a  2 0

or

p
R=r :

6:37

Let us consider the physical aspect of vibration suppression. The pendulum produces
inertial force that is different for each order n of vibration. The inertial force is


cos r
Fj ma R_ 2 sin R

6:38

Taking into account the largest term R_ 2 sin , for inertial force we obtain
Fj ma R2 sin .
The moment around point A due to this force is MA ma R2 r sin .
Force Fj transfers to point A (Fig. 6.14). The moment of this force around point
is equal to M0 ma R2 2 sin cos . In the case of a small vibration for the total
restoring moment M MA M0 , we obtain
M ma R2 R r :

6:39

This pendulum torque acts opposite the disturbing torque M(t) [10].
A more precise model of the centrifugal pendulum absorber of shaft torsional
vibration takes into account the moment of inertia of the rod AB, torsional stiffness

226

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

of the shaft between the engine and the disc, and viscous friction in the hinged
connection; such a model is discussed in [1, 21]. Modications of pendulum
absorbers and their disadvantages are described in [7]. Design features of various
types of pendulum torsional vibration absorbers can be found in [1]. The theory of
nonlinear pendulum absorbers (in the case of a large pendulums amplitude of
vibration) is considered by Newland [20].

6.4.2

Pringles Vibration Absorber

The design diagram of the suppressor is shown in Fig. 6.15a. This device contains
the lumped mass m elastically attached to a disc in the radial channel. When the disc
performs a torsional vibration and the mass moves in the channel, the Coriolis
inertial force arises. This force creates a torque that compensates the disturbance
torque [4, 22].
Fig. 6.15 Pringles
absorber of torsional
vibration. (a) design
diagram; (b) Coriolis
acceleration and inertial
force

b
r

rel

Cor

R0
m

m
tr

FCor

The disc rotates with angular velocity . The disturbing moment Mt M0 sin t
leads to the appearance of a small superposed vibration
sup t 0 sin t,
_ sup t 0 cos t:

6:40

This system has two degrees of freedom. Indeed, the mass m performs a composite
motion. The relative motion is a rectilinear motion of the mass in the channel, while
the transport motion is the motion of the mass caused by the rotation of the disc.
The total angle of rotation of the disc and its angular velocity are
t t 0 sin t,
_ t 0 cos t:

6:41

Let R0 denote the distance of mass m from the center of rotation in the absence of
vibration, and let r be the additional radial displacement of the load with vibration.

6.4 Absorbers of Torsional Vibration

227

The relative normal acceleration of the point mass is directed in a radial direction
ar R 0 cos t2 ,

R R0 r:

in
The centrifugal force of inertia is Fcentr
mar . Let R R0 . We then obtain



1
1
in
Fcentr
mR0 2 20 cos t 20 2 20 2 cos 2t :
2
2

6:42

The variable part of the centrifugal force is



1
in
Fcentr
t mR0 20 cos t 20 2 cos 2t :
2
Neglecting the second term, and taking into account (6.40), we obtain
in
t 2mR0 0 cos t 2mR0 _ t:
Fcentr

The differential equation of vibration of mass m in relative motion (motion in the

channel) is
in
mr Fcentr
t  kr 2mR0 _  kr;

6:43

where k is the stiffness of a spring.

The Coriolis inertial force [23, 24] should be calculated by the formula
FCin 2mtr  rel :

6:44

The vector of angular velocity of the transport motion tr is perpendicular to

the plane of the disc; this is shown by the bold point at the center of the disc
(Fig. 6.15b). The vector of linear velocity of the relative motion rel belongs to the
plane of the disc and is directed along the channel. Thus, the Coriolis acceleration
vector Cor and the inertial force FCor belong to the plane of the disc and are
directed perpendicular to the channel, as shown in Fig. 6.15b. The moment of this
force around the center of rotation (assuming that R R0 ) is
MC 2mR0

dr
:
dt

6:45

The equation of torsional vibration of the disc I

Mt MC  k1 becomes
I
M0 sin t  2mR0 r_  k1 ;

6:46

228

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

where M(t) is the disturbing moment

I is the mass moment of inertia of the disc about the central point
k1 is the coefcient of torsional stiffness of the shaft
Thus, Pringles absorber is described by two coupled linear differential equations, each of second-order (6.43) and (6.46) with respect to and r. The solutions
to these equations are
t 0 sin t,
r t r 0 cos t:

6:47

Their substitution into (6.42) and (6.46) leads to the following linear algebraic
equations with respect to amplitudes 0 and r0:
mr0 2 r 0 2mR0 0  kr 0 ,
I2 0 M0 2mR0 r 0  k1 0 :

6:48

The solution of this system is



2
M0 1  2
p
0




;
2
2

4mR20 2
k1 1  2
1 2 
k1
p
p2
p1

6:49

where p2 k=m, p21 k1 =I.

If the partial frequency p of the suppressor is equal to excitation frequency ,
then at any rotational angular velocity rotation of the shaft, the superposed
vibration of the disc is suppressed.
In the case of inertial vibration excitation, i.e., the harmonic excitation with an
amplitude proportional to the square of the frequency, the tuned relationship for
Pringles suppressor is discussed in [4].

6.5

Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber

Gyroscopes are used in various technology applications, such as stabilizers of

onboard optical instruments, navigation devices, and numerous specialty devices.
They are mounted on ships, planes, rockets, and tanks. In this section we consider
their application to the problem of vibration reduction in mechanical systems. The
theory of gyroscopes and their applications can be found in fundamental books such
as [23, 25, 26].

6.5 Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber

6.5.1

229

Elementary Theory of Gyroscopes

A gyroscope is a rigid body rotating about an axis of symmetry (axis of spin), whose
orientation in space may change with time. If a body rotates about a xed axis oz,
the vector of angular momentum L0 is directed along the axis of spin; this vector is
equal to L0 Lz I z 1 , where Iz is the moment of inertia of the gyroscope with
respect to its axis of symmetry, and 1 is the angular velocity of spin.
The theorem of the change in the angular momentum of a system states that the
derivative of the angular momentum of a system about any xed center with respect
to time is equal to the sum of the moments of all the external forces acting on that
system about that center [24]
dL0
M0 :
dt

6:50

The basic assumption in the elementary theory of gyroscopic action is that even if
the axis does move slowly, at any instant the principal angular momentum vector L0
of a gyroscope with respect to its xed point remains directed along the axis of spin
in the same direction as vector 1 and is equal to Iz1. The faster the spin of the
gyroscope, the more valid this assumption becomes. On this basis, let us consider
various properties of the gyroscope.

6.5.1.1

Free Gyroscope

A gyroscope mounted such that its center of gravity is xed and its axis can turn in
any way about that center is called a free gyroscope. Assume that a gyroscope is not
subjected to external forces, so the moment of all the external forces with respect to
the center is M0 0. According to (6.50), the vector L0 is directed along the axis of
spin. This means that the axis of a free gyroscope remains constantly aligned in
space with respect to an inertial frame of reference.

6.5.1.2

Action of a Force Applied to the Axis of a Gyroscope

Let a force F be acting on the axis of the spinning gyroscope (Fig. 6.16). The
moment of this force with respect to the center O is M0 Fh. The vector M0 is a
normal to the plane through O and F.
Let us consider vector L0 as radius vector r of point B. The rst derivative of the
radius vector of point B with respect to time presents a vector of instantaneous
velocity of the end of this vector, i.e.,
dL0 dr
B :

dt
dt

230

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

Fig. 6.16 Free gyroscope:

Resals theorem

z
B
B

L0
F

h
0

M0
x

Note that unit of velocity is not length/time, but the unit of angular momentum/
time. According to (6.50),
B M0 :

6:51

This means that vector velocity B of point B of the axis of spin and the vector of
M0 are equal (Resals theorem [24])
Thus point B, which belongs to the axis of the gyroscope, will move in the
direction of vector M0. Therefore, if a force acts upon the axis of the spinning
gyroscope, the axis begins moving not in the direction of the force, but in the
direction of the vector of the moment of the force with respect to the xed point of
the gyroscope, i.e., perpendicular to the force.
When the action of the force ends, M0 and B vanish, so the gyroscope axis
stops. Thus, a gyroscope does not retain the motion imparted to it by the force.

6.5.1.3

Regular Precession of a Heavy Gyroscope

Let us consider a gyroscope whose xed point O is not coincident with its center of
gravity G; let the angular velocity of spin about the axis of symmetry z be 1
(Fig. 6.17). A force P continuously acts on the axis of spin. The vector of moment
M0 of the force P around xed point O is normal to the plane through OG and P.
The velocity B is directed parallel to the vector M0. This means that the force P,
continuously acting on the axis z of spin, will deect the axis Oz not downwards, but
in the direction of the moment M0, i.e., normal to plane zOz1. As a result, the axis of
spin will turn about the vertical axis Oz1, with angular velocity 2 (vector 2 is
shown in Fig. 6.17) describing a conical surface. This motion of the axis of a
gyroscope is called precession.
The angular velocity 2 of the precession is
2

Pl
,
I z 1

l OG;

6.5 Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber

231

Fig. 6.17 Regular

precession of a gyroscope

z1
z

1
B
L0

M0

and the velocity of the endpoint B of the angular momentum of the gyroscope is
B 2  OB 2  L0 , L0 I z 2 :
In scalar form, B M0 I z 1 2 sin . This means that in order to create a
precession motion of a gyroscope, according to elementary theory, it must have a
moment of external forces and vice versa.

6.5.1.4

The Gyroscopic Effect

A spinning gyroscope is supported by bearings A and A0 in a gimbal ring. The

angular velocity of the gyroscope with respect to spin axis z is 1. The gimbal ring
can rotate at an angular velocity 2 about axis DD0 ; 1  2 (Fig. 6.18). Thus this
gyroscope has two degrees of freedom.
Fig. 6.18 The gyroscopic
effect

z1

L
Q

M0(N,N)

Q
A

M0(Q,Q)
N
D

The gyroscope axis precession and velocity of the endpoint B of the vector L of
the angular momentum of the gyroscope is B 2  L0. This means that a
moment M0 B I z 1 2 sin arises. This moment is created by two forces Q
and Q0 , which act on the axis of spin A-A0 of the gyroscope; the vector of moment

232

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

M0 (Q,Q0 ) of these two forces is directed as vector B (perpendicular to the plane of

the page, out of the page, or towards the viewer); this vector is shown by the bold
point in Fig. 6.18.
The reactions of the bearings A and A0 are N Q and N0 Q0 . The force couple
(N,N0 ) is a gyroscopic couple, and its vector M0 (N,N0 ) is shown by the symbol +
in Fig. 6.18. The gyroscopic moment acts on the structure containing the gyroscope.
The gyroscopic moment is
Mgyr M0 I z 1 2 sin :

6:52

Zhukovskys Rule If a forced precession is imparted to a spinning gyroscope, a

couple of moment Mgyr will start to act on the bearings which will tend to move the
axis of spin along the shortest path to set it parallel to the axis of precession, so that
the directions of vectors 1 and 2 would coincide [24].

6.5.2

Schlicks Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber

The application of the gyroscope for reducing roll in ships is shown in Fig. 6.19
[27]. The rotor of gyroscope 1 is xed in bearings A and A1. Gimbal ring 2 carries
bearings A and A1 of the gyroscope. Axis 3 of the gimbal ring is xed in the supports
B and B1, which are rigidly connected to the ships hull, 4.
z
y
2

L0

N
k

x
B1

A1

N
M2

j
i

M1

y
l
C

M(t)
Fig. 6.19 Gyroscopic vibration absorber for reducing roll in ships. 1 rotor, 2 gimbal ring, 3 axis of
gimbal ring, 4 hull of the ship, 5 drum brake

The Physical Aspect of the Process of Vibration Suppression The rotor of a

gyroscope rotates with an angular velocity around the spinning axis z. The rolling
of a ship leads to forced precession: a ship rotates about the longitudinal axis at an
angle with angular velocity _: ; in this case, the end of the axis of the gyroscope
moves in a direction perpendicular to the plane xOz of the ship.

6.5 Gyroscopic Vibration Absorber

233

As a result of forced precession caused by the rolling of the ship, moment

M _  L0 arises, which acts on the axis of a spinning gyroscope. The vector
of this moment and the velocity vector of the end of vector L0 are parallel and
directed along the x-axis in the positive direction. The vector of the gyroscope
moment acts on the frame supporting the bearings A and A1 of the gyroscope axis;
this vector and vector M have opposite directions. Indeed,
M1 I 0 k  j_ iI 0 _ ;

6:53

where I0 is a moment of rotor inertia with respect to its axis of symmetry (spin axis
z), and i, j, and k are the unit vectors.
The vector of gyroscopic moment M1 is directed along the x-axis, in the negative
direction. This moment may be represented by two forces Q and Q0 applied to the
gimbal ring at points A and A1 and directed along the longitudinal axis of the ship y.
Therefore, moment M1(Q,Q0 ) will cause a rotation of frame 2 about a transverse
axis Ox by a certain angle ; the angular velocity _: of this rotation is the angular
velocity of precession of the gyroscope. As a result, the endpoint of the gyroscope
axle receives a new displacement in the longitudinal plane zOy, which in turn leads
to the emergence of the gyroscopic moment


M2 I 0 k  i_ I 0 _ j:

6:54

This moment can be represented as two forces N and N0 which are transmitted
through the bearing frame B and B1 to the hull 4. The moment of M2(N,N0 )
counteracts the moment M(t), which is the reason for the ships roll, and therefore
acts as a stabilizing factor.
Thus, the gyroscopic absorber transforms the energy of the oceans waves into
vibration energy of the gimbal ring absorber; for their suppression on axis 3 of
gimbal ring 2, drum brake 5 is installed [27].
Such systems are used to suppress the pitching and yawing of ships.
The mathematical aspect of the problem of suppression of small vibrations is
reduced to solving a system of linear differential equations with respect to the
rotation angles and [8]
I
k I 0 _ Mt,
I g Wl bg _  I 0 _ 0:

6:55

where:
, is the angle of roll and angle of precession (the angle of rotation of the gimbal
ring around the x-axis)
I is the moment of inertia of the ship with respect to longitudinal axis y
Ig, W is the moment of inertia of the gimbal ring with respect to its precession axis
x and the weight of the gimbal ring.

234

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

The term k is the restoring moment, which is proportional to the angle of roll.
M(t) represents a rolling moment exerted on the ship, usually by waves. Coefcient
bg denotes viscous friction in the drum brake.
The distance between the center of gravity of the system gimbal ring + rotor
and the center of a swing is denoted by l.
Assume that Mt M0 expjt. The solution of (6.55) will be sought in the
form
t 0 exp jt,

t 0 exp jt:

The dimensionless amplitude of the rolling motion of a ship

0
may be presented
M0 =k

as follows [1]:
v

2
u
u
1  20 42g 20
0
t


2


2
M0 =k
1  20 1  2  2 42g 20 1  2 1

6:56

where

0 p ,
Wl=I g

p ,
k=I

bg
g p ,
2 WI g l

I 20 2
:
WlI

If we assume that bg 0, the dynamic coefcient then becomes

0
1  20



:
2
M0 =c
1  0 1  2  2

6:57

It is easy to see that the structure of expressions (6.56) and (6.10) for an absorber
with a viscous damper coincide. The corresponding graphs are presented in
Sect. 6.2.

6.6

Impact Absorbers

Here we consider different types of impact absorbers (suppressors) which are

installed on systems with one degree of freedom. These include the pendulum
impact absorber, oating impact absorber, and spring impact absorber.
A dynamical system of mass m (main system) is subjected to disturbing force
P sin t. The principal element of the impact absorber is mass ma; the collision of
this mass with the main system leads to a reduction in its vibration.

6.6 Impact Absorbers

6.6.1

235

Pendulum Impact Absorber

The design diagram of a pendulum impact absorber is shown in Fig. 6.20. With this
type of damper, a regime of unilateral collisions with one blow per period of
vibration is realized [1, 28]. This blow is carried out at a time when the displacements of the main system and absorber are zero, while the velocity of the main
system is positive. In other words, the collision occurs at the maximum speed of the
main body.
Fig. 6.20 Pendulum
impact absorber

P(t)

l
ma
x

This system has two degrees of freedom. Generalized coordinates are the linear
displacement of the body x and angular displacement of the absorber. The main
body is subjected to external harmonic excitation P sin t.
Simplied Mathematical Model The differential equation of vibration of the main
mass is
x 20 x

P
sin t,
m ma

20

k
:
m ma

6:58

The system resonates if the excitation frequency coincides with the frequency of
the primary system 0. Let us consider only the shock loading: the shock pulse of
the suppressor on the mass m is S, and the interval between collisions is T.
The equation of motion of the principal mass is
x 20 x

1
S
S X
t t  T t  2T   
t  jT ;
m ma
m ma j0

6:59
where (t) is a delta function. Recall that the (t)-function has the following
properties [14]:
t  a 0, if t 6 a,
1
t  adt:
0

The ltering property of the (t)-function is as follows:

1
0

f tt  adt f a:

236

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

In the process of motion, the mass ma of the absorber does not leave a vibrating
system even if this mass has no contact with mass m. This is why mass ma is
included in (6.58) and (6.59).
To determine the impulse S, we need to introduce the coefcient of restitution
r at impact:
S 1 r

m ma ma
l_ T :
m 2ma

The differential equation of vibration of the absorber is

1
x
S X
2a 

t  jT :
l ma l j0

6:60

Let the interval T between collisions equal the period of natural vibration of the
main system. In this case, the motion of the primary mass on the different time
portions is given by
x1 t

S
sin 0 t,
m ma 0

if 0 < t < T;

x2 t

2S
sin 0 t,
m ma 0

if T < t < 2T;

nS
sin 0 t,
m ma 0

if n  1T < t < nT; . . .


xn t

i.e., if the mk system is subjected to only the pulses S, the vibration amplitudes of
the primary mass m increase proportionally to the number of time intervals.
If mk system is subjected to the harmonic excitation P sin t and shock pulses
S together, the equation of motion of the mass m should be presented in the form
x 20 x

1
P
S X
sin t 
t  jT :
m ma
m ma j0

6:61

Equation (6.60) remains unchanged.

The two terms of the right-hand side of (6.61) have different signs, which means
that there is a fundamental possibility of reducing the vibration of the mass m.
Assume the tuned conditions
T 2,

2a ;

6:62

where 2a gl, as for a mathematical pendulum. The rst condition, (6.62) states
relationships between frequency of the disturbing force and period of the collisions
of two bodies, while the second condition states relationships between natural
frequency of the absorber and frequency of the disturbing force.

6.6 Impact Absorbers

237

Upon conditions (6.62), we nally obtain the dimensionless displacement

(dynamic coefcient) of the primary mass for resonance vibration of system
(6.58) within the interval (0T) [29, Sect. 16]
xt 1

xst
2
xst



3
2
 0 t sin 0 t  cos 0 t ,
4d
3

P
,
m20

1 r
,
1 1  r

ma
:
m ma

6:63

Note that in the case of resonance excitation, the dynamic coefcient contains
secular term 0t sin 0t.
Let us evaluate the dynamic coefcient for principal mass m. Assume that
0:1, and the coefcient of restitution
on impact is r 0:9. In this case,
 
d x
parameter d 0:909. Condition
0 leads to 0 t 0:4048. The dynamic
dt xst
coefcient for principal mass becomes jx=xst j 0:3349.
Various design diagrams of the pendulum type of impact vibration absorber and
detailed analytical and numerical analyses are presented by Polukoshko et al. [30].

6.6.2

Floating Impact Absorber

The km system with one degree of freedom is subjected to harmonic excitation

Pt P0 cos t. The vibration suppressor is designed as a sphere with mass ma,
which is placed in the cavity of the main body with a gap 2 (Fig. 6.21a). The
features of such a suppressor are:
1. The static characteristic of the absorber is nonlinear as shown in Fig. 6.21b.
2. The oating absorber is tuned to the regime of two successive collisions with an
object during one period of motion [1, 28].

c
A4/
3

f (y)
k
m

P(t)
ma

2
1
0
0 0.5

1.5

2 /0

Fig. 6.21 (a) Floating impact absorber; (b) static characteristic; (c) amplitudefrequency characteristic; 2 k=m

238

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

Suppression of vibration is achieved when an excitation frequency passes

through the natural frequency of a system. The amplitude of the residual vibrations
is A 41  r 2 = 2 , where r is the restitution coefcient of velocity. In the worst
case (r 0), we obtain A 0:4.
The oating impact absorber is able to tune to the frequency of the excitation and
provides vibration suppression over a wide range of excitation frequencies.
Additional detail on the theory of oating impact suppressors (e.g., mathematical model, peculiarities, numerical results, the case of dynamic excitation by a
rotating unbalanced mass) is presented by Babitsky [1] and Sysoev [29].

6.6.3

Spring Impact Absorber

The design diagram of a one-sided spring impact absorber is shown in Fig. 6.22; the
stiffness of the spring absorber is ka. The static characteristics for this absorber are
shown in Fig. 6.22. In this absorber, as in the case of the pendulum impact absorber,
unilateral collisions with one blow per period of vibration are realized.
Fig. 6.22 Spring impact
absorber and static
characteristic

f (y)

k
m

ma
ka

P( t)

The use of this type of absorber allows for an increase in the high-frequency
range of excitation to which the absorber is able to be tuned. In this case, the lower
p
boundary of the excitation frequency range becomes ka =ma . This absorber is most
p
effective at a frequency of 2 ka =ma . Amplitude frequency characteristics of the
suppressor and its advantages and disadvantages are discussed in [1, 28].
More detailed information about impact absorbers can be found in [4]. For
in-depth study of the theory of shock absorbers and their applications, we recommend the fundamental book by Korenev and Reznikov [5].

6.7

Autoparametric Vibration Absorber

A spring-supported object of mass m1 can perform motion in a vertical direction.

The object is subjected to a harmonic force, Ft Q cos t, and provided with an
additional k2m2m3 device, as shown in Fig. 6.23. Following Thomsen [31], we
will briey consider the features of this system.

6.7 Autoparametric Vibration Absorber

239

Fig. 6.23 Haxton and

Barrs vibration absorber
[31]

(t)

m3
l2

k2
m2
l1

F/2

x(t )

l3

F/2
m1

k1/2

k1/2

The generalized coordinates of this system are x and . The kinetic and potential
energies of the system are




1 2_2
2
_
2T m1 x_ m2 x_ l2  l2 x_ sin m3 x_ 2 l23  2l3 x_ _ sin ,
3
2

2V k1 x_ 2 k2 l21 tan 2 :
6:64
Lagranges equations for the system are
d L L

Ft,
dt x_ x
d L L

0, L T  V:
dt _

6:65

These lead to the following differential equations:



1
m1 m2 m3 x k1 x  m2 l2 2m3 l3 _ 2 cos sin Q cos t;
2




1 2
1
m2 l m3 l23  m2 l2 2m3 l3 x sin k2 l21 tan 1 tan 2 0:
3 2
2
6:66
This precise nonlinear mathematical model is very difcult. If we eliminate from
the rst equation and x from the second, expand the nonlinearities, and retain the
linear and quadratic terms, we obtain the following simplied system of nonlinear
differential equations:

240

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

x 21 x 1 2 

1 _ 2
q cos t;
22

2 2 x  2 q cos t 0:
2
21

6:67

Here,
21

k1
,
m1 m2 m3

1
m2 l2 2m3 l3
1 2
2 ,
m1 m2 m3 2

k2 l21

Q
, q
,
1
m

m
1
2 m3
m2 l22 m3 l23
3
1
m2 l2 2m3 l3
2 2
21 :
1
2
2
m 2 l2 m 3 l3
3

22

We can see that solution x(t) of the rst equation (6.67) is a parameter for the second
equation. As such, this system is autoparametric (Bolotin [32, vol. 1]). Further
analysis requires an additional assumption: the primary mass m1 is much greater
than the absorber masses m2 and m3.
The structure in Fig. 6.23 was suggested and analyzed by Haxton and Barr in
1972 [3]. These authors, and later Cartmell and Lawson [33] and Thomsen [31],
investigated and described the essential properties of a given system: the nonlinear
term 12 has a stabilizing effect on the motion of the principal mass m1. This means
that any increase of will tend to lower the amplitude of x. This occurs because the
energy imparted to the primary mass is transferred onto the energy of the additional
device k2m2m3.

Problems
6.1. Describe the physical aspects of vibration suppression by the dynamic
absorber and impact absorber.
6.2. Describe the difference between the roller vibration absorber and the impact
absorber.
6.3. Describe the fundamental property of the centrifugal pendulum.
6.4. Describe the effect of a force applied to the axis of a spinning gyroscope.
Explain the terms precession, gyroscopic moment, and forced precession. Explain the concept of the gyroscopic suppression of vibration.
6.5. Explain the essence of the autoparametric absorber and the features of the
precise mathematical model.
6.6. Explain the features of Pringles vibration absorber and the role of the Coriolis
inertial force.

Problems

241

6.7. The body of mass m1 lies on a smooth surface. Inside the cylindrical cavity
with radius r is located a ball with mass m2; the dimensions of the ball can be
neglected. The stiffness coefcient of the spring is k. The body is subjected to
horizontal force Ft F0 sin t. Derive equations of motion of the system
body-ball and determine the condition of complete suppression of vibration
of the primary body m1.
Answer:
x k=m1 2 x  m2 =m1 g F0 =m1 sin t,
x r
g 0:
The body m1 will be at rest if 2 r g; g is a gravitational acceleration.
m1
k

F(t)

x
m2

Fig. P6.7 Roller inertia absorber

6.8. The dynamic absorber m1k1 is connected with the elastic element of stiffness
k0 of the primary system. Compute the vibration amplitude of the primary
mass m0, and determine the condition of the complete suppression vibration of
the primary body m0.
Hint: Equations of motion of a system
m0x0 k0 x0  x1 P0 sin t,
m1x1  k0 x0 k0 k1 x1 0:
Solution:
x0 A0 sin t,
x1 A1 sin t:
Answer: Vibration amplitude of the primary mass
A0

m1 2 k0 k1
m0 2 k0 m1 2 k0 k1  k20

The tuned condition is 2

k0 k1
.
m1

242

6 Vibration Suppression of Systems with Lumped Parameters

SEP

m0

x0

P0 sin t

k0
SEP

m1

x1
k1

Fig. P6.8 Two-cascade suspension system

6.9. A centrifugal pendulum vibration absorber is pivotally attached at point A of a

disc which rotates with angular velocity . The distance is OA b. The forced
vibration of the disc occurs with frequency . Determine the parameters m and
l of the pendulum which lead to zero amplitude of a forced vibration of the disc.
r
b
Answer:
.
l

m
l

Fig. P6.9 Centrifugal pendulum

References
1. Babitsky, V.I. (1981). Dynamic suppression of vibration. In book Frolov K.V. (Ed.).
Protection against vibrations and shocks, vol. 6. In Handbook: Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in
Chief) (19781981). Vibration in Engineering, vols. 16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
2. Biot, M. A. (1943). Analytical and experimental methods in engineering seismology. Transactions of ASCE, 108, 365408.
3. Haxton, R. S., & Barr, A. D. S. (1972). The autoparametric vibration absorber. ASME Journal
of Engineering for Industry, 94(1), 119125.
4. Karamyshkin, V. V. (1988). Dynamic suppression of vibration. Leningrad, Russia:
Mashinostroenie.
5. Korenev, B. G., & Reznikov, L. M. (1993). Dynamic vibration absorbers. Theory and
technical applications. New York: Wiley.
6. Ormondroyd, J., & Den Hartog, J. P. (1928). The theory of the dynamic vibration absorber.
Transactions of the ASME, 50(1), 922.

References

243

7. Den Hartog, J. P. (1956). Mechanical vibrations (4th ed.). New York: Mc Graw-Hill, Dover,
1985.
8. Reed, F. E. (1996). Dynamic vibration absorbers and auxiliary mass dampers. In Handbook:
Harris, C.M. (Editor in Chief) (1996). Shock and Vibration, 4th ed. McGraw Hill.
9. Birger, I. A., & Panovko, Ya. G. (Eds.). (1968). Strength, stability, vibration. Handbook (Vols.
13). Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
10. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
11. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
12. Babakov, I. M. (1965). Theory of vibration. Moscow: Nauka.
13. Craig, R. R. (2000). Mechanics of materials. New York: Wiley.
14. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
15. Zakora, A. L., Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, V. V. (1989). Tarasenko V.P. self-adapting dynamic
vibration absorber. Soviet Union Patent 1477870.
16. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
17. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
18. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
19. Korenev, B. G., & Reznikov L. M. (1986). Dynamic dampers vibration of special buildings. In
Handbook: Korenev, B. G. Smirnov, A. F. (Eds.). Dynamic analysis of special engineering
buildings and structures. Moscow: Stroiizdatat.
20. Newland, D. E. (1989). Mechanical vibration analysis and computation. Harlow, England:
Longman Scientic and Technical.
21. Alabuzhev, P., Gritchin, A., Kim, L., Migirenko, G., Chon, V., & Stepanov, P. (1989).
Vibration protecting and measuring systems with quasi-zero stiffness. Applications of vibration series. New York: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
22. Pringle, O. A. (1954). Use of the centrifugal governor mechanism as a torsional vibration
absorber. University of Missouri.
23. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). New York:
BROOKS/CO Thomson Learning.
24. Targ, S. M. (1976). Theoretical mechanics. A short course. Moscow: Mir.
25. Awrejcewich, J., & Koruba, Z. (2012). Classical mechanics: Applied mechanics and
mechatronics (Series: Advances in mechanics and mathematics, Vol. 30). New York: Springer.
26. Scarborough, J. B. (1958). The gyroscope: Theory and applications. New York: Interscience.
27. Lojtsyansky, L. G., & Lurie, A. I. (1983). Course of theoretical mechanics (Vol. 2). Moscow:
Nauka; Vol. 3. , 1934.
28. Korenev, B. G., & Reznikov, L. M. (1981). Analysis of buildings equipped with the dynamic
dampers of vibration. In Handbook: Korenev, B. G., Rabinovich, I. M. (Eds.). Dynamic
analysis of structures under special excitations. Moscow: Stroiizdat.
29. Sysoev, V. I. (1984). Devices for reducing vibrations. In Handbook: Korenev, B. G.,
Rabinovich, I. M. (Eds.). Dynamic analysis of buildings and structures. 2nd edition. Moscow:
Stroiizdat.
30. Polukoshko, S., Boyko, A., Kononova, O., Sokolova, S., & Jevstignejv, V. (2010). Impact
vibration absorber of pendulum type. In 7th International DAAAM Baltic Conference Industrial Engineering, Tallinn, Estonia.
31. Thomsen, J. J. (2003). Vibration and stability. Advanced theory, analysis, and tools (2nd ed.).
New York: Springer.
32. Bolotin, V.V. (1978) (Editor). Vibration of linear systems. Vol 1. In Handbook: Vibration in
Engineering, Vols. 16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
33. Cartmell, M. P., & Lawson, J. (1994). Performance enhancement of an autoparametric
vibration absorber. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 177(2), 173195.

Chapter 7

Vibration Suppression of Structures

with Distributed Parameters

This chapter is devoted to dynamic suppression of vibration of uniform homogeneous

beams. The basic method for considering beams as a system with distributed
parameters is the KrylovDuncan method. Two types of absorbers are considered. They are the lumped mk absorber and the distributed mk vibration
absorber of the beam subjected to harmonic excitation. Suppression of the
transverse vibration of the cantilever beam subjected to force and kinematic
excitation are considered. The absorber presents an extension rod, which is
attached to the main beam.

7.1

KrylovDuncan Method

Transverse free vibration of a uniform BernoulliEuler beam is described by

equation [1]
4

y m y

0;
x4 EI t2

7:1

where m A0 is mass per unit length of the beam, A0, EI and are the crosssectional area, bending stiffness, and density of the material, respectively.
The transverse displacement of a beam depends on the axial coordinate x and
time t, i.e. y y(x, t).
A solution to differential equation (7.1) may be presented in the form [2]
yx; t XxT t;

7:2

where X(x) is the space-dependent function (shape function, mode shape function,
eigenfunction), and T(t) is the time-dependent function.
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_7

245

246

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

The shape function X(x) and time-dependent function T(t) depend on the
boundary conditions and initial conditions, respectively. Substituting the form
(7.2) into equation (7.1), we get
EIXIV T
0:
T
mX

7:3

This means that both terms in (7.3) are equal but have opposite signs. Let

T
2 ; then the following differential equations may be written for functions
T
T(t) and X(x)
2 T 0;
T

X x  Xx 0,
IV

r
2
4 m
where
:
EI

7:4

7:5

Thus, instead of one equation (7.1) containing two independent parameters (time
t and coordinate ) we obtained two uncoupled ordinary differential equations with
respect to unknown functions X(x) and T(t). This procedure is known as separation
of variables (Fourier method).
The solution of (7.4) is T t A1 sin t B1 cos t, where is the frequency of
vibration. This equation shows that displacement of the vibrating beam obeys a
harmonic law; coefcients A1 and B1 should be determined from initial conditions.
The general solution of (7.5) may be presented in form
Xx A cosh x B sinh x C cos x D sin x;
where A, B, C and D may be calculated using the boundary conditions.
A general solution of homogeneous equation (7.5) may be determined in a more
efcient way. For this, the solution to (7.5) should be presented in the form
Xx C1 Sx C2 T x C3 U x C4 V x;

7:6

where X(x) is the general expression for mode shape; S(x), T(x), U(x), V(x)
are KrylovDuncan functions (Krylov 1936; Duncan 1943). They represent a
combination of trigonometric and hyperbolic functions [3, 4]
1
Sx cosh x cos x,
2
1
T x sinh x sin x,
2
1
U x cosh x  cos x,
2
1
V x sinh x  sin x:
2

7:7

7.1 KrylovDuncan Method

247

The constants Ci may be expressed in terms of initial parameters as follows

C1 X0,

1 0
C2 X 0,

C3

1 00
X 0,
EI
2

C4

1 000
X 0:
EI
3

7:8

Each combination in (7.7) satises the equation of free vibration of a uniform

BernoulliEuler beam. The functions (7.7) have the following important properties:
1. KrylovDuncan functions and their derivatives result in the identity matrix at
x 0.
0

S 0 0

T 0 0

S 0 1

S 0 0

T 0 0

T 0 1
0

00

S 0 0

00

T 0 0

00

000

000

7:9

000

U 0 0 U 0 0 U 0 1 U 0 0
V 0 0

V 0 0

00

V 0 0

000

V 0 1

2. KrylovDuncan functions and their derivatives satisfy circular permutations

(Fig. 7.1, Table 7.1).
3. Some useful relationships between the combination of Krylovs functions and
trigonometric functions are shown below [5, 6]
2ST  UV cosh x sin x sinh x cos x;
2TU  SV cosh x sin x  sinh x cos x;


S2  U 2 cosh x cos x; T 2  V 2 2 SU  V 2 sinh x sin x;




2 U 2  TV 1  cosh x cos x; 2 S2  TV 1 cosh x cos x:
These properties of functions (7.7) may be effectively used for deriving the
frequency equation and shape modes of free vibration. The advantage of Krylov
functions is that they allow you to immediately write the general integral expression
Fig. 7.1 Circular
permutations of KrylovDuncan functions and their
derivatives

S(x)

V(x)

T(x)

U(x)

Table 7.1 Derivatives of the KrylovDuncan functions [3, 4]

Function
S(x)
T(x)
U(x)
V(x)

First derivative
V(x)
S(x)
T(x)
U(x)

Second derivative
2U(x)
2V(x)
2S(x)
2T(x)

Third derivative
3T(x)
3U(x)
3V(x)
3S(x)

Fourth derivative
4S(x)
4T(x)
4U(x)
4V(x)

248

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

(7.5) satisfying the conditions at the end point x 0. This expression contains only
two constants, which are determined from the conditions at the other end x l:
To obtain the frequency equation using KrylovDuncan functions, the following
algorithm is recommended:
Step 1. Represent the mode shape in a form that satises boundary conditions at
x 0. This expression will have only two KrylovDuncan functions and, respectively, two constants. The decision of what KrylovDuncan functions to use is
based on (7.9) and the boundary condition at x 0.
Step 2. Determine constants using the boundary condition at x l and Table 7.1.
Thus, the system of two homogeneous algebraic equations is obtained.
Step 3. The non-trivial solution of this system represents the frequency equation.
If instead of the homogeneous equation (7.5), we adopt the nonhomogeneous
equation
XIV x  4 Xx f x;

7:10

then its general solution, taking into account relationships (7.8), can be written as
follows
0

00

X 0
X 0
X 0
T x
Ux
V x Xpart x: 7:11
Xx X0Sx

EI
EI
A partial solution to (7.10) is
1
Xpart x 3

f V x  d:

7:12

This term is called Krylovs partial integral [3]. If a beam at point x x1 is

subjected to harmonic force Q (or torque M ), then this partial integral becomes
Q
V x  x1 ,
3 EI
M
Xpart x 2 U x  x1 :
EI
Xpart x

7:13

Example 7.1 The beam has length l, mass per unit length m, modulus of elasticity
E, and moment of inertia of cross-sectional area I (Fig. 7.2). Calculate the frequency
of vibration and nd the mode of vibration.
Solution At the left end (x 0) deection and bending moments are zero:
1: X0 0;
00

2: X 0 0

7.1 KrylovDuncan Method

249

Fig. 7.2 Design diagram

for a simply supported beam
and vibration mode shapes
for i 1 and i 2

m, EI

l
i=1

i=2

At x 0 the KrylovDuncan functions and their second derivatives equal zero.

According to properties (7.9), only T(x) and V(x) functions satisfy these conditions. So, the expression for the mode shape is
Xx C2 T kx C4 V kx:
Constants C2 and C4 are calculated from boundary conditions at x l:
00
Xl 0; X l 0
Xl C2 T l C4 V l 0,

7:14a

00

X l 2 C2 V l C4 T l 0:
A non-trivial solution to the above system is the frequency equation


 T l V l 


 0 ! T 2 l  V 2 l 0:

 V l T l 

According to (7.7), the last formula may be presented as sin l 0. The roots of this
equation are
l , 2, . . .
so the frequencies of the free vibration are
i

2i

r
EI
,
m

2
1 2
l

r
EI
,
m

4 2
2 2
l

r
EI
, ...
m

The mode shape of vibration is

C4
Xx C2 T x C4 V x C2  T i x V i x
C2
Since the ratio C4/C2 from rst and second equations (7.14a) is
C4
T i l
V i l

;

V i l
T i l
C2

250

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

then the ith mode shape (eigenfunction) corresponding to the ith frequency of
vibration (eigenvalue) is


T i l
V i x
Xx C2 T x C4 V x C T i x 
V i l


V i l
C T i x 
V i x :
T i l

7:14b

Since the KrylovDuncan functions T() V(), T(2) V(2). . ., then the mode
shapes are
Xi x CT i x  V i x C sin i x C sin

i
x,
l

i 1, 2, . . .

7:14c

The rst and second modes are shown in Fig. 7.2.

Fundamental data for one-span uniform beams with classical boundary conditions are presented in [5, 6]. These data contain the frequency equation, and the rst,
second and third eigenvalues, the nodal points of the mode shapes, etc.

7.2

Lumped Vibration Absorber of the Beam

A system with distributed parameters (beams, plates, shells) can be supplied with
lumped absorbers. A feature of the system is that the behavior of the absorber is
described by an ordinary differential equation, while the behavior of the structure is
described by a partial differential equation.
The design diagram of a uniform simply supported beam of length l and exural
stiffness EI is presented in Fig. 7.3. The beam is subjected to harmonic excitation
Ft F sin t. An additional maka device is placed at point 1 (x x1).
Fig. 7.3 Design diagram
of a beam with dynamic
absorber

ma

y
1

F(t)

ka

x
x1
x2
w

w(x,t)

Let us consider a steady-state vibration of the system beam-absorber in the

linear formulation; in doing so, the damping and second-order effects on the beam
are neglected [7].

7.2 Lumped Vibration Absorber of the Beam

251

Under the action of the force F(t) the beams displacement is w(x, t). Therefore,
the auxiliary system maka is subjected to kinematic disturbance w(x1, t).
The ordinary differential equation of the absorber maka is
ma

d2 y
ka y ka wx1 ; t;
dt2

7:15

where y(t) and w(x1, t) are displacement of the auxiliary mass ma and the beam at the
point 1.
The differential equation of the beam is described by linear partial differential
equation
4

EI

w
w
m 2 ka y  wx1 x  x1 Ftx  x2 ;
4
x
t

7:16

where m is mass per unit length of the beam, y  wx1  is a relative displacement
of the ends of the spring; (x) is a delta-function. It is clear that (7.15) and (7.16) are
coupled.
Considering the steady-state process of frequency , we assume that
wx; t ux sin t

7:17

The solution to (7.15) is

y t

2a

2a
ux1 sin t,
 2

2a

ka
:
ma

7:18

Substituting (7.17) and (7.18) into (7.16) leads to

EIuIV  m2 u ka x  x1 y  ux1  F0 x  x2 :

7:19

Assume that displacement of the beam at point x1 is signicantly less than the
displacement of the mass absorber, i.e. ux1 << y. In this case (7.19) becomes
uIV  4 u x  x1 ux1 F0 x  x2 ,
4

m2
,
EI

k a 2
;
EI 2a  2


F0

F
:
EI

7:20

The KrylovDuncan function are applied for solution of (7.20). Functions T(x) and
00
V(x) satisfy the boundary conditions u0 u 0 0. Thus, the solution of (7.19)
for the rst portion 0  x  x1 is
u*1 x BT x DV x;
where B and D are arbitrary constants.

7:21

252

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

For the second portion x1  x  x2 , according to (7.13) we have

ux1
V x  x1 
3
u x 1
BT x DV x 3 V x  x1 

u*2 x u*1 x

7:22

Substitute expression ux1 BT x1 DV x1 into (7.22). We get



u*2 x

B T x 3 T x1 V x  x1 




D V x 3 V x1 V x  x1 

7:23

For the third portion x2  x  l, taking into account (7.23), we obtain

u*3 x



F0

3 V x  x2  B T x 3 T x1 V x  x1 



D V x 3 V x1 V x  x1 

F0
3 V x  x2 

u*2 x

7:24

Expression (7.24) is subjected to the boundary conditions at the right end ul

00
u l. As a result, we obtain a system of linear algebraic equations with respect to
B and D. Taking into account the relationships
2T x sinh x sin x,
2V x sinh x  sin x;
the expressions (7.20), (7.23), and (7.24) become


F0

u x 3 u 0 x 3 u1 x ,
2
2


F0

ux 3 u0 x 3 u1 x 3 u2 x ,
2


F0

F
ux 3 u0 x 3 u1 x 3 u2 x 3 V x  x2 ,
2

0  x  x 1
x 1  x  x 2
x2  x  l:
7:25

7.2 Lumped Vibration Absorber of the Beam

253

where
u0 x sinh l sin l  x2 sin x  sin l sinh l  x2 sinh x,
u1 x sinh l  x1 sin l  x2  sin l  x1 sinh l  x2 
 sin x sinh x1  sinh x sin x1 ,
u2 x sinh l sin l  x2 sin x1  sin l sinh l  x2 sinh x1 V x  x1 ;
7:26

1 ,
3
1 sin l sinh x1 sinh l  x1  sinh l sin x1 sin l  x1 :
sinh l sin l

7:27

Condition l 0 presents the equation of natural frequency of the

 beam with an
auxiliary device. If the auxiliary device is absent (ma 0, so 0 ), the frequency
equation for a simply supported beam becomes sin l 0 [6].
Expressions (7.25)(7.27) present the full information about modes of vibration
for the entire structure in Fig. 7.3.
Assume that the absorber is tuned to the disturbance frequency, i.e., a . In
this case 1.
Since , then substituting 1 into (7.25) leads to an uncertainty of
type 1=1. If we evaluate indeterminacy then we obtain the following expression
for displacement of a beam within its different portions:
F0
u1 x,
43 1


F0 1
u1 x u2 x ,
ux 3
2 1 2


F0 1
F0
u1 x u2 x 3 V x  x3 ,
ux 3
2
2 1

ux

0  x  x 1
x 1  x  x 2

7:28

x2  x  l:

In these formulas, the term u1(x) contains a factor

sin x sinh x1  sinhx sin x1 ;

7:29

which is equal to zero if x x1 . This means that if a , then vibration at point

1 does not occur.
Special Cases
1. Let the absorber be tuned to the frequency of excitation and let it be located at
the point where the harmonic force is applied x1 x2 : In this case, the
expression for u2(x), according to (7.26) and (7.27), becomes u2 x
1 V x  x3 , and the second formula (7.28) falls out of consideration.
Detailed analysis of the rst and third equations of (7.28) with (7.25)(7.27)

254

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

shows that transverse vibration of the beam does not occur. This effect can be
explained as follows: the inertial force of the absorber which acts on the beam is
equal to the harmonic disturbing force and cancels it out [7].
2. Let ka 1. In this case the entire suppressor is transformed into the lumped
vibration protection mass ma attached to the beam at the point x1. In this case the
2 ma
parameter
.
EI
Note that Karamyshkin [7] also gave a detailed solution to the problem of
suppressing vibrations of the simply supported beam subjected to the harmonic
torque by assuming that the absorber creates a compensating couple. This book also
presents the solution to vibration suppression problems of beams, taking into
account the dissipation of energy in the beam itself and in the absorber.

7.3

Distributed Vibration Absorber

The design diagram of a uniform simply supported beam of length l and exural
stiffness EI is presented in Fig. 7.4. The beam is loaded by harmonic excitation
Ft F sin t at point x x1 . An additional device maka is distributed across the
entire span l of the beam, where ma is mass per unit length of the auxiliary device.
Assume that all absorbers operate independently of each other [7].
Fig. 7.4 Design diagram of
a beam with distributed
dynamic absorber

F(t)

ma

ka

x
x1

w(x,t)

As in Sect. 7.2, we consider steady-state vibration of the system beamabsorber in a linear setting. In doing so, the damping and second effects in the
beam are neglected. As before, each absorber is subjected to kinematic excitation
w(x, t).
Differential equations of the distributed absorber maka, unlike the lumped
absorber, is described by partial differential equation
2

ma

y
ka y ka wx; t:
t2

7:30

Differential equations of the beam are described by

4

EI

w
w
m 2 ka y  w Ftx  x1 ;
4
x
t

7:31

where m is mass per unit length of the beam, (x) is a delta function and y  w is the
relative displacement of the ends of the spring.

7.3 Distributed Vibration Absorber

255

The expressions for w(x, t) and y(x, t) will be taken in the form
wx; t ux sin t,

7:32

yx; t Y x sin t:
Substituting (7.32) in (7.30) leads to the expression
yx; t

2a

2a
ux sin t;
 2

7:33

p
where a ka =ma is partial frequency of an elementary absorber.
If expressions (7.32) and (7.33) are substituted into (7.31), and taking into
account condition w y, then we obtain
uIV  4 u F0 x  x1 ,


ma 2a
4 4 1
;
m 2a  2

m2
;
EI

F0

F
:
EI

7:34

The general solution to the non-homogeneous equation (7.34) is ux ugen upart .

The general solution ugen of homogeneous equation uIV  4 u 0 depends on the
sign of . The following cases are possible: > 0; < 0; 0:
Consider the case that leads to a complete suppression of vibrations in the beam.
If > 0 then a general solution of (7.34) according to [3, 7] is
ux Acosh x B sinh x C cos x D sin x

F0
V x  x1 :
3

7:35

The last term should be taken into account only for the right portion (x  x1 > 0);
V is Krylovs function.
00
The boundary conditions for the left support are u0 u 0 0, so we get
A C 0.
00
The boundary conditions for the right support are ul u l 0, so for
calculation of B and D we have
B sinh l D sin l 

F0
V l  x1 
3

B sinh l  D sin l 

F0
T l  x1 
3

The solution to this system is

B

F0
fV l  x1  T l  x1 g
23 sinh l

F0
D 3
fV l  x1   T l  x1 g
2 sin l

7:36

256

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

Thus, the expressions (7.35) for the left and right portions of a beam are
ux B sinh x D sin x,
ux B sinh x D sin x

x  x1

F0
V x  x1 ,
3

x  x1

7:37a
7:37b

If expression (7.36) is substituted into (7.37a, 7.37b), then a general expression for
displacement of the beam becomes
ux 

F0
fV l  x1  T l  x1 gsinhx
2 sinhl
3

F0
fV l  x1   T l  x1 g sin x
23 sin l

F0
V x  x 1 
3

7:38

The last term should be taken into account only for the right portion of the beam
x  x1 .
Now consider the case where each absorber from the complete set of absorbers is
tuned to the excitation frequency, i.e. ! a . In this case, according to (7.34),
! 1 and KrylovDuncan functions become
1
1
1
lim T x lim sinh x sin x sinh x ex ,
!1 2
2
4

!1

1
1
1
lim V x lim sinh x  sin x sinh x ex :
!1
!1 2
2
4

7:39

Now we analyze each term of (7.38) separately. Two portions of the beam are
considered.
The portion of the beam to the left of the exciting force. According to (7.39), and
taking into account x  x1 < 0; for the rst term of (7.38) we get

F0
fV l  x1  T l  x1 gsinh x
!1
23 sinh l


F0
lim  3
sinhl  x1 sinh x
!1
2 sinh l
lim




F0 elx1 ex
1
F0
 lim 3 exx1 :
l
!1
!1
4
2
2
e

23
2

 lim

Since x  x1 < 0; then this limit is equal to zero.

7:40

7.4 Extension Rod as Absorber

257

The second term of (7.38) is

F0
fV l  x1   T l  x1 g sin x
2 sin l


F0
1 x 1 x
e  e
lim 3
sin x0:
!1 2 sin l 4
4

lim

!1

7:41

This means that displacement of each point belonging to the left part of the beam is
equal to zero.
The portion of the beam to the right at the exciting force x  x1 > 0. The full
expression (7.38), taking into account (7.40) and (7.41), becomes
uright x

1
F0
lim 3 exx1 0:
4 !1

7:42

Thus, if each suppressor is tuned to the excitation frequency a , then we get a

total vibration suppression of the beam along its entire length. With this, the
distribution of the disturbing force may be arbitrary. This conclusion can be
explained as follows: From the entire set of absorbers, only the absorber that is at
the point of application of F(t) is active. In this case, on the basis of (7.40), (7.41),
and (7.42), beam vibration does not occur. Therefore, no other suppressors are
involved in the dynamic process of the beam.
The same conclusion can be reached for the case of a beam which is subjected to
a lumped harmonic torque. By the principle of superposition, this conclusion
applies to the simultaneous excitation of the beam by forces and torques [7].

7.4

Extension Rod as Absorber

The problem of suppression of transverse vibrations of a cantilever beam subjected

to dynamic excitation is considered. The absorber is an extension rod which is
attached to the main system. The behavior of the object and the vibration absorber
are described by partial differential equations. The problem is considered in a linear
formulation.
A uniform beam AB of length l1, stiffness E1I1 and mass per unit length m1 is
clamped at point A. The beam is subjected to harmonic load Ft F sin t
(Fig. 7.5). In order to reduce vibrations of the beam AB, at the end point B an
additional extension rod BC is attached. Its characteristics are l2, E2I2, and m2.
Additional rod BC differs structurally from the previously discussed maka type
absorbers. No doubt, it changes the dynamic behavior of the primary beam AB at a
given excitation. It should be expected that upon adjusting the parameters l2, E2, I2,
m2 of the extension rod, the vibration in the main beam AB may be reduced. Thus
the additional extension rod will be treated as a vibration absorber [7].

258

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

Fig. 7.5 Design diagram of

a beam-extension rod
system

y1

F(t)
x1

A
a

l1

y2

B
C

x2
l2

Assume that we need to reduce the linear y and/or angular displacement at the
point B of the primary beam AB. Consider the steady-state vibration of the system
main beam-extension rod under the BernoulliEuler theory. The boundary conditions are classical, and energy dissipation is neglected. Vibration of the beamextension rod system is described by two linear partial differential equations
4

E1 I 1

y1
y
m1 21 Ftx  a ;
t
x41
4

E2 I 2

7:43a

y2
y
m2 22 0:
4
t
x2

7:43b

where x  a is a delta-function. Eight boundary conditions are as follows:

y1
0;
x1
2
3
y2
y2
Point C x2 0: 3:

0;
4:
0;
x22
x32


Point B:
y 
y 
 2 
;
5: y1 jx1 l1 y2 jx2 l2 ; 6: 1 
x1 x1 l1
x2 x2 l2


2
2
y1 
y2 
7: E1 I 1 2 
E2 I 2 2 
;
x1 
x2 
Point A x1 0: 1: y1 0;

2:

x1 l1


3
y1 
8: E1 I 1 3 
x1 

x1 l1

7:44

x2 l2


3
y2 
E2 I 2 3 
x2 

:
x2 l2

Assume
y1 x1 ; t u1 x1 sin t,

y2 x2 ; t u2 x2 sin t:

7:45

Substituting (7.45) into (7.43a, 7.43b) leads to the linear ordinary differential
equations
4
uIV
1  1 u1 F0 x  a

7:46a

4
uIV
2  2 u2 0

7:46b

7.4 Extension Rod as Absorber

259

The boundary conditions for functions u(x) become

1: u1 0 0;

2: u1 0 0;

5: u1 l1 u2 l2 ;
00

00

000

3: u2 0 0;

4: u2 0 0;

7:47

6: u1 l1 u2 l2 ;
00

7: E1 I 1 u1 l1 E2 I 2 u2 l2 ;

000

000

8: E1 I 1 u1 l1 E2 I 2 u2 l2

In order to satisfy the boundary conditions 12, according to (7.9), we need to use
the functions U and V; indeed, only these two functions together with their rst
derivatives at x 0 are equal to zero. Therefore, the solution to (7.46a) has the form
8
>
< u1 x C1 U 1 x1 C2 V 1 x1 , 0  x1  a;
7:48
F0
>
: u1 x C1 U 1 x1 C2 V 1 x1 3 V 1 x1  a, a  x1  l1 ;
1
m1 2
m 2 2
F
, 42
, F0
:
E1 I 1
E1 I 1
E2 I 2
In order to satisfy the boundary conditions 34, we employ functions S and T,
and therefore the solution (7.46b) should be written in the form
where 41

u2 x D1 S2 x2 D2 T 2 x2 ,

0  x2  l:

7:49

Here Ci, Di are the arbitrary constants, and S, T, U, V are the KrylovDuncan
functions (7.7)
Let the amplitudes of linear and angular displacements at point B be y and ,
respectively.
0
Considering the primary beam AB we have u1 l1 y and u1 l .
For calculation of derivatives of Krylovs function we use relationships in Table 7.1:
0
0
U x T x, V x Ux. The second equation (7.48) leads to the
following relationships
8
F0
>
>
C U 1 l1 C2 V 1 l1 3 V 1 l1  a y,
>
< 1
1


>
F0
>
>
: 1 C1 T 1 l1 C2 U 1 l1 3 V 1 l1  a :
1

7:50

Considering the rod BC we have u2 l2 y and u2 l2 . Equation (7.49) leads to

the following relationships
(

D 1 S 2 l 2 D 2 T 2 l 2 y ,
2 D1 V 2 l2 D2 S2 l2  :

7:51

260

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

The remainder of the procedure is as follows. The solutions to system (7.50) are the
constants C1 and C2. Similarly, from system (7.51) we determine the constants D1
and D2. These constants contain parameters of the primary system, extension rod, as
well as the amplitudes y and of the linear and angular displacement of the point B.
Next, for point B we form relationships based on the boundary conditions 78 from
(7.47). As a result, we will obtain a system of equations with respect to amplitudes
y and in terms of parameters of the main beam and the extension rod; they are
presented in [7].
Imposing certain requirements on the parameters of the vibration protection
process, we can determine the corresponding parameters of the extension rod.
Assume that the following conditions are satised:
1. The partial frequency of absorber is tuned to the frequency excitation, i.e.
2
min .
2. Amplitudes of displacements at point B are zero, i.e. y 0; 0.
Under these conditions, as shown in [7], the governing equation for determining
the absorber parameters takes the form
2

b1 a22 b2 a12 0:

7:52

The subscript (2) represents member 2, i.e., absorber. The unknown fundamental
parameter is

r
4 m 1 E2 I 2
:
m 2 E1 I 1

7:53

Coefcients
 *  1 o F0  * 
F0 n  *  1
V


U
12  3 T ;

22
1 31
1
n
o




F0
F0  
1
1
V * 21  U * 11  3 S * :
b2 
3
1 1
1

b1 

7:54

The argument of Krylov functions S, T, U, V is * 1 l1  a.

1
Parameters ik , i, k 1, 2 and 1 for primary member (1) are
1

2a11 sinh 1 l1 sin 1 l1 ,

1

2a12 sin 1 l1 cosh 1 l1  sinh 1 l1 cos 1 l1 ,

1

2a21 cos 1 l1 sinh 1 l1 cosh 1 l1 sin 1 l1 ,

1

2a22 sinh 1 l1 sin 1 l1 ,

2 1 1  cosh 1 l1 cos 1 l1 :

7:55

7.4 Extension Rod as Absorber

261

Thus, formulas for b1 and b2 are related only to the primary member. For absorber
1
(member 2) in the expressions ik the argument 1l1 should be replaced by 2l2.
Thus, expression (7.52) describes the total structure beam-absorber considering
the complete suppression of vibrations at point B. Under these conditions, the
absorber will vibrate as a cantilever beam clamped at the point B and with free
right end C.
Procedure for Solving the Direct Problem The following information about the
main beam is known: parameters m1, l1, E1, I1, the location a of the excitation force,
its frequency , and amplitude F0. The parameters of the absorber (extension rod)
should be determined from the conditions yB 0; B 0:
s
2
4 m1
1
and complexes aik (1l1) for the main
1. Determine parameter 1
E1 I 1
beam AB;
2. Determine parameter * 1 l1  a for the main beam, and then compute
Krylovs function S, T, U, V of argument *;
1
3. Determine parameter 1 12 1  cosh1 l1 cos 1 l1 , parameters aik for the
primary beam, and then compute coefcients b1 and b2;
4. Determine complex 2l2. Assume that the smallest frequency of the bending
vibration absorber coincides with the excitation frequency. The tuned condition
2
min ; as shown in [7], leads to the frequency equation of transverse
vibration of the absorber as a cantilever beam 1 cosh2 l2 cos 2 l2 0 ; the
smallest roots of this equation are 2 l2 1:8754 [6];
2
5. Determine parameters aik (2l2) for absorber;
r
4 m 1 E2 I 2
6. Solve equation (7.52) with respect to parameter
. Taking the
m 2 E1 I 1
parameter m2, we calculate the bending stiffness of absorber E2I2. The length of
s
2
1:8754
4 m2
.
; where 2
absorber l2
2
E2 I 2
The disadvantage of this absorber, as mentioned previously, is the necessity to
tune the absorber frequency to the excitation frequency. If the tuning conditions are
violated, the absorber can lead to an increase of vibrations in the main system.
Assume that the parameters of the absorber track the frequency of excitation. In this
case the tuned condition can automatically support a sufciently wide range of
excitation frequencies. One example of automatic adjustment of the absorber
parameters to the excitation frequency can be found in [8]. The general theory of
automatic control of the vibration protection systems is presented by Kolovsky [9].
In conclusion, we note the important part of the theory of the optimal absorbers;
this theory is applied to discrete and continuous systems. These issues are beyond
the scope of this book. The corresponding theory and its applications are covered
adequately in books by Balandin, Bolotnik and Pilkey [10], and Korenev and
Reznikov [11].

262

7 Vibration Suppression of Structures with Distributed Parameters

Problems
7.1. Explain Fouriers method of separation of variables.
7.2. Explain the KrylovDuncan method. Describe the advantages, disadvantages, and properties of the Krylov function.
7.3. Derive the frequency of free vibration for a uniform BernoulliEuler beam.
The mass per unit length of the beam is m, the length is l, modulus of
elasticity is E, and moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area is I. Consider
the following types of beam: (a) clamped-free beam; (b) clamped-clamped
beam; (c) pinned-clamped. Present answer in term of Krylov functions and
trigonometric functions.
Hint: For the differential equation of the beam, see (7.1)
Answer: (a) S2 kl  V klT kl 0, cos klcoshkl 1; where frequency
p
parameter k 4 m2 =EI ;
(b) cos kl cosh kl 1; (c) tan kl  tanh kl 0:
7.4. A lumped dynamic absorber is mounted on a beam (plate). What are the
mathematical features of a model of the beam-absorber system? Which
assumption leads to the simplication of the linear mathematical model?
7.5*. A uniform simply supported beam (parameters of the beam are length l,
exural stiffness EI, and mass per unit length m) is loaded by harmonic
torque excitation Mt M sin t at point x x2. An additional device I a
ka (Ia, ka are moment of inertia and torsional stiffness of the absorber) is
placed at point 1 (x x1) of the beam. Construct the mathematical model for
system beam-absorber. Provide dynamic analysis of the system.
Hint: Differential equations of absorber and beam are
d2 y
0
ka ka w x1 ; t;
dt2
4
2
h
i
w
w
0
EI 4 m 2 ka  x1 x  x1  Mtx  x2 :
x
t
Ia

7.6*. A uniform simply supported beam (parameters of the beam: l, EI, msee
Problem 7.3) contains two absorbers. The linear absorber ma  kl is placed at
point 1 (x x1), and the angular absorber I a  ka is placed at point 2 (x x2).
The beam is loaded by harmonic force Ft F sin t at point x x3 and
torque excitation Mt M sin t at point x x4. Investigate joint action of
both absorbers.
7.7*. (contd from Problem 7.6*) Consider a case when both absorbers are
mounted at the same point on the beam, and the partial frequencies of the
absorbers are equal; this case leads to an effect called dynamic cork.
Describe the physical meaning of this effect [7].

References

263

7.8. A uniform simply supported beam of length l, exural stiffness EI, and mass
m per unit length is loaded by harmonic excitation Ft F sin t at point
x x1 (Fig. 7.4). An additional device maka is distributed within span l of
the beam, where ma is mass per unit length of the auxiliary device. All
absorbers operate independently of one another. Show that when ! 0
(7.34), the effect of the dynamic absorber is absent on the frequency
2 2a 1 ma =m.
7.9. The design diagram of a system beam-vibration absorber is shown in
Fig. 7.5. The force Ft F sin t applied at point B. Determine the conditions that lead to the complete suppression of transverse vibrations at point B.
Hint: Take into account formulas (7.43a)(7.55).

References
1. Ilinsky, V. S. (1982). Protection of radio-electronic equipment and precision equipment from
the dynamic excitations. Moscow, Russia: Radio.
2. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
3. Babakov, I. M. (1965). Theory of vibration. Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
4. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
5. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
6. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Free vibrations of beams and frames. Eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
7. Karamyshkin, V. V. (1988). Dynamic suppression of vibration. Leningrad, Russia:
Mashinostroenie.
8. Zakora, A. L., Karnovsky, I. A., Lebed, V. V., & Tarasenko, V. P. (1989). Self-adapting
dynamic vibration absorber. Soviet Union Patent 1477870.
9. Kolovsky, M. Z. (1976). Automatic control by systems of vibration protection. Moscow,
Russia: Nauka.
10. Balandin, D. V., Bolotnik, N. N., & Pilkey, W. D. (2001). Optimal protection from impact,
shock and vibration. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Gordon and Breach Science.
11. Korenev, B. G., & Reznikov, L. M. (1993). Dynamic vibration absorbers. Theory and
technical applications. Chichester, England: Wiley.

Chapter 8

Parametric Vibration Protection

of Linear Systems

The mechanical systems whose behavior are described by linear differential equations with constant coefcients are considered. The systems are subjected to
external excitation; this excitation can change in an arbitrary way over time.
Absolute invariance implies absolute independence of some coordinates from the
excitation applied to the system. The absolute invariance means that generalized
coordinates cannot be implemented, even without introducing any vibration protection devices. The ShchipanovLuzin criterion of absolute invariance and
Petrovs two-channel principle are discussed. Problems of parametric elimination
of unwanted vibration modes of a spinning rotor and a plate subjected to an inertial
moving load are considered.

8.1

General

One way of protecting mechanical systems from vibrations is internal vibration

protection: changing parameters of the system in order to reduce vibration. This
method simply implies a detuning from the resonance modes. In special cases the
problem of internal vibration protection cannot be solved by known methods of
theory of vibration. This occurs if the external exposure and the excitation frequencies are unstable or information about them is unknown.
It is known that under certain relations between the parameters of the system and
the external excitation it is possible to reach a resonance state. On the basis of
duality principle in physics [1] we can formulate the idea of optimal parametric
vibration protection: is it possible to choose the parameters of the system so that one
or more of the generalized coordinates would be invariants of the external excitation? If this is possible, then arbitrary external excitation will not initiate certain
modes of vibration. Essentially, the invariance implies a gap (lack of control) of
the channel transmission effects. Clearly in this case, as in the case of critical
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_8

265

266

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

conditions, we should expect the pointwise representation of the invariance conditions in the state space.
Originally, the invariance principle was described by Lord Rayleigh (the phenomenon of singing ame in a Rijke pipe) [2]. The original study of the
invariance principle is associated with Shchipanov (1939) [3] and Luzin (1951)
[4]. Their ideas formed the basis of modern sections of technical cyberneticsthe
theory of invariance. Shchipanovs ideas were perceived very negatively in
the USSR, and Shchipanov and Luzin were subjected to harassment. In 1966, the
results of Shipanov were recognized as a scientic discovery ( 44, priority date
1939). In acoustics, the fundamental theory of invariance was presented in [5].
At present, the theory of invariance is a vast eld of science with extensive
technical applications [68].

8.2

Invariance Principle

Linear dynamical systems with nite degrees of freedom and constant parameters
are considered. The system is subjected to arbitrary external excitation. The problem is to determine conditions in the parameter space of the system under which the
specic generalized coordinate cannot be realized. The operational method is
applied. This method allows us to easily identify the inuence of initial conditions.

8.2.1

ShchipanovLuzin Absolute Invariance

The behavior of a system is described by a set of linear ordinary differential

equations
a11 px1 a12 px2 a13 px3 f 1 t,
a21 px1 a22 px2 a23 px3 0,

8:1

a31 px1 a32 px2 a33 px3 0 ;

where p

d
is the differential operator, and coefcients in the general case have
dt

the form
aik p mik p2 lik p cik ,

i, k 1, :2, 3

8:2

with constant parameters mik, lik, cik.

Assume that the initial conditions of the system are xi 0 x_ i 0 0, i 1,
2, 3: The problem is to nd the criterion of independence of ith generalized
coordinate xi with respect to arbitrary external action f(t) [6].

8.2 Invariance Principle

267

Formal application of the Laplace transform to the system of equations (8.1)

leads to the set of equations
a11 sX1 a12 sX2 a13 sX3 F1 s,
a21 sX1 a22 sX2 a23 sX3 0,

8:3

a31 sX1 a32 sX2 a33 sX3 0 :

Here Xi(s) and F1(s) are images of the response xi(t) and excitation f1(t), respectively. Laplace transform allows us to easily explain the physical meaning of the
absolute invariance criterion. More detail about Laplace transform is presented in
Chapter 13.
The solution to this system is Xi s Di =D, i 1, 2, 3; where




 a11 a12 a13 
 F1 a12 a13 








D1  0 a22 a23  ,
D  a21 a22 a23  ,




 a31 a32 a33 
 0 a32 a33 
8:4




 a11 F1 a13 
 a11 a12 F1 











D3  a21 a22 0  :
D2  a21 0 a23  ,




 a31 0 a33 
 a31 a32 0 
The images Xi(s) of the generalized coordinates xj are

 a22

X1 sD F1 s
a
32

 a21

X3 sD F1 s
a
31


a23 
,
a33 

a22 
:
a32 


 a21

X2 sD F1 s
a
31


a23 
,
a33 

8:5

From the rst relationship (8.5) we can see that the image X1(s) is invariant with
respect to the image of external excitation F1(s), if


 a22 a23 


8:6
M11 s 
 a22 a33  a23 a32  0:
 a32 a33 
In this case the original x1(t) will be invariant under external excitation f1(t).
Expression (8.6) is ShchipanovLuzins condition of the absolute invariance for
the coordinates x1(t) with respect to arbitrary external excitation f1(t) [4].
Similarly, we can write the condition of absolute invariance for generalized
coordinates x2(t) and x3(t) with respect to excitation f1(t)

268

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems


 a21

M21 s 
 a31


a23 
  0,
a33 


 a21

M31 s 
 a31


a22 
  0:
a32 

8:7

In the general case of n linear differential equations

a11 px1 a12 px2    a1n px3 f 1 t,
a21 px1 a22 px2    a2n px3 f 2 t,
                              

8:8

an1 px1 an2 px2    ann px3 f n t ;

the invariance of coordinate xj(t) with respect to the excitation fi(t) is achieved when
the cofactor is Mij  0.
Note that we are talking about the independence of the coordinates relative to the
external excitation only. Of course the transition component of the generalized
coordinate caused by the non-zero initial conditions takes place. The invariance of
coordinate xj(t) with respect to the excitation fi(t) means that the system does not
react to the excitation through the ijth channel.

8.2.2

Invariance up to

Here we examine the role of non-zero initial conditions for system (8.1) [4]. To do
this, we use the theorem on differentiation of the initial conditions for original Ri ,
where no operators aij(s) are higher than second order. In (8.3) we need to introduce
additional terms which take into account initial conditions
R1 s m11 x1 0s x_ 1 0 l11 x1 0 m12 x2 0s x_ 2 0 l12 x2 0
m13 x3 0s x_ 3 0 l13 x2 0,
R2 s m21 x1 0s x_ 1 0 l21 x1 0 m22 x2 0s x_ 2 0 l22 x2 0
m23 x3 0s x_ 3 0 l23 x2 0,
R3 s m31 x1 0s x_ 1 0 l31 x1 0 m32 x2 0s x_ 2 0 l32 x2 0
m33 x3 0s x_ 3 0 l33 x2 0:
Modied equations (8.3) take the form
a11 sX1 a12 sX2 a13 sX3 F1 s R1 s,
a21 sX1 a22 sX2 a23 sX3 R2 s,
a31 sX1 a32 sX2 a33 sX3 R3 s :

8.2 Invariance Principle

269

Determinants Di become

 F1 R1



D1  R2


 R3

 a11



D3  a21


 a31

a12
a22
a32

a12
a22
a32


a13 


a23 ,


a33 


 a11



D2  a21


 a31

F1 R 1
R2
R3


a13 


a23 ,


a33 


F1 R1 


R2  :


R3 

Now the expression for image X1(s) of the generalized coordinate x1(t) should be
presented in the form






 a22 a23 
 a12 a13 
 a12 a13 






8:9
X1 sD F1 R1 
  R2 
 R3 
:
 a32 a33 
 a32 a33 
 a22 a23 
As before, if the conditions (8.6) are satised, then coordinate x1(t) is invariant with
respect to any external excitation f1(t). Now, however, this does not mean that the
motion of the system, more specically, x1(t), is absent; this is because expression
(8.9) contains a term Ri, which reects the inuence of the initial conditions. In the
case of non-zero initial conditions, vibrations are observed in the system, but they
are transient in character.
Taking into account expression (8.2), the condition (8.6) of absolute invariance
becomes


 m22 s2 l22 s c22 ; m23 s2 l23 s c23 


M11 s 
  0:
 m32 s2 l32 s c32 ; m33 s2 l33 s c33 
This determinant can be presented in powers of s
0 s4 1 s3 2 s2 3 s 4  0:

8:10

In the equivalent form, expression (8.10) is equivalent to the following identities

270

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems


 



 m22 m23 
 m33 l23   m22 l32 

 



  0, 1 

  0,
0 

 


 m32 m33 
 m32 l22   m23 l33 
 
 


 m33 c23   l22 l23   m22 c32 
 
 




  0,
2 
 
 

 m32 c22   l32 l33   m23 c33 
 




 c22 l32   l22 c32 
 c22 c23 
 





  0, 4 
  0:
3 
 



 c23 l33   l23 c33 
 c32 c33 

8:11

Five conditions in (8.11) contain 12 parameters of system (8.1). If all the conditions
in (8.11) are satised, we have the case of a full invariance of the response x1(t) with
respect to the arbitrary excitation f1(t) and non-zero initial conditions for all
generalized coordinates. If some are not equal to zero, then we have the case of
a system that is invariant up to .
If the determinant D is expanded in terms of the cofactors of the elements of the
rst row, and we assume that the condition of absolute invariance (8.6) is exactly
satised, then (8.9) becomes
(


 a21

a12 
a
31



 a21
a23 

 a13 

a
a33
31

)

 a12
a22 

 X1 s R2 

a
a33
32



 a12
a13 

 R3 

a
a33
22


a13 
: 8:12
a23 

If the determinants in the left-hand side of (8.12) are presented in the expanded
form and then factors a21 and a31 are isolated, then (8.12) can be written as
(


 a13

a21 
a
33



 a12
a12 

 a31 
a

a32
22


)
 a13
a13 

 X 1 s R 2 
a

a23
33



 a12
a12 

 R3 
a

a32
22


a13 
: 8:13
a23 

In a condensed form, relationship (8.13) can be written as

fa21 M21 a31 M31 gX1 s R2 M21 R3 M31 ;
where M21 and M31 are cofactors, which correspond to the elements a21 and a31 of
the determinant D. Finally, we get expression for image of the generalized
coordinate
X 1 s

R2 M21 R3 M31
:
a21 M21 a31 M31

8:14

From (8.14), it can be seen that under the conditions of absolute invariance (8.6),
only the forced component is eliminated. The transient component of the response,
due to the nonzero initial conditions, remains [6].

8.3 Parametric Vibration Protection of the Spinning Rotor

8.3

271

Parametric Vibration Protection of the Spinning Rotor

A horizontal rigid rotor of mass M is mounted on two elastic supports 1 and

2 with stiffness coefcients k1 and k2, respectively (Fig. 8.1). The rotor is rotated
about the longitudinal axis with a constant angular velocity . Center of mass
C of the rotor is located at distances l1 and l2 from the left and right supports,
respectively; the distance between supports is l. The moment of inertia of the rotor
about the rotation axis x is Jx, and about any axis perpendicular to the axis of
rotation and passing through mass center C of the rotor is JC. A horizontal
disturbing force F(t) is applied at the point C. We need to analyse the motion of
the system from the point of view of the invariance of the generalized coordinates
with respect to excitation F(t).
Fig. 8.1 Design diagram of
the spinning rotor

yC

zC

F(t)

k1

x
C

k2
l1
l2

Consider small vibration of the spinning rotor around its equilibrium position;
such position coincides with the horizontal x-axis of symmetry of the rotor. The
origin of a xed xyz system coincides with the left support in the equilibrium
position. Let the rotor be subjected to an arbitrary displacement. The displacements
of the specic points of the rotor (left support 1, right support 2, and center mass C)
are (y1, z1), (y2, z2), and (yC, zC), respectively. The angle of rotation of the rotor axis
in the xy plane is denoted by , and in the xz plane by . The system under
consideration has four degrees of freedom. Let the generalized coordinates be y1,
y2, z1, z2 (Fig. 8.2).
z

Fig. 8.2 Displacements of

the specic points of a rotor

y2

y1

yC
l2

z2

z1

l1

zC
l2

l1

The reaction of the support is shown in Fig. 8.3. Elastic supports with stiffness
coefcients k1 and k2 are shown conventionally.
The angles and can be written in terms of generalized coordinates, as follows:
l tan y2  y1 ,

l tan z2  z1 ,

tan ,

tan :

272

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

Fig. 8.3 Forces acting

on the rotor

yC

zC

k1 y1

F(t)

k1
k1z1

l1

k2 y2
l

k2
k2 z2

C
l2

In order to derive the equations of motion of the rotor we need to consider two
theorems of dynamics of rigid body motion [9]. According to the theorem of the
motion of the center of mass in the vector and scalar form we have
MaC Re ;
M yC k1 y1  k2 y2 Ft,
MzC k1 z1  k2 z2 ;

8:15
8:16

where aC is acceleration of the center of mass, Re is a principal vector of the

external forces, and yC , zC are acceleration projection of the center of mass on the
axes y and z, respectively.
The theorem relating the change of the angular momentum of a system in vector
form is
dL
Me :
dt

8:17

Here L is angular momentum of a system and Me is a principal moment of external

force.
The angular momentum of the rotor about the central axis is
LCx I x ,

LCy I x  J C _ ,

LCz I x J C _ :

8:18a

The moments of external forces around the central axis are

e
MCx
0,

e
MCy
z2 k2 l2  z1 k1 l1 ,

e
MCz
y2 k2 l2 y1 k1 l1 :

8:18b

According to (8.17), the formulas (8.18a) and, (8.18b) lead to the following
relationships:
I x _  I C z2 k2 l2  z1 k1 l1 ,
I x _ I C y2 k2 l2 y1 k1 l1 :

8:18c

8.3 Parametric Vibration Protection of the Spinning Rotor

273

If we substitute expressions yC y1 l2 =l y2 l1 =l, zC z1 l2 =l z2 l1 =l into

(8.16), (8.18c) and take into account small angles and then we obtain the
following equations of the small vibration of the spinning rotor [10]
Ml1y2  l2y1 k1 ly1 k2 ly2 lFt,
Ml1z2  l2z1 k1 lz1 k2 lz2 0,

8:19

I x y_ 2  y_ 1  I C z2  z1 k2 l2 lz2 k1 l1 lz1 0,
I x z_ 2  z_ 1 I C y2  y1  k2 l2 ly2  k1 l1 ly1 0:

If the center of mass of the rotor is located between supports, then in all the
equations the sign before l2 must be reversed. It is obvious that the set of equations
(8.19) can be derived using Lagranges equation. However, doing so in the expression for kinetic energy, the second-order terms in the generalized coordinates
should be retained [10].
We arrange the coordinates in order y1, y2, z1, z2. In the operator matrix form,
system (8.19) takes the form
aik s Y k s Fk s Rk s ;

8:20

where the matrix of the system is

2
6
6
6
aik s 6
6
4

Ml2 s2 k1 l

Ml1 s2 k2 l

Ml2 s2 k1 l

I x s

I x s

I C s2 k1 l1 l

I C s2  k1 l1 l I C s2  k2 l2 l

I x s

7
Ml1 s2 k2 l 7
7
7;
2
I C s k2 l2 l 7
5
I x s
8:21

Yk(s) is a vector of the image of coordinates y1, y2, z1, z2,, and Rk takes into account
non-zero initial conditions.
Invariance of z1 with respect to F(t) occurs if cofactor M13 s  0, i.e.



0
0
Ml1 s2 k2 l 



8:22
jM13 sj 
I x s
I x s
I C s2 k2 l2 l   0



 I C s2  k1 l1 l I C s2  k2 l2 l
I x s
This determinant can be presented in powers of s as follows:
jM13 sj 1 s3 2 s  0;
1 I x M l l1 k2 l2 k1 l1 ,

2 I x k2 l2 k2 l2 k1 l1 :

274

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

These two expressions are both identically zero if

k2 l2 k1 l1 0:

8:23

It is easy to verify that the full invariance z2 with respect to F(t) is achieved for the
same condition (8.23). Indeed, invariance z2 with respect to F(t) is achieved if
cofactor M14 s  0. In this case the entry Ml1 s2 k2 l in determinant (8.22) should
be replaced by the entry Ml2 s2 k1 l.
Thus, let the center of mass of the rotor C be located between the supports, and
the relation k2 l2 k1 l1 holds; in this case, if any load is applied at the center C and
is directed along the horizontal axis y, then the vertical vibrations z of the rotor do
not occur (Fig. 8.3). Note that the invariance of y1 and y2 with respect to F(t) cannot
be achieved. Thus, in this case, only partial passive vibration protection may be
realized.
The effect of parametric elimination of displacement at the point of application
of the harmonic disturbing force can be observed in the case of a system with
distributed parameters. In some cases it is possible to obtain an exact solution. As an
example, consider the uniform clamped-free beam of bending stiffness EI and mass
per unit length m. At point x l, the beam is loaded by a concentrated harmonic
force (Fig. 8.4).
Fig. 8.4 Invariance of
displacement of the
beam endpoint

P0sint

y
EI, m, l

y=0.018y0

l=3.927
y=0.0028y0

l=7.068

The transverse displacement of a beam at any point x is [11]

yx; t P0

cosh l cos lsinh x sin x sinh l sin lcosh x cos x

23 EI cosh l cos l 12

sin t,

m2
:
EI

The most efcient derivation of this expression is achieved via Krylov functions
[1214].
The deection of the free end of the beam is
yl; t P0

sinh l cos l  cosh l sin l

sin t:
3 EI cosh l cos l 1

8:24

8.4 Physical Feasibility of the Invariance Conditions

275

If the numerator of this expression vanishes, then displacement of the beam end at
any time is equal to zero. This occurs if tan l tanhl: The roots of this equation
are l 3:927, 7:068, . . . Thus, parametric elimination of vibration at the
r
2
4 m
free end of the beam occurs if parameters of the given system satisfy
l
EI
3:927, 7:068, . . . The elastic curve of the beam, according to the rst and second
mode of vibration, is shown in Fig. 8.4, factor y0 P0 l3 =EI: Thus, the endpoint of
the beam where the harmonic force is applied will be stationary all time. This
phenomenon is called anti-resonance of the end point of the beam.

8.4

Physical Feasibility of the Invariance Conditions

To satisfy conditions of absolute invariance of the output coordinate X(s) relative to

the external action F(s), the parameters of the system should be chosen in a way
such that transfer function G between the point where excitation is applied and the
point where the output coordinate is measured is equal to zero.
This can be achieved in two ways, and they are considered below.

8.4.1

Uncontrollability of Perturbation-Coordinate
Channel

Let us consider the physical meaning of the ShchipanovLuzin absolute invariance

criterion. Our analysis will be based on the system of differential equations, each of
second order (8.1), with zero initial conditions
a11 px1 a12 px2 a13 px3 f 1 t,
a21 px1 a22 px2 a23 px3 0,

8:25

a31 px1 a32 px2 a33 px3 0 :

Just for this set of equations the ShchipanovLuzins criterion has been obtained.
The system (8.25) in the images
a11 sX1 a12 sX2 a13 sX3 F1 s,
a21 sX1 a22 sX2 a23 sX3 0,

8:26

a31 sX1 a32 sX2 a33 sX3 0 :

Let us solve each equation for the principal variable Xi(s), where i is equation
number

276

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

1
F1 s  a12 sX2  a13 sX3 ,
a11 s
1
a21 sX1  a23 sX3 0 ,
X 2 s
a22 s
1
X 3 s
a31 sX1  a32 sX2  :
a33 s

X 1 s

8:27

We will study the invariance of the image coordinate X1(s) with respect to the
image of external action F1(s). Thus the input is F1(s), while the output is X1(s).
Figure 8.5a presents a block diagram of a system (8.27); for simplicity, we restrict
ourselves to the case when a12 p a31 p 0.

3
1

1/a22

X2(s)

a23

F1(s)

a32/a33

X3(s)

a13

1/a11

X1(s)

a21
F1(s)

G123=

X3(s)

a13

1/a11

X1(s)

a21
Fig. 8.5 Block diagrams of a system described by (8.27) (a), and transformed block diagram (b);
a12 p a31 p 0

The transfer function of blocks 1 and 2 is

G12 s G1 sG2 s 

1 a32
:
a22 a33

Therefore, the transfer function of blocks 1, 2 and 3 is

G123 s

G12 s
a32

:
1 G12 sG3 s
a22 a33  a32 a23

8:28a

Corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. 8.5b. More detail about transformation of block diagram will be presented in Chapter 12.
According to the ShchipanovLuzin analytical criterion (8.6), invariance of X1
with respect to F1(s) occurs if a22 a33  a32 a23 0. Therefore, the transfer function
G123 s 1 and the transfer function through the channel F1(s)  X1(s) become

8.4 Physical Feasibility of the Invariance Conditions

GF1 X1

277

1=a11
0:
1 G123 a13 1=a11 a21

This condition means that the steady-state response of X1(s) in the case of an
arbitrary excitation F1(s) is equal to zero because the channel input-output
linkage is broken. Thus the absolute invariance is realized if the transfer function
on the channel of the responce-external excitation is equal to zero.

8.4.2

Petrovs Two-Channel Principle

The absolute invariance condition GF1 X1 0 can be realized in another way. We
will consider the ShchipanovLuzin invariance condition (8.6) for the spinning
rotor. Equations (8.20) and (8.21) may be written in the form
a11 sX1 a12 sX2 F1 s,
a23 sX3 a24 sX4 0,

8:28b

a31 sX1 a32 sX2 a33 sX3 a34 sX4 0,

a41 sX1 a42 sX2 a43 sX3 a44 sX4 0:
Each equation is solved with respect to the primary unknown Xii(s),
X 1 s

1
F1 s  a12 sX2 ,
a11 s

1
a31 sX1  a33 sX3  a34 sX4 ,
a32 s
a24
X 3 s  X 4 ,
a23

X 2 s

X 4 s

8:28c

1
a41 sX1  a42 sX2  a43 sX3  :
a44 s

The corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. 8.6.

a12

X2(s)
a34

F (s)
+ 1

1/a11

X1(s)
a31

1/a32

X2(s)

a42

1/a44

a43

a41
a33

X3(s)

Fig. 8.6 Block diagram of a spinning rotor described by (8.28c)

a24/a23

X4(s)

278

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

We will nd the transfer function between the pickoff 2 and summing point 5.
Simple transformations of this scheme (moving a summing point ahead a block,
moving a pickoff point behind a block, etc.) [15] allow us to write the expression for
transfer function Gpr
25 (s) in the primary branch between points 2 and 5
Gpr
25 s a31 1=a32 a42 :
In order to obtain this result we put signal X4, which pass through block a34, ahead
block a31; corresponding transformation rules are considered in Chap. 12. At point
2 the signal X1 bifurcates and conversional signal passes from point 2 to point
5 along two channels in one direction, so the total transfer function between points
2 and 5 becomes
G25 s Gpr
25  a41 a31 1=a32 a42  a41 :
As a result, under the condition
G25 s

a31 a42  a32 a41

0
a32

invariance x4 z2 , with respect to F1(t) is realized. This result is obvious from

(8.21), (8.28a), (8.28b), and (8.28c). Indeed, the corresponding cofactor is
2

a23

6
4 a31

a32

7
a33 5 0 :

a41

a42

a43

From the block-diagram in Fig. 8.6, it can be seen that this case also provides
invariance x3 z1 with respect to F1(t).
Thus, for invariance of the image of coordinate X1(s) with respect to the image of
excitation F1(s) requires two transmission channels and the total transfer function
on the channel F1(s)  X1(s) would be equal to zero. This is essential in the Petrov
two-channel principle [6, 16]. The presence of these channels may be determined
by analyzing the block diagrams.

8.4.3

Dynamic Vibration Absorber

Let us consider the dynamic vibration absorber from the viewpoint of Petrovs
two-channel principle. The design diagram is shown in Fig. 8.7a. Vibration of this
system is described by equations
m0x0 k0 k1 x0  k1 x1 P0 sin t,
m1x1 k1 x1  x0 0:
In operator form, these are

8.4 Physical Feasibility of the Invariance Conditions

279

P(s)

P(s)

k0
SEP

m0

x0

x1

X0(s)

P0 sin t

m1

1/a11

X0(s)

a12X1

a12

k1
SEP

1/a11

X1(s)

a21/ a22

a12a21/ a22

Fig. 8.7 Dynamic vibration absorber. (a) Design diagram; (b) corresponding block diagram and
simplied scheme

m0 p2 k0 x0  k1 x1 P0 sin t,
k1 x0 m1 p2 k1 x1 0:
In the images the dynamic model is described by equations
a11 sX0 s  a12 sX1 s Ps,
a21 sX0 s a22 sX1 s 0:
Solve each equation for the principal variable
X 0 s

1
Ps a12 sX1 s,
a11 s

X 1 s

a21 s
X0 s:
a22 s

The corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. 8.7b.

It can be seen that this system has feedback. The transfer function of the
feedback element is a12a21/a22.
The transfer function of the system is
G s

1=a11
:
1 a12 a21
1
a11 a22

Assume that the excitation is harmonic and the excitation frequency is

p
k1 =m1 : With this we obtain a22 0. This means that the transfer function
Gs 0, the channel G  X0 is torn, and therefore X0 s 0.
In this example we have the independence of the output coordinate x0(t) not with
respect to an arbitrary excitation but only under the harmonic excitation. Therefore,
this system is not strictly invariant according to the ShchipanovLuzin principle.
However, this example allows us to visualize the nature of the act of total compensation of the excitation in the case of a tuned absorber.

280

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

In the case of a system with a nite number of degrees of freedom, the problem
of parametric vibration protection is solved for xed generalized coordinates. In the
case of a continuous system, the problem of parametric elimination of the undesirable vibration modes becomes much more complicated, since different combinations of the generalized coordinates are incorporated into the truncated system of
differential equations [17].

8.5

Parametric Vibration Protection of the Plate

Under a Moving Load

As in the case of systems with lumped parameters, the invariance principle in the
application to systems with distributed parameters can be regarded as a method of
solving the problem of parametric elimination of the undesired forms of vibration.
The following approximate approach can be applied for the simplest solution to
these problems. In the rst step of solving this problem, the solution of partial
differential equations should be presented in a series form that satises the boundary conditions. The original mathematical model in the form of a partial differential
equation should then be replaced by a system of the ordinary differential equations.
For this purpose one of the known methods (for example, the Bubnov-Galerkin
method) should be applied.
In this step, a feature of this type of problem becomes immediately clear: if in
a system with lumped parameters, the number of equations coincides with the
number of degrees of freedom, in the case of a system with distributed parameters,
the number of equations is determined by the number of terms in the series. For a
selected number of terms and shaping functions, the ShchipanovLuzin criterion
is applied, and the conditions of absolute or partial invariance are determined.
The introduction of additional terms in the series can lead to an expansion of the
invariance conditions in the parameter space of the system, and to the emergence of the
conditions which contradict the conditions obtained with fewer members of the series.
Analytical determination of invariance conditions in the systems with distributed
parameters can be found in [8].

8.5.1

Mathematical Model of a System

A rectangular plate rests along the contour on an ideal diaphragm (absolutely rigid
in its own plane and completely exible in the transverse direction). The material of
the plate is homogeneous, isotropic, and perfectly elastic; the plate thickness is
constant, the mass per unit area of the plate is m0. The plate is loaded by the innite
strip which moves with a constant speed as shown in Fig. 8.8. The The intensity of
the load and mass per unit area are q(t) and mq; the load width of 2c is

8.5 Parametric Vibration Protection of the Plate Under a Moving Load

281

symmetrically located with respect to center line y b/2. Consider only the stationary regime [18]; variable velocity, moving onto the plate, moving off the
plateare not considered.
Fig. 8.8 Design diagram of
a plate subjected to a
moving inertial strip load

q(t), mq

2c

The state of the plate is described by equation

2

X D2 2 w m0

w
 q 0;
t2

8:29

where w is the transverse displacement of the plate, D Eh3 =121  2 is the

cylindrical stiffness of the plate, h is the thickness, E and are the modulus
of elasticity and Poisson coefcient of the material of the plate, respectively.
The differential operators are dened by
2

,
x2 y2

2 2

2 2 2 4:
x4
x y
y

8:30

The intensity of the external load q comprises forces of the inertial element of
the plate, the intensity of a given load q0, and the forces of inertia of the moving
load [1820]
q m0


2
w
d2 w

q

m
;
q
0
t2
dt2

8:31

where the total derivative should be calculated by formula

2

d2 w w
w
w
2 2 :
2 2
2
dt
t
tx
x

8:32

In expression (8.32) for a total derivative, the rst term characterizes the transport
acceleration, while the second and third terms present the Coriolis acceleration and
the normal acceleration of a moving load.
Let us take the expression for the transverse displacement of the plate in the form
w

XX
j

f ji t sin

jx
iy
sin
;
a
b

8:33

282

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

where fji(t) are unknown functions of the time. To determine the functions fji(t) the
BubnovGalerkin method is applied to (8.29)
a b
Xk sin
0

mx
ny
sin
dxdy 0,
a
b

k 1, 2:

8:34

As a result, we obtain an innite system of ordinary differential equations for the

unknown functions fji. We analyze the truncated system of unknown functions f11,
f13, f15, f21, f23. Each differential equation contains f ji , f_ ji , f ji terms; their
corresponding coefcients are m, l, c . The system of equations is presented in
Table 8.1. The function f11 (and its derivatives) in the rst equation, according
Table 8.1, is




a11 f 11 m11 p2 l11 p c11 f 11 1 2A1 f 11 0  f_ 11 211  2n2 A1 f 11 :
 2
2



m
n2 D
c
1
2kc
n ; 2mn 4 2 2
; Ak
sin
, k 1, 3, 5;
a
a
m0
b 2k
b
b




mq
2c
4c
4c
6c
sin
, A4 3 sin
2 sin
,
; A2 2 sin
m0
b
b
b
b


2c
8c
sin
:
A6 4 sin
b
b
Let us nd the conditions under which the 21 vibration shape of the plate
cannot be realized. Thus, we will nd the conditions under which the invariance of
f 21 x4 exists with respect to excitation represented on the right side of the rst
equation (Table 8.1). In doing so we can consider the various equations that
correspond to different approximations.
1. Invariance J 124
211 . Here the subscripts 211 represent invariance of f21 with
respect to the excitation in the right-hand side of equation 1; superscripts 1, 2,
4 indicate the number of the equations under consideration.
Form the matrix operators aik, we considering the functions x1 f 11 , x2 f 13 ,
x4 f 21 and equations 1,2,4.
2

a11

6
6 a21
4
a41

a12

a14

a22

7
a24 7
5:

a42

a44

Invariance condition is satised if



 a21 a22 


 or a21 a42  a22 a41 0:

 a41 a42 

8:35

2
8nA1 =9 2
0

8nA2 =3 2

32nA1 =3

m2j

l2j

213  2nA3

a42
0

32nA3 =3

n2 A6 =4

n2 A2 =2

a41
0

8nA2 =3 2

0
a51
A4 =6

n2 A4 =6

l3j

c3j

m4j

l4j

c4j

m5j

l5j

c5j

0
a52
A6 =4

m3j

215  2n2 A5

0
a53
1 2A5

4nA6 =3 2

a43
0

n2 A6 =4

a33
A6 =4

a32
1 2A3

a31
A2 =2

c2j

c1j

n2 A4 =6
a23
0

n2 A2 =2
a22
0

f 15 x3
a13
A4 =6

f 13 x2
a12
A2 =2

211  2n2 A1
a21
0

Equation,
operators f 11 x1
Operator a11
m1j 1 2A1
1
l1j
0

4nA6 =3 2

8n2 A4 =9 2

223  8n2 A3
a55
0

2n2 A2 =
a54
0
0

a45
1 2A3

a44
A2 =2

32nA3 =3

8n2 A2 =3 2
0

a35
0

a25
A2 =2
0
2n2 A2 =

a24
1 2A1
0
221  8n2 A1
a34
0

f 23 x5
a15
0
8nA1 =3 2
0

f 21 x4
a14
0
32nA1 =3
0

16q0 t
3c
sin
3m0 2
b

16q0 t
5c
sin
5m0 2
b

16q0 t
c
sin
m0 2
b

Free term Fi(t)

Table 8.1 Differential equations of vibration of a rectangular plate subjected to a moving load. Stationary condition. Operators aik p
mik p2 lik p cik , i, k 1, . . . , n: [17, 19]

8.5 Parametric Vibration Protection of the Plate Under a Moving Load

283

284

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

In expanded form, this equation takes the form

16 2 A1 A3  A22 0:

8:36

This is possible only if c=b 0. This means that the plate should be loaded on
the center line this conclusion is in line with the original assumption.
2. Now we extend the range of the investigated equations and consider invariance
of J 125
211 . The ShchipanovLuzin criterion is written as follows: a41 a55  a51 a45
0: This is possible in the following cases: c=b 0, loading along the center
line; c=b 0:5, loading across the width of the plate; mq =m0 0; this case
represents a massless moving load.
3. Increase the number of equations and consider the external excitation of the third
equation. Let us nd the condition of invariance for J 1245
213 . In this case, the
ShchipanovLuzin determinant becomes
2

a11

6
4 a21
a41

a12

a13

a22

7
a23 5 0:

a42

a43

8:37

We expand the determinant and equate the coefcients of s4 and s2 to zero. The
terms of absolute invariance f 21 x4 under the function F3 are as follows: c=b 0,
c=b 0:5, 0 , n 0; the last condition means that the load is stationary.
Without giving intermediate results we note that the condition of invariance of
1245
J 215 leads to the results obtained in case 3. It can be seen that the range of results
increases as the new equations are introduced for consideration. This is explained
by the fact that the internal communication of transmission signals is activated. The
mechanism of the transmission of the signal goes far beyond the scope of this book.
Parametric elimination of some shapes of vibration of a shell of positive Gaussian curvature subjected to the inertial moving strip load is presented in [17].

8.5.2

Petrovs Principle

Table 8.1 allows us to write equations 1,2,4 for functions x1 f 11 ;x2 f 13 ;x4 f 21
in the following form
a11 x1 a12 x2 a14 x4 F1 t,
a21 x1 a22 x2 a24 x4 0,

8:38

a41 x1 a42 x2 a44 x4 0:

The Laplace transform is applied to system (8.38), xi ! Xi s; and then the
equations in the images are solved for X1(s), X2(s), X4(s)

Problems

285

X 1 s

1
F1  a12 X2  a14 X4 ,
a11

1
X2 s  a21 X1 a24 X4 ,
a22

8:39

1
X4 s  a41 X1 a42 X2 :
a44
The corresponding block-diagram is shown in Fig. 8.9.
a41
a12X2
F1 +
+

a12

1/a11

X1

a41X1
1

a21

1/a22

a42

S2

1/a44

X4

2
a24X4

a14 X4

X2

a24

a14

Fig. 8.9 Structural scheme of the dynamical system the platemoving innite strip load

It is easy to show that in the direct channel, the blocks with transfer functions
a21, 1=a22 and a42 can be replaced by a single block with an equivalent transfer
a21
function W 1  a42 [15] . This means that the output signal X2 of summation
a22
block 2 is obtained by two unidirectional channels: the direct channel with transfer
function W1 and parallel channel with transfer functionW 2 a41 . According to Petrovs
two-channel principle, the condition W 1 W 2 0 leads to expression (8.35). This
means that communication in channel F1  X4 is broken, the generalized coordinate
x4 f 21 of the system is no longer susceptible to excitation, and the formation of
vibration mode f21 of the plate is impossible. We can also see that the basic shape of
vibration x11 f 11 of the plate, using the parametrical approach, cannot be eliminated.

Problems
8.1. Describe the mathematical essence of the ShchipanovLuzin absolute invariance. What kind of restrictions are imposed on the mathematical model of the
dynamical system?
8.2. Explain the essence of Petrovs two-channel principle.
8.3. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the analytical determination of
invariance terms.
8.4. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the structural determination of
invariance terms.
8.5. What is the role of initial conditions in the invariance principle?

286

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

8.6. Describe the difference between absolute invariance and the invariance
up to .
8.7. A dynamic system consists of a rectangular plate carrying an innite moving
strip load. The behavior of this system is described by (8.29)(8.34), Table 8.1.
Prove that absolute invariance of f11 with respect to excitation F1 cannot be
achieved.
8.8. For a plate carrying an innite moving strip load (Equations (8.29)(8.34),
Table 8.1), nd the invariance condition of the response f13 with respect to F1.
Consider equations 1,2,3 from Table 8.1.
8.9. Is it possible to treat the suppression of vibrations by using a Schlick
gyroscopic vibration absorber as the realization of the principle of
invariance?
8.10. An arbitrary deformable system (DS) with three lumped masses is shown in
Fig. P8.10. The boundary conditions are not shown. The mass m3 is subjected
to disturbing force F(t).
F(t)
m1

m2

x1

x2

m3

DS

x3

Fig. P8. 10 Deformable structure (DS) with lumped masses

Consider the steady-state vibration only. Derive the invariance condition

for coordinate x1 with respect to arbitrary excitation F(t). Discuss case
m3 0:
Hint: The displacement of mass m1 due to the inertial forces mixi acting at
points 1, 2 and 3 is
x1 11 m1x1 12 m2x2 13 m3x3 ;
where ik is the unit displacement (displacement along the direction of force
Fi due to the action of unit force Fk).
Answer: The invariance condition is
 

 a12 s a13 s   12 m2 s2
 

I X1 F 

 a22 s a23 s   22 m2 s2 1


13 m3 s2 

23 m3 s2 

m2 m3 12 23  22 13 s4  13 m3 s2 0:
1. If 12 23 22 13 , then invariance I X1 F is achieved with precision up to
2 13 m3 . Decreasing the value 13m3 leads to a weakening of the
relationship of the displacement x1 from the external excitation.

References

287

2. Absolute invariance I X1 F is achieved at 23 13 0:

8.11. A mechanical system is shown in Problem 8.10. Derive the invariance
condition for coordinate x2 with respect to arbitrary excitation F(t).
 


 a11 s a13 s   11 m1 s2 1 13 m3 s2 
 


I X2 F 


 a s a s   m s2
2
Answer:
m s
21

23

21

23

m1 m3 11 23  21 13 s4 23 m3 s2 0
8.12 The rotor in Fig. 8.1 (text) is subjected to harmonic horizontal force Ft F0
cos 0 t which is applied at the center mass C. Prove that if point C is located
between supports 1 and 2, and the condition k2 l2 k1 l1 holds, then the vertical
displacements z is not realized.
Hint. Use the set of differential equations ((8.19), text) and the partial
solutions in form
y1 t a1 cos 0 t,

z1 t a3 sin 0 t,

y2 t a2 cos 0 t,

z2 t a4 sin 0 t:

References
1. Razumovsky, O. S. (1975). Modern determinism and extreme principles in physics. Moscow,
Russia: Nauka.
2. Rayleigh Lord (J.W. Strutt) (1945). The theory of sound. New York: Dover.
3. Shchipanov, G. V. (1939). Theory and methods of design of the automatic regulators.
Automatics and Telemechanics, 1.
4. Luzin, N. N.,& Kuznetsov, P. I. (1951). Absolute invariance and invariance up to in the
theory of differential equations. DAN USSR, .80, 3.
5. Karnovsky, M. I. (1942). Acoustical compensating devices. DAN USSR, . XVII, 1.
6. Solodovnikov, V. V. (Ed.). (1967). Technical cybernetics (Vol. 14). Moscow, Russia:
Mashinostroenie.
7. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
8. Egorov, A. I. (1965). Optimal processes in systems with distributed parameters and certain
problems of the invariance theory. AN USSR, Series Math, 29(6), 12051260.
9. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/ColeThomson Learning.
10. Bat, M. I., Dzhanelidze, G. J., & Kelzon, A. S. (1973). Theoretical mechanics (Special topics,
Vol. 3). Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
11. Panovko, Ya. G., & Gubanova, I. I. (1973). Stability and oscillations of elastic systems:
Modern concepts, paradoxes, and errors (6th ed.). NASA TT-F, 751, M.: URSS, 2007.
12. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
13. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
14. Babakov, I. M. (1965). Theory of vibration. Moscow, Russia: Nauka.

288

8 Parametric Vibration Protection of Linear Systems

15. Shinners, S. M. (1978). Modern control system theory and application Reading, MA: Addison
Wesley. (Original work published 1972)
16. Petrov, B. N. (1960). The invariance Principle and the conditions for its application during the
calculation of linear and nonlinear systems. Proceedings of International Federation of
Automation Control Congress, Moscow (Vol. 2, pp. 11231128). London: Butterworth, 1961
17. Karnovsky, I. A. (1976). The invariance of the vibration modes of a shallow shell with respect
to external excitation. Izvestiya VUZov. Mashinostroenie, 2.
18. Karnovsky, I. A. (1968). Vibration of a plate carrying a moving load. Case of large deections.
Soviet Applied Mechanics, 4(10), 5660.
19. Karnovsky, I. A. (1971). Vibration of shell subjected to moving load. Strength of materials and
theory of structures (Vol. 13). Kiev: Budivelnik.
20. Karnovsky, I. A. (2012). Theory of arched structures. Strength, stability, vibration. New York:
Springer.

Chapter 9

Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection

Systems

This chapter contains information about the reasons for nonlinearity, the general
properties of nonlinear vibration, and discusses the basics of the harmonic linearization method. Applications of this method for the analysis of free and forced
vibrations of systems with one degree of freedom are presented. Different types of
nonlinearities are considered. These include Dufngs rigidity characteristic, a
combination of nonlinear stiffness with viscous resistance, linear stiffness with
dry friction. A nonlinear dynamic absorber is considered.
This chapter also discusses the linearization of systems with an arbitrary number
of degrees of freedom.

9.1

General

The necessity of considering problems of vibration protection (VP) of mechanical

systems in the nonlinear framework is dened as follows [14]:
1. Nonlinearity is inevitably inherent to any system. Assumptions about linear
properties of the system in some cases lead to the theoretical results which are
contradictory with observations. Therefore, analysis of vibration protection
systems in the framework of a purely linear theory may be incomplete and do
not adequately reect the features of the real vibration protection system.
2. Linear theory is not suitable to describe a number of phenomena arising in a
vibration protection systems subjected to intense vibration and impacts.
3. Elements with nonlinear characteristics can be specically introduced in the
system of vibration protection in order to increase the efciency of reducing
vibration.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_9

289

290

9.1.1

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Types of Nonlinearities and Theirs Characteristics

There are a number of traits leading to nonlinear systems. They can be divided into
two major groups: nonlinearities due to the real properties of elements of the
system, and the introduction of elements with inherently nonlinear properties into
the VP system.
Nonlinearities which fall into the rst group include [5, 6]:
1. Physical nonlinearity, when a stressstrain relationship for material of an element does not obey Hookes law;
2. Geometric nonlinearity, caused by large-amplitude vibrations;
3. Nonlinearity caused by dissipative forces;
4. Nonlinearity due to features of the environment in which the system is located
(system in a nonlinear magnetic eld, beam located on nonlinear elastic
foundation);
5. Structural nonlinearity; these include peculiarities of elastic elements (coil
spring with a variable radius of winding) and the presence of symmetrical/
nonsymmetrical constraints.
The second type of nonlinearity is due to the properties of elements which
are specically introduced into the system to achieve certain qualities [3]. Among
them are [7]:
1. Step nonlinearities (Coulomb friction, preload, ideal relay);
2. Dead-zone nonlinearity. The dead zone is a range of input for which there is no
output. This zone means that in the case of a direction change in the motion of a
body, it remains stationary until there is a clearance;
3. Combined nonlinearities (dead zone and saturation, relay with dead zone and
hysteresis);
Restrictions which are superimposed on the dimensions of a VP device also cast
the problem to a class of nonlinear problems [1]. More details about types of
nonlinearities, their characteristics, and peculiarities and methods are presented in
[3, 6, 810, 11, vol. 2].
For vibration protection systems, the nonlinearities that relate to elasticity,
damping, and the types of support can be divided into two broad classes: static and
dynamic nonlinear characteristics. Next we consider some typical nonlinearities.

9.1.1.1

Static Nonlinear Characteristics

Characteristics of force-displacement are written in the form F F(x) and can be

presented in an analytical or tabular form.
1. Power characteristics [12, 13]. It is necessary to distinguish the hardening and
softening characteristics of a nonlinear deformable element. In the case of
hardening characteristics (Fig. 9.1a), the slope of the force-displacement

9.1 General

291

Fig. 9.1 Hardening (a) and

softening (b) symmetrical
characteristics of the
restoring force

b
F

F
x

curve increases with increasing load, while in the case of softening characteristics (Fig. 9.1b), the slope decreases. In both cases, the dashed line shows a linear
characteristic. Analytical expressions for Dufngs (1918) characteristics of the
restoring force is
Fx  kx  hx3 :

9:1

The positive (negative) sign refers to a spring with a hardening (softening)

characteristic. A spring with variable winding radius (Iorish elastic element,
Sect. 1.4.4) is an example of a system with hardening characteristics.
Nonlinearities are divided into symmetrical and nonsymmetrical. Symmetrical nonlinearity implies Fx Fx:
A hardening symmetrical characteristic occurs if a lumped mass is attached to
the non-stretched string. In this case we have geometric nonlinearity, because it
is due not to the physical properties of the material of the string, but to large
displacements [6]. If a string is pre-stretched, the characteristic force-displacement becomes non symmetric with respect to the origin [14]. An approximate
equation of vibration for the lumped mass m at the middle point of a string of
length 2 l is
mx

2S
EA
x 3 x3 0;
l
l

where x is the displacement of the mass in the direction perpendicular to the

original axis of the string, S is the preliminary tension force in the string, A is the
cross-sectional area of the string. and E is the elastic modulus of the material.
The stressstrain relationship for beam material E  E3 3 [10] leads to a
softening physical nonlinearity.
2. Piecewise-linear characteristics. Combinations of linear springs, which lead to
the nonlinear characteristic force-displacement are shown in Fig. 9.2
[14, 15]. These include: (a) system with clearance, (b) system with preload,
(c) system with elastic restrictors, (d) one-sided elastic restrictor. All of these
cases lead to the piecewise linear characteristic.
3. Characteristics of nonlinear supports. Figure 9.3a presents a combination of
hardening characteristic in the zone of low deformation with linear characteristic
(dotted line) in the region of large deformations. This feature is found in the case

292

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

b
F
x

c
F
F0

d
F

F
x

F0
b

b b

Fig. 9.2 Piecewise-linear characteristics: (a) system with clearance, (b) system with preload;
(c, d) system with elastic restrictors [4]

F
x

F
x

Fig. 9.3 Nonlinear characteristics of supports: (a, b) Two-sides restrictions; (c) one-side
restriction

of a beam, the support of which is a rigid curvilinear guide [15]. Different

lengths of contact zone of the beam with support lead to a variable length of a
beam free of contact. The contact zone is increased with increasing load. As a
result, the length of the beam free of contact decreases, i.e., rigidity is increased.
Once the curved portion of the support is completely covered, a further increasing in load does not change the length of the beam, so the characteristic becomes
linear.
Characteristic of a bilateral elastic support with different stiffness coefcients in
the forward and reverse direction is shown in Fig. 9.3b. Characteristic of
one-sided elastic support is shown in Fig. 9.3c [2].

9.1.1.2

Dynamic Nonlinear Characteristics

These characteristics are described by the nonlinear differential relation F

d
Fx; px, p : In this case the equation of free vibration of system with one
dt
degree of freedom is given by mx Fx; x_ 0; where function Fx; x_ takes
into account the restoring force F(x) and the resisting forces. Next, we consider

9.1 General

293

only resisting forces. In the simplest case the resisting force Fx; x_ can be
linear Fx; x_ ax_ , where a is a viscous coefcient. In the case of rapid motion
of the body in the air the resisting force is proportional to the square of velocity
F ax_ 2 . It is possible to have a case when the resisting force depends not only
on the speed, but also on the position of the body Fx; x_ axx_ .
When a body moves on a rough surface, a force of dry friction arise. This force
is directed opposite to the velocity px x_ , and according to the Amontons
_ if x_ 6 0 (Fig. 9.4a) [2]. If
-Coulomb law, this force is Fx_ F0 signx,
x_ 0, then friction force in the range of c  F  c may take any value
F which is equal to the sum of all other active forces, including the force of inertia.
If at the moment when x_ 0, the modulus of the sum of all the other forces turns out
to be less than c, the system stops. This phenomenon is called stagnation. Stagnation will persist until the change of forces will not lead to the condition jFj c.
After that the motion of the system resumes. This is the difference between dry
friction and the relay characteristic, which has the same external appearance. If in
the process of motion at x_ 0 the system will always be under condition jFj > c,
then stagnation will not be observed in the system [3].
Fig. 9.4 Different
nonlinearities: (a) dry
friction; (b) viscous and
dry friction

F( px)
c

px

F( px)
c

px
c

Figure 9.4b presents combined characteristic of a system with linear and dry
friction. The angle of inclination is equal to the coefcient of viscous damping.
A vibration protection system with a dry friction damper is essentially a
nonlinear system [1]. Dry friction leads to motion that is difcult to analyze.
Some nonlinear dynamic models of the mechanical systems with one degree of
freedom are presented below. The input excitation and response of a system are by
denoted x1 and x2. If a vibration protection system contains the elements of viscous
friction and dry friction and a linear element of restoring force, then we have [3]
m x2 kx_ 2 c sign x_ 2 k2 x2 k1 x1 ,
If

jk1 x1  k2 x2  mx2 j  c

at

x_ 2 0:

9:2

If at the moment when x_ 2 0 the inequality jk1 x1  k2 x2  mx2 j < c is satised,

then (9.2) is valid only if x_ 2 6 0, and at x_ 2 0 stagnation occurs; this phenomenon
will persist until the right side of (9.2), k1x1, satises
k2 xm  c < k1 x1 < k2 xm c

at

x_ 2 0;

where xm x2 at the moment when the system stops. Phenomena inherent in

nonlinear systems, such as jumps and breaks in vibration, can occur in this
system [3].

294

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

2. Vibration protection system with nonlinear restoring force and nonlinear

(in particular, viscous and quadratic) friction [3] are described by equations
mx2 Fx2 Fx_ 2 k1 x1 ,
mx2 Fx2 k0 x_ 2 cx_ 22 sign x_ 2 k1 x1 :

9:3

Other types of nonlinearities and corresponding equations of motion are presented

in [6, 8, 16].

9.1.2

Features of Nonlinear Vibration

We briey list the some fundamental properties of nonlinear systems [3, 14, 16, 17].
1. Rescaling the initial conditions in linear systems in the absence of an external
excitation causes a change in the scale of the process, while retaining the form of
the process. In nonlinear systems, a change in the initial conditions not only
leads to a change in the shape of the process, but also to a change its fundamental
properties: for small initial displacement (x0 < A0) the vibration of the system
decreases with time (the system is stable), and for large displacements (x0 > A0)
the system becomes unstable (Fig. 9.5). In some nonlinear systems, small values
of the initial conditions can lead to an increase of the free vibration (Fig. 9.6),
curve 1, while large values of the initial conditions lead to a decrease of the free
vibration (curve 2) [3].
2. In nonlinear systems, the principle of superposition is not applicable.
Fig. 9.5 Effect of initial
conditions on the nature of
free oscillations

x
x0>A0
x0<A0

Fig. 9.6 Unstable transient

process for different initial
displacement x0

A0

x
2

x0>A0
x0<A0

A0

9.2 Harmonic Linearization Method

295

3. In general, nonlinear free vibration is not harmonic. The frequency of nonlinear

free vibration depend on the amplitude of the vibration.
4. If the nonlinear system is subjected to harmonic excitation F F0 sin t; then
the nature of the response of the system is nonharmonic. The response can
contains vibration components of higher frequencies (harmonics) as well as
the lower frequencies (subharmonic vibrations).
The book by Hayashi [16] contains fundamental theoretical information about
nonlinear systems. The methods of analysis of nonlinear oscillations, stability of
nonlinear systems, forced oscillations in the steady state, and transient selfoscillation are considered in detail. Popovs fundamental book [3] is devoted to
the applied theory of control processes in nonlinear systems.

9.2

Harmonic Linearization Method

Presently there are various methods of analyzing nonlinear dynamical systems [16, 11,
vol. 2]. The exact analytical solution of the governing nonlinear differential equations
can be obtained only in the special cases. It is for this reason that various numerical
integrating methods for nonlinear equations [12, 17], quasilinear methods and qualitative methods are widely used. A special group of these methods is the methods of
linearization. Among them we note harmonic linearization.
Harmonic linearization is a powerful and effective method for analysis of free and
forced vibrations of nonlinear dynamical systems of various types and purposes [3],
and particularly, vibration protection systems [2].
A feature of this method is that in the resulting linearization, the properties
inherent to the nonlinear systems are retained. Another feature of this method is that
its purpose is not to solve the original nonlinear differential equations; instead this
method allows us to create algebraic equations that link the parameters of the
system with the characteristics of the process.

9.2.1

Method Foundation

The concept of the method belongs to Krylov and Bogoljubov [18]. The method is
based on the replacement of a nonlinear element of a system with a linear element.
The parameters of this linear element with an input harmonic excitation are
determined from the condition that the output amplitude of the rst harmonic of
the nonlinear element and the equivalent linear block are equal. The method is an
approximation, and can be used in the case when the output spectrum of the linear
part is limited only by the rst harmonic, determined by Fourier series. Restrictions
imposed on a nonlinear function are very weak, and largely do not limit application
of the method.

296

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Free Vibration A mechanical system consists of a linear part of an arbitrary

structure and a part with nonlinear elements. We will consider the steady-state
process of single-frequency free symmetric vibration [3]. Vibration of this system is
described by the equation
Qpx RpFx; px 0,

d
;
dt

9:4

where Q( p), R( p) are any polynomial operators, F(x, px) is any nonlinear function.
The nonlinearity can be strong; this means that a function F(x, px) contains significantly high harmonics [3].
The statement of the problem is as follows: nd a periodic solution of (9.4) in
which, even in the case of strong non-lineatity of F(x, px), the output variable
x would be close to a harmonic function x a sin t zt, where is a small
parameter, and z(t) is any function of time. The principal feature of the method is
that the small parameter is introduced into the required solution, while in the
many quasi-linear methods the small parameter is introduced in the initial equation
for nonlinear terms [3].
Suppose that the linear part has the properties of a lowpass lter. This means that
in the case of periodic vibration, all higher harmonics are suppressed. So at the
output of the linear block the variable x varies according to the relation x a sin t.
This function is the input of the nonlinear block. First consider the case when the
nonlinearity depends only x, i.e., F Fx: Therefore, at the nonlinear block we get
y Fx Fa sin t. We can see that the method gets its name due to the
introduction of a harmonic function instead of the nonlinear function F(x).
Expression y Fx Fa sin t is expanded in Fourier series, and only the
rst harmonic is taken into account; for this reason the method is approximate:
Fx Fa sin t

A0
A cos t B sin t:
2

9:5

Here coefcients of expansion are

A0 2=
2=

Fxdt
Fa sin tdt,
0
0
2

2=
Fa sin t cos tdt,
A
0

2=
Fa sin t sin tdt:
B
0

9:6

In the case of symmetrical nonlinearity F(x), the constant term of (9.5) is A0 0.

A rigorous proof of why discarding higher harmonics in (9.5) is possible, even in
the case of strong nonlinearities, is discussed in detail by Popov [3].

9.2 Harmonic Linearization Method

297

Let us transform expressions for the expansion coefcients A and B of the output
function of the nonlinear block F(x). For this purpose we introduce the new vari0
ables q(a) and q0 (a), such that B aqa ; A aq a : With the new variables, the
expression (9.5) becomes
0

Fx A cos t B sin t aq a cos t aqa sin t:

Since x a sin t, then a cos t
in form
0

Fx q a

9:7

px
d
, p . Therefore, (9.7) may be presented

dt

h
px
pi
0
qax qa q a x :

9:8

Thus, the nonlinear characteristic F(x) is replaced by a linear functional

0

Fx qax

q a
x_ :

9:9

This procedure is known as the harmonic linearization of nonlinearity F(x). The

harmonically linearized equation of nonlinear system (9.4) becomes


0
q a
Qpx Rp qa
p x 0:

9:10

The quantities q(a) and q0 (a) are called coefcients of harmonic linearization. It can
be seen that the second term in (9.10) contains the differentiation operator with
respect to time; therefore, q(a) and q0 (a)/ represent the stiffness and viscous
coefcients of the linearized system, respectively. These parameters in the case
of nonlinearity of the type F Fx depend only on vibration amplitude a. For the
periodic solution of a studied vibration (vibration with the constant amplitude and
frequency), the linearized equation presents an ordinary linear differential equation.
0
q a
Thus, the approximating function in the formqax
x_ allows us to obtain the

analytical solution of equation (9.10). A feature of harmonic linearization (9.8), (9.10)

is that it retains the properties of nonlinear systems. It can be shown that the harmonic
linearization method minimizes the mean square deviation of the function (9.9) from
the function F(x, px), assuming that the solution is taken in the harmonic form [1].
Next we derive expressions for the coefcients of linearization. Expressions
(9.6) with the new parameters q(a) and q0 (a) become

2=
Fa sin t cos tdt,
0

2=
Fa sin t sin tdt:
B aqa
0
0

A aq a

298

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Here we introduce a new variable t , dt

the integrals in (9.6) becomes t
coefcients of the linearization are
0

q a

1
a

1
q a
a

d
. In this case, the upper limit of

2
2: The nal expressions for the

Fa sin cos d,

9:11
Fa sin sin d :

It is evident that for an odd-symmetric one-valued nonlinear function, we have

0
q a 0. This means that in the linear system that replaced the original nonlinear
system, there is only a linear elastic element, while a damper is absent.
1. In the partial case of nonlinearity F Fx the linearization coefcients should be
determined by the formulas (9.11).
Now the nonlinear differential equation Qpx RpFx 0 may be
presented in the linearized form as follows


0
q a
Qpx Rp qa
p x 0:

9:12

2. In the general case of nonlinearity F Fx; px the linearization coefcients

should be determined by the formulas


0
q a;
Fx; px qa;
p x;

2
1
0
q a
Fa sin , a cos cos d ,
a 0

1 2
Fa sin , a cos sin d :
qa
a 0

9:13

Here the nonlinear differential equation (9.4) may be presented in the linearized
form, as above (9.12), as follows


0
q a;
p x 0:
9:14
Qpx Rp qa;

Linearization coefcients for several types of nonlinearities are presented in

Sect. (9.2.2).
A rigorous exposition of the method can be found in [18, 19]. Detailed Tables for
different nonlinearities are presented in [20]. Extensive development of the method

9.2 Harmonic Linearization Method

299

and its numerous applications (transient and steady-state vibration, auto-vibration,

stability, etc.), as well as relationships with other methods, can be found in the
fundamental book [3].
Analysis of linearized equations (9.10) or (9.14) can be performed by their
integration. For example, let us consider a nonlinear equation of the second
order, i.e.,
mx Fx 0:
0

In this case we have Qp mp2 ,

Rp 1, Fx qax

nonlinear equation is replaced by the well-known linear equation

q a
x_ . The

mx qax

q a
x_ 0:

If we assume that Fx kx3 (Dufngs characteristic), then qa 3ka2 x=4,

0
q a 0 (see Sect. 9.2.2), and after harmonic linearization, the differential
equation becomes
3
mx ka2 x 0:
4
r
3k
: This formula establishes a
For the frequency of free vibration, we get a
4m
relationship between the frequency and amplitude of vibration. Relationship
a is a characteristic feature of the nonlinear system. Note that the linearization of
the original nonlinear equation using Chebyshevs polynomials [21] leads to the
same result.
In order to nd a relationship between the amplitude and frequency of vibration
in the case of higher-order systems, the algebraic method is recommended. The
characteristic equation of the harmonic linearized equation (9.14) has the form


0
q a;
Qp Rp qa;
p 0:

9:15

To nd the relationships between amplitude a and frequency for the required

p
periodic solution x a sin t, we set p j, j 1. In expression (9.15),
separate the real and imaginary parts Xa; jY a; 0.
The set of equations
Xa; 0,
Y a; 0:

9:16

is used to determine the required amplitude and frequency of the periodic solution.

300

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

In the case of nonsymmetrical vibration x a0 a sin t, the constant A0 in

expression (9.5) is not equal to zero, and we need to take into account all three
formulas (9.6). Further procedures for calculating the parameters of the vibration
process remain unchanged.
Advantages of the harmonic linearization method:
1. Restrictions on the order of the linear part of the differential equation are not
imposed.
2. Nonlinear elements may be of the arbitrary type; in particular, nonlinearity can
be dened uniquely or non-uniquely (one- or two-valued).
3. The location of nonlinear elements in the system is arbitrary, the connection of
linear and nonlinear elements may be realized in arbitrary combinations, and
linearization is performed independently for the different nonlinear elements.
4. The method can be widely applied for solutions to numerous technical problems
of nonlinear oscillations [3].
The harmonic linearization method is especially well suited for solving technical
problems at the design stage.

9.2.2

Coefcients of Harmonic Linearization

Let us consider some typical nonlinearities. These include power characteristics,

relay nonlinearities, piecewise-linear characteristics, and different types of friction.
Power Characteristics Consider Dufngs nonlinearity Fx kx3 : In this case,
the coefcients of harmonic linearization are
0

q3 a

1
a

1
q3 a
a

Fa sin cos d 0,

2
0

1
Fa sin sin d
a

2
0

9:17
3
ka sin sin d ka2 :
4
3

Subscript 3 for the coefcient of linearization denotes the degree of nonlinearity of

x. Cubic nonlinearity is approximated by a spring with stiffness q3(a) and damper
0
with viscous coefcient q3 a 0. Thus, for cubic nonlinearity, the stiffness
coefcient q(a) depends on the square of the amplitude.
In the general case, the analytical expression of the power nonlinearity characteristic is
(
F x

kxn
n

n-odd

kx sgnx n-even

9:18

where n is a positive integer. The coefcients of harmonic linearization are [3, 22]

9.2 Harmonic Linearization Method

301

n2
n4

q2 8ka=3 ;

q4 32ka3 =15 ;

n5

9:19
q5 5ka4 =8:

9:20

The recurrence formula for the stiffness coefcient of the linearized system is
4nkan1
qn
n 1

=2

sin n1 d:

9:21

In the case of nonlinear characteristic Fx kx3 , in the system with

nonsymmetrical vibration x x0 a sin , the coefcients of harmonic linearization are [3]
q

k
a

x0 a sin

3


  2 a2
0
sin d 3k x0
, q 0:
4

9:22

Relay Nonlinearity [3] The ideal relay characteristic is shown in Fig. 9.7.
Coefcients of harmonic linearization are
q a
0

q a

1
a

Fa sin sin d

2
a

c sin d

2c
4c
 cos j0 ;
a
a

1
2c
Fa sin cos d
cos d 0:
a
a
9:23

Note that precise methods [3] exist for analysis of relay systems.
d
; this
dt
characteristic is shown in Fig. 9.7 with replacement of x by px. The harmonic
linearization of nonlinearity Fpx csgnpx as a relay characteristic leads to the
result

Dry Friction [2] The nonlinear characteristic is Fpx csgnpx, p

q a

Fig. 9.7 Relay nonlinearity

characteristic and
dependency F(asin)

4c
,
a

qa 0:

9:24

F(asin)
F
c

x
c

302

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Internal Friction [1, 23] The nonlinear Sorokin-Panovko characteristic is

r
x2
_
Fx; x_ a 1  2 sgn x;
a

9:25

where a is the amplitude of vibration, and n are the parameters of the material, and
n is dimensionless parameter where n is not necessarily an integer [23]. The units of
parameter depend on the magnitude of n, namely  F=Ln , where F and L in
brackets indicate the units of force and length, respectively. In the case of vibrations
close to the harmonic, we obtain [1]
r
x2
x a sin t,
1  2 j cos tj,
a
r
x2
_
x_ a cos t a 1  2 sgn x:
a

9:26

Harmonic linearization of the Sorokin-Panovko nonlinear expression (9.25)

becomes
Fx; x_

an1
_
x:

This formula shows that the force of internal friction depends on not only on the
parameters and n of the internal friction element, but also on the parameters , a
and x_ of the vibrating process.
Piecewise-Linear Characteristics [2, 3, 15] These types of characteristics are
shown in Fig. 9.8ad.
Coefcients of harmonic linearization are
0
s1
2
b
b
b2
qa k2  k2  k1 @arcsin
1  2 A,

a a
a

9:27

q a 0:

b
F

x
k1 b

k2

c
b

b
k1 b

F0

x
F0

Fig. 9.8 Piecewise-linear characteristics: () general case, (b) system with dead zone; (c) system
with limited linear portion and without dead zone; (d) system with preload

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

303

Figure 9.8a allows us to consider the following special cases:

1. Case k1 0 corresponds to a nonlinear system with a dead zone (Fig. 9.8b);
2. Case k2 0 corresponds to a nonlinear system with a limited linear portion
without a dead zone (Fig. 9.8c);
3. In the case of a piecewise-linear characteristic with preload F F0 kx
(Fig. 9.8d), we get
q a

2
a

F0 ka sin sin d k

4F0
,
a

q a 0:

9:28

Harmonic linearization coefcients for different types of nonlinearities (symmetrical/nonsymmetrical, one-valued/two-valued, etc.) are presented, for example, by
Hsu and Meyer [20] and Popov [3].

9.3

Harmonic Excitation

The properties of nonlinear vibration protection systems with one degree of freedom, subjected to harmonic excitation are considered and different types of
nonlineariries are discussed. These include Dufngs nonlinear stiffness with viscous friction, Coulomb friction, and arbitrary law of restoring force. The harmonic
linearization method is applied. The procedure for constructing amplitudefrequency characteristics is discussed in detail [1, 14].

9.3.1

Dufngs Restoring Force

The body of mass m is attached to a nonlinear spring with characteristic

Fx kx  x3 . The system is subjected to external force F cos t (Fig. 9.9).
The equation of vibration of the object m is described by Dufngs differential
equation


mx k x  x3 F cos t,


x 20 x  x3 q cos t,

Fig. 9.9 Harmonic

excitation of nonlinear
system

or
20 k=m,

9:29

q F=m:

F(x)
m

SEP

x(t)
F(t)

304

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Here, the positive and negative signs correspond to hardening and softening
characteristics of the spring, respectively. Harmonic linearization of the nonlinear
restoring force is


3
20 x  x3 20 x  20 a2 x;
4

9:30

where a is an unknown amplitude of vibration. The linearized equation of vibration

becomes


3
x 20 1  a2 x q cos t:
4

9:31



The square of the frequency of nonlinear free vibration equals 20 1  34 a2 . The
frequency dependence of the vibrations amplitude is a characteristic feature of a
nonlinear system.
Assume that the forced vibration occurs with a frequency of the excitation
force. We will nd the solution to (9.31) in the form
x a cos t,

x a2 cos t:

9:32

If we substitute this expression into (9.31), we obtain



3
a2 20 1  a2 a q:
4

9:33

In the case of hardening and softening characteristics, we obtain, respectively,

3 3
a
4

 2


q

1
a 2;
0
20

9:34

3 3
a
4



2
q
1 2 a 2:
0
0

9:35

The same result is obtained using the Galerkin procedure [14].

Equation (9.34) contains unknown amplitude a of the steady-state vibration
x a cos t: The frequency of forced vibration according to the accepted expression for x occurs with a frequency of an exciting force. Among the known
p
parameters are the the mass m of the system, the frequency 0 k=m of linear
vibrations, the coefcient of nonlinearity , and the amplitude of the disturbing
force F.
Equation (9.34) allows us to construct the most important characteristic
of a nonlinear vibration protection system; this is the amplitude-frequency
characteristic. Following Timoshenko [14], show two curvesa skeleton curve

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

305

(SC is shown by the dotted line) and a resonance curve (RC is shown by the bold
line). Both curves are plotted on a graph in a coordinate system jaj  =0
(Fig. 9.10a).

a |a|
E

aF

Skeleton curve,
Eqn. (3.7)

H
D

aD

Eqn. (3.8)

aC
aB

Klotters area
of unstability

aA A

G
S

/0

cr/0

f(a)
E

/0>1

q/02

O1

aG

aT

aH
H

/0=1

C
A

aA

aB

aC

aD aE

0</0<1
2

tangent

/0=0

3a3/4
Fig. 9.10 () Amplitude-frequency characteristic of nonlinear Dufngs equation (9.29);
(b) Additional diagram for construction of skeleton curve

For construction of the skeleton curve in (9.34), we need to set q=0 0 : This
procedure leads to the case of free vibration. The equation of the skeleton curve
becomes

306

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

3 2
a
4

 2


1 :
20

9:36

At =0 1, we get a 0. This point on the skeleton curve is denoted by

S (Fig. 9.10a). The following points on the skeleton curve are constructed according
to formula
s


4 2
a
1 :
3 20

9:37

An additional chart should be constructed on the axis a  f a to represent the

resonance curve (Fig. 9.10b). For this purpose, each term of (9.34) will be
represented on this plane. Term 3 a3/4 presents a cubic parabola. The right side
q
of (9.34) is a straight line which intersects the axis f(a) at 2; the slope of this line is
0
=0 2  1. Now consider a number of lines with different ratio /0 passing
through O1.
The horizontal line R with slope =0 2  1 0 (this implies =0 1 )
intersects the curve 3 a3/4 at the point C with amplitude aC. The rst point of the
resonance curve, point C with coordinates =0 1, aC ; is shown in
Fig. 9.10a.
Line 1 with slope equals 1 (this implies =0 0) intersects the curve 3 a3/4
at point A; the corresponding amplitude is aA.
Line 2 0 < =0 < 1 intersects the curve at point B with related amplitude aB.
Line 3 =0 > 1 is a tangent to the curve 3 a3/4 at the point T and intersects
the parabola at point D with an amplitude of aD. Corresponding points T and
D of the resonance curve lie on the same vertical (Fig. 9.10a). To nd the position
of point T on the plane jaj  =0 (ordinate aT in Fig. 9.10a is not shown), (9.36)
should be differentiated with respect to amplitude a; thus we obtain
9 a2 =4 =0 2  1:

9:38

Substituting into this expression the amplitude aT for point T allows us to nd the
dimensionless parameter of the critical excitation frequency
2crit 9 a2T
1:

4
20

9:39

The condition =0 > 1 is also valid for line 4, but unlike line 3, line 4 crosses the
parabola at three points F, G and H with corresponding amplitudes aF, aG, and aH.
Thus the amplitude-frequency characteristic of a nonlinear vibration protection
system consists of two branches: the upper ABCDF and lower HTG. Both branches
asymptotically approach the skeleton curve.

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

307

The upper part of amplitude-frequency characteristic shows that, starting from

point A (=0 0 ), with an increase in the dimensionless frequency /0, the
amplitude of the steady-state vibration increases; this phenomenon is observed up
to point D of the resonance curve. Then, due to inevitable external disturbances in
the system, an abrupt change in amplitude occurs from point D to point T (jump
phenomenon); as this takes place, the phase angle abruptly changes from 0 to 180
.
A further increase in frequency, as indicated by the lower right-hand branch of the
resonance curve, leads to a decrease in the amplitude of the vibration. This process
on the resonance curve is marked by an arrow.
On the other hand, if starting from =0 > crit =0 (point G) to reduce the
frequency of vibration, then at the critical point T, the amplitude of vibration
becomes aT. It then abruptly increases to the value of aD, and the phase angle
changes abruptly from 180 to 0
. A further decrease of the dimensionless frequency, as shown by the left branch DCBA of the resonance curve, leads to a
decrease in the amplitude of vibration. The process on the resonance curve occurs in
a direction opposite that of the arrow.
Point T divides the lower branch GTH of the resonance curve into two parts; they
are stable branch TG and unstable TH. Klotters instability area is shown in
Fig. 9.10a [1, 14].
In the case of a softening nonlinearity, the procedure for constructing the AFC
remains unchanged [14]. Steady-state vibrational regimes that differ in amplitude
and phase are a fundamental feature of nonlinear vibration protection systems [1].

9.3.2

Nonlinear Restoring Force and Viscous Damping

A vibration protection system contains two elements, connected in parallel; they are
the nonlinear stiffness element with Dufngs characteristic Fx kx  x3 and
the viscous damper. The system shown in Fig. 9.11 is subjected to force F(t).
The equation of vibration of the object of mass m is [14]


mx x_ k x  x3 F cos t, or


x 2nx_ 20 x  x3 q cos t, 2n =m,

20 k=m,

q F=m:
9:40

Fig. 9.11 Nonlinear

system with viscous damper

F(x)
m

SEP

x(t)
F(t)

308

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Here, positive and negative signs correspond to the hardening and softening spring
characteristics, respectively. The harmonic linearization of the nonlinear spring is
3
20 x  x3 20 x  20 a2 x, so the linearized equation of vibration is
4


3 2
2
x 2nx_ 0 1  a x q cos t:
9:41
4
The solution to this equation is sought in the form
x a cos t , x_ a sin t , x a2 cos t

9:42

where a is an unknown amplitude of vibration, and is the phase shift between the
harmonic force and displacement of mass m.
The right side of (9.41) can be rewritten in the form
q cos t q cos t   q cos t cos sin t sin :
Let us substitute the expression for x and q cos t into (9.41)
a cos t  2na sin t
2

20



3 2
1  a a cos t
4

q cos t cos sin t sin :

Equate coefcients of the left and right parts at sin t
 2n a q sin
 2n

or
9:43a

q
sin :
a

Equate coefcients at the left and right parts at cos t



3
 20 a3 20  2 a q cos
4
3
q
 20 a2  2 20 cos :
4
a

or
9:43b

First squaring and adding (9.43a) and (9.43b), and then dividing one by the other,
we obtain:


3 2 2 2 q 2
2 2
2
2
4n 0   0 a

;
9:44
4
a
tan

2n
3
20  2  20 a2 :
4

Galerkins procedure leads to the same result [14].

9:45

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

309

Equation (9.44) may be presented in the form



2 
n 2 2
2 3 2
q 2
4 2 2 1  2  a

:
20 a
0 0
0 4

9:46

In the case of the hardening characteristic, (9.46) may be rewritten as follows

3 3
a
4

s

2
q
n 2 2 1

1
a

a2
1

4
20
20
20 20 q2 =40

9:47

The equation (9.47) contains unknown amplitude . The frequency of forced

vibration , according to the accepted expression (9.42) for x, occurs with a
frequency of the disturbing force.
Special cases:
1. Let n 0 (damper is omitted). In this case we get the equation
2 3
q
1  2  a2 2 , which was obtained in Sect. 9.3.1. The phase shift
0 a
0 4
becomes tan 0, ! 0
, 180
: This was discussed in Sect. 9.3.1.
2. Let 0 (case of a linear elastic spring). In this case we get equation
q=20

a s

2
2
n 2 2
1 2 4 2 2
0
0 0
which coincides with (1.4).
Equations (9.47) and (9.44) allow us to construct the amplitude-frequency and
phase-frequency characteristics of the given system. To construct the skeleton
curve, we need to take into account that the radicand in expression (9.47) must be
non-negative, i.e., q=0 min 2n=0 =0 a. This condition leads to an equa 2

3 2

 1 that coincides with (9.36). For point

tion of the skeleton curve a
4
20
A of the resonance curve we have =0 0 . Therefore, the amplitude at point
A can be found from the equation
0:75 a3 a  q=20 0:
In contrast to the amplitude-frequency characteristic in Fig. 9.10a, both branches of
the resonance curve cross the skeleton curve at point F (Fig. 9.12). Its position can
be found by solving (9.36) and (9.47). To determine all other points of the
resonance curve, we should adopt the parameters , n/0, q/20 and numerically
nd the dependence jaj  =0 :

310

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Fig. 9.12 Amplitude-frequency characteristic of nonlinear Dufngs equation with viscous

damper (9.40)

For the parameters of the system 0:2 cm2 , n=0 0:1, q=20 1:0 cm,
the numerically obtained values are aA 0:89313 cm; jumping occurs at crit =0
1:3937: The corresponding amplitudes are aD 2:7902 cm; aT 1:546 cm.
The coordinates of the highest point F on the skeleton curve are (1.5754; 3.1662).
The assemblage of the frequency-amplitude characteristics according to (9.47) is
represented in Fig. 9.13. Parameter changes with an interval 0.35 cm2.

Fig. 9.13 The assemblage of the amplitude-frequency characteristics;

q=20 1:0 cm

n=0 0:1,

The envelope surface of the amplitude-frequency characteristics in 3D is shown

in Fig. 9.14.

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

311

2.5

|a|

2
1.5
3
1
0.5

2
1

0.5

1.5 2
2.5
w/w0

2
1.5
3

3.5

4
3.5
3
2.5 m

5
4.5

1
0.5

Fig. 9.14 The envelope surface of the amplitude-frequency characteristics

Here, lines 1 and 2 are resonance curves at 0:5 cm2 , and 1:5 cm2 ,
respectively; line 3 is a set of points T, while line 4 presents a set of points
F (Fig. 9.12).

9.3.3

Linear Restoring Force and Coulombs Friction

Consider a body of mass m attached to a spring of constant stiffness coefcient

k and damper with a dry friction coefcient c (Fig. 9.15). The system is subjected to
force F cos t.
Fig. 9.15 Design diagram
of nonlinear system and
characteristic of a dry
friction

k
m

SEP

x(t)
F(t)

F
c

x
c

The equation of vibration of the object is [1]

mx csgnx_ kx F cos t:
The plot of the function csgnx_ is shown in Fig. 9.15.

9:48

312

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The harmonic linearization of Coulombs friction force is

c sgnx_ qa

q0 a
4c
_ qa 0, q0 a
:
x,

9:49

The linearized equation of vibration becomes

mx

4c
x_ kx F cos t:
a

9:50

Thus, the dry friction is replaced by an equivalent viscous friction; the meaning of
4c
of the equivalent
this equivalence is discussed in Sect. 9.2.1. Parameter
a
damping, unlike linear viscous friction, depends on the excitation frequency
and unknown amplitude a of the vibration. The increase in vibration amplitude and
frequency of excitation leads to a decrease in coefcient beq q0 a= of the
viscous friction.
Function cos t can be presented in the form
cos t cos t   cos t cos sin t sin : 9:51
The equation of vibration (9.50) becomes
mx

4c
x_ kx F cos t cos sin t sin :
a

9:52

Assume that the solution to this equation is

x x0 a cos t ;

9:53

where a is the amplitude of vibration and x0 is the displacement of mid-swing.

Substitute expression (9.53) into (9.52)
4c
 ma2 cos t 
sin t ka cos t kx0


F cos t cos sin t sin :
Comparison of the coefcients at sin t and cos t and a free term
leads to the following relationships


4c
F sin

9:54a

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

313


k  m2 a F cos

9:54b

kx0 0

9:54c

The displacement of mid-swing equals x0 0.

To determine the amplitude a of vibration, the expressions (9.54a) and (9.54b)
are squared and summed
F2  h 2
F
4c
k
, 20 ;
a2  1
, F1 , h

2
m
m
m
20  2
q
F21  h2
:
a  2
 2 

9:55

9:56a

Determine the phase shift between the disturbing force F(t) and the response x.
For this, the ratio (9.54a) is divided by (9.54b), and the relationship (9.56a) is taken
into account. As result, we obtain


h
tan q sgn 20  2 :
F21  h2

9:56b

Analysis of expression (9.56a). The following states of the vibration protection

system are possible:
Zone 1 Locking system. If the force of dry friction c exceeds the amplitude of the
exciting force F, the object m cannot start moving. Thus, the locking condition is
F < c: If any shock excitation is applied to the object, then after some motion it
will eventually come to an equilibrium position. The locking system condition
means that the energy dissipation is greater than the energy that is inputted to the
system, for all times [1].
There are cases when the amplitude of disturbance force is proportional to the
square of the excitation frequency, i.e. F m0 2 . Since F F1 m, then
F1 0 2 represents the amplitude of the disturbing force per unit mass. For
this case of excitation, the locking system condition F < c can be presented in
terms of the excitation frequency. The frequency of excitation at which the system
c
is locked satises the inequality 2 <
. In equivalent form, in terms of h and 0,
m
0
h
2
we have <
:
40
Zone 2 The amplitude a of vibration according to expression (9.56a) is imaginary if
F1 < h. In this case, the motion stops at periodically recurring intervals. This is
a narrow zone form the interval 2 =4  1:0h=0 . In vibration protection
systems, such regimes in practice are rare.

314

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Zone 3 corresponds to the harmonic motion of mass m. According to (9.56a),

it occurs if F1 > h: If, as before, F m0 2 , then we obtain condition
F mF1 > 4c=. This occurs if
2 >

4c
h
:
m0 0

Thus, the boundary points for zone 2 become

h
h
h
0:785 < 2 < :
40
0
0

9:57

Three zones for the square of excitation frequency 2 (in terms of h and 0) are
shown in Fig. 9.16.
1

h/40

h/0

Fig. 9.16 Zones of different states of a nonlinear system (9.48)

In problems of vibration protection, the rst and third zones are of greatest
interest.
Resonance Curve A(). Taking into account F1 0 2 , formula (9.55)
becomes
2 4  h 2
a2  0
2 :
20  2

9:58

Let us nd the frequency * at which amplitude a takes an extreme value.

Differentiate a2 with respect to 2. Condition

2 
 

d a2 220 2 20  2  20 4  h2 2 20  2 1

0
 2
4
d 2
 2
0

leads to *

h
. The corresponding maximum amplitude becomes
0 0
0 h
:
a* q
2
h  20 40

The maximum dimensionless amplitude equals

9:59

a*

p, where
0
2  1

h
> 1. If ! 1 from the right, then a ! 1. Curve a a asymptot0 20
ically approaches from above to the horizontal line a 1:

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

315

Solve (9.58) with respect to frequency of vibration

q


a2 20  a2 20 40  h2 20 h2
21, 2
:
a2  20
This means that at a xed amplitude a exist two frequencies.
The amplitude of vibration, according to (9.58), is
q q

2
20 4  h2
20  h2 =2

 
a  2
2 =2  1 :
 2 
0

9:60

Above line 0 we get two branches of resonance curve. Indeed, lim a 0 and
2 !1

a > 0 for positive and negative parameters 20 =2  1.

The real amplitude exists if 20 4  h2  0: This means the resonance curve goes
p
from point N with coordinates h=0 , a 0 (Fig. 9.17); this point corresponds to the right boundary of the second zone in Fig. 9.16. Frequency 1
s
r
1
h2
h
4
p
< 1 < 0 .
0 satises the inequality
2
0
2 0 0
4

3.5
3

h = 0.5

0
2.5

a
dst

1 0

1.0

1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

3
w
z=w
0

Fig. 9.17 Amplitude-frequency characteristic and corresponding dynamic coefcient

Present equation (9.60) in another form. Using dimensionless parameters,

z =0 , h=0 20 , expression (9.60) for a may be presented as follows:
q
q

2
p
20 4  h2 0 z4  h=0 20
0 z4  2

a  2

:
j 1  z2 j
j1  z2 j
 2 
0

9:61

316

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Coefcient h=0 20 takes into account three parameters of the system:

Coulomb friction, mass and stiffness of the system as well as the parameter of
external excitation.
Dimensionless amplitude of vibration in terms of parameters z and is a
dynamic coefcient
p
z4  2
a

:
0
j1  z2 j
The maximum amplitude of a force transmitted onto the support is [1]
Rmax ma* 20 c:

9:62

The transmissibility coefcient is

Rmax ma* 20 c

p
2
2
F
m0 0
1 4

The minimum transmissibility coefcient can be calculated from condition

9:63
d
0,
d

so crit 1:47 and * 2:52.

h
4c
Since

, the optimal force of dry friction guaranteeing pro2

0 0 m0 20
tection from harmonic excitation [1] is

copt crit m0 20 1:47m0 20 1:15m0 20 :

4
4
The case of kinematic excitation of the system shown in Fig. 9.15 was studied by
Fokin [24].

9.3.4

Internal Friction

The object of mass m is attached to a linear spring of stiffness k . Energy dissipation

is governed by internal friction. The system is subjected to external force F cos t.
According to the Sorokin-Panovko hypothesis [23], the nonlinear force of the
external friction and its harmonic linearization are [1]
r
x2
_
Fx; x_ a 1  2 sgnx;
a
an1
_
Fx; x_
x;

9:64
9:65

9.3 Harmonic Excitation

317

where a is an unknown amplitude of the harmonic vibration, and n are the

parameters of the material, and is the frequency of excitation.
The initial nonlinear and linearized differential equations of the bodys vibration are
mx U x; x_ kx F cos t:

9:66

an1
x_ kx F cos t:

9:67

mx

an1
of the equivalent viscous damping depends on the excitation

frequency and amplitude a of the vibration, as well as parameters of material

and n.
The solution to the last equation is sought in the form x a cos t :
Substitute this expression into (9.67)

The coefcient

an1
 ma2 cos t 
a sin t ka cos t


F cos t cos sin t sin :
Comparison of the coefcients at
relationships

sin t and

cos t leads to

an1 a F sin ;


k  m2 a F cos :

9:68a
9:68b

To determine the amplitude a of the vibration, the expressions (9.68a) and (9.68b)
are squared and summed
F
a q :
k  m2 2 2 a2n1

9:69

In equivalent form,
F1
F
k

a q
, F1 , 20 , 1 :
 2
2
m
m
m
2
0  2 1 a2n1

9:70

To determine the phase shift between the disturbing force F(t) and the response x,
the ratio (9.68a) is divided by (9.68b); nally, we obtain [23]
tan 

an1
an1
 21
:
2
k  m
0  2

318

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Solve (9.70) with respect to 2

s
F21
2 20 
 21 a2n2 :
a2

9:71

F2
The frequency will be a real number if 21  21 a2n2  0: This formula leads to the
a
 1=n
F1
following result: a 
. Thus, the resonance curve is located below the line
1
a F1 =1 1=n; construction of the resonance curve is discussed in [1]. The form of
the skeleton curve depends on the coefcient n and the type of dependence F1(). If
F1 const; then the skeleton curve is parallel to the vertical axis a.
If n 2, then (9.69) leads to the expression for the dynamic coefcient
a
1
s
 2 ,
stat
a
1  z2 2 2
stat

stat
:
k

9:72

To determine the dynamic coefcient, we x parameter , and for each z compute

a/stat. The graph of the dynamic coefcient is shown in Fig. 9.18.
6
g = 0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06

5
4
a 3
dst
2
1
0

0.5

1.5
w
z=w
0

2.5

Fig. 9.18 Dynamic coefcient for one-degree-of freedom system with internal friction, n 2

Special Cases
1. Let z 0. Since for real materials, parameter 1:0 0:02  0:05, then a=stat
1:0;
p
2. If z =0 1, then a=stat k=st; this formula may also be derived from
p
expression a  F1 =1 1=n for n 2 and presented in form a0 F=. Thus,

9.4 Nonlinear Vibration Absorber

319

the relationship between resonance amplitude a0 and the amplitude of the

disturbing force F is nonlinear. The resonance amplitude a0 does not depend
on the stiffness characteristic k and mass m of the object [23], although the
resonant frequency, of course, depends on these characteristics of the system.
3. If z ! 1, then a=stat ! 0.
Note, if n 2, then equation
r
x2
mx a 1  2 sgnx_ kx F cos t
a
n

9:73

allows us to obtain the precise analytical solution. Indeed, as before assume x a

p p
cos t : In this case,
1  x2 =a2 1  cos 2 t sin t .
The initial equation becomes
x 20 x 


a2
F
sin t cos t F1 cos t cos sin t sin :
m
m

9:74
The negative sign allows us to take into account the change in direction of the force
when the direction of the motion of the object changes. The substitution of x and x
into (9.74) leads to the expression
a2
sin t 20 a cos t
a2 cos t 
m


F1 cos t cos sin t sin :
After comparison of the coefcients at sin t and cos t , we obtain
a2

F1 sin ;
m
 2

0  2 a F1 cos :
From here we can immediately obtain expression (9.70) for the amplitude of the
oscillations.

9.4

Nonlinear Vibration Absorber

The design diagram of the dynamic vibration absorber is presented in Fig. 9.19. We
assume the suspension of the main object m1 is a linear element of stiffness k, while
the elastic element of the suppressor is nonlinear. The nonlinear static characteristic

320

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Fig. 9.19 Design diagram

of dynamical absorber with
nonlinear characteristic R

k
m1
P(t)

SEP

x1(t)
R
m2

SEP

x2 (t)

of the absorber is Rx2  x1 , where R is a nonlinear function of the relative

displacement x2  x1 , and x1, x2 are displacements of mass m1 and m2 from
their static equilibrium position (SEP). The principal mass m1 is subjected to
harmonic excitation P0 sin t [25].
As a result, we have a system with two degrees of freedom whose state is
described by the equations
m1x1 kx1  Rx2  x1 P0 sin t,
m2x2 Rx2  x1 0:

9:75

Let us introduce a new coordinate x x2  x1 . In terms of x1 and x, the set of

equations in (9.75) becomes
m1x1 kx1  Rx P0 sin t,
m2 x1 x Rx 0:

9:76

Summing these expressions we get

m1 m2 x1 m2x kx1 P0 sin t:

9:77

This linear differential equation involves displacement x1 of the primary mass and
relative displacement x of both masses. Assume that
x A sin t,

x1 A1 sin t:

9:78

The algebraic relationship which connects amplitudes A1 and A is

m1 m2 2 A1  m2 2 A kA1 P0 ;
Solving this equation, we get an expression for amplitude A1 of the primary mass as
a function of amplitude A of relative displacement
A1

P 0 m 2 2 A
:
k  m1 m2 2

9:79

9.4 Nonlinear Vibration Absorber

321

Let the nonlinear characteristic be

(
R x

kxn

if n-even;

kx sgnx

if n-odd:

9:80

The harmonic linearization of function R(x) is


q 0 A
p x:
Rx qA

The general expressions for the coefcients of linearization are

2

1
q A
A
q 0 A

RA sin sin d ;

1
A

RA sin cos d:

For given nonlinearity (9.80), we have [3]

4nkAn1
q A
n 1

=2

sin n1 d,

q0 A 0:

9:81

The integral (9.81) equals [26]

=2

sin n1 d 2n2 B

n n
;
2 2

9:82

n
where B is the beta-function of argument . If n 1, then q1 k: If n 2, 3, 4, . . .
2
then [3]
q2

8kA
3kA2
32kA3
, q3
, q4
, . . . , q0 0:
3
4
15

nA2
q :
n 1 n2
Now the harmonically linearized function R(x) takes the form

The recurrence formula is qn

R x

2n nkAn1 n n
B ; x:
2 2
n 1

9:83

322

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Substitute expression (9.83) and expressions (9.78) into the second equation of
(9.76). We obtain
m2 2 A1  m2 2 A

2n nkAn1 n n
B ; A 0:
2 2
n 1

9:84

Solve this equation with respect to A1

A1

nk
2An n n
B ; A:
m2 2 n 1 2 2

9:85

Equate the expressions (9.79) and (9.85)

P0 m2 2 A
nk
2An n n
B ;  A:

k  m1 m2 2 m2 2 n 1 2 2

9:86

This nonlinear equation allows us to calculate the amplitude A of relative displacement for an arbitrary n. Substituting the expressions for A into (9.79) leads to an
algebraic equation for vibration amplitude A1 of the primary mass m1.
 n n
Special Case Let n 1. In this case, B ;
. The equation for determining
2 2
the amplitude of vibration A becomes
P0 m2 2 A

k  m1 m2 2


k
 1 A:
m2 2

9:87

If we solve this equation for A and substitute the value found into (9.79), then after
some rearrangements the vibration amplitude A1 of the primary mass m1 becomes
A1

P0 k  m2 2
k  m2 2 k  2 m1 m2   m2 2 2

9:88

It is easy to verify that procedure (6.4), Chap. 6, leads to the same result.
The analytical solution and numerical results for n 3 can be found in [25].

9.5

Harmonic Linearization and Mechanical Impedance

Method

Let us consider a mechanical system that comprises a number of passive elements.

These elements are arbitrarily interconnected, and all (or some) of them have
nonlinear characteristics. The analysis of such a system, as shown in previous
Sects. 9.3 and 9.4, contains the following steps: (1) composing the mathematical

9.5 Harmonic Linearization and Mechanical Impedance Method

323

model of the mechanical system; (2) performing the harmonic linearization, and
(3) providing an analysis of the linearized system. There is another approach when
the concept of mechanical impedance is included in the computation, which
consists of the following steps: We formally construct a two-terminal network.
For this we assume that all elements are linear, and take into account the design
diagram of the system and the type of excitation (forced or kinematic). Each
nonlinear element is then linearized, and nally, the mechanical impedance method
is applied. Both of these steps are performed simultaneously.
As an example, consider a vibration protection system containing an element of
dry friction (Fig. 9.20a). The system is subjected to harmonic forced excitation
F cos t.
Fig. 9.20 Design diagram
of nonlinear system and
corresponding two-terminal
network

b
c

k
m

SEP

Zm

F (t )

Zc

Zh/a

x(t)
F(t)

This system contains three passive elements which are connected in parallel.
They are mass m, elastic element of stiffness k, and dry friction element c. The force
which arises in the friction element is Ffr csgnx_ . The characteristic of this
nonlinearity is shown in Fig. 9.15. The harmonic linearization of this element is
h
4c
.
Fhar
fr x_ , where h
a

The corresponding two-terminal network is shown in Fig. 9.20b. The total

impedance of the system is
Z Z m Zk Zh=a j m

k h
:
j a

9:89

Thus, the total impedance of the system depends on the unknown vibration amplitude a . The complex velocity of the mass m and complex amplitude a are:

F
F


,
k
h
Z

j m 

F
F




:
h
k
h
2 j
k

m

j j m 

9:90

9:91

The modulus of amplitude can be found from equation

F1
k
F
2
a s
 2 , 0 m , F1 m :
 2
2 1 4c
0  2 2
a

9:92

324

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The solution to this equation leads to the formula (9.56a)

F2  h
;
a2  21
0  2 
which was obtain previously.
This approach can also be applied to deformable systems equipped with a
vibration protection device of an arbitrary structure. The device is composed of
passive nonlinear elements. Linearization of the nonlinear characteristics transforms the entire nonlinear system into a class of linear systems. The peculiarity of
the system is that the impedance of the linearized system is dependent on an
unknown amplitude.

9.6

Linearization of a System with an Arbitrary Number

of Degrees of Freedom

Lagranges equations are very effective for deriving equations of motion for a
system with an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom. If the potential energy of
the system is a quadratic function of the generalized coordinates, the equations of
vibration of the system are linear. Otherwise, the mathematical model of the system
is described by nonlinear equations. Linearizing multidimensional nonlinear oscillatory systems is based on the principle of equality of the potential energies of the
nonlinear and the approximating systems. By reducing the potential energy to a
quadratic form in the multi-dimensional space of the generalized coordinates, the
system can be linearized before setting up the equations of motion. This method
[27] is employed to estimate the natural frequencies of oscillatory nonlinear
systems and establish a unique test for how closely the linearized system approximates the given system. The closeness is evaluated in terms of the potential, which
is related in a natural way to the system itself.
Assume that energy dissipation in the system is neglected, and nonlinearity is
caused by nonlinear restoring forces. The potential energy U q1 ,   , qn of a linear
system is a positive denite quadratic function of generalized coordinates. If U0 is
the initial level of energy, then in the n-dimensional space of the generalized
coordinates, the expression Uq1 ,   , qn  U 0 0 represents a closed surface
bounding a simply connected domain G0 . For a linear system, the boundary surface
U  U0 0 is the n-dimensional ellipsoid
U0 

n X
n
X

bik qi qk 0;

i1 k1

and for a nonlinear system is the n-dimensional ovaloid.

9:93

9.6 Linearization of a System with an Arbitrary Number of Degrees of Freedom

325

The problem is reduced to the determination of the parameters of the ellipsoid

which best approximates the given ovaloid [27]. It is assumed that the criterion of
the best approximation, as in the case of a system with one degree of freedom
(Panovkos linearization) [28, vol. 3], is a minimum of the functional of the
weighted mean square deviation of the potential energy U1 of the given nonlinear
system from the energy U2 of the approximating system

2
J    U 1 q1 ,   , qn  U 2 q1 ,   , qn  p2 q1 ,   , qn dq1   dqn
min:

9:94

Integration is performed over the domain G, which is an n-dimensional parallelepiped circumscribing the domain G0 . The parameters of G are determined by the
initial conditions. The weighting function p2 q1 ,   , qn is real and non-negative.
The required coefcients bik of potential energy of the linearized system can be
found from equations
J
0:
bik

9:95

This procedure leads to nn 1=2 linear algebraic equations with respect to

coefcients bik of potential energy of the linear system.
As an example, let us consider a nonlinear mechanical system with two degrees
of freedom (Fig. 9.21a). Assume that elastic member 1 has Dufngs characteristic,
while the elastic member for the absorber is linear. The generalized coordinates are


q1 and q2. The force on m1 due to the rst nonlinear spring is R1 k1 q1 1 2 q21
[10]. The stiffness characteristic of the second spring is k2.
Let us introduce the notation
21

k1
k2
m2
, 2
,
,
m1 2 m2
m1

1 q1 , 2 q2 :

The kinetic and potential energies of the nonlinear system in terms of coordinates
1  2 are [10]

1 m1  _ 2
1 _ 22 ,
2
2

1 m1  2
U1
a1 1  a2 1 2 a3 22 a4 41 :
2
2

9:96

where a1 21 22 , a2 2 22 , a3 22 , a4 21 =2. Hence, for simplicity, we

set 1, k1 k2 k; so 1 2

326

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

x2

Equipotential curve (EC)

of nonlinear system - oval

M1

1
m1

M2

q1

N2

x1

N1

m2

q2
A
EC of linear system - ellipse

c
1
0.8

1.089421 1.0009812 + 0.4938922 = 0.25 Area = 1.4646

221 212 + 22 + 0.541 = 0.5 Area = 1.4597

0.6
0.4

0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0
1

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Fig. 9.21 Reduction of the potential energy of the nonlinear system with two degrees-of-freedom
to the quadratic form. (a) Design diagram; (b) approximation of equipotential curve (EC) of the
nonlinear system; (c) numerical results

The potential energy U2(1, 2) of the linearized system in terms of 1  2 is

U 2 1 ; 2 b1 21 2b12 1 2 b2 22 :

9:97

Taking p2 1 ; 2 1 2 as the weighting function and performing some transformations, we obtain the following system of algebraic equations for coefcients
b1, b12, b2:

9.6 Linearization of a System with an Arbitrary Number of Degrees of Freedom

3
3 2
2
b1
=12 2=15 1=16
=12 1=15
1
m
4 2=15 4=16 2=15 5  6 b12 7
4
6
7 2 2 2=15 1=8
6 b2 7
=16 2=15 1=12
=16 1=15
2

1=16
2=15
1=12

327

2 3
3 a1
A =16 6 7
a2 7
2A2 =21 56
6 a3 7:
2
6
A =24 6 7
a4 7
2

9:98
Here A=B; 2A and 2B are the sides of the bounding rectangle along the 1 and 2
axes (Fig. 9.21b). The numerical results for the equipotential curve U1 with
parameter 22 U 1 0:5m 2 are presented in Fig. 9.21c. The equation of the
equipotential curve of the original nonlinear system is
0:25 21  1 2 0:522 0:2541 :
The characteristic points of the oval are M1 0:7071,
sions of the bounding rectangle are [10]
A 0:64359,

9:99

N 1 0:4851. The dimen-

B 0:97638:

The potential energy of the linearized system is


 m 2
U 2 1 ; 2 1:089421  2  0:500491 2 0:4938922
:
2

9:100

The characteristic points of the ellipse with parameter 22 U 2 0:5m 2 become

M2 0:71146, N 1 0:4790:
Application of Lagranges equation leads to the following linear differential
equations:
1 2:1788 2 1  1:00098 2 2 0,
2 0:98778 2 2  1:00098 2 1 0:

9:101

The frequencies are 1 1:658, 2 0:646: The values 1 1:618, 2

0:618 are given in [10] for the system in question. These results differ by 2.47 %
and 4.7 %, respectively.
If p2 1 ; 2 1 2 is taken as a weighting function, the frequencies are 1
1:6603, 2 0:6497: In Table 9.1, for xed 1, the precise and approximate
values of coordinate 2 are presented.
Table 9.1 The proximity of points 2 of the ellipse to the points of oval [27]
Precise formula (val)
Ellipse, p2 1 ; 2 1 2
Ellipse, p2 1 ; 2 1 2

1 0:0
0.70710
0.71145
0.70895

0.2
0.87764
0.88020
0.87805

0.4
0.97201
0.96885
0.96770

0:2
0.47764
0.47485
0.47242

0:4
0.17201
0.15818
0.15644

328

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

This approach was effectively applied for computation of the frequencies of free
nonlinear vibration of a cylindrical shell [27].

Problems
9.1. Describe the essence of the harmonic linearization method.
9.2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the harmonic linearization
method.
9.3. Which passive elements are used for implementation of coefcients q(a) and
q0 (a) of harmonic linearization?
9.4. Describe the jump phenomenon.
9.5. What is meant by the skeleton curve? How can an equation of the skeleton
curve can be derived?
9.6. Prove that for periodic nonlinearity Fx k sin x, the coefcient of harmonic linearization q0 0.
9.7. Show that for the piecewise-linear characteristic with preload F F0 kx
4F0
,
(Fig. 9.8d, text), the coefcients of harmonic linearization are qa k
a
0
q a 0.
9.8. Determine the coefcients of harmonic linearization for the nonlinear function Fx kx4 sgnx:
Answer: q 32ka3 =15.
9.9. Determine the coefcients of harmonic linearization for the nonlinear function Fx kx5 :
Answer: q 5ka4 =8,

q0 0.

9.10. Describe the difference between relay and dry friction characteristics.
9.11. The body of mass m is attached to a spring with nonlinear characteristic
Fx kx x3 : Compute the frequency of free vibration and construct a
skeleton curve. Combine the methods of mechanical impedance and harmonic linearization.
r
3
k
Answer: 0 1 a2 , 20 .
4
m
9.12. A dynamical system with one degree of freedom and two nonlinear passive
elements is shown in Fig. P9.12. The system is subjected to Ft F0 cos t.
The displacement x of mass m is measured from an SEP. Forces which arise
in passive members are F1 x kx3 , F2 x_ bx_ 2 .
Analyze the free and forced vibration.
F2 ( x )

F1(x)
m

SEP

x(t)
F(t)
Fig. P9.12

References

329

9.13. A dynamical system with two lumped mass and nonlinear passive elements is
shown in Fig. P9.13. Displacements x1 and x2 of masses m1 and m2 are
measured from their SEP. Forces which arise in passive members are
F1 k1 x31 ; F2 c1 sgnx1 ; F3 b3 x_ 2  x_ 1 ;
F4 k4 x2  x1 ; F5 b5 x_ 22 :
Perform harmonic linearization of the nonlinear members. Derive the
linearized equation of motion for each mass.

F1

F2
m1

F5

P(t)
F3

F4
m2

Fig. P9.13

9.14. What is meant by replacement of dry friction by an equivalent viscous

friction?
9.15. How is linearization performed for a system with a nite number of degrees
of freedom? What is the criterion of best approximation?
9.16. The equation of nonlinear free vibration is mx Fx 0: If restoring force
F(x) is symmetrical, then the square of the frequency of free vibration
A
2 mA5 5 Fxx3 dx, where A is the amplitude of vibration (Panovkos
0

direct linearization) [28, vol. 3]. Derive the formula for in the following
cases: (a) nonlinear characteristic Fx kxn ; (b) Dufngs characteristic
n 3.
r
r
5k
5k
n1=2
A
A:
; (b)
Answer: (a)
m n 4
7m

References
1. Kolovsky, M. Z. (1999). Nonlinear dynamics of active and passive systems of vibration
protection. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
2. Ivovich, V. A. (1984). Vibration-isolated systems with non-linear characteristics. In Handbook: Korenev B.G., Rabinovich I.M. (editors) (1984). Dynamic analysis of buildings and
structures. 2nd edition. Moscow: Stroiizdat.
3. Popov, E. P. (1973). Applied theory of control processes in the nonlinear systems. Moscow,
Russia: .

330

9 Nonlinear Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

4. Sysoev, V. I. (1984). Devices for reducing vibrations. In Handbook: Korenev B.G.,

Rabinovich I.M. (editors) (1984). Dynamic analysis of buildings and structures. 2nd edition.
Moscow: Stroiizdat.
5. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief) (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
6. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Non-classical vibrations of arches and beams. Eigenvalues and eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
7. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
8. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
9. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
10. Kauderer, H. (1958). Nichtlineare Mechanik. Berlin, Germany: Springer.
11. Chelomey, V. N. (Chief Editor) (19781981). Vibrations in engineering. Handbook (Vols.
16). Moscow, Russia: Mashinostroenie.
12. Timoshenko, S. P., Goodier, J. N. (1987). Theory of elasticity (3rd ed.). New York: McGrawHill, classic textbook reissue series.
13. Newland, D. E. (1989). Mechanical vibration analysis and computation. Harlow, England:
Longman Scientic and Technical.
14. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
15. Den Hartog, J. P. (1956). Mechanical vibrations (4th ed.). New York: Mc Graw-Hill. Dover,
1985.
16. Hayashi, C. (1964). Nonlinear oscillations in physical systems. New York: McGraw-Hill book.
17. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
18. Bogoljubov, N. N. (1961). Asymptotic methods in the theory of non-linear oscillations. Paris,
France: Gordon & Breach.
19. Krylov, N. M., & Bogoljubov, N. N. (1947). Introduction to non-linear mechanics. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press.
20. Hsu, J. C., & Meyer, A. U. (1968). Modern control principles and application. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
21. Hamming, R. W. (1962). Numerical methods for scientists and engineers. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book. Second edition, Dover Publications 1973.
22. Solodovnikov, V. V. (Ed.). (1967). Technical cybernetics (Vol. 1-4). Moscow, Russia:
Mashinostroenie.
23. Panovko Ja, G. (1960). Internal friction at vibration of elastic systems. Moscow, Russia:
Physics Math.
24. Fokin, A. V. (2011). Steady-state vibration of oscillator with dry friction (Vol. 12). M.:
Acoustic institute.
25. Karnovsky, I. A., Lebed, V. V., & Petrusenko, V. A. (1985). The optimal suppression vibration
of the beam. In Investigation of statics and dynamics of the bridges. Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine:
DIIT.
26. Gradstein, I. S., & Ryzhik, I. M. (1965). Tables of integrals, sums, series, and products.
New York: Academic.
27. Karnovsky, I. A., & Cherevatsky, B. P. (1970). Linearization of nonlinear oscillatory systems
with an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom. Soviet Applied Mechanics, 6(9), 120124.
28. Birger, I. A., & Panovko, Y. G. (Eds.). (1968). Strength, stability, vibration. Handbook (Vol.
13). Moscow, Russia: Mashinostroenie.

Part II

Active Vibration Protection

Chapter 10

Pontryagins Principle

The theory of optimal active vibration protection as a problem of optimal control by

a dynamic process is considered here. The class of mechanical systems is limited by
systems with lumped parameters. We discuss the formulation of an optimization
problem for vibration reduction, limitation, the optimality criterion, and its solution
based on Pontryagins principle [1]. We basically follow the fundamental books
by Athans and Falb [2], Hsu and Meyer [3], and Lee and Markus [4]. The qualitative properties of vibration protection systems are discussed. Typical examples are
considered.

10.1

Active Vibration Protection of Mechanical

Systems as a Control Problem

Here we discuss the mathematical model for optimal vibration protection

of mechanical systems, including a short classication of corresponding problems.

10.1.1 Mathematical Model of Vibration Protection Problem

The main components of a mathematical model of an optimal vibration protection
problem are the state equation, concept of active vibration protection exposure,
constraints, and the performance criterion (optimality criterion) [2, 3].
Equation of State and Output, and Its Solution A linear dynamical system with
a nite number of degrees of freedom may be described by a set of rst-order
differential equations
x_ t Atxt Btut;
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_10

10:1
333

334

10

Pontryagins Principle

where x(t) is the n-dimensional vector of a state, u(t) is the m-dimensional vector of
vibration protection exposure, A(t) is an n  n matrix of the system, and B(t) is the
n  m amplication matrix of the vibration protection exposure. In general, (10.1)
may be written as follows
x_ t f x; u; t:

10:2

The motion of a system is considered on a time interval [t0, t] at the initial

condition xt0 x0 . The solution to homogeneous equation (10.1), i.e., the
equation
x_ t Atxt

10:3

xt t; t0 x0 :

10:4

with initial condition x0, is

Here, (t, t0) is a fundamental matrix solution of the corresponding homogeneous

equation (10.3)
The fundamental or transition matrix (t, t0) of system (10.3) is [5]
2

x11 t

6 1
6 x t
6 2
t; t0 6
6 ...
4
x1n t

x21 t
x22 t
...
x2n t

. . . x1n t

7
. . . x2n t 7
7
7:
... ... 7
5
. . . xnn t

10:5

Each column of the matrix represents the homogeneous solution set of equations
(10.3) under certain initial conditions; for example, for the rst, second, and last
columns, the initial conditions are
1 0



0 t ,



0 t ,

   1 t :

The number of such solutions coincides with the dimension n. The main properties
of the fundamental matrix are as follows:
1. Each element of the fundamental matrix (t, t0) is a differentiable function of t,
and the matrix itself satises the differential relationship
d
_ t; t0 Att; t0 :
t; t0
dt
2. If t t0 , then the fundamental matrix is the identity matrix I

10:6

10.1

Active Vibration Protection of Mechanical Systems as a Control Problem

1
0
6 0
1
t0 ; t0 6
4... ...
0
0

3
... 0
... 0 7
7 I:
... ...5
... 1

335

10:7

3. The inverse matrix of (t, t0) is (t0, t)

1 t; t0 t0 ; t:

10:8

This property allows us to write the total solution of the nonhomogeneous

system (10.1) with initial conditions xt0 x0 [2]
8
9
t
<
=
10:9
xt t; t0 x0 1 ; t0 Bud :
:
;
t0

Assume we are dealing with a system with constant parameters. This means that the
entries of matrix A do not depend on time t.
In this case, in order to nd the fundamental matrix, we need to introduce a
complex variable s, form a matrix sI  A and inverse matrix sI  A1 , and then
apply the inverse Laplace transform for each matrix element [2]
t L1 sI  A1 :
A table of common Laplace transforms is presented in Appendix B.
Example 10.1 Let the system be described by the equation x 2 x Kut. If we
denote x x1 and introduce variable x_ x2 , then the original equation in vector
form (10.1) becomes


x_ 1
x_ 2


A

x1
x2


0
ut,
K

0
2


1
:
0

1. We introduce the complex variable s and form a new matrix

s
sI  A
2


1
:
s

2. The inverse matrix is

1

sI  A

1
s
2
2
2

s


1
:
s

336

10

1
s
It is easy to verify that sI  A1 sI  A 2
2 2
s


1 0
I:
0 1
3. The fundamental matrix (t) of the system is
2

1

1

t L sI  A

x1 x
x2 x_

1
s

s
2


1

3
1
sin t
5:

4
 sin t
cos t
cos t

It is easy to verify that 0 I:

If the initial conditions are x1 0 x0 ,
tion is described by the equation


Pontryagins Principle

x2 0 x_ 1 0 x_ 0 , then free vibra-

2
3
1
 
 
sin

t
cos

t
x
5 x0

t 0 4
x_ 0
x_ 0
 sin t
cos t
2
3
1
_
sin

t
x
cos

x
0
0
7:

6
6
7
6 x sin t x_ cos t 7
0
0

Adjoint System Let us consider the homogeneous equation of system (10.1), i.e.,
equation (10.3). The adjoint differential equation for (10.3) becomes
0

z_ t A tzt;

10:10

where A0 (t) is the transpose of matrix A(t) of system (10.3).

The solution to (10.3) with a vector of initial conditions x0 is xt t; t0 x0 ,
while the solution to adjoint equation (10.9) with a vector of initial conditions z0 is
zt t; t0 z0 , where (t, t0) is a fundamental matrix of the adjoint system.
We note some properties of both systems, the initial (10.3) and adjoint (10.10) [2]:
0

1: tt I;

D
E
0
2: hzt, xti htz0 , tx0 i z0 , ttx0 hz0 , x0 i ;

10:11

where the symbol h a, b i denotes a scalar product.

Example 10.2 Let us return to the equation x 2 x Kut. For this equation we
can introduce other variable states [2]
x1

1
x, x2 x_ :
K
K

10:12a

10.1

Active Vibration Protection of Mechanical Systems as a Control Problem

337

Their substitution into the original equation leads to

d
Kx1
Kx2 2
Kut:
dt

Thus we obtain two differential equations

x_ Kx2 x2 ,
K
K
x_ 2  x1 ut:
x_ 1

In matrixvector form, the state equation becomes



x_ 1
x_ 2

 0

x1
x2

 
0

ut:
1

10:12b

The fundamental matrix of the system is

1
s 

cos t

s
 sin t

t L1 sI  A1 L1

1
s
L 2
2

s
1


sin t
:
cos t

d
0
t; t0 Att; t0 , and (2) tt
It is easy verify check that (1)
0
dt
t t I.
Thus, the fundamental matrix of the system x 2 x Kut is presented in
different forms (Examples 10.1, 10.2). As expected, the solutions to the initial
equation are the same in both cases. In order to verify this, take into account

only the initial conditions for the new variables 1 x1 0 x0,

K
1
2 x2 0 x_ 0, and make the reverse transition to the variable x and x_
K
using the the formulas in (10.12a).
The matrix system A of system (10.12b) has complex eigenvalues [6]. This is a
fundamental feature of matrix A.
Vibration Protection Controller Vibration protection exposure (or controller)
u(t) is an additional force and (or) kinematic action which is introduced into the
mechanical system. The presence of these additional controllers allows us to change
the state of a system in a desired manner, i.e., to formulate a control problem by a
vibration protection process.
In the case of a system with distributed parameters, the VP exposures can be
moving. Moreover, they can be lumped, and can be applied to the system at
different times and at different points [7].

338

10

Pontryagins Principle

Constraints In real engineering problems, constraints can be imposed on the VP

exposure and on the variable state. They determine the technical characteristics of
the executive mechanism, the requirements for the process of vibration protection,
and the range of variation of state variables or the relationship between them [2].
Mathematically, constraints are expressed as additional conditions in the form of
equations or inequalities. If u(t) is a force (torque) which is supplied to the system,
then constraint ut  u0 means that the range of executive devices is bounded by
value u0. If the system has k controllers ui(t), it is possible to impose a constraint on
each exposure ui t  u0i , i 1, 2, . . . , k: Moreover, the constraints may vary at
different subintervals of a control time. If u(t) is the displacement of the support
point of a structure, the constraint ut  u0 means that the free motion of an
executive device is limited by the quantity u0. It is possible to limit the fuel
consumption required to operate the system. In this case, the constraint on the
control u(t) takes the form
T
jutjdt  F0 ;

10:13

where F0 is a limited supply of fuel [2].

Integral constraint
T
u2 tdt  l2

10:14

represents a limited energy of an autonomous source.

Constraints may also be imposed on the state variables. In the simplest case the
constraint is imposed on one of the coordinates
x i t  x 0

10:15

on the time interval 0  T . It is possible to impose a constraint on each coordinate

xi t  x0i , i 1, 2, . . . , n;

10:16

or on a set of coordinates combined with weighted coefcients i, i.e.

n
X

i xi t  X 0 :

10:17

i1

The presence of constraints distinguishes the non-classical calculus of variations

(Pontryagins principle) with the classical calculus of variations [1].

10.1

Active Vibration Protection of Mechanical Systems as a Control Problem

339

Performance criterion. Quality control may be estimated using a functional of a

certain type. The structure of the functional is determined by the system requirements. The time of vibration suppression is of great importance in the theory of
optimal vibration protection. The corresponding performance criterion is
T
J dt T  t0 :

10:18

t0

The problem is to nd a constrained vibration protection exposure u(t) that will

transfer the initial state xt0 x0 of the system (10.1) to the nal state xT xT
and minimize the cost functional (10.18), i.e., J T  t0 ! min: This type of
problem is called a time-optimal problem. The nal state is determined by the
requirements of the system: it can be a hypersphere with a xed radius and
non-stationary nal state, while in problems of complete suppression of vibration,
all the coordinates of the nal state are xT 0.
The quadratic functional of the VP excitation
T
J ut u2 tdt

10:19

is of great importance. This functional takes into account the energy needed for
transfer of a system from the initial state x0 to the nal state xT. From a physical
point of view, the quadratic function u2(t) imposes a heavy penalty for large u(t) [2].
From a mathematical point of view, quadratic functional (10.19) allows us, in some
cases, to obtain the solution in an analytical form.
Quadratic functionals as a combination of controller u(t) with a coordinate of
state x(t) are possible. For example [2],
T
J ut, xt

 2

u t  xtut dt;

10:20

T
J ut, xt


u2 t x2 t dt:

10:21

Functionals that depend on the intermediate coordinate values are found in problems of ship roll damping. The same type are functionals depending on coordinates
at the nal time. Among them, we note [8]
J x1 T or J x21 T :

10:22

340

10

Pontryagins Principle

A quadratic functional in standard form is presented as follows [2]:

J

1
2

hxt, Qtxti hut, Rtuti 2hxt, Mtutidt:

10:23

where Q(t) and R(t) are positive denite n  n and r  r matrices, respectively;
M(t) is an n  r matrix; the symbol ha, bi denotes scalar multiplication.
The problem of complete optimal active suppression of vibration is formulated
as follows: nd vibration protection exposure u(t), constrained in a known manner,
which transfers the dynamical system from a given initial state to a nal zero state
for a xed time T, and minimizes the cost functional J.
More generally, the cost of vibration protection may be presented as follows:
T
J Lxt, utdt;

10:24

where L is the integrand of the cost functional.

10.1.2 Classication of Optimal Vibration Protection

Problems
Elements of the mathematical model of vibration protection problems can be
considered as a basis for classication problems of optimal active vibration suppression of mechanical systems [8]. These include:
1. Type of differential equations, which describe the dynamic state of the system.
A system with lumped parameters is described by ordinary differential equations, and a system with distributed parameters is described by partial differential equations. The equations may be linear or nonlinear, while the parameters of
the system may be constant or variable. The right sides of differential equations
of state may be continuous over the entire range of their determination, or they
may be discontinuous.
2. Types of constraints. Constraints may be imposed on the vibration protection
exposures u(t), on the variable state x(t), or on their combinations. Of course it is
possible to formulate a problem without constraints.
3. Type of performance criterion. The cost functional may depend on the controller
only, the controller and the variable state at the endpoint of the interval of
observation, or on the controller and phase coordinate at intermediate points.
The minimum time problem means the transfer of the system from the initial
state to the nal zero state (i.e., complete suppression of vibrations), or in a
specied area of the nal state (i.e., vibration reduction) for the minimum
possible time.

10.2

Representation of an Equation of State in Cauchys Matrix Form

341

4. Character of the optimization problem. It is possible to determine vibration

protection exposure u(t) that does not depend on the current state of the system
(programmed vibration protection), and it is possible to determine the exposure
as a function of the current system state. In the latter case it is the synthesis of an
optimal regulator, which can be implemented via feedback
5. Boundary conditions and time of vibration protection process. It is possible to
formulate problems with a xed or non-xed transfer times, and problems in
which the nal state is a point or region [2].
This list of features, which is far from complete, shows a variety of problems of
optimal active vibration suppression.

10.2

Representation of an Equation of State in Cauchys

Matrix Form

In this section we illustrate the procedure to transform a linear differential equation

of order n with constant parameters to a system of n linear differential equations,
each of rst order. Two types of differential relations excitation (input)-response
(output) are considered [2].
Consider the linear differential equation of order n with constant coefcients



Dn an1 Dn1    a1 D a0 yt b0 ut;

10:25

where D d=dt is a time differential operator, and y(t) and u(t) are the response
(output) of the system and external exposure (input), respectively.
The peculiarity of (10.25) is that the right part contains no terms with derivatives
of exposure u(t). Assume that ai and b0 are real constants, and the coefcient of
the highest derivative of Dny(t) has been made equal to unity [9]. Our goal is to
transform this equation to a system of linear differential equations, each of the rst
order; corresponding system is called Cauchys equations.
To obtain a solution of the differential equation (10.25), we should have n initial
conditions y0, y_ 0,   , yn1 0: Let us introduce the new state variables zk t,
k 1,   , n [2, 5]
z1 t yt,
z2 t y_ t,
: : : : : :
zk t yk1 t,
: : : : : :
zn t yn1 t:

10:26

342

10

Pontryagins Principle

Then we can immediately write

z_ 1 t y_ t z2 t,
z_ 2 t yt z3 t,
: : : : : :

10:27

z_ n1 t yn1 t zn t:
Now let us form an expression for z_ n t. Relationships (10.25) can be written as
follows:
Dn yt a0 yt  a1 Dyt      an1 Dn1 yt b0 ut:

10:28

Since Dn yt yn t z_ n t, substitution of (10.26), (10.27) into (10.28) leads to

z_ n t a0 yt  a1 Dyt      an1 Dn1 yt b0 ut
 a0 yt  a1 y_ t      an1 yn1 t b0 ut

10:29

 a0 z1 t  a1 z2 t      an1 zn t b0 ut:
Thus, if the variables of the state are dened by formulas (10.26), then the original
equation (10.25), according to (10.27) and (10.29), becomes equivalent to n linear
differential equations, each of rst order:
32
3 2
3 2 3
2
z1 t
0
1
0

0
0
z_ 1 t
76
7 6
7 6 7
6
7 6 7
6 z_ 2 t 7 6 0
6
0
1

0 7
7 6 z2 t 7 6 0 7
7 6
6
76
7 6
7 6 7
6
7 6 7
6  7 6 
6

 
 7
76    7 6    7ut:
7 6
6
76
7 6
7 6 7
6
7 6 7
6 z_ n1 t 7 6 0
6
0
0

1 7
54 zn1 t 5 4 0 5
5 4
4
a0 a1 a2    an1
b0
z_ n t
zn t
10:29a
Strictly speaking, a linear dynamic system is described by two differential
equations. The rst equation is a system (10.25) written in matrix form (10.29a);
this equation describes the state of the system in the variable z as a function of
exposure u(t). The second equation describes the output of the system y(t) as a
function of the rst component (10.26) of a state system z1(t) only [2]. Knowing the
initial vector of state variables z(t0) and exposure u(t) on the interval (t0, t), we can
determine vector z(t) and output y(t) on the same interval (t0, t).
Now let us consider the nth-order linear differential equation with constant
coefcients



Dn an1 Dn1    a1 D a0 yt


bn Dn bn1 Dn1    b1 D b0 ut:

10:30

10.2

Representation of an Equation of State in Cauchys Matrix Form

343

This equation, as with (10.25), has one input u(t) and one output y(t). However, in
this case, the state of the system depends not only on u(t), as in the case of (10.25),
but also on its derivatives, and thus the order of the highest derivative of input is
also n. As before, ai and bi are real constants, and the coefcient of the highest
derivative of Dny(t) has been made equal to unity.
To obtain the solution to differential equation (10.30), we must have 2n initial
conditions:
y0, y_ 0,   , yn1 0 and u0, u0,   , un1 0.
Let us introduce the new variables state zk t, k 1,   , n
z1 t yt  h0 ut,
z2 t y_ t  h0 u_ t  h1 ut,
z3 t yt  h0 ut  h1 u_ t  h2 ut,

10:31

: : : : : :
zn t yn1 t  h0 un1 t  h1 un2 t      hn1 ut;
If we determine the unknown parameters by formulas
h0 bn ,
h1 bn1  h0 an1 ,
h2 bn2  h0 an2  h1 an1 ,

hnk

: : : : : :
nk1
X
bk 
hi aik ,

10:32

k 1, 2,   , n  1:

i0

then z_ n t does not depend on all derivatives of u(t).

Thus, if the state variables are dened by fomulas (10.31), (10.32), the original
equation (10.30) then becomes equivalent to n linear differential equations, each of
rst order:
3 2
0
z_ 1 t
7 6
6
6 z_ 2 t 7 6 0
7 6
6
6  7 6 
7 6
6
7 6
6
4 z_ n1 t 5 4 0
a0
z_ n t
2

1
0

0
1










0
a1

0
a2




3 2
3
h1
z1 t
7 6
76
7
76 z2 t 7 6 h2 7
7 6
76
7
7 6
7
6
 7
76    7 6    7ut:
7 6
76
7
1 54 zn1 t 5 4 hn1 5
zn t
an1
hn
0
0

32

10:33

344

10

Pontryagins Principle

Finally, the dynamics of the system are described by two equations. They are
z_ t Azt but,

b b h1

h2



hn1

yt z1 t h0 ut :

hn c ,

10:34

The rst equation (10.34), describes the state of the system in the variables z as a
function of exposure u(t), and the second equation describes the output of
the system y(t) as a function of the state of the system z1(t) and exposure u(t).
Therefore, in order to obtain a complete set of equations that describe the dynamic
state of the system, (10.1) must be supplemented by the equation
yt z1 t h0 ut. The general case of the linear dynamical system is described
by two equations [2]
x_ t Atxt Btut ,
yt Ctxt Dtut :

10:35

where x(t) is the n-dimensional vector of state, u(t) is an m-dimensional vector

of vibration protection exposure, y(t) is an n-dimensional output vector, A(t) is an
n  n matrix of the system, B(t) is n  m matrix amplication of the vibration
protection exposure, and Ct  p  n and Dt  p  m are the transform
matrices, respectively.
The rst equation determines the state of the system in variables x(t), and the
second equation determines the output of the system. If elements of the matrices
A, B, C, D do not depend on time t, we are dealing with a system with constant
parameters (time-invariant system).
Equations in the form
x_ t Atxt Btut ,
yt Cxt

10:36

are of great interest in vibration protection problems. Thus, if order m 0,

then the equation for output, according to the rst equation (10.26), is
yt z1 t. If order m n, then the equation for output according to the second
equation (10.31) is
yt z1 t h0 ut:
In a general case, if m < n for output, we get a matrix equation yt Cxt.
The presentation of a dynamical system in normal Cauchy form can thus be
performed not on the basis of a differential equation for the whole system, as
discussed above, but on the basis of differential equations compiled for the
individual elements of the system.

10.2

Representation of an Equation of State in Cauchys Matrix Form

345

Example 10.3 The design diagram of a damped mechanical system with two
degrees of freedom and corresponding free-body diagram is shown in Fig. 10.1.

y1

c1
m1
b1

m2
b2

y2

c2

y1

c1y1
m1

F (t )

b1 y1

y2

c2 ( y2 y1 )
m2

F (t )

b2 ( y 2 y1 )

Fig. 10.1 Design diagram of a mechanical system (a) and free-body diagram (b)

Newtons equations for each separate mechanical systems are given by

m1y1 t b1 y_ 1 t b2 y_ 2 t  y_ 1 t  c1 y1 t c2 y2 t  y1 t,
m2y2 t Ft  b2 y_ 2 t  y_ 1 t  c2 y2 t  y1 t:

10:37

These two second-order equations can be transformed into four rst-order differential equations by dening [5]
x1 t y1 t,
x2 t y2 t,
x3 t y_ 1 t,

10:38

x4 t y_ 2 t :
The resulting state equations are given by
x_ 1 t x3 t,
x_ 2 t x4 t,
m1 x_ 3 t c1 c2 x1 t c2 x2 t  b1 b2 x3 t b2 x4 t,

10:39

m2 x_ 4 t c2 x1 t  c2 x2 t b2 x3 t  b2 x4 t Ft :
In matrix form, the equation of the state of the system and the output equation are
x_ t Axt But,
yt Cxt;
where

346

10

Pontryagins Principle

6
0
0
0
1 7
7
6
6 7
7
6
6 x2 7
7
6 c1 c2
c

b
2
1
2
2
7
6
x 6 7, A 6 
7,


7
6
m
m
m
m
6 x3 7
1
1
1
1
7
6
6 7
5
4
6x 7
c
c
b
b
2
2
2
2
4


m2
m2
m2
m2
2 3
0
6 0 7
"
#
 
6 7
1 0 0 0
y
6 7
B 6 0 7C
, ut Ft, y 1 :
y2
6 7
0 1 0 0
6 1 7
6 7
6 7
m2
x1

10:40

Thus the state of the system is determined by the displacement of the masses y1(t),
y2(t) and velocities y_ 1 t, y_ 2 t. The system output is presented by coordinates y1(t)
and y2(t).
Example 10.4 A linearly deformable system with two lumped masses is subjected
to force P(t) (Fig. 10.2).
P(t )

Fig. 10.2 Design diagram

of a beam

m1

m2

y1 (t )

y2 (t )

Let us derive the equation of state and output equation in terms of unit
displacements.
The equations of forced vibration are
y1 t 11 m1y1 t 12 m2y2 t 1P Pt;

10:41a

y2 t 21 m1y1 t 22 m2y2 t 2P Pt;

10:41b

where ik is unit displacement; their computation for deformable structures is

described in [10].
Let us introduce new coordinates
(

x1 t y1 t ! x_ 1 y_ 1 x3 ,
x2 t y2 t ! x_ 2 y_ 2 x4

x3 t y_ 1 t ! x_ 3 y1 ,
x4 t y_ 2 t ! x_ 4 y2 :

10:42a

10:42b

10.3

Qualitative Properties of Vibration Protection Systems

347

Equations (10.41a, 10.41b) are dynamically connected through the second derivatives. Therefore, to nd y1, from (10.41a, 10.41b) we exclude y2; for this, (10.41a)
is multiplied by 22, (10.41b) is multiplied by 12, and the second equation is
subtracted from the rst. As a result, we obtain
22
12
22 1P  12 2P
x2
Pt,
x_ 3  x1
D1
D1
D1



D1 Dm1 11 22  212 m1
10:43

Similarly, y1 can be excluded from system (10.41a, 10.41b)

x_ 4

21
11
21 1P  11 2P
x1 
x2 
Pt,
D2
D2
D2



D2 Dm2 11 22  212 m2
10:44

The equations of the state of the system in Cauchy form are written as follows:
x_ t Axt But,
yt Cxt;
3

0
x_ 1 t
6 x_ t 7 6
0
6 2 7 6
76
6
6 x_ 3 t 7 4 22 =D1
7
6
6 x_ t 7
=D
4

21

b1

0
0

1
0

12 =D1

11 =D1

3 2 3
32
0
0
x1 t
6 x t 7 6 0 7
17
76 2 7 6 7
7 6 7Pt;
76
7 6 7
0 56
6 x3 t 7 6 b1 7
6
x t 7 6 b 7
0
4

22 1P  12 2P
21 1P  11 2P
, b2 
:
D1
D2

Equation yt Cxt will be the same as that in Example 10.3.

10.3

Qualitative Properties of Vibration Protection

Systems

In this section we briey discuss some fundamental qualitative properties of linear

active vibration protection systems as a special case of control systems. These
include accessibility, controllability, normality, and stability.

10.3.1 Accessibility, Controllability, Normality

These concepts will be considered for linear dynamical systems with lumped
parameters. A strict denition of concept and corresponding criterion and proofs
can be found in [2, 4].

348

10

Pontryagins Principle

The term Accessibility (reachability) means that it is possible to nd a vibration

protection exposure u(t) which transfers system from a given initial state x0 to a
nal state x1.
The term Controllability means that it is possible to transfer any state of the
system xt0 x0 to the origin xt 0 in some nite time t. In this case we say that
x0 is controllable at time t0. If every state xt0 x0 is controllable at every time t0
in the interval of denition of the system, then we say that the system is completely
controllable (or, simply, controllable). To analyze whether a state x0 of a linear
vibration protection system with constant parameters is controllable, we may
suppose that the initial time is zero. The criterion of a completely controllable
system for the case of a time-invariant system x_ t Ax_ t But is presented
below.
If matrix B is n  1 matrix b, then the system is completely controllable if and
only if the n  n matrix

G b

Ab

A2 b



An1 b

10:45

is nonsingular [2]. The fact that the system is not controllable means that there are
more state variables than necessary. Note that in the case of a time-invariant system,
accessibility and controllability coincide.
Example 10.5 The simplest vibration protection system, described by equation
x 2 x ut, is completely controllable. Indeed, in matrix form x_ t
Ax_ t But, we have
&

x_ 1
x_ 2

"

2

#&

x1
x2

&
0
1

"
u, A

2

#
,

&
0
1

 
0
Matrix B is one column
b
; therefore, a complex
1

    
0
1
0
1


.
Ab
1
0
2 0


0 1
Matrix G b Ab 
, and det G 6 0: This means that the vibration
1 0
protection system is completely controllable.
Example 10.6 The system is described by equation q 2nq_ 2 q u_ t ut:
Determine what parameters n and lead to an uncontrollable system. To apply
the criterion of controllability, the initial equation of the system should be
presented in the normal Cauchy form. Let us introduce the state variables
x1 t qt; x2 t q_ t  ut [2]. Now the original equation may be represented
in matrix form

10.3

Qualitative Properties of Vibration Protection Systems

&

x_ 1

"

#&

x1

&

349

ut:
1  2n
2n
x2


1  2n
Complex Ab
; for matrix G b Ab  we get
2  2n1  2n
x_ 2

2

"
G

1;

1  2n

1  2n; 2  2n1  2n

#
,

det G 2 2n  1: If n 1, then det G 0; matrix G is singular, so the

system is not controllable.
Example 10.7 Figure 10.3 presents a symmetric uniform beam with two lumped
masses which are subjected to two equal and oppositely directed excitations u(t).
Fig. 10.3 Design diagrams
of a beam

u(t)

u(t)
a

a
m1

y1

m2

y2

The equations of vibration of the system are [10]

m1 11y1 m2 12y2 y1 11 ut  12 ut ,
m1 21y1 m2 22y2 y2 21 ut  22 ut :
where ik are unit displacements, ik ki , ii > 0 [10]. For a symmetrical
system, 11 22 : Assume that m1 m2 1: Equations of vibration become
11y1 12y2 y1 11  12 ut U0 ,
21y1 22y2 y2 21  22 ut U 0 :
The equations may be rewritten as follows:
y1 12y2 y1  12 ut U0 ,
y2 21y1 y2 21  ut U 0 :
The sum of the two equations is
y1 y2 12 y1 y2 y1 y2 0:
Since the equation does not depend on u(t), it is impossible to control the symmetrical vibration. This result is obvious from a physical point of view. If we eliminate
any vibration protection exposure u(t) , or accept that the VP exposures are not
equal in absolute value, then the system becomes completely controllable [11].

350

10

Pontryagins Principle

Normality This term means that a system is controllable with respect to each
component u1 t, u2 t,   , um t of the control u(t). In other words, the term
implies that the dynamical system is completely controllable.
The criterion of the normal system may be found in [2]. The concept controllability is an intrinsic property inherent in the system itself, while the concept
normality is inherent property of the optimization problem [11]. The problem of
invariance and controllability is discussed by Egorov [12].

10.3.2 Stability
A linear homogeneous system with constant parameters x_ t Axt (A is an
n  n matrix) is stable if small deviations from equilibrium, i.e., the solution
xt 0, remain small as time elapses. More strictly, the system is stable if
the Euclidean norm kx(t)k remains bounded as t ! 1 for every solution x(t) of
the system. The system is said to be strictly stable if it is stable and if lim kxtk
t!1

0 [2, 13].

Stability Criterion Stability analysis of a dynamical system can be performed on

the basis of the characteristic equation. If the equations of motion are presented in
Cauchy form x_ t Axt, then the characteristic equation is detA  I 0,
where I is the identity matrix, are eigenvalues. If the equations of motion are
presented as one linear differential equation, then the characteristic equation is
dn
obtained by formally replacing n n . In any case, the characteristic equation
dt
reduces to a polynomial in powers of .
In 1868, Maxwell formulated the problem of nding the direct criteria of
stability, i.e., the criteria that are based on the coefcients of the characteristic
equation and that do not require the calculation of roots. The solution to this
problem leads to two groups of criteria:frequencies and algebraic criteria [14].
Among the frequency methods, we note those of Nyquist [9], and Mikhailov [15].
Effective algebraic criteria of stability have been formulated by Routh [16] and
Hurwitz [17]. Below we consider the algebraic methods.
Rouths Criterion (1877) Stability of motion will be provided if all coefcients Ai
of the characteristic equation are positive and the relationships between the
coefcients of the characteristic equation satisfy additional conditions. Let us
consider these conditions for characteristic equations of third and fourth order.
1. The third-order characteristic equation is 3 A1 2 A2 A3 0. For the
stability of motion of the system, the following conditions must be fullled:
1: Ai > 0;

2: A1 A2 > A3 :

10.3

Qualitative Properties of Vibration Protection Systems

351

2. The fourth-order characteristic equation is 4 A1 3 A2 2 A3 A4 0.

For the stability of motion of the system, the following conditions must be
fullled:
1: Ai > 0;

2: A1 A2 A3 > A23 A21 A4 :

Rouths Procedure Let the characteristic equation be

n A1 n1 A2 n2    An1 An 0:

10:46

In the case of n > 4, the following numerical procedure is recommended. The

coefcients Ai , i 1, . . . , n of the characteristic equation are arranged in the rst
and second row of the Routhian pattern
1

A2

A4



A1

A3

A5



C1

C2

C3



D1

D2

D3



10:47

The constants of the third row are evaluated as follows:

C1 A1 A2  1  A3 =A1 ,
C2 A1 A4  1  A5 =A1 ,
: :

: :

10:48

: : :

This pattern is continued until the rest of the Cs are all equal to zero.
A mnemonic rule is shown in Fig. 10.4.
The values at each line, starting from the third line, are obtained as follows:
1. Mark the rst elements of the previous two lines (1 and A1 for computation of the
C elements, A1 and C1 for computation of the D elements).

A2

A4

A6

Second row A1

A3

A5

A7

Third row C1

C2

C3

C4

D1

D2

D3

D4

First row
Computation of
the Cs elements
Computation of
the Ds elements

Fig. 10.4 Pattern for evaluation of the coefcients of the third and fourth rows

352

10

Pontryagins Principle

2. Multiply these elements in a crisscross pattern by the following elements of

these lines.
3. The difference between them should be divided by the rst element of the
previous line.
With this, the constants of the fourth row are
D1 C1 A3  A1  C2 =C1 ,
D2 C1 A5  A1  C3 =C1 ,
: : : : : : :

10:49

All numbers in a Routhian pattern, starting from the third row, can be multiplied by
one and the same positive number. Therefore, instead of writing all fractional
expressions, starting from the third row we can record only the corresponding
numerators. For stability of the system, it is necessary that all the elements of the
rst column of the Routhian pattern are positive. For the cubic characteristic
equation 3 A1 2 A2 A3 0, the Routhian pattern becomes
1

A2

A1
A1 A2  A3

A3
0

A1 A2  A3 A3

For characteristic equation 4 A1 3 A2 2 A3 A4 0, the Routhian pattern

becomes
1

A2

A4

A1
A1 A2  A3

A3
A1 A 4

0
0

0
0

A1 A2  A3 A3  A21 A4


A1 A4 A1 A2  A3 A3  A21 A4

0
0

0
0

0
0

Example 10.8 Apply the Routhian pattern for characteristic equation 4 43

52 3 n 0. Determine free term n so that the system will be stable.
Solution The Routhian array is formed using the procedure described above:
1
4

5
3

n
0

4  5  3 17
17  3  42 n 51  16n

4n
0

0
0

51  16n4n

The system is stable when all elements of the rst column are positive; this occurs if
n < 51=16:

10.3

Qualitative Properties of Vibration Protection Systems

353

Special case: if one of the elements of the rst column is zero, we need to introduce
a small element > 0 and continue lling scheme.
Hurwitzs criterion (1895), like the Routh criterion, allows us to estimate
the stability of a system on the basis of coefcients of the characteristic equation.
In the general case, this equation is
A0 n A1 n1 A2 n2    An1 An 0:

10:50

Pay attention, that in Hutrwitzs procedure coefcient at highest derivative may be

differ from unity, while in Rouths procedure this coefcient must be equal to unity.
Assume that A0 > 0; now we need to form the quadratic n  n Hurwitz matrix.
The entries on the main diagonal are coefcients of the characteristic equation in
the following order A1 , A2 ,   , An . To the right of these elements we record
coefcients with decreasing subscripts, and to the left of the main diagonal the
coefcients with increasing subscripts. If the subscript becomes negative or larger
than n, then the input matrix is lled with zeroes. For example, the third row
starts from the odd coefcient A5, contains n terms, and has the form
A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 00  0. The Hurwitz matrix in general form is presented below.
3
2
A 1 A0 0
0
0
0
0
0  0
6 A 3 A2 A1 A 0 0
0
0
0  0 7
7
6
7
6
10:51
H 6 A 5 A4 A3 A 2 A1 A0 0
0    0 7:
7
6
4 A 7 A6 A5 A 4 A3 A2 A1 0    0 5
 

  

  

The system is stable if n diagonal minors of the matrix

Hurwitz determinants are

 A 1 A0



 A1 A0 


1 A1 > 0, 2 
> 0, 3  A3 A2
A3 A2 
 A 5 A4

 
(10.51) are positive. The

0 
A1  > 0, etc:
A3 

10:52

Example 10.9 Investigate the stability of the system of third degree A0 3 A1 2

A2 A3 0 with positive coefcients. Apply the Hurwitz procedure.
Solution The Hurwitz matrix is
2

A1
H 4 A3
0

A0
A2
0

3
0
A1 5:
A3

The Hurwitz determinants and condition of stability are


 A1 A0



 A1 A0 
 > 0; 3  A3 A2
1 A1 > 0; 2 


A3 A2
 0
0


0 
A1  > 0:
A3 

354

10

Pontryagins Principle

Since 3 A3 2 and A3 > 0, it is sufcient to verify only the second determinant

2 > 0. Thus the system is stable if A1 A2 > A3 A0 . If A0 1, we immediately obtain
Rouths result A1 A2 > A3 for characteristic equation 3 A1 2 A2 A3 0.
Example 10.10 To ensure a constant angular velocity of rotation of a machine
shaft, we apply the Boulton and Watt centrifugal governor (1788). Its principle of
operation is well known [18, 19]. The motion of the shaft and the clutch of
centrifugal regulator are described by two coupled differential equations [19, 20]
J
k1 z,
mz z_ kz k2 _ :

10:53a

Here, and z are the rotation angle of the rotor and displacement of the regulators
clutch;
J is a reduced moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the machine;
m is a reduced mass of the regulators clutch;
is a resistance coefcient;
k is a stiffness coefcient of the spring regulator, of units [force/length];
k1 means increasing torque caused by the displacement of the clutch regulator per
unit length, of units [force];
k2 means increasing force applied to the clutch caused by increasing of the angular
velocity of the rotor per unit radian per unit second, of units [force/rad/s];
We must determine the relationships between the parameters of the system that
assure its stability. In other words, we need to determine the conditions under which
the system will return to normal operation after a sudden load change.
The solutions to the differential equations are z Z0 et ; 0 et : Substitution of these expressions into (10.53a) of system the shaft-regulator leads to
linear algebraic equations with respect to amplitude values Z0 and 0:
k1 Z 0 J2 0 0,
 2

m k Z0  k2 0 0:

10:53b

Since the system of equations is homogeneous, then a nontrivial solution for the
amplitude values Z0 and 0 is possible when the determinant of the system (10.53b)
is zero.
Since the system of equations is homogeneous, the non-trivial solution for the
amplitude values Z0 and 0 is possible if the determinant of the system is zero.
Condition


J2
k1
D
0
10:53c
m2 k k2
leads to the following characteristic equation of the third degrees
3

2 k
k1 k2

0:
m
m
mJ

10:53d

10.4

Pontryagins Principle

355

Stability is ensured if A1 A2 > A3 . This inequality, in terms of coefcients of

(10.53b), leads to the following condition of stability
k k1 k2
:
>
m2
mJ

10:53e

If two additional linear terms, which take into account the dissipative _ and elastic
k forces, are introduced into the left side of the rst equation of system (10.53a),
then the modied set of equations will describe the action of Leblancs absorber
(1901). The elds of application, operation principle, and stability analysis of this
absorber were described by Den Hartog [19].

10.4

Pontryagins Principle

This principle provides a set of necessary conditions for optimal control of dynamical systems. This paragraph contains a general formulation of the optimization
problem for systems described by ordinary differential equations and necessary
optimality conditions in Pontryagins form [1, 2, 4, 5].
Elements of the mathematical model of an optimal suppression vibration problem for dynamical system with lumped parameters are described in Sect. 10.1.1.
These elements are the equation of state, the initial and nal states of system,
constraints, and the optimality criterion.
The problem of optimal active complete suppression of vibration is formulated
as follows: nd vibration protection exposure u(t), constrained in a known manner
(10.1310.17), which transfers the dynamical system (10.1) from a given initial
state x0 to a nal state x(T ), and minimizes the cost functional J (10.24). The
corresponding controller u*(t) is called the optimal controller (VP exposure), and
the corresponding trajectory x*(t) is called the optimal trajectory of the vibration
protection process.
According to Pontryagins principle, we need to introduce the vector of additional variables p(t) and construct a function H
Hpt, xt, u Lxt, ut hp, f x; ui:

10:54

The function is the Hamiltonian function (or, simply, the Hamiltonian); note the
similarity to the Hamiltonian equation of motion of [21]. The rst term L[x(t), u(t)]
of the Hamiltonian function is the integrand of the cost functional (10.24).
The vector of additional variables p(t) is called the co-state (or adjoint) vector.
The second term hp, f(x, u)i of the Hamiltonian function is the scalar multiplication
of the vector of adjoint variables p(t) and function f[x(t), u(t)]; this function is the
right part of the state equation (10.2).

356

10

Pontryagins Principle

The optimal response or optimal trajectory x*(t) from the initial state x0 x0
into the nal state x(T ) satises the differential equation



dx* t H  *

p t, x* t, u* t f x* ; u* , x0 x0 ;
dt
p

10:55

while the additional optimal variables p*(t) satisfy the differential equation

dp* t
H  *

p t, x* t, u* t :
dt
x

10:56

The 2n-th-order system of differential equations (10.55), (10.56) is called the

canonical system associated with (10.2). We can see that (10.55) (the rst canonical
equation) is our original equation (10.2) and is independent of the co-state
variable p.
The Hamiltonian H* has an absolute minimum (see note 1 below) as a function
of u for t in [0,T] along the optimal trajectory regardless of what the character of the
constraint may be [2]




H * H p* t, x* t, u* t min p* t, x* t, ut ;

10:57





H p* t, x* t, u* t  H p* t, x* t, ut for all ut from :

10:58

u2

or

Here the symbol u 2 means that an active exposure u belongs to a given type of
constraint.
In general, Pontryagins procedure is as follows: it is necessary to choose the
initial conditions for the vector of adjoint variables p*(t), for which constrained
VP exposure u*(t) determined from the necessary optimality conditions (10.57),
would lead the system to a given nal state.
A minimum principle in this formulation, i.e., the conditions (10.55)(10.58),
are necessary optimality conditions of optimal exposure u*(t). Sufcient condition
for optimality represents a strengthening of the necessary conditions based upon
certain additional assumptions [2, 22]. These additional assumptions usually arise
in practical problems.
The Hamiltonian as a function of u has an absolute minimum along the optimal
trajectory, independent of the type of restrictions. The points at which the Hamiltonian cannot be minimized must be points of discontinuity u*(t).
Ratio (10.5410.58) reects the structure of Pontryagins principle in a schematic manner. Various modications of the problem statement are reected in the
features of the computational procedures. Among these modications are the
different types of nal state (free, xed, etc.), the problems with state-space
constraints, and a xed or free time of controlling process. A detailed summary

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters

357

of the results related to minimum principle, along with useful examples, is

contained in the fundamental book by Athans and Falb [2]. Before proceeding to
a consideration of some classical problems of vibration reduction of a linear
oscillator, we discuss some notes regarding Pontryagins principle.
Notes
1. Pontrygins celebrated principle [1, 4, 5] is known as the maximum principle.
The Hamiltonian of the system in these books is presented in form
H pt, xt, u Lxt, ut hp, f x; ui. The reader can easily detect the
difference between this expression and the formula (10.54) used by Athans and
Falb [2]; just the negative sign before L[x(t), u(t)] leads to the fact that the
Hamiltonian H of a system reaches an absolute maximum along the optimal
trajectory. The difference in the way we record the Hamiltonian does not affect
the results. We will use the notation adopted in book [2].
2. Pontryagins principle was originally derived from the calculus of variations [1].
It may also be derived from dynamic programming [5, 23]. Geometric proof of
Pontryagins minimum principle is presented in [2]. This book also contains
modications of Pontryagins principle for the different states of the problem;
they take into account xed or free time of the control, xed or restricted nal
state, and different optimality criteria.
3. Pontryagins principle is well developed for systems described by partial differential equations [13, 2426], and in particular, for the problems of optimal active
suppression of vibrations of deformable structures [27]. As such, analytical and
numerical procedures often present signicant difculties. In problems of optimal active vibration protection, Kreyns method of moments [14, 28] may be
more efcient in some cases. This method is considered in Chap. 11.
4. The application of Pontryagins principle is not limited to problems of mechanical motion. This principle can be applied to problems of a different nature.
These include, for example, the non-classical problem of structural analysis [29],
the eigenvalue problems [30], optimization of rods according to their eigenvalues [31], optimization of thermal and diffusion processes [25], and optimization of chemical technology and economic processes.

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped

Parameters

In this section we shall consider several aspects of classical problems of optimal

active suppression of vibrations of mechanical system with one degree of freedom.
Among them are problems with various constraints or without constraints and
various optimality criteria. The minimum-time problem is investigated in detail.
The minimal isochrones concept is considered.

358

10

Pontryagins Principle

10.5.1 Vibration Suppression Problems Without Constraints

Optimal active vibration suppression without constraints on the control exposure
and the state variables is considered. The following types of quadratic cost functional are examined: energy functional, combined energy functional and time of
vibration suppression (this criterion leads to the problem with non-xed time of
control), and the combined energy functional and phase coordinates. In all cases,
the nal state of the system is zero (problem with xed end) [2].

10.5.1.1

Fixed Terminal Time and Functional of Energy

The state of a mechanical time-invariant system is described by the equation

x 2 x ut:

10:59

In normal form we have



x_ 1
x_ 2

2

1
0

x1
x2

ut:
1

10:60

The initial conditions are

x0 x0 ,
x_ 0 0 :

10:61

The problem is to determine the optimal vibration protection exposure u(t), which
for a specied time Tf transfers

 the
 system (10.59) from the initial state (10.61) to
the nal zero state x T f x_ T f 0, and thereby minimizes a quadratic energy
functional
1
J
2

Tf

u2 tdt:

10:62

Assume that constraints of any type are absent.

According to Pontryagins principle, let us introduce the conjugate variable
p1, p2 and construct the Hamiltonian for the system (10.60), (10.61), and criterion
(10.62)
1
H u2 t 1  x2 p1 t  2 x1 p2 t utp2 t:
2

10:63

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters

359

The extremal exposure u(t) must minimize the Hamiltonian H. Since H is a

quadratic function of u(t), then
H
ut p2 t 0:
ut

10:64

Therefore, the extremal exposure u(t) becomes



ut p2 t, t 2 0, T f :

10:65

The adjoint variable must satisfy the differential equations

p_ 1 

H
2 p2 t,
x1

10:66

H
p_ 2 
p1 t:
x2

We can see that (10.60) and (10.66) are uncoupled.

Solve system (10.66) with initial conditions p1 0 1 , p2 0 2 . In matrix
form (10.66) is


p_ 1
p_ 2


Aadj


p1
,
p2

Aadg

1


2
:
0

10:67

The fundamental matrix of the adjoint system (10.67) is


1
adj t L1 sI  Aadj
L1

1
s
s2 2 1

3
cos t
sin t
5;
4 1
 sin t cos t

10:68

where s is a complex variable, I is the identity matrix, and L1 is the inverse Laplace
transform.
The solution to (10.67) becomes
&

p1 t
p2 t


1
t
;
2

p1 t 1 cos t 2 sin t ,
1
p2 t  sin t 2 cos t :

10:69

360

10

Pontryagins Principle

Equation (10.65) for required exposure u(t) becomes

ut p2 t

1
sin t  2 cos t:

10:70

Substitution of (10.70) into (10.59) leads to the differential equation

x 2 x ut

1
sin t  2 cos t

10:71

with unknown parameters p1 0 1 and p2 0 2 . We can see that exposure u(t)

changes according to harmonic law with the frequency of free vibration . Therefore, the partial solution is
1
2
sin t:
x* t 2 cos t  t
2
2
The general solution of (10.71) is
1
2
x C1 cos t C2 sin t  t 2 cos t  t
sin t
2
2

10:72

The constants of integration C1and C2 are determined from initial condition (10.61),
i.e., x0 x0 and x_ 0 0 .
x0 C1 cos t x0 ,
x_ 0 C2 

1
1
1
0 2 :
0 ! C2
2

2
2

The expressions for displacement and velocity become

1
1
1
2
0 2 sin t  2 t cos t 
t sin t,

2
2
2


1
1
1
t sin t
x_ t x0 sin t 0 2 cos t  2 cos t
2
2
2
2
2

sin t  t cos t:
2
2

xt x0 cos t

10:73

The unknown initial conditions 1 and 2 for co-state variables p1 and p2 are
determined from a condition of zero state of the system (10.73) at the nal time
Tf, i.e.,
 
x T f 0,
 
x_ T f 0:
These conditions lead to a system of two linear algebraic equations for the
unknowns 1 and 2. The solution depends on the initial condition x0 x0 , x_ 0
0 and a total time of vibration suppression Tf.

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters

361

Special Case 1 Let x0 x0 0 and T f 2=: In this case we get

 
1 2
0 ! 1 0 ,
x Tf  2
2
 
2 2
0
0 ! 2
:
x_ T f 0 

2
Thus, given T f 2=, the co-state variables p1 and p2 are uniquely determined in
terms of the initial conditions for a variable state.
The required optimal vibration protection exposure is
ut  2 cos t 

0
cos t,

0tT

2
:

10:74

It is easy to verify that the solution to equation

x 2 x ut 

0
cos t

satises the initial condition

  x0 x0 0, x_ 0 0 and condition of complete
vibration suppression x T f x_ T f 0 at time T f 2=: Thus the criterion
quality (10.62) of the transfer system takes the minimum value. The optimal
vibration protection action u(t) has a resonant character.
Special Case 2 Let us determine the optimal exposure u(t) in terms of the initial
condition for state variables x0 x0 0, x_ 0 0 and a xed time Tf for the
vibration suppression process. As before, the nal state of the system is x T f
 
x_ T f 0 and minimized cost criterion (10.62). In this case we obtain the initial
conditions for adjoint variables
1 20 2

sin 2 T f
,
 sin 2 T f

2 T 2f

sin 2T f  2T f
:
2 0 2 2
T f  sin 2 T f

10:75

The required optimal vibration exposure is

ut

1
sin t  2 cos t,

0  t  Tf :

10:76

Taking into account (10.75), expression (10.76) takes the form

ut

2 T 2f





20
sin 2 T f sin t sin T f cos T f  T f cos t :
2
 sin T f
10:77

362

10

Pontryagins Principle

It is easy to verify that the vibration protection exposure (10.77) for any xed
time Tf transfers the system (10.59)

from
 the initial state x0 x0 0, x_ 0
0 to a zero nal state x T f x_ T f 0, and minimizes the energy (10.62)
necessary to suppress vibrations. If we assume that 1, we obtain the result
shown in [11].
In conclusion, we note that the selected time Tf is a critical parameter; if the time
required to suppress vibrations is small, then the required energy input J is large.
Generally, optimization problems of vibration suppression are sensitive to changes
in system parameters [2].

10.5.1.2

Non-Fixed Terminal Time, Combined Functional

of Energy and Time

The state of a linear oscillator is described by (10.59), (10.60) with initial conditions
(10.61). The problem is to determine the vibration protection exposure u(t) which,
for non-xed time T, transfers the system (10.59) from the initial state (10.61) to a
nite zero state xT x_ T 0, and minimizes the functional
1
J kT
2

u tdt

1
k u2 t
2


dt,

k > 0:

10:78

Functional (10.78) is a linear combination of the energy needed to suppress

vibration and the time T of the vibration protection process. Thus we are dealing
with a xed-endpoint and free-terminal-time vibration protection problem. The
Hamiltonian of system (10.60) and for functional (10.78) has the form
1
H k u2 t 1  x2 p1 t  2 x1 p2 t utp2 t:
2

10:79

Next, we can use expressions (10.65) and (10.70) for optimal exposure u(t),
differential equations (10.66) for the conjugate variables p1 and p2, and expressions
(10.73) for initial conditions 1, 2 for the conjugate variables. However, in the
case of an unspecied vibration suppression time, a xed time Tf in formulas
(10.73) should be replaced by free time T.
In the case of an unspecied time T of a vibration protection process, the
necessary optimality condition is H 0 along the optimal trajectory [2]. Therefore,
at t T we have
H T k

1 2
u T 1  x2 T p1 T  2 x1 T p2 T uT p2 T 0:
2
10:80

Since x1 T x2 T 0, and according to (10.65), uT p2 T , we then obtain

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters

1
H T k u2 T  u2 T 0:
2

363

10:81

Thus, the required exposure at t T becomes

p
uT  2k:

10:82

Assume that initial conditions are x0 x0 0 and x_ 0 0 . In this case,

according to (10.73), (10.74), the optimal VP controller becomes
ut

2 T 2



20
sin 2 T sin t sin T cos T  T cos t ,
2
 sin T

0  t  T:

10:83

For the case where 1, we get a well-known result [11]. To determine the time
T of vibration suppression we need to form the expression u(T ), and then substitute
it into condition (10.82). This procedure leads to the following transcendental
equation with respect to T:
u T

2 T 2

p
20
sin T  T cos T   2k:
2
 sin T

10:84

Next we must determine for which T the cost functional (10.78) achieves a local
minimum. After this, the optimal vibration protection exposure u(t) is determined
by formula (10.83).
A feature of functionals (10.62) and (10.78) is that they lead to a system of
differential equations (10.66), (10.67) for adjoint variables p1(t), p2(t), and are not
coupled with the system (10.60) for the variables state x1(t), x2(t).

10.5.1.3

Fixed Time, Combined Functional of Energy and Coordinates

Consider the system (10.59) with the initial conditions (10.61) x0 x0 , x_ 0 0 .

The problem is to determine the optimal vibration protection exposure u(t) which,
for a specied time Tf, transfers

 the
 system (10.59) from the initial state (10.61) to
the nal zero state x T f x_ T f 0, and thus minimizes a combined quadratic
functional
1
J
2

Tf
0

 2

a1 x1 t a2 x22 t u2 t dt:

The Hamiltonian of the system is

10:85

364

10

Pontryagins Principle


1 2
a1 x1 a2 x22 u2 t 1  x2 p1 t  2 x1 p2 t utp2 t:
2

10:86

The optimal exposure u(t) that minimizes (10.86) we nd from the condition
H
ut p2 t 0 ! ut p2 t:
ut

10:87

For the adjoint variable p1(t), p2(t) we get equations

p_ 1 t 

H
a1 x1 t 2 p2 t,
x1

10:88

H
p_ 2 t 
a2 x2 t  p1 t :
x2

We can see that a set of differential equations (10.88) for the adjoint variables
p1(t), p2(t) are coupled with system (10.60) for the variables state x1(t), x2(t)
3 2
0
x_ 1 t
6 x_ 2 t 7 6 2
7 6
6
6 p_ 1 t 7 4 a1
7
6
6 p_ t 7
0
2
2

1
0
0
a2

3 2 3
32
0
0
x 1 t
6 x 2 t 7 6 1 7
0 7
7 6 7ut :
76
7 6 7
2 5 6
6 p1 t 7 6 0 7
0 6 p2 t 7 6 0 7

0
0
0
1

10:89

System (10.89) may be cast into a homogeneous system that does not contain VP
exposure u(t). To this end, for expression (10.87), ut p2 t, we substitute in
(10.89). The resulting coupled system in matrix form becomes
2

x_ 1 t

7 6
6
6 x_ 2 t 7 6 2
76
6
7 6
6_
6 p 1 t 7 4 a1
7
6
6 p_ t 7
0
2

a2

1

32

x 1 t

x1 t

7
7
6
76
1 76 x2 t 7
6 x t 7
7 Axp 6 2 7;
76
7
7
6
6
2 7
6 p1 t 7
56 p1 t 7
7
7
6
6
6 p t 7
0 6 p2 t 7
2

10:90

where Axp is a matrix of the coupled system for the state and adjoint variables xi(t)
and pi(t), respectively.
We will briey describe the additional procedure for determining the optimal VP
exposure u(t). System (10.90) should be integrated with the given initial conditions
for the vector state x0 x0 ; i.e., x0 x0 ; x_ 0 0 , and with unknown initial
conditions for the vector of adjoint variable p0 , i.e., p1 0 1 ; p2 0 2 .
&

x t
pt

&
t

x 0
p0

10:91

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters

365

Unknown initial parameters 1 and 2 can be found from the

 conditions of a
complete suppression of vibrations at a given time Tf, i.e. x T f 0: Optimal
vibration protection exposure u(t) we nd by the formula (10.87).
We make some remarks about computation of the fundamental matrix (t) of
the system. Since the system (10.90) contains constant parameters, then the funda
1
mental matrix can be calculated by formula t L1 sI  Axp . In our case,
the matrix
2

s

 6 2
sI  Axp 6
4 a1
0

1
s
0
a2

3
0
0
0
1 7
7:
s 2 5
1
s

10:92


1
For analytical computation of the inverse matrix sI  Axp , we can apply
Frobeniuss formula [32]. The original matrix (10.92) of dimensions 4  4 we
will consider as a block matrix



A
sI  Axp
C

B
D


10:93

with square matrices A,   , D, each of dimensions 2  2. The inverse matrix


1
sI  Axp , according to Frobeniuss formula, becomes


M sI  Axp

1

"

A1 A1 BH1 CA1

A1 BH1

H1 CA1

H1

#
,

10:94

H D  CA1 B :
In this procedure, the calculation of each element of the inverse matrix M leads to
the operations of addition and inversion of matrices of size 2  2 only.

10.5.1.4

General Case: Quadratic Functional and Fixed Time

Now consider the problem of active optimal vibration protection in a more general
way. The state of a linear completely controllable dynamical system with constant
parameters is described by the matrix differential equation [2]
x_ t Axt But;

10:95

where x(t) is the n-dimensional vector of the state; A(t) is an n  n matrix of the
system; B(t) is an n  r gain matrix; u(t) is an r-dimensional vector of VP exposure.
Assume that the VP exposure is not constrained in magnitude.

366

10

Pontryagins Principle



The system is considered in the interval 0  T f , and the time of vibration
suppression Tf is xed. The vector of initial conditions of
 the
 system is x0 x0 .
The condition of complete suppression of vibration is x T f 0:
The quality of the vibration protection process will be estimated by a general
quadratic functional [2]
1
J
2

Tf

hxt, Qxti hut, Ruti 2hxt, Mutidt;

10:96

where Q and R are positive denite matrices of dimensions n  n and r  r,

respectively; M is an n  r matrix; and the symbol ha, bi denotes a scalar product.
The problem is to nd the vibration protection
exposure u(t) that transfers the
 
initial state x0 x0 to the nal state x T f 0 in a xed time Tf and minimizes
the cost functional (10.96).
We rst introduce the n dimensional vector of adjoint variables p(t) and form the
Hamiltonian function H for the problem
H Hxt, pt, ut, t
1
1
hxt, Qxti hut, Ruti hxt, Muti
2
2
hAxt, pti hBut, pti :

10:97

If u*(t) is an optimal VP exposure, x*(t) is a corresponding optimal trajectory and

p*(t) is a corresponding optimal adjoint variable vector, then the optimal state and
adjoint variables satisfy the differential equations
x_ * t Ax* t Bu* t,
0

p_ * t* Qx* t  Mu* t  A p* t;

10:98

 
with initial and nal conditions for , i.e., x0 x0 and x T f 0:
Since u(t) is not constrained, then for optimal VP exposure we obtain the
following expression [2]
h
i
0
u* t R1 Mx* t B p* t :

10:99

Since R is a non-singular matrix, there exists the inverse matrix R1 . If we

substitute the optimal exposure (10.99) into the canonical equations (10.98), we
can derive the optimal exposure as a function of x0 and Tf. Additional, more
cumbersome transformations can be found in [2]. We briey note the fundamental
proposition of this section: if the VP exposure is not constrained, and the cost
criterion is presented in a general quadratic form, the solution to the problem of
complete suppression of vibration of a linear systems with lumped parameters can
be obtained in an analytical form.

10.5

Vibration Suppression of a System with Lumped Parameters

367

10.5.2 Vibration Suppression Problem with Constrained

Exposure. Quadratic Functional, Fixed Time
and Fixed End
Below we discuss the problem of determining active constrained vibration protection exposure which transfers the linear system with lumped parameters from the
given initial state to a zero nal state for xed time and minimizes the quadratic
functional [2].
The state of a linear completely controllable dynamical system with constant
parameters is described by the matrix differential equation
x_ t Axt But:

10:100

Here, x(t) is the n-dimensional vector of the state; A(t) is an n  n matrix of the
system; B(t) is an n  r gain matrix; u(t) is an r-dimensional vector of VP exposure.
We assume that all the components of the vector VP exposure u(t) are
constrained in magnitude
jui tj  1,

i 1, 2, . . . , r:

10:101



The system is considered in the interval 0  T f , and the time Tf of vibration
suppression is xed. The vector of initial condition of
 the
 system is x0 x0 . The
condition of complete vibration suppression is x T f 0: The quality of the
vibration protection process will be estimated by the quadratic functional of general
type (10.96)
1
J
2

Tf

hxt, Qxti hut, Ruti 2hxt, Mutidt;

10:102

where Q and R are positive denite matrices of dimensions n  n and r  r,

respectively; M is an n  r matrix; and the symbol ha, bi means the scalar product.
Let us introduce the n dimensional vector of adjoint variables p(t) and construct
the Hamiltonian function H
H Hxt, pt, ut, t
1
1
hxt, Qxti hut, Ruti hxt, Muti
2
2
hAxt, pti hBut, pti :

10:103

It is seen that the equation of state, the quality functional, and the Hamiltonian
function are the same as in the case considered in Sect. 10.5.1.4 (the case of an
exposure without constrains). Therefore differential equations for adjoint variables

368

10

Pontryagins Principle

in the cases of absence and presence of constraints on the VP exposure are the same.
This means that we can apply formula (10.99) for u(t) unless there are no constraints on the exposure, and after that each component of u(t) must be passed
through a limiter to check condition (10.101). This procedure can be written as [2]
n
h
io
0
u* t SAT R1 Mx* t B p* t :

10:104

Here, u*(t) is an active vibration protection exposure, and x*(t) and p*(t) are
corresponding optimal trajectory and adjoint variables, respectively. The function
SAT is dened as
(
SATfyi g

yi ,

if

signfyi g,

jyi j  1;
if

jyi j > 1:

10:105

Substituting (10.104) into (10.98) we get the differential equations for the optimum
trajectory and conjugate variables [2]



0
x_ * t Ax* t  BSAT R1 Mx* t B p* t ,



0
0
p_ * t* Qx* t  A p* t  MSAT R1 Mx* t B p* t :

10:106

The set (10.106) is system of coupled nonlinear differential equations. The analytical solution for optimal VP exposure u*(t) in terms of the system parameters, time
vibration suppression Tf, and the initial state x0 x0 of the system cannot be
obtained. It is possible to nd the numerical solution using iterative procedures [2].
In doing so, there is a serious additional problem in the choice of initial conditions
for the conjugate variables p0 p0 .
Example 10.11 Let us consider mechanical system x 2 x ut, which was
analyzed previously (Sect. 10.5.1, Problem 10.5.1.1, case 1). The optimal VP
exposure which for xed time T f 2= completely suppresses vibration caused
by the initial conditions x0 x0 0 and x_ 0 0 and thereby minimizes the
energy functional (10.62) is determined by formula
u* t 

0
cos t:

10:107

This result was obtained in the case of VP exposure without constraints. This
formula can be used in the case of constraints (10.101) only if 0  , meaning
that condition (10.101) is satised. If this condition is not satised, formula
(10.104) should be applied to expression (10.107). Finally, the optimal vibration
protection exposure is dened as follows:

10.6

Bushaws Minimum-Time Problem

369

8
>
<

0
cos t, if 0  ;


u* t
h
i
>
: sign  0 cos t , if 0 > :

10:108

Thus, the optimal VP exposure is a continuous function of time, and the condition
0 > species the intervals within which the optimal u*(t) is constant [2].
Singular problem. If the argument of the signf  g function on a nite interval of
time t1  t2 from [0, T] is identically zero, then the function signf  g is uncertain.
In this case, the necessary optimality condition




H x* ; p* ; u* ; t  H x* ; p* ; u; t

10:109

does not give information about the relationship between the optimal exposure u*
on one hand, and the optimal trajectory x* and optimal adjoint variables p* on the
other hand, and therefore obtaining a certain expression for vibration protection
exposure is impossible. Such a case is called singular, the corresponding interval
t1  t2 is called the interval singularity and u*t1 t2 and x*t1 t2 are singular optimal
exposures and singular optimal trajectory.
In this context, singularity means that there is more than one solution, a
non-relay type of VP exposure and other features. This issue is discussed in detail
by Hsu and Meyer [3] and by Athans and Falb [2].

10.6

Bushaws Minimum-Time Problem

The classical problem of active vibration suppression of a linear oscillator is

considered. The optimality criterion denes a minimum time of complete vibration
suppression. It is assumed that the vibration protection exposure is constrained in
magnitude. The optimal VP exposure is determined in terms of the current state of
the system. Pontryagins procedure for solving this problem and the characteristics
of the solution are discussed in detail.
This problem was rst solved by Bushaw (1953) [33] and was later the subject of
numerous studies [2, 4, 34], etc. Bushaws solution is the theoretical basis for the
construction of tracking systems of vibration suppression. We will present
Bushaws problem following Athans and Falb [2].
The second-order system we shall examine is described by the differential
equation
y 2 y Kut,
Initial conditions are y0 y0 ,

y_ 0 0

K > 0:

10:110

370

10

y_ t y2 t, then (10.110) can be written as

If we denote yt y1 t,
&

y_ 1 t

y_ 2 t

Pontryagins Principle

"

2

#&

y1 t
y2 t

&

0
K

ut:

10:111

Now let us dene a more convenient set of state variables x1(t) and x2(t)

yt ! x_ 1 t y_ t Kx2 t x2 t,
K
K
K

1
1
1  2
 yt Kut
x2 t y_ t ! x_ 2 t yt
K
K
K
2
2

K
x1 t ut x1 t ut :
 yt ut 
K
K
x1 t

10:112

These coordinates satisfy the differential equations in matrix form



x_ 1 t
x_ 2 t

 0

  
x1 t
0

ut:
x2 t
1

10:113

In expanded form, these equations are

x_ 1 t x2 t ,
x_ 2 t  x1 t ut :

10:114

The input, or vibration protection exposure u(t) satises the following constraint:
1  ut  1:

10:115

The performance criterion for the minimum-time problem is given by [5]

T
J dt T:

10:116

The problem is as follows: to determine the exposure u(t), subjected to the

constraint (10.115), which transfers the system (10.113) from any initial state
x1 0 1 , x2 0 2 to the origin x1 T 0, x2 T 0 in minimum time
T; this is the minimum-time problem [2].
The initial conditions for the initial system of equations (10.111) and
transformed (10.113) are related as follows:
x 1 0 1

y0,
K

x 2 0 2

1
y_ 0:
K

10:117

10.6

Bushaws Minimum-Time Problem

371

The Hamiltonian function is given by

H 1 x2 tp1 t  x1 tp2 t utp2 t:

10:118

The absolute minimum of the function H is reached at

ut sgnp2 t:

10:119

To nd u(t), we rst need to determine how p2(t) changes. Conjugate variables pi(t)
satisfy the ordinary differential equations
p_ 1 t 

H
p2 t ,
x1

p_ 2 t 

H
 p2 t :
x2

Or, in matrix form,

&

p_ 1 t

p_ 2 t

"

#&

p1 t

p2 t

10:120

The fundamental matrix is

t L

1

L1

1

sI  A

1
s
s2 2 

1


s

1

cos t

s
 sin t


sin t
:
cos t

If initial conditions for p1(t) and p2(t) are p1 0 1 and p2 0 2 , then the
solution of system (10.120) becomes


p1 t
p2 t

cos t

sin t

 sin t

cos t


1
:
2

The conjugate variable p2(t) varies according to

p2 t  1 sin t 2 cos t a sin t ,
p
a 21 21 , tan  2 = 1 :

10:121

Therefore, according to (10.119), the vibration protection exposure has the form
ut sgnp2 t sgna sin t :

10:122

372

10

Pontryagins Principle

Thus, to construct the exposure function u(t), we need to rst plot the function
p2 t a sin t , and then for p2 t > 0 take in u 1, and when p2 t < 0
take in u 1.
This leads to two important conclusions for time-optimal vibration suppression
of a linear oscillator:
1. The function p2 t < 0 cannot be zero over the nite interval of time, and
therefore there is no possibility of singular exposure; this means the problem
is normal.
2. Optimal VP exposure is a piecewise constant function of time which switches
between the two values ut 1 and ut 1.
3. There is no upper bound on the number of switches.
4. The time-optimal control can remain constant for no more than t = sec.
Unfortunately, in this stage of analysis, we cannot plot function
p2 t a sin t , since the initial conditions p1 0 1 and p2 0 2 for
p
adjoint variables are unknown; this means that a 21 21 and tan  2 = 1
are also unknown.
Since u(t) should satisfy the conditions for the trajectory x(t) at the initial and
nal time, the initial conditions p1(0) and p2(0) must be determined from the
solution of the two-point problem. This signicantly complicates the solution of
the problem of optimal vibration suppression.
Now let us nd the solution of system (10.110) subjected to VP exposures
ut 1. It is obvious that the required trajectory consists of separate arcs that
correspond to these constant exposures.
1. Find trajectories that correspond to ut 1: In this case, the state equations
(10.114) become
dx1 t
x2 t
dt
dx2 t
 x1 t 1
dt

10:123

If we divide the rst equation by the second, we get  x1 1dx1 x2 dx2 .

If we introduce new variables yi xi , integrate both sides, and change back to
the old variables xi, we obtain
x1 t  12 x2 t2 const R21

10:124

This means that in the case of exposure ut 1 the trajectories are circles,
centered at O1(1, 0) (Fig. 10.5).
2. It is easy to show, that in the case of ut 1 the trajectories are circles with
center O2 1, 0 (Fig. 10.5), i.e.
x1 t 12 x2 t2 R22 :

10:125

10.6

Bushaws Minimum-Time Problem

Fig. 10.5 Trajectories of

the harmonic oscillator for
VP exposure ut 1
(solid lines) and for ut
1 (dotted lines). The
arrows show the direction of
motion of the point with
phase coordinates ( x1,
x2) at increasing time

373

x2

1
O2

1
O1

x1

Only two integral curvesone from the set (10.124) and the other from the set
(10.125) pass through each point of the plane x1  x2 . The phase point
performs a complete revolution within time t 2=: The transition time from
point [x1(0), x2(0)] to point [x1(t), x2(t)] is proportional to angle between
the corresponding radius vectors (Fig. 10.6).

[x1 (0), x2 (0)]

= t
O
( 1,0)

[x1 (t ), x2 (t )]
x1

Fig. 10.6 In the case of VP exposure ut 1, the angle determines the time t required to
transfer a point from a state [x1(0), x2(0)] into state [x1(t), x2(t)]

Consider two trajectories that pass through the origin (Fig. 10.7). They are T
and T  :
x2
0

T+

B
2

x1

0+


Fig. 10.7 The two trajectories
0 and 0 correspond to VP exposure u 1 and u 1, and pass
through the origin (0, 0) of the plane. The semicircle 0 is the lower half of the T circle, while the
semicircle 0 is the upper half of the T  circle; both semicircles are shown by a bold line

The equations of these trajectories, according to (10.124) and (10.125), are

x1 t  12 x2 t2 1 ,
x1 t 12 x2 t2 1 :

10:126

374

10

Pontryagins Principle

The trajectory T corresponds to exposure u 1, while the trajectory T  corresponds to u 1. Any point on T can be moved to the origin (0,0) of the plane
using the exposure u 1. Point 2 can be moved to (0.0) in exactly t =, while
an arbitrary point A, which belongs to the lower part of the trajectory 0 can be
moved to the origin (0,0) within time t  =. Any point B from the upper part of
the trajectory T can also be moved to the origin (0,0), but it will take time t > =:
However, as noted above, the optimal exposure ut 1 cannot remain constant
for more than t = units of time. This means that the operating zone of the
trajectory T for exposure ut 1 is only the lower semicircle 0 , which satises
the condition
x1 t  12 x2 t2 1,

x2 < 0:

10:127

Similarly, select the upper semicircle 0 on the T  trajectory. Any point on this
semicircle can be moved to (0,0) by the exposure ut 1 in time t  =. The
operating zone of the trajectory is only the upper semicircle 0 , which satises the
condition
x1 t 12 x2 t2 1,

x2 > 0:

10:128


Curves
0 and 0 gives us the optimal application sequence (strategy) of the vibration
protection exposure u 1 and u 1 which completly suppress vibration.

Now let us nd a set of states R
1 that can be moved to the 0 curve by the
exposure u 1 in time no greater than t  = units of time. For this purpose, we
construct below the x1 axis a semicircle of unit radius with center at the point
(3, 0); this curve is denoted by
1 (Fig. 10.8). Next, from point x1 1 plot a set of

x2
R1 (u = 1)

LC ( R1 )

n
1

R
4

3
0+
LC ( R1+ )

2
n

3 R

x1

1+

k
R1+ (u = +1)

  
Fig. 10.8 The region of a state R
1 u 1 is bounded by curves LC R1 , 0 , 0 , 1 , and the




region of a state R
1 u 1 is bounded by curves LC R1 , 0 , 0 , 1

10.6

Bushaws Minimum-Time Problem

375

concentric circles; this set of curves is denoted by R

1 ; the limiting curve of this set
 

.
Thus,
the
region
R
of radius 3 is denoted by LC R
1
1 is located between the curves
  
LC R1 ; 0 , 0 , 1 . It is obvious that each curve of this region is a semicircle.

Similarly, we can construct a set of states R

1 that can be moved to the curve 0 by
the exposure u 1 in time no greater than
time; the limiting
 t  = units of

is
located between
curve of this set of radius 3 is denoted by LC R
:
The
region
R
1
1
   

the curves LC R1 ; 0 , 0 , 1 : Thus, if a point is within the region R
1 and R1 , it
can be moved to the origin (0,0) by only a single switch. The moment of switching

happens when the moving point reaches curve
0 or 0 : In other words, the curves


0 and 0 are the switching curves [2].

If the point is outside region R
1 or R1 , then more than one switch is required to
reach state (0,0).
Now let us show in detail the procedure for constructing time-optimal vibration
suppression of an oscillator (10.113); vibration protection exposure u(t) is
constrained according to (10.115)

Let us show two integral curves
0 , 0 (10.124) on the plane x1  x2 . They
are semicircles of unit radius centered at the points (1,0) and (1,0), respectively
(Fig. 10.9). Then we show the switching curves
i , i 1, 2, . . .. They are
semicircles of unit radius centered at points (3,0), (5,0), (7,0), etc., and located
below the x1 axis. On these curves, VP exposure switches from u 1 to u 1.
The switching curves 
i , i 1, 2, . . . are semicircles of unit radius centered at
points (3,0), (5,0), (7,0), etc., and located above the x1 axis. On these curves,
VP exposure switches from u 1 to u 1.

 
 
Now we show a set of limit curves LC R
1 ; LC R2 ; LC R3 ; etc., on the upper
half-plane x1  x2 (Fig. 10.9). For this purpose we plot the concentric semicircles centered at point (1,0). The limiting curves are denoted by dotted lines on
the radius from the center (1,0). The radii of limiting curves are 3,5,7,. . . units.


The regions between the limit curves are denoted by R
1 , R2 ,   , R4 ; etc. Any
trajectories from one specic region intersect only one switching curve

i , i 1, 2, . . .. At these points the VP exposure switches from u 1 to u 1.
Similarly,
 
inthe
 lower
 half-plane x1  x2 we show a set of limiting curves
LC R
1 ; LC R2 ; LC R3 ; etc.. They are concentric semicircles centered at (1,0).
The limiting curves are denoted by dotted lines on the radius from the center (1,0).
The radii of the limiting curves are 3,5,7,. . . units. The regions between the limiting

curves are denoted by R

1 , R2 ,   , R4 ; etc. Any trajectories from one specic
region intersect only one switching curve
i , i 1, 2, . . . At these points the VP
exposure switches from u 1 to u 1.
Suppose that point A, which determines the initial state, belongs to the region R
4.
For this region, x2 > 0; all points of this region lie in the semi-ring with inner and
outer radiui of 7 and 9 units, respectively. Complete optimal vibration suppression
(transfer of the point onto the origin) occurs as follows: For the rst time, a phase
trajectory under exposure u 1 intersects the curve
3 at point A1. At this point, a
switch occurs from u 1 on u 1. The time required for the transition AA1 is

376

10

Pontryagins Principle

x2
R4

LC ( R3 )

R3

B1

LC ( R2 )

R2
A2

R4+

B3

LC ( R1 )

R3+

B R4+

1
+
2

A R4

R1+

B4 +

A
3

1+

LC ( R1+ )

2+

B2

A
1

LC ( R2+ )

3+

x1

R+4

LC ( R3+ )

Fig. 10.9 Optimal suppression vibration of a linear oscillator. The semicircles
0 , 0 are integral

curves at u 1 and u 1; the semicircles of unit radius
,

,
i

1,
2,
.
.
.
i
i 

  are switched
curves from u 1 to u 1 and u 1 to u 1, respectively; LC R
i ; LC Ri are limiting

curves for region R
i at u 1 and for region Ri at u 1. The curves A and B are trajectories of
transfer points in the origin (0.0). The points Ai, Bi are switching points u(t) 1 ! 1 and
1 ! 1, respectively [2]

t < =: Next, a switch from u 1 on u 1 occurs on the curve 

2 at
point A2 exactly at time t =: The following switch occurs on the curve
1
at point A3 within time t =. And nally, the last switch occurs on the curve 
0
at point A4 through time t =: The point A4 is transferred onto the origin
(complete suppression of vibrations) by the VP exposure u 1; this requires a
time of t < =:
Suppose that point B is located in the region R
4 . For this region, x2 < 0; all
points of this region lie on the semi-ring with inner and outer radii of 7 and 9 units,
respectively. The optimal trajectory for transferring point B to the origin includes
the points B  B1  B2  B3  B4; the last point B4 belongs to the integral curve
0.
Point B4 is transferred to the origin (0,0) by VP exposure u 1. The point passes
each of the parts of the phase trajectory, with the exception of B  B1 and B4  0,
for time t =: For each of the parts B  B1 and B4  0, the point passes in
t < =:

10.7

Minimum Isochrones

377

On the basis of the solution presented above, it is possible to construct a system

of vibration suppression based on the concept of feedback. This will be discussed in
the next section.
Let us determine the time t1 of optimal vibration suppression at the rst stage
(10.122) of the process. In other words, we need to determine the time to transfer
point A onto the integral curve
0 , i.e., the time needed to achieve the rst switch of
exposure u(t). Suppose that the point A with coordinates x1, x2 is located in a
circle of radius 1 centered at point (1,0) (Fig. 10.10). The rst part of the optimal
trajectory under the exposure u 1 is the part AA0 of a circle of radius RA centered
0
0
at the point 1, 0; the point A0 with coordinates x1 , x2 is a point of intersection

of two circles: one is a semicircle 0 of radius 1 centered at the point (1,0), and the
second of radius RA with center point 1, 0.
Fig. 10.10 The angle A
determines the time t1 for
transfer of point
A(x1, x2) to the
switching curve
0;
A t1 [2]

x2
0

RA

x1

+
0

Their equations, respectively, are

x1  12 x2 2 1,

x2 < 0,
p
x1 12 x2 2 R2A , RA x21 x22 :
0

10:129

After determining the coordinates x1 , x2 of the point A0 , the angle A becomes

0

A tan

1

x2
x
tan 1 0 2 :
x1  1
x1  1

10:130

The required time is t1 A =:

10.7

Minimum Isochrones

The concept of minimum isochrones is considered on the basis of a linear

oscillator without damping. This is an important concept in the theory of optimal
vibration suppression of a dynamical system, and allows us to consider control that
is close to optimal (suboptimal control).
The minimum isochrones S(t*) present a set of states which can transfer a point
to the origin (0,0) in the same minimum time t*. Let us consider the methodology of

378

10

Pontryagins Principle

x2
0

2
S (t *F )

T+

A N

r2 0

0+
J

A
r2

R
LC ( R1+ )
E

x1
D

1+

A R1+

S (t *A )

Fig. 10.11 Construction of the minimum isochrones for points A and F. Centers are N(1,0), M(1,0)
0
0
0
1: A 2 R1 , AA r 2 2, A D A E r 2 , A t*A ;
0
0
0
2: F 2 arc AC, FF r 2 2, F H F J r 2 , F t*F :

their construction for the harmonic oscillator for various values of time. Below we
will follow the presentation of this topic by Athans and Falb [2].

1. On the plane x1  x2 show the switching curves 

0 ; 0 and 1 of unit radius
 
r 1 1. Plot the limiting curve LC R1 a semicircle of radius R 3 centered at
the point N(1, 0).
2. Assume that an arbitrary point A is placed at the region R
1 (Fig. 10.11). We draw
a circle of radius r 2 2 centered at A; the point of intersection with the curve
0
is denoted by A0 .
3. From the point A0 , draw a circle of radius r2; it passes
 through point A, intersects

at
point
D,
and
touches
the
limiting
curve
LC
R1 at point E.
1
4. The arc DAE presents the part of the required isochrones S(tA ) in the region R
1.
Any point on this arc can transfer to state (0,0) for the same minimum time tA .
The optimal trajectory for transferring a point A to the origin is the trajectory
AFCO. The time required to transfer a point from A to C and from C to the
origin (trajectories AFC and C0) is determined by angles ANC and CMO.
Since the point moves uniformly along the phase trajectory, a total time tA
should be determined from condition A t*A , where A ANC CMO:

Now let us construct the minimum isochrone S(tF ) for point F on the optimal
trajectory AFC. To do this, we need to perform the operation described above. We
draw a circle of radius r 2 2 centered at F until it intersects with the circle T
(point F0 ). Then, from the point F0 , draw a circle of radius r2; it passes through point

F, intersects 
0 at point H, and touches the semicircle 0 at point J. The arc JFH is a

part of the required minimum isochrone S(tF ).

10.7

Minimum Isochrones

379

The corresponding optimal trajectory is a curve FHO. The minimum time tF is

determined from condition F t*F , where F FNC CMO.
The construction of the minimum isochrone S(tK ) for point K from a region R
2 is
shown in Fig. 10.12. The circle of radius r 4 4 with center at K intersects the
semicircle T  at point K0 . We then need to draw a circle of radius r4 with center K0
from the intersection with the semicircle
1 (the intersection point L ) until it
 
touches the limiting curve LC R1 , MS R 3, (the touch point S). The curve
SKL represents the minimum isochrone S(tK ).
x2
S

S (t K* )

R2

LC ( R1 )

2
T

r4
0

2
N

0+

x1

1+

Fig. 10.12 Construction of minimum isochrone for point K which belongs to area R
2 : N(1,0),
0
0
0
M(1,0); KK r 4 4, K L K S r 4 ,
K t*K :

The optimal trajectory consists of three arcs: the rst arc of radius MK
with center at M to the intersection with the curve
1 (point P), the second arc of
radius NP centered at N to the intersection with the curve 
0 (point Q), and the third
arc QO.
The minimum time tK should be determined from condition K t*K , where
angle K is equal to the sum of the angles KMP, PNQ and QMO. Each
angle is a central angle of the corresponding part of the trajectory.
The appearance of the minimum isochrone is dened by the time t*. Now we can
show isochrones S(t*) corresponding to a certain time t* (Fig. 10.13).
1. The minimum isochrones S(t*) for time t* i=, i 1, 2, 3, . . . are the
circles of radii Ri 2i with centers at the origin.
2. The minimum isochrones for a variety of points in the circle of radius R 2 with
a center at the origin are composed of two circular arcs, symmetric with respect

to
0 and 0 curves, among which are S(/4), S(3/4), etc. These isochrones

have peculiarities (corners) on the curves
0 and 0 .
*
*
3. The minimum isochrones S(t*), t > =; and t 6 i=, i 1, 2, 3, :: are
composed of four circular arcs; these isochrones have no peculiarities.

380

10

Pontryagins Principle

x2
4
t * = 2
3 2

1+

0+
B

3 4

4
2

1
B
0

x1

4
Fig. 10.13 Harmonic oscillator without damping: The minimum isochrones S(t*) for different t*

4. The centers of all the circular arcs which form the isochrones lie on the circles
T  and T (Figs. 10.11 and 10.12).
5. Each isochrone is a closed curve in the state plane.
More details on the application of Pontryagins principle, including numerous
practical examples, can be found in [4, 8, 28, 35, 36] for systems with lumped
parameters and in [12, 24, 26, 27, 37] for systems with distributed parameters.

Problems
10.1. Describe the following concepts: dynamical system, variable state, input,
output.
10.2. Explain the following concepts: accessibility, controllability, observability,
normality, stability. Describe the correspondence criteria for a linear
dynamical system with constant parameters x_ t Ax_ t But:
10.3. Discuss the duality concept for controllability and observability.
10.4. What is meant by the algebraic methods of stability analysis? What restrictions are imposed on a dynamical system in the case of its stability analysis
by algebraic methods?

Problems

381

10.5. Explain the Routh and Hurwitz procedures. Describe the characteristic
equation associated with the most effective application of each of these
methods. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of both methods.
10.6. A dynamical system is described by the set of equations [2]


x_ 1 t
x_ 2 t

1
1

  
x1 t
1

ut:
x2 t
0

Check the observability and controllability for the following cases of output:
(a) yt x1 t; (b) yt x2 t
Answer: (a) The system is observable but not controllable. (b) The system is
neither controllable nor observable.
10.7. A system with one input and one output is described by the third-order
differential equation p3 3p2 2pyt ut. Present this equation in
Cauchy matrix form x_ t Axt But [2]
Hint:
z1 t yt, z2 t y_ t, z3 t yt:
Poles:
s 0,
s 1, s 22:
2 3
3
0 1
0
0
7
Answer: A 4 0 0
1 5, B 6
6 0 7.
6
0 2 3
17
10.8. Consider a damped harmonic oscillator system x 2bx_ k2 x 0, where b,
k are real constants k2 > b2 .
Present
this equation
form
and nd thefundamental matrix [4]


in matrix

x_ t
x t
0
1
,
Answer:
A
, A
y_ t
x t
k2 2b
2
t

sin t

k bt 6
e 6
4

b sin t cos t ;
p

b
k2  b2 , sin , cos :
k
k

3
1
sin t
7
k
7,
5
b

sin t cos t
k
k

10.9. A system is described by equation

x 2 x 2 au1 t bu2 t cu_ 2 t:
Prove that this system is controllable.
Solution: The state of the system in matrix form x_ t Ax_ t But


x_ 1
x_ 2

0
2

1
0

x1
x2

a
0

b
c


u1
:
u2

382

10

0
AB
2
G B

Pontryagins Principle


a b
0
c
1


0
0 c
a2 b2


a b
0
c
AB 
:
0 c a2 b2

Any two-column vectors are linearly independent. The rank of G is 2. The

system is controllable.
10.10. A system is described by equation




 
x_ 1 t
0
1
x1 t

:

x_ 2 t
x2 t
a0 a1
Determine the conditions imposed on the number a0 and a1 for absolute
stability of the system [2]
Hint: The system is absolutely stable if all eigenvalues have negative real
parts.
Answer: a0 > 0, a1 > 0.
10.11. Investigate the stability of a fourth-order dynamical system with positive
coefcients
A0 4 A1 3 A2 2 A3 A4 0:
Apply Hurwitzs procedure. Compare with Rouths result for case A0 1:
10.12. Determine the minimum time required for the transfer of point A with
coordinates (+1, +1) to origin (0,0) using exposure constrained according
to (10.115)
Hint: Show a semicircle centered at point (1,0) which passes through
point A (Fig. 10.10 text), (Fig. P10.12). The intersection point of this
0
semicircle with an integral curve
0 is denoted as A . Since an arc
0
^
^
^
1
1^
1
0
: Since A O O M, then tA0 O
:
A A 14 K L, then time tAA0
4
2
2
3
sec:
Answer: tAA0 O tAA0 tA0 O
4

x2

0
K

M (2,0)

x1

0+

Fig. P10.12 The trajectory AA0 O determines the minimum time for the transfer of a linear
oscillator from point A(1, 1) to origin (0,0)

References

383

10.13. Derive the fundamental matrix for a damped harmonic oscillator

x 2bx_ k2 x 0, k > 0, k2 > b2 :
Answer: [4]
2

3
1
sin
t
k
6
7
k
t ebt 4
5,
b

b sin t cos t ;
sin t cos t
k
k
p

b
2
2
k  b , sin , cos :
k
k
sin t

References
1. Pontryagin, L. S., Boltyanskii, V. G., Gamkrelidze, R. V., & Mishchenko, E. F. (1962). The
mathematical theory of optimal processes. New York: Interscience.
2. Athans, M., Falb, P. L. (1966). Optimal control: An introduction to the theory and its
applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Reprinted by Dover in 2006)
3. Hsu, J. C., & Meyer, A. U. (1968). Modern control principles and application. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
4. Lee, E. B., & Markus, L. (1967). Foundations of optimal control theory (The SIAM series in
applied mathematics). New York: Wiley.
5. Shinners, S. M. (1978). Modern control system theory and application. Reading, MA: Addison
Wesley. (Original work published 1972)
6. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2004). Free vibrations of beams and frames. Eigenvalues and
eigenfunctions. New York: McGraw-Hill Engineering Reference.
7. Butkovsky, A. G. (1969). Distributed control systems. New York: Elsevier.
8. Troitsky, V. A. (1976). Optimal processes vibrations of mechanical systems. Leningrad,
Russia: Mashinostroenie.
9. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
10. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
11. Bryson, A. E., & Ho, Y.-C. (1969). Applied optimal control. Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.
12. Egorov, A. I. (1965). Optimal processes in systems with distributed parameters and certain
problems of the invariance theory. AN USSR, Series Math, 29(6), 12051260.
13. Gabasov, R. F., & Kirillova, F. M. (1978). The qualitative theory of optimal processes.
New York: M. Dekker.
14. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
15. Mikhajlov, F. A., Teryaev, E. D., Bulekov, V. P., Salikov, L. M., & Dikanova, L. S. (1971).
Dynamics of continuous linear systems wirh deterministic and random parameters. Moscow,
Russia: Nauka.
16. Routh, E. T. (1877). Treatise on the stability of a given state of motion. London: Macmillan.
17. Hurwitz, A. (1895). Uber die Bedinungen unter Weloher Eine Gileichung nur Wurzeln mit
Negativen Reelen Theilen Bezitzt. Mathematische Annalen, 46, 273284.
18. Bulgakov, B. V. (1954). The vibrations. Moscow, Russia: Gosizdat.

384

10

Pontryagins Principle

19. Den Hartog, J. P. (1985). Mechanical vibrations (4th ed.). New York: Mc Graw-Hill. Dover,
1985.
20. Yablonsky, A. A., & Noreiko, S. S. (1975). Theory of vibration. Moscow, Russia: Vysshaya
Shkola.
21. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/ColeThomson Learning.
22. Kalman, R. E. (1960). Contributions to the theory of control systems. Boletn de la Sociedad
Matematica Mexicana, 5, 102119.
23. Bellman, R. E. (1962). Applied dynamic programming. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press.
24. Lions, J. L. (1971). Optimal control of systems governed by partial differential equations.
Berlin, Germany: Springer.
25. Egorov, A. I. (1978). Optimal control of thermal and diffusion processes. Moscow, Russia:
Nauka.
26. Sirazetdinov, T. K. (1977). Optimization of systems with distributed parameters. Moscow,
Russia: Nauka.
27. Komkov, V. (1972). Optimal control theory for the damping of vibrations of simple elastic
systems (Lecture notes in mathematics, Vol. 253). New York: Springer.
28. Krasovsky, N. N. (1968). Theory of control motion. Linear systems. Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
29. Iskra, V. S., & Karnovsky, I. A. (1975). The stress-strain state of the bar systems with variable
structure. Strength of materials and theory of structures (Vol. 25). Kiev, Ukraine: Budivelnik.
30. Karnovsky, I. A. (1973). Pontryagins principle in the eigenvalues problems. Strength of
materials and theory of structures (Vol. 19). Kiev, Ukraine: Budivelnik.
31. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2001). Formulas for structural dynamics. Tables, graphs and
solutions. New York: McGraw Hill.
32. Gantmacher, F. R. (1959). Theory of matrices. New York: AMS Chelsea. (Reprinted by
American Mathematical Society, 2000)
33. Bushaw, D. W. (1953). Differential equations with a discontinuous forcing term. Stevens
Institute of Technology Experimental Towing Tank Report 469. Hoboken, NJ.
34. Bushaw, D. W. (1958). Optimal discontinuous forcing terms. In S. Lefschetz (Ed.), Contributions to the theory of nonlinear oscillations (Vol. 4, pp. 2952). Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
35. Zaden, L. A., & Desoer, C. A. (1963). Linear system theory. The state space approach.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
36. Chernousko, F. L., Akulenko, L. D., & Sokolov, B. N. (1980). Control of oscillations.
Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
37. Lurie, K. A. (1975). Optimal control in the problems of mathematical physics. Moscow,
Russia: Nauka.

Chapter 11

Krein Moments Method

Kreins moments method (KMM) is a well-developed section of modern mathematics

[13]. This method is widely used in solving many technical problems of optimal
control by dynamic processes, including application to the control vibration of
mechanical systems, heat conductivity, wave and diffusion processes [4, 5].
The method affords the opportunity to formulate new optimization problems of
vibration suppression of linear systems with lumped and distributed parameters,
and provides an orderly and efcient procedure to solve them. As a special case of
vibration control, the essence of the task of suppressing vibration consists in the fact
that the vibration of a system is suppressed in an active way. For this purpose,
additional vibration protection controllers (VPC) of force and (or) kinematic type
are introduced into the system. The VPC enables us to change the vibration process,
which allows us to select the best process, satisfying predetermined requirements,
from a variety of possible modes. The advantage of the method is that it allows us to
take into account the restrictions imposed on the VPC. As such, restrictions on
the order of a differential equation, the structure of the system, the number of
controllers, and the points of their application are not imposed.
This chapter briey describes the moment problem. The theory is applied for
optimal active vibration suppression of a linear oscillator, string, and beam. The
method of accounting for real characteristics of the executive mechanisms is
discussed. If the system has additional peculiarities (such as nonlinearities, and
restrictions on the controller or the state variables), then it is recommended that
mathematical programming be applied to solve such problems. For example,
the active elimination of vibration of a nonlinear plate has been considered; the
controller and displacement of the plate are restricted. In all cases, the control u (t)
is sought as a function of the independent variable t [4].

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_11

385

386

11.1

11 Krein Moments Method

The Optimal Active Vibration Protection Problem

as the l-moments Problem

The problem of active optimal vibration suppression means the elimination of

vibration in the minimum time. This problem is formulated as a mathematical
problem of moments. In the case of restricted controllers u(t), the problem is
formulated as the problem of l-moments. The optimal vibration suppression of
linear oscillators is considered.

11.1.1 Formulation of the Problem of Vibration

Suppression as a Moment Problem
The behavior of a linear oscillator is described by a linear differential equation
q 2 q ut

11:1

at the given initial conditions q0 q0 , q_ 0 q1 . Function u(t) will be treated

as required controlling external force per unit mass that allows us to impart certain
properties to the dynamic process. We will consider the problem of optimal
vibration suppression: it is necessary to completely suppress vibration within the
minimum possible time T.
The solution to (11.1) can be presented in form
1
1
qt q0 cos t q1 sin t

t
sin t  ud:

11:2

Here, the rst and second terms take into account initial conditions, while the third
term is Duhamels integral.
Complete vibration suppression is achieved when the displacement and velocity
simultaneously equal zero. Assume that this is achieved at t T, i.e.,
T
1
1
qT q0 cos T q1 sin T sin T  ud 0,

T
q_ T q0 sin T q1 cos T cos T  ud 0:
0

Thus we formulate the conditions of complete elimination of vibration.

11:3

11.1

The Optimal Active Vibration Protection Problem as the l-moments Problem

387

Using the trigonometric formulas

sin  sin cos  cos sin ,
cos  cos cos sin sin ;

11:4

Equation (11.3) can be rewritten in the form

T
q0 cos T q1 sin T sin T cos  cos T sin  ud 0,
0

11:5

T
 q0 sin T q1 cos T cos T cos sin T sin  ud 0:
0

We denote
T

x u cos d,
0

y u sin d:

11:6

Equation (11.5) become

sin T  x  cos T  y q0 cos T  q1 sin T,
cos T  x sin T  y q0 sin T  q1 cos T:

11:7

The right-hand side of (11.7) depends on the initial conditions, the frequency of free
vibration , and an unknown time T for the complete suppression of vibrations.
Now we solve the system (11.7) with respect to x and y. The determinant of
system (11.7) is D 1, and for x and y we obtain the following relationships:
T
u cos d q1 ,
0

11:8

T
u sin d q0 :
0

These are called the moment relationships. For a system with one degree of
freedom, with the conditions of complete suppression of vibration at time T, they
are reduced to two moment relationships (11.8).
In the case of an arbitrary number of degrees of freedom, the moment relationships can be written as follows:

388

11 Krein Moments Method

T
gi tutdt i ,

i 1, :2, ::, n

11:9

The number n of these relationships is equal to the number of conditions of the

complete suppression of vibrations.
The values i on the right side of relationships (11.9) are the known numbers, gi(t)
are the known functions, and u(t) is an unknown required controller. The integrals on
the left side of (11.9) are called the moments of the function u(t) with respect to
functions gi(t); in other words, the numbers i are the moments of the functional on
the left side of (11.9) with respect to the sequence of elements gi(t).
The problem is to determine function u(t) for which the relationships (11.9) are
satised at the minimum upper limit T. The problem of determining u(t) is called
the problem of moments; this term was introduced by T. Stieltjes (1894). A huge
contribution to the development of this problem was made by Akhiezer and Krein
(1938), [1]. If the number of equations (11.9) is nite, then the corresponding
moments problem is nite-dimensional; otherwise it is innite-dimensional. If in
the innite-dimensional problem we discard a number of relationships, we then
obtain a truncated moments problem [4].
We now return to (11.1). The condition of a complete elimination of vibration
(11.5) caused by non-zero initial conditions is represented in the form of moments
relationships (11.8), (11.9), where
g1 cos ,

g1 sin ,

1 q1 ,

2 q0 :

The system (11.8) expresses the idea of complete optimal active vibration suppression
of a system (11.1) with initial conditions q0, q1 within a minimum time T. In the new
form of representing the condition of vibration suppression, the rst relationship (11.8)
does not correspond to the rst condition (11.3) of the elimination only of displacement. Now there is the equivalence of two systems, namely (11.8) and (11.3).
Consider in the general case the formulation of the problem of vibration suppression of a dynamical system as the problem of moments. The state of a linear
system can be represented in Cauchy normal form as
q_ t Atqt Btut B1 tFt

11:10

with the known initial conditions q0 q0. Here, q(t) is an n-dimensional state
vector; A(t) is an n  n matrix of the system, u(t) is an m-dimensional vibration
protection exposure, F(t) is an r-dimensional external excitation, B(t) is n  m
matrix amplication at the VP exposure, m  n, and B1(t) is n  r matrix amplication at the external excitation, r  n.
Integrating system (11.10), we obtain an equation of a state [5]

The Optimal Active Vibration Protection Problem as the l-moments Problem

11.1

8
<

9
=

qt t q0 1 Bu B1 F d:
:
;

389

11:11

Here, (t) is a fundamental solution to the homogeneous linear differential equation of the system (11.10) in matrix form; 1 t is the inverse matrix.
The strict conditions of complete elimination of vibration may be softened. Let
us assume that at the nal time t t1 , the vector of the desired state is qt1 e
q t1 .
Let us multiply (11.11) on the left by 1 t
t1

1

t1 ~q t1 q0 1 Bu B1 Fd;
0

and we then obtain

t1

1

t1

1

Bud t1 ~q t1  1 B1 Fd  q0 :

11:12

If we denote
Gt 1 tBt fgi tg,
t1

t1 t1 e
q t1  1 B1 Fd  q0 fi t1 g
1

then an equality (11.12) is represented in the form of the moments relationships

t1
gi ud i t1 ,

i 1, 2, . . . , n

11:13

Now we show the procedure for deriving the moments relationships for the system
described by equation (11.1), using the concept of the fundamental matrix for a
system with constant parameters [6].
1. First, (11.1) can be represented in Cauchy normal form. For this, we introduce
the notation discussed in Sect. 10.2,
x1 t qt,
x2 t x_ 1 t q_ t;

390

11 Krein Moments Method

which allows us to represent a second-order equation (11.1) in the form of two

rst-order equations
x_ 1 t x2 t,
x_ 2 t 2 x1 t ut:
In matrix form, x_ t Axt ut




0
1
x1 t
A
;
x

;
x2 t
2 0


ut


0
;
u t

where A is a matrix of a system, x(t) is a vector state, and u(t) is a controller

vector.
2. We introduce the complex variable s and the identity matrix I, and construct a
new matrix


s 1
sI  A 2
:

s
3. The inverse matrix becomes
sI  A1

1
s
2
s2 2 


1
:
s

4. The fundamental matrix (t) of the system is the inverse Laplace transform 1
of each element of the matrix sI  A1 , i.e.,
"
t 1 sI  A1

#
1
sin t :
cos t

 sin t cos t

11:14

It is easy to verify that 0 I.

The fundamental matrix allows us to write a solution at non-zero initial
conditions
&

x1 q
x2 q_

3&
1
sin t 5 q0

t
q_ 0
q_ 0
 sin t cos t
2
3
1
_
sin
t
cos
t

q
q
0
0
7:

6
6
7
6 q sin t q_ cos t 7
0
0
&

q0

cos t
4

11:15

This result was previously presented by formula (11.2) when ut 0.

The above procedure can be applied to a system of an arbitrary order with
constant parameters. The calculation of a fundamental matrix for a system with
variable parameters can be found in [6].

11.1

The Optimal Active Vibration Protection Problem as the l-moments Problem

391

11.1.2 The l-moments Problem and Numerical Procedures

The moments problem in the form of (11.8), (11.9) does not contain any restrictions. In order to take into account real, non-simplied technical problems, we must
place additional restrictions on the controlling action u(t). The case of restriction of
the norm u(t) is considered in detail in [4, 5, 7]. Below we consider two important
restrictions; they are special cases of the general theory of the norm restriction.
1. The energy of a source that can be used to reduce vibration is limited by value l2.
This restriction may be presented in mathematical form as
T
u2 tdt  l2 ,

0  t  T:

11:16

2. The restriction is imposed by the limiting power of the actuator. This restriction
is written in the form
l  ut  l,

0  t  T:

11:17

The time-optimal vibration suppression problem of a dynamical systemor in

other words, the task of shifting the dynamical system from the initial state to the
nal state in the shortest possible timecan be formulated as a moments problem
(11.9). If the nal state is zero, then we are talking about complete suppression
(or elimination) of vibration. If there are restrictions imposed on the vibration
protection controller u(t), then according to expressions (11.16) or (11.17), the
problem of optimal vibration suppression is formulated as an l-moments problem.
Its solution is performed in the following order: For a given number n of moment
relationships (11.9), we introduce factors 1 ,   , n and construct an auxiliary
functional. The pattern functional for restriction (11.16) is
T
J 1 g1    n gn 2 dt;

11:18

where gi are functions from moments relationships (11.9).

For restriction (11.17), an additional functional is
T
J j1 g1    n gn j dt:

11:19

We must then nd values 01 ,   , 0n which minimize functional (11.18) or (11.19)

with the constraint

392

11 Krein Moments Method

n
X

i i 1;

11:20

where i are the right sides of moments relationships (11.9).

Then for restriction (11.16) and functional (11.18), the required optimal vibration protection control is determined by the formula
ut l2

n
X

0i gi ,

0  t  T;

11:21

i1

and the equation for computation of minimum time is the solution to equation
min J

1
:
l2

11:22

For restriction (11.17) and functional (11.19) the required optimal VP control is
determined by the formula
ut lsgn

n
X

0i gi ,

0  t  T;

11:23

i1

and the equation for computation of minimum time is the solution to equation
1
min J :
l

11:24

In a general case, the restriction of the norm u(t) may be presented as follows [3]:
0T
11=p

kutkp @ jutjp dtA , kutkp  l;

11:25

where l is a given positive number, and ku(t)kp is a norm of function u(t); the
number p belongs to the half-interval 1, 1; i.e., 1  p < 1: If p 2, then we
obtain restriction (11.16); if p 1, we obtain restriction (11.17). The problem of
shift of a dynamical system from a given initial condition to the nal zero condition
within the minimum time T and under restriction (11.25) is called the Krein
l-moment problem.
The general case (11.25) of the restricted function u(t) is presented in detail by
Krein (1938) [3]. Krasovsky was the rst to apply the results of this theory in
solving the problem of optimal control of linear systems with a nite number of
degrees of freedom [2]. Extensive application of the method for solving diverse
technical problems has been shown by Butkovsky [4, 7].
Below we demonstrate the procedure for computing u(t) for constraints (11.16)
and (11.17).

11.2

Time-Optimal Problem for a Linear Oscillator

11.2

393

Time-Optimal Problem for a Linear Oscillator

Let us consider a dynamical system with one degree of freedom which is described
by (11.1) under the initial conditions q0 q0 , q_ 0 q1 . Conditions of complete
vibration suppression are reduced to the moments relationships (11.8). We must
nd a vibration protection action u(t) which is limited according to (11.16) or
(11.17) such that the moments relationships (11.8) are fullled in the minimum
possible time T; this statement of a problem signies active vibration suppression
within minimum possible time T.

11.2.1 Constraint of Energy

Assume that the VP exposure u(t) is restricted according to (11.16). In this case we
need to solve the additional problem (11.18), (11.20). Let us introduce factors
1, 2 and construct an auxiliary functional (11.18), i.e.,
T
J 1 cos t 2 sin t2 dt:

11:26

Then we must nd numbers 01 , 02 which minimize functional (11.26) under the

condition (11.20), i.e.,
1 q1 2 q0 1:

11:27

After integrating, functional (11.26) can be written as

J 21 I 1 1 2 I 2 22 I 3 ;

11:28

where
T
I 1 cos 2 tdt

1
sin 2T 2T ,
4

1
I 2 sin 2tdt 1  cos 2T ,
2
0

T
I 3 sin 2 tdt

1
 sin 2T 2T :
4

1 1 q1
and substitute it into (11.28). Thus, the
q0
conditional extremum problem (11.26) and (11.27) is transformed to the unconditional
extremum problem. This occurs because integrand (11.26) is a quadratic function. The
dJ
condition for the extremum of the functional
0 leads to the expression
d1
From (11.27) we can nd 2

394

11 Krein Moments Method

q 2q1 I 3
:
01   2 2 0
2 q0 I 1 q0 q1 I 2 q21 I 3
Special Case Let the motion be caused by a non-zero speed q1. In this case we obtain
01 1=q1 :

11:29

We substitute this expression into the functional (11.28). The condition

leads to the expression
02

I2
1  cos 2T
:

2q1 I 3 q1 2T  sin 2T

dJ
d2

11:30

The optimal active vibration protection exposure according to (11.21) is then

determined by the formula


ut l2 01 cos t 02 sin t ,

0  t  T:

11:31

Note that the optimal VP exposure, that fully suppresses vibrations at time T has a
resonance character.
We proceed to the nal step of solving the problem: now we need to determine
the minimum possible time T for vibration suppression. For this we must evaluate
functional (11.28) at the stationary points 01 , 02


1 2  2 2 cos
,
J 01 , 02 2 
 sin
4q1

2T:

11:32

The minimum time for vibration suppression will be calculated from condition
(11.22), i.e.,
1 2  2 2 cos
1
min J 2 
2:
 sin
4q1
l
01 , 02

11:33

Equation (11.33) involves the required time T for vibration suppression and the
magnitude of the energy l2 of the source.
Algorithm
1. Compute the dimensionless parameter K q1

4q21
;
l2

2  2 2 cos
with respect to dimensionless parameter ;
 sin

3. The optimal time for vibration suppression T :

2
2. Solve equationK q1

11.2

Time-Optimal Problem for a Linear Oscillator

395

Let parameter K q1 12:56636: In this case, the root of equation 4 and the

2
: It is easy to verify that the obtained vibration
optimal time becomes T
2

protection exposure
ut h1 cos t h2 sin t,

0  t  T;

11:34

l2
,
q1
1  cos 2T
h2 l2 02 l2
q1 2T  sin 2T
h 1 l2 01 

indeed shifts the system (11.1) from initial condition (0, q1) to nal condition (0, 0)
within time T 2=. Parameter K q1 takes into account the initial velocity of the
object, the frequency of free vibration, and the magnitude of the energy l2 of the
source. A typical application of this algorithm to the problem of optimal vibration
suppression of a beam and plate is presented by Gritsjuk et al. [8].

11.2.2 Control with Magnitude Constraint

Now let us consider a dynamical system with one degree of freedom which
is described by (11.1) under the initial conditions q0 q0 , q_ 0 q1 .
The problem is to suppress free vibration within a minimum possible time T.
Assume that the active exposure u(t) is restricted according to (11.17).
Let us formulate the auxiliary problem (11.17), (11.19): introduce factors 1, 2
and construct additional functional (11.19), i.e.,
T
11:35
J
j1 cos t 2 sin tj dt:
0

We must then nd the values 01 , 02 which minimize functional (11.35) with the
constraint (11.20), i.e.,
1 q1 2 q0 1:

11:36

1
Let q0 0. In this case, 01  , and for the additional problem we obtain the
q1
following reformulation: nd the unconditional minimum of the functional

T 
 1


 cos t 2 sin t dt:
11:37
min J

0
q1
2
0
Since the integrand contains an absolute value, it is difcult to nd an analytical
expression for the minimizer of (11.37). Figure 11.1a shows numerical results for
2
minimizing (11.37) with particular parameters: 2; T n, n 1;

q1 0:1; . . . ; 4:0 :

396

11 Krein Moments Method

b
7

10
9

6
8
7

q1 = 0.1

5
4

min (J )

6
0.25918

4
3

0.17959

2
1
1

qE = 4.0

0
10 8 6 4 2 0
x2

8 10

0.5

1.5

2 2.5
q1

3.5

Fig. 11.1 The results of numerical minimization of functional (11.37). (a) Curve J J(2),
parameter q1; (b) Curve min J in term of q1

To nd the minimum of (11.37), we set the parameters , T, n, q1 as above, and

numerically evaluate the integral by the trapezoidal method. Using over 20K points
in the grid ensures a high degree of precision in numerically evaluating the integral.
We note that for different values of q1, the minimum of J always occurs at 2 0,
and min(J) is a monotonically decreasing function of q1 (Fig. 11.1b).
To calculate optimal programming vibration protection exposure, we use formula
(11.23). Finally, we obtain


1
1
sgn  cos t ;
ut
11:38
min J
q1
According to the sgn function in the above equation, the VP action is a discontinuous stepwise function. An example of u(t), with q1 4, is shown in Fig. 11.2.
The solution to the non-homogeneous ordinary differential equation (11.1) for
several different parameters q1 is shown in Fig. 11.3. The time interval [0, T] is
normalized to [0, 1]. The solution is numerically obtained by the fourth-order
RungeKutta method.
We observe that at the endpoint of time interval t, both the displacement and
velocity are zero for all values of q1. This corresponds to a complete suppression of
vibration.

11.2

Time-Optimal Problem for a Linear Oscillator

397

8
q1 = 4.0

6
4

u(t )

2
0
2
4
6
8

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5
t

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Fig. 11.2 Optimal vibration protection control. Equation (11.1), constraint (11.17), initial conditions q0 0, q_ 0 q1 , admissible control l  ut  l

0.5

q1 = 4.0

q1 = 4.0

3.5
3.0

3.5
0.4

3.0

0.3

q(t )

dq(t)
dt

0.2
0.1

0.5

1
0.5
0

0
1
0.1
2

0.2
0

0.2

0.4

0.6
t

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Fig. 11.3 The effect of complete suppression of vibrations at the nal time t 1

398

11.3

11 Krein Moments Method

Optimal Active Vibration Protection

of Continuous Systems

The problem of active optimal vibration suppression of continuous systems is

formulated as an l-moments problem. The string and uniform simply supported
beam of constant cross-section are considered as examples, and the Krein moments
relationship is derived for the innite-dimensional case (this corresponds to the
complete elimination of vibration). The truncated moments problem, which corresponds to the elimination of the xed modes of vibration, is considered. Active
vibration protection is performed using both kinematics and force. Greens function
and the concept of standardizing function are employed extensively.

11.3.1 Truncated Moments Problem

In the case of a system with a nite number of degrees of freedom, complete
elimination of vibrations is reduced to a moments relationship derived from
the condition of the absence of displacement and velocity of each mass. Therefore,
the number of moment relationships in a problem of total vibration elimination of a
mechanical system is twice the number of degrees of freedom. A problem of partial
vibration elimination may arise in a system with a nite number of degrees of freedom.
The term partial means the elimination of vibrations of predetermined arbitrary
masses of the system. In this case, the level of vibration of the rest of the mass of the
system is not discussed, and we need to consider the moments relationship referring
only to specied masses. In the case of a linear continuous system, complete elimination of vibration means the fulllment of an innite number of moments relationships.
The truncated moments problem means that out of the nite-dimensional
moments problem only some moments relationships will be considered while the
other relationships are discarded [4, 7]. For solutions of the innite l-moments
problem, it is necessary and sufcient that there exists a solution of any l-truncated
problem with the same restriction on the norm kutk  l. The choice of
the truncated moments relationship is determined by the requirements for the
suppressed modes of vibration.

11.3.2 Vibration Suppression of String. Standardizing

Function
Transverse vibration of a string of nite length l is described by the equation [9]
2

y
y
S 2 X;
t2
x

11:39

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

399

where y(x, t) is the transverse displacement of the string; S is the string tension, , A
are the density of the material and the cross-sectional area of the string, respectively, and X(x, t) is the transverse load per unit length of the string.
The initial conditions are
y_ x; 0 y1 x:

yx; 0 y0 x;

11:40

Suppression of vibration of the string caused by load X and non-zero initial

conditions (11.40) is carried out using kinematics, meaning that the reference points
at x 0 and x l move in a transverse direction. Therefore, the boundary
conditions on the left and right ends of the string become
y0; t u1 t;

yl; t u2 t;

11:41

where u1(t) and u2(t) are unknown functions.

Equation (11.39) is rewritten in the form
2

y
y Xx; t
f x; t;
 c2 2
t2
x
A

11:42

where c2 S=A is the propagation velocity of shear waves in the longitudinal

direction [10], and excitation f(x, t) up to a constant factor 1/A coincides with the
load X(x, t).
To reduce the problem of vibration suppression to a problem of moments, we
must obtain a solution to (11.42) under the conditions (11.40) and (11.41).
The integration procedure for linear equations (11.42) with non-zero initial
conditions (11.40) and non-homogeneous boundary conditions (11.41) can be
greatly simplied if we introduce the standardizing function w(x, t). This function
is a linear combination of external excitation and non-zero initial and boundary
conditions. The introduction of a standardizing function reduces the problem to the
integration of the equation with a modied right-hand side and with zero initial and
homogeneous boundary conditions. The introduction of standardizing functions in
problems of kinematic suppression of vibrations is especially effective.
For (11.39) and non-zero conditions (11.40) and (11.41), the modied equation
(11.42) becomes
2

y
y
 c2 2 wx; t
2
t
x

11:43

The standardizing function is [11, 12]

0

wx; t f x; t y0 x t y1 x t c2 x u1 t
0

 c2 l  x u2 t;

11:44

400

11 Krein Moments Method

where and 0 are the Dirac delta function (unit impulse) of the real variable x and
its derivative. This function allows us to record in analytical form the physical
quantity (mass, force, etc.) which is lumped at the point. For example, a point
mass m which is placed at the point x a using the Dirac function can be written as
mx  a:
The delta function is dened as a formal relationship [13]

x  af xdx f a;
11:45a
x

for any continuous function f(x). This relationship, as a result of integrating,

allocates only one value f(a) (ltering property of a -function). The important
property of the derivative of the -function is:

k x  af xdx 1k f k a:
11:45b
Rn

The solution of (11.43), (11.44) with zero initial and homogeneous boundary
conditions takes the form
t
Gx; ; t; w; dd;

yx; t

11:46

t0 D

where Greens function (impulse transient function, inuence function) for the
string is [11, 12]
Gx; ; t

1
2 X
1
kx
k
kc t
sin
sin
sin
c k1 k
l
l
l

11:47

Greens function determines the deection at the point x caused by the

instantaneous lumped excitation (Dirac excitation) applied at the point . This
function provides a comprehensive description of the physical model, and its
application is very effective when combined with the standardizing function.
A vast collection of equations of mathematical physics and corresponding standardized functions, Greens functions, transfer functions, and solutions are
presented by Butkovsky [11, 12]; the handbook [12] also contains the properties
of the delta function.
We assume that the string is subjected to the initial conditions (11.40) and
the displacement y0; t u1 t of the left support only. Procedure (11.46) for the
corresponding terms of (11.44) leads to the following results.
Term y0(x)0 (t). The property of the derivative of the delta function leads to a
relationship

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

t
0



d
0
sin k t  d  sin k t  
k cos k t,
d
0

401

kc
:
l

Therefore, if we change the order of integration and summation, and take into
account the last relationships, we get [9]:
yx; t

2
c

l t X
1
1
kx
k
kc t 
0
sin
sin
sin
 y0 dd
k
l
l
l
k1
00

l
t
1
2X
1
kx
k
0
sin
d  sin k t  d

y0 sin
c k1 k
l
l
0

1
X

11:48

2
1
kx
k
sin
k cos k t y0 sin
d

c k1 k
l
l
0

1
2X
kx
k
cos k t y0 sin
d :
sin
l k1
l
l
0

Term y1(x)(t). A similar procedure leads to the following result:

2
yx; t
c

l t X
1
1
kx
k
kc t 
sin
sin
sin
 y1 dd
k
l
l
l
k1
00

l
t
1
2X
1
kx
k
sin
d sin k t  d
y1 sin
c k1 k
l
l
0

1
2X
1
kx
k
sin
sin k t y1 sin
d

c k1 k
l
l

11:49

l
2
1
kx
k

sin k t y1 sin
d:
sin
l k1 k
l
l
1
X

Thus, free vibration caused by non-zero initial conditions (11.40) is

yx; t
l


1
2X
kx
Bk
Ak cos k t sin k t ,
sin
l k1
l
k

k
d;
Ak y0 sin
l
0

k
Bk y1 sin
d :
l
0

11:50

402

11 Krein Moments Method

Term c20 (x) u1(t) (Below, subscript 1 at u1(t) is omitted)

2
yx; t
c

l t X
1
00

1
kx
k
kc t  2 0
sin
sin
sin
c udd
k
l
l
l
k1

l
t
1
2X
1
kx
k 0
sin
d c2 u sin k t  d

sin
c k1 k
l
l
0

11:51

1
2c X
1
kx k
sin


u sin k t  d
k1 k
l
l
0

1
2c X
kx
sin
u sin k t  d:
l k1
l
0

The conditions for the elimination of displacements and velocities at time t T

caused by the non-zero initial conditions and vibration protection control u(t)
reduce to the innite number of conditions


T
1
1
2X
kx
Bk
2c X
kx
Ak cos k t sin k t
sin

sin
u sin k t  d 0,
k
l k1
l
l k1
l
tT
0

1
1
2X
kx
2c X
kx
sin
Ak k sin k t Bk cos k ttT k
sin
u cos k t  d 0:
l k1
l
l
l
k1
T

11:52

Here, the rst and second equations describe the conditions of elimination of
displacement and velocity, respectively, at time T. In order for the relations
(11.52) to have been true, it is necessary and sufcient that all coefcients of
kx
, k 1, 2, . . . were equal to zero. This leads to the relationships
sin
l
Ak cos k T

T
Bk
sin k T c u sin k T  d,
k
0

 Ak k sin k T Bk cos k T ck u cos k T  d:

0

Let us introduce the following notations:

11:53

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

403

x1 u cos k d;

x2 u sin k d;

Now (11.53) can be written as



1
Bk
Ak cos k T sin k T ,
x1 sin k T x2 cos k T
c
k


1
Bk
Ak sin k T cos k T :
x1 cos k T  x2 sin k T
c
k

11:54

Solution (11.54) with respect to x1 and x2 leads to the following innite number of
moment relationships:
T
u cos k d 

Bk
;
ck

11:55
Ak
u sin k d ,
c

k 1, 2, . . .

Thus, the conditions of complete suppression of vibration of a string caused by

non-zero initial conditions are reduced to the innite-dimensional problem of
moments (11.55). The truncated moment problem corresponds to the elimination of
certain modes of vibration. If we set k 1, then the problem of suppression of the rst
(primary) vibration mode becomes equivalent to the following problem of moments:
T
u cos 1 d 

B1 y1 sin d ;
l

B1
,
c1

A1
u sin 1 d ,
c

A1 y0 sin d;
l

11:56
c
1
:
l

In the future, we assume that the vibration is caused by the non-zero initial velocity
only. This occurs when a string is subjected to an impulse excitation. In this case,

A1 0: Let initial velocity y1 0 sin ; where 0 is the velocity of the middle

l
l

l
point of a string, so B1 0 sin 2 d 0 . Next, assume that the total energy
l
2
0
required for time-optimal vibration suppression is constrained by a number el 2 , i.e.,
T
0

u2 t dt  el 2 :

404

11 Krein Moments Method

Let us introduce factors 1, 2 and construct an auxiliary functional

T
J 1 cos t 2 sin t2 dt:

11:57

Now we must nd the numbers 01 , 02 which minimize functional (11.57) under the
condition (11.20), i.e.,
1

0 l
2  0 1:
2c

Functional J assumes the form of (11.28). Since 1 

functional extremum

2c
, the condition of
0 l

dJ
0 leads to expression
d2
2

2c 1  cos
,

0 l  sin

2T:

The minimum value of functional (11.57) becomes

c2 2  2 2 cos
min J 2 2 
:
1 , 2
 sin
0 l

11:58

The optimal time T is a solution to equation [4]

min J

1 , 2

T
The vibration protection exposure u(t),

1
:
el 2

11:59

u2 t dt  el 2 , which suppress the basic

mode of vibration for the minimum time T is



1  cos T
2 2c
e
sin t :
 cos t
ut l
0 l
2T  sin T

11:60

Inspection of this result shows that optimal vibration protection exposure has a
resonance character.

11.3.3 Vibration Suppression of a Beam

Transverse vibration of a uniform beam is described by the Bernoulli-Euler partial
differential equation [9]

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

4

EI

405

y
y
m 2 Xx; t;
x4
t

11:61

where y(x, t) is the transverse displacement of a beam; X(x, t) is the transverse load;
and E, I, m are the modulus of elasticity, moment of inertia of the cross-section,
and mass per unit length of the beam, respectively; t  0; and 0  x  l, where l is
the length of the beam. The initial conditions are
y_ x; 0 y1 x:

yx; 0 y0 x;

11:62a

In equivalent form, (11.62a) can be written as

4

c2

y y
EI

f x; t, c2 ,
x4 t2
m

f x; t

Xx; t
:
m

11:62b

The boundary conditions at the left x 0 and right x l ends are

y0; t u1 t;

M0=EI y00 0; t u2 t;

yl; t u3 t;

Ml=EI y00 l; t u4 t:

11:63

Any function ui t, i 1, . . . , 4 may be treated as vibration protection exposure

which reduces or suppresses the vibration of a beam. Here, u1(t) and u3(t) are vertical
displacements of the left and right support, respectively; these vibration protection
exposures are thus of a kinematic type. Functions u2(t) and u4(t) present torque on the
left and right supports, respectively; these VP exposures are thus of a dynamic type.
The equation of vibration of the beam in standard form is
4

c2

y y

wx; t:
x4 t2

11:64

The standardizing function is [11, 12]

0

000

wx; t f x; t y0 x t y1 x t c2 x u1 t c2 xu2 t
000

c2 l  xu3 t c2 l  x u4 t:

11:65

It is easy to verify that the unit of each term in (11.65) is L/T2. The standardizing
function allows a vibration equation with non-zero initial and boundary conditions
to lead to an equivalent equation with zero initial and zero boundary conditions.
The total solution of (11.64) in terms of Greens function becomes
t l
yx; t

Gx; ; t; w; dd:
0 0

11:66

406

11 Krein Moments Method

Greens function for a simply supported beam is [9, 11, 12]

Gx; ; t

1
2 X
1
kx
k
sin
sin k t
sin
l k1 k
l
l

1
2l X
1
kx
k
sin
sin k t,
sin
2
2
c k1 k
l
l

k2 2
k 2
l

r
EI
,
m

r
EI
c
:
m
11:67

Assume that the vibration of the beam is caused by non-zero initial conditions
yx; 0 y0 x; y_ x; 0 y1 x, while vibration suppression is carried out using
force, applying the torque u2 t M0=EI at the left support. In this case, the
standardizing function becomes
0

wx; t y0 x t y1 x t c2 xu2 t:

11:68

The transverse displacement of a beam caused by torque u2 t M0=EI at the left

support is
2
yu2 t x; t
l

l t X
1
00

2c
l

2c

1
kx
k
0
sin
sin k t  c2 u2 dd
sin

l
l
k1 k
l

1
2X

1
kx
sin

l
k1 k

sin
0

1
2X

1
kx k
 
sin

l
l
k1 k

1
2c X
1
kx
sin

k1 k
l

t
k 0
d u2 sin k t  d
l
t

11:69

u2 sin k t  d
0

u2 sin k t  d:
0

This result allows us to derive an expression for the rotation angle of the beam at the
supports caused by constant torque M0 EIu2 t M0 const at the left
support. Indeed, for the integral in (11.69) we get
t
u2 sin k t  d
0

M0
k EI

and the expression in series form for the rotation angle becomes
0

y x

1
2c M0 X
1
kx
:
cos
l EI k1 k
l

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

407

Taking into account

k2 2
k 2
l

r
EI
;
m

1
X
1
2
;

2
6
k1 k

1
X
1
2
:
cos
k


2
12
k1 k

we obtain the well-known results y 0 M0 l=3EI and y l M0 l=6EI [14].

We now move on to the determination of the displacements caused by non-zero
initial conditions y0(x) and y1(x)
t

yx; t

Gx; ; t; w; dd
t0 D

t0 D

l t

h 0
i
Gx; ; t; y0 y1 xt dd

l t

Gx; ; t; y0 dd
00

Gx; ; t; y1 dd yy0 x; t yy1 x; t:

00

11:70

Each term of (11.70) may be presented as follows:

yy0 x; t

t
t
1
2l X
1
kx
k
0
d
sin
y

sin
sin k t  d
0
c 2 k1 k2
l
l
0

1
2l X
1
kx
0
Ak sin k t  d
sin
c 2 k1 k2
l

11:71

1
2l X
1
kx
Ak k cos k t,
2
sin
2
c k1 k
l

yy1 x; t

l
Ak y0 sin

k
d;
l

1
2l X
1
kx
k
d sin k t  d
sin
y1 sin
c 2 k1 k2
l
l
0

1
2l X
1
kx
Bk sin k t  d
sin
c 2 k1 k2
l

11:72

1
2l X
1
kx
Bk sin k t,
2
sin
2
c k1 k
l

l
Bk y1 sin
0

The total displacement caused by the initial conditions is [9]

k
d:
l

408

11 Krein Moments Method

yin :c x; t yy0 x; t yy1 x; t



1
2X
kx
Bk
Ak cos k t sin k t :

sin
l k1
l
k

11:73

Conditions (11.69) and (11.73) allow us to write the condition of the elimination of
vibration of a beam at time t T
yx; T yin :c x; T yu2 t x; T 0,
y_ x; T y_ in: c x; T y_ u2 t x; T 0:

11:74

Here, the rst and the second equation represent the elimination of the displacement
and velocity of the beam, respectively.
In expanded form, the rst equation of (11.74) may be presented as follows:
2
3


T
2c
1
2
B
kx 4
k
sin
u2 sink T  d Ak cos k T sink T 5 0: 11:75
l
k
k
l
k1

1
X

The condition of velocity suppression is obtained by formal differentiation of

(11.75) with respect to time.
Since the system functions {sin(kx/l )} on the interval [0, ] are complete, the
condition necessary and sufcient for the complete suppression of vibration is that
all coefcients for sin(kx/l ) are zero [4]. As a result, we obtain the following
innite number of equations:


T
2c 1
2
Bk
u2 sin k T  d Ak cos k T sin k T 0
k
k
l
0



2c 1
2
Bk
u2 cos k T  d Ak sin k T cos k T 0,
k
l
k
T

k 1, 2, . . .

11:76
If we consider the elimination of the rst mode of vibration, we need to set k 1.
In this case, subscript k at k, Ak, Bk is omitted; also note that u2 ut. The
truncated moments relationships (11.76) become
T
0

T
0




B
A cos T sin T 0 ,
u sin T  d
lc




B
A sin T cos T 0:
u sin T  d
lc

11:77

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

409

If we introduce the notation

T

x1 u cos d,

x2 u sin d;

then using this notation and trigonometric relations (11.4), we can rewrite
(11.77) as



B
A cos T sin T
lc




B
x1 cos T x2 sin T  A sin T cos T
lc

x1 sin T  x2 cos T 

11:78

The solution to these equations presents a truncated system of the moment

relationships
T

B
x1 u cos d 
1 ,
lc

l
B y1 sin

T
x2 u sin d
0

A
2 ,
lc

d;
l

l
A y0 sin

11:79

d:
l

The rst and second relations (11.77) separately correspond to the elimination of
displacements and velocities, respectively, while together (11.79) they correspond
to the elimination of displacements and velocities.
Let us assume that the total energy required for vibration elimination is limited
by a value el 2 ; i.e., a constraint in the form
T

u2 tdt  el 2

11:80

should be imposed on the control exposure u(t).

Finally, the problem of optimal vibration protection of a beam is formulated as
follows: Find an exposure u(t) which is constrained according to (11.80) in order for
the moment relationships (11.79) to have been performed in the shortest possible
time T.
The solution to this problem according to the l-moments theory is described in
Sect. 11.1.2. Therefore, we omit the intermediate steps and present nal results,
which were obtained by the following the procedure 11.2611.33 for the special
case of vibration caused by a non-zero initial velocity y_ x; 0 y1 x, with initial

410

11 Krein Moments Method

displacement yx; 0 y0 x 0. In this case, A 0, and according to the second

formula (11.79) 2 0, functional (11.26) attains minimum value at
1

1
lc
lc I 2
, 2

;
1
B
2B I 3

T
1
1
I 2 sin 2tdt 1  cos 2T , I 3 sin 2 tdt sin 2T 2T :
2
4
0

The required minimum time T of vibration suppression is the root of equation

 
2  2 2 cos
1 4 B 2
2
K,
el l c
 sin

2T:

The optimal vibration protection exposure required to suppress vibration at the

moment T is
ut h1 cos t h2 sin t,

B
h1 el 2 1  ,
lc

h2 el 2 2

B I2
: 11:81
2lc I 3

Assume that the dimensionless parameter

K 4 ! el 2

B2
:
l2 c2

In this special case, a root of (11.81) is 4; i.e., the minimum time for vibration
suppression T 2=.
Since for this value of time the integral I 2 0, then h2 0, and for ut we obtain
the expression
ut h1 cos t 

B
cos t,
lc

0  t  T 2=:

Some Comments The solutions presented above determine the optimal vibration
protection acting according to a particular law and completely suppressing
vibration in the shortest possible time; a nite-dimensional system was considered.
It is important to briey note an alternative problem: Construct a mathematical
model for a tracking system for reducing vibration of deformable continuous
systems. The requirements for this system can be formulated as follows: (1) the
object under study is considered in an innite-dimensional formulation; (2) the
process of active vibration reduction occurs according to the state of the system.
Thus, the alternative problem statement does not contain the optimality criterion
concept. Instead, the concept of a tracking system operating in an unrestricted time
interval is introduced.

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

411

In the 1960s, D.R.Vaughan carried out extensive research [15, 16] devoted to
vibration control of systems with distributed parameters. The objects of the study
were a rod and a thin beam which performed longitudinal and transverse vibration,
respectively. A feature of his investigations was the logical amalgamation of a
number of concepts inherent in vibration theory, control theory, and structural theory
of vibration protection. Among them were impedance-mobility, transfer function,
input-output, structural block-scheme, and vibration control. Precise analytical results
of the Vaughan research may be treated as fundamental. Not by chance, these
classical works provided the impetus for analysis of more complex systems [1720]
which directly or indirectly drew upon the ideas and concepts of his articles.
The paper [16] is devoted to transverse vibrations of a homogeneous beam
whose state is described by the Bernoulli-Euler equation
4

EI

y
y
A 2 0:
x4
t

The Laplace transform with respect to time Lfyx; tg yx; s allows us to present
dY
AY, where state
this equation in matrix form of ordinary differential equation
dx
vector Y and matrix A of a system are
2

3
2
y_
0
6 _ 7
6 0
7
6
Y6
4 m 5, A 4 0
q
p

1
0
0
0

0
p
0
0

3
0
07
7
15
0

Here, y_ , _ are the lateral and angular velocity of a beam; parameters m and
a
a
q in terms of bending moment M and shear force Q are m M and q Q;
EI
EI
EI
s
a2 ; operator p .
A
a
Such presentation of the object allows us to derive a fundamental system of
equations that describes the effect of the boundary conditions and reection and
propagation of the waves, and to present them in the form of convenient structural
block-diagrams. On this basis, a system of active reduction of transverse vibration
of a beam has been proposed. Schematically, this system is shown in Fig. 11.4. On
the right end b of the beam sensors are placed that monitor parameters of the current
state of the beam; the controlled variables are the linear and angular velocity y_ b and
_ b . Let the desired values of the velocities in section b be y_ *b and _ *b . Then the
errors between the controlled variables and desired values of the beam state are
y_ y_ b  y_ *b ; and _ _ b  _ *b . At the same end b of the beam, a controller device
is mounted; acting on the end of the beam by the bending moment M and shear
force Q, it is possible to reduce the vibration level of the beam. The input of this
terminal device is a vector; the entries of this vector present the errors y_ and _ .
The output of this terminal device is also a vector; the elements of this vector are
the parameters m and q which act on the right end of the beam (Fig. 11.4).

412

11 Krein Moments Method

y b
m

G y

K y 2 p

Gq 2 p

y b*

K q

q b*

qb
Fig. 11.4 Terminal device for vibration control of a beam; y_ b , _ b are current variables; y_ *b , _ *b are
desired variables; m, q are controlled moment and shear force, factor a/EI

In detailed form, the controlled actions m, q are determined as follows:



m
q

&

p  &
*
*
_
_
_
_
y

y
y

y
G
G
2=p
_
py_

Zb 
:

K y_ 2p
K _
_  _ * b
_  _ * b

Here, G and K are weight coefcients for determining m and q, respectively;

p
subscripts y_ and _ represent the type of signal in the feedback. Operators 1= p
r
2 p
1 1
p
and p have step responses
at and
[16]. Thus, the terminal controller with

at
impedance matrix Zb generates corrective actions m and q.
There are various systems of the terminal devices for reducing of vibration level
of the beam. The types of these systems are determined by the presence of the
non-zero elements of the terminal impedance matrix Zb. In the general case, all
entries of the matrix Zb are non-zero. This means that there is feedback which takes
into account information about monitoring variables y_ b and _ b , and vibration control
is performed by the bending moment mb and shear force qb. Subscript b indicates
that the current state is monitoring at the end section b of the beam, and mb and qb
are applied at the same terminal of the beam. Possible types of matrix
Zb. If,


0 0
, this
for example, the matrix of terminal impedances has the form Z b
0 1
means that only the angular velocity _ b is tracking, and only shear force qb is
applied for vibration reduction. A comparison of the effectiveness of vibration
reduction for different terminal impedance matrices Zb is presented in [16].
Even for such a simple system with distributed parameters, the analytical
solution of the vibration protection problem is sufciently difcult. The problem
is solved by involving ideas, concepts, and methods inherent in different scientic
areas. Among these are the theory of vibrations of a continuous system, control
theory, and structural theory of systems. The Laplace transform [21] and advanced
matrix theory [22] are widely used.
Vaughans solution [16] has been generalized to the case of reducing transverse
vibrations of a compressed beam [17, 23].

11.3

Optimal Active Vibration Protection of Continuous Systems

413

11.3.4 Nonlinear Moment Problem

The effectiveness of the vibration protection system can be increased if we apply a
moving vibration protection exposure. This type of vibration control leads to the
nonlinear moment problem, which was rst formulated by Butkovsky, Darinsky,
and Pustylnikov in 1974. A detailed statement of the problem and its solution
methods for system with distributed parameters of different physical nature are
considered in [24].
We now briey consider peculiarities of this problem. As an object of interest,
consider a uniform simply supported beam of length l, subjected to non-zero initial
conditions yx; 0 y0 x, y_ x; 0 y1 x and a moving lumped excitation X(x,t)
which moves along the beam under the law (t), so 0  x  t  l. The equation
of the beam vibrations is
4

EI

y
y
m 2 Xx; t:
x4
t

In equivalent form,
4

r
EI
c
,
m

y y
c

f x; t,
x4 t2
2

f x; t

Xx; t
,
m

11:82

f x; t utx  t:
The lumped excitation of intensity u(t) is applied at any point x t. Thus we can
control vibration using not only the intensity u(t), but also the position of vibration
protection exposure. In particular, vibration protection may be performed by
lumped VP exposures, each of which is applied to the deformable system at discrete
moments of time and at the specic points of the system.
The standardizing function is given by
0

wx; t y0 x t y1 x t f x; t:

11:83

Greens function for a simply supported beam is presented by formula (11.67).

The general expression for displacement of the beam is
t l
yx; t

Gx; ; t; w; dd:
0 0

Displacement due to the initial conditions are described by formulas (11.71) and
(3.29). Displacement due to the moving vibration protection exposure u(t) is

414

11 Krein Moments Method

yu x; t

1
2l X
1
kx
sin
2
c k1 k2
l

l t
sin

k
u  sin k t  dd
l

00

t
1
2l X
1
kx
k
u sin k t  d:

sin
sin
c 2 k1 k2
l
l
0

11:84
Let us take into account only the initial velocity y_ x; 0 y1 x and moving
exposure u(t). The corresponding total displacement and velocity are
yx; t yy1 x; t yu x; t

2
3
t
1
2l X
1
kx 4
k
Bk sin k t sin
u sin k t  d5,
sin
2
c k1 k2
l
l
0

y_ x; t y_ y1 x; t y_ u x; t

2
3
t
1
X
2l
1
kx 4
k
Bk cos k t sin
u cos k t  d5:
sin
2 k
2
c
l
l
k1 k
0

The suppression of vibration at the time t T leads to the conditions

T
k
u sin k T  d 0,
Bk sin k T sin
l
0

11:85

k
Bk cos k T sin
u cos k T  d 0,
l

k 1:2, . . .

If we denote
T

T
k
k
x1 u sin
cos k d, x2 u sin
sin k d;
l
l
0

take into account trigonometric relations (11.4), and solve the system with respect
to x1 and x2, then relationships (11.85) may be presented as an innite system of the
moments relationships

11.4

Modied Moments Procedure

T
u sin

415

k
cos k d Bk ,
l

11:86
k
sin k d 0 :
u sin
l

Relationships (11.86) at a xed k means the suppression of the kth form of vibration
caused by the velocity y_ x; 0.
If we also consider the rst member of standardizing function (11.83), i.e., initial
displacement yx; 0 y0 x, then the moments ratio takes the form
T
u sin

k
cos k d Bk ,
l

11:87

T
u sin

k
sin k d Ak k :
l

k
under the integral sign in the relations (11.86),
l
(11.87) means that the condition of vibration suppression at the moment t T in
the new formulation of the problem is reduced to a nonlinear innite-dimensional
problem of moments. In this case we are dealing with two control quantities: intensity
u() and location (). This leads to considerable complication of the problem. In the
k
should be
case where the location () is known, the term u* u sin
l
treated as one unknown vibration protection exposure; in other words, the assumption
about () leads to the linear moments problem [4].
To date, the only method known to be reliable for solving nonlinear moment
problems is a numerical method. Detailed investigation of this problem has been
performed by Butkovsky and Pustylnikov [24] and by Kubyshkin [25]. These
references contain an analysis of the conditions of existence of the solution to the
nonlinear problem of moments, the criterion for its solvability. and algorithmic
calculations.

The presence of the factor sin

11.4

Modied Moments Procedure

In the previous sections we considered the determination of optimal vibration

protection actions u(t) in the presence of two types of constraints: the energy
constraint necessary to suppress vibrations, and VP exposure with constraint on
the resolution ability of the execution mechanism. These two constraints are special

416

11 Krein Moments Method

cases of the class of Lp functions [4, 5]; strictly speaking, they are the subject of
study in Kreins moments theory [1, 3]. The dimension p of the space Lp and
optimality criterion predetermine the structure and parameters of the optimal
vibration protection exposure. The implementation of calculated VP action u(t) is
associated with the solution of a non-trivial technical problem. The essence of this
problem is the necessity of providing a highly accurate and stable tuning.
We can specify such cases of vibration reduction of mechanical systems, for
which the requirement of minimizing the function of certain types and necessary
consideration of the imposed constraints are not prevalent. Instead, the problem of
the complete vibration suppression (or reducing vibrations to the specied level) for
a xed time T using vibration protection controller of a certain type, arise.
In particular, we can require that vibration protection exposure u(t) adhere to the
characteristics of the execution mechanisms. In this case, the technical implementation of u(t) would be performed naturally, and therefore most effectively. It is
obvious that in this case, the class of the vibration protection actions u(t) can be
signicantly expanded.
We will show a detailed procedure of this approach by an example of free
vibration suppression of a linear oscillator. The system is described by the equation
x 2 x ut

11:88

with initial conditions x0 x0 , x_ 0 x1 . The challenge is to nd u(t) of the

given structure in order for the system given in (11.88) would be transferred from
the initial state to the desired nal state in a given time T
xT x0T ,

x_ T x1T :

Here, the type of u(t) is determined by the characteristics of the actuators.

Suppose that vibration suppression is implemented by the harmonic exposure of
the resonance type
ut k1 cos t k2 sin t;

11:89

where k1 and k2 are unknown coefcients. Previously (Sect. 11.2.1), the Krein
moments method procedure led us to the structure of optimal vibration protection
exposure of the type (11.31), (11.89); additionally, this procedure gave us a method
for determining coefcients k1 and k2. Now the formulation of the problem is
mitigated since it is focused primarily on the condition of bringing a system from
a given state into a nal state within a xed time using the vibration protection
exposure of a given form.
The general solution to (11.88) takes the form
xt A1 cos t A2 sin t

t
k1 sin t  k2 cos t :
2

11:90

11.4

Modied Moments Procedure

417

The expression for the velocity x_ t is determined by differentiating (11.90) with

respect to time. Unknown parameters Ai are determined from the initial conditions.
The expression for the displacement becomes


1
k2
t
x_ 0
xt x0 cos t
sin t k1 sin t  k2 cos t :

2
2

11:91

To determine k1 and k2, the expressions for displacement x(t) and velocity x_ t should
be subjected to the conditions at the nal time t T. Let c cos T, s sin T;
now the condition of attainability of the nal state can be written as
s
Ts
Tc
x_ 0 s
2 k2 k1  k2 x0T ,

2
2
2
s
Tc
Ts
x0 s x_ 0 c k1 k1 k2 x1T :
2
2
2
x0 c

Thus we obtain a system of linear algebraic equations for unknown parameters k1

and k2. The solution of this system is
D1
D2
T 2 Tcs
, k2
, D

,
D
D
4 42

 Ts  T
 Tc x_ 0 T
11:92
x1 x0 c

,
D1 x0T  x0 c
2
2
2



 Ts  T
 s x_ 0 s2
x_ 0 s Tc Tx0
D2 x1T  x_ 0 c
 x0  x0 c
2  x0T 

:
2
2 2
2
2
k1

Of course, if the expression (11.89) is substituted into the appropriate moment

relation, we get the same result.
The system (11.88) under vibration protection exposure (11.89), (11.92) transfers from the initial condition (x0, x1) to the nal state (xT0 , xT1 ) within the arbitrary
2
time T. If we assume that T n, n 1, 2, ::; then we get



k1 x1T  x_ 0
,
n


 2
k2 x0  x0T
:
n

11:93

Figure 11.5a, b depicts a motion of the mass m caused by initial displacement x0

(case a) and initial velocity x_ 0 (case b) and the vibration protection exposure
(11.89); the plot of the displacement is shown by a solid line. In both cases we
consider a zero nal state x0T x1T 0. Here we can see that at T 2=, 4=,
complete suppression of vibration is achieved.
Expression (11.89) with parameters k1 and k2 has the important property
u0 uT . This means that after the vibration protection process, the execution
device is ready for the next cycle of vibration protection without adjustment.

418

11 Krein Moments Method

a
x, x

x
x
n=2

0
2p l
x

4p l

n =1

x0

b
x, x

t
x

2p l

4p l

n =1

n=2

x0
Fig. 11.5 Active suppression of free vibration. Displacement and velocity for different values of
parameter n. Case (a): x0 6 0, x1 0. Case (b): x0 0, x1 6 0. In both cases, displacement is
shown by solid line, velocity - by dotted line

Consider active suppression of forced harmonic vibration, neglecting damping.

If the oscillator is subjected to harmonic force excitation H sin t, and vibration
protection exposure assumes the form
ut k1 cos t k2 sin t;

11:94

then the equation of vibration becomes

x 2 x H sin t k1 cos t k2 sin t:

11:95

Suppose the resonance state in the system is not available, i.e., 6 , 6 .

Moreover, we consider the steady-state vibration. In this case, the general solution is

11.4

Modied Moments Procedure

x t

H
k1
k2
sin t 2
cos t 2
sin t :
2  2
 2
 2

419

11:96

Suppose that at time t T the vibration level is lowered to a value xT x0T ,

x_ T x1T : Then, for the unknown parameters k1 and k2, we obtain the formulas


2
2

2  2 T  2

2
T 
cos

T

H
sin

T
cos

T

x
x

sin

H
sin

T
cos

T
,
1

2  2 0




2  2 T 2  2

T 2
2
sin

T

H
sin

T
sin

T
:
cos

T
cos

x
x

cos

T

H
k2 2
1
0

 2
k1

11:97
The exposure u(t) within time T provides attainability of the nal state of the
dynamical system; here the resonant excitation and (or) resonance suppressor are
excluded.
Now assume that the frequency excitation coincides with the frequency of
exposure u(t), i.e., . In this case, from (11.97) we obtain

2  2  T
x0 cos T  x1T sin T ,



2  2
cos T x0T 2  2 sin T  H :
k2 x1T

k1

11:98

We assume that the problem is to completely suppress vibrations, i.e., the nal state
is x0T x1T 0: In this case we get k1 0, k2 H, so the active vibration
protection function becomes ut H sin t. Such vibration protection action
u(t) will completely neutralize the external excitation H sin t at any given time.
This example carries a test character of the proposed approach.
This approach for mechanical systems with lumped and distributed parameters
was considered more widely in [26, 27]. In these articles, the class of vibration
protection exposures is signicantly expanded (in particularly, VP exposure of
relay type, impulse, etc.), while determining u(t) bounded in the norm (the classical
moments method) gives us the unique structure of u(t).
The advantage of this approach is that we adopt the expression of the VP
exposure u(t), and the unknown parameters are determined considering only the
initial and nal states (which are not necessarily zero) and the required time.
The statement of the problem considered above allows us to expand it for further
engineering applications. In the rst stage, as before, we will take the desired form
of the vibration protection exposure u(t), and its parameters will be determined
from the condition of attainability of the nal state, while the corresponding time
T is not xed. An arbitrary criterion of optimality J is introduced in the second
stage. The graph of J(t) allows us to nd the minimum time corresponding to the
required value of the criterion J0 (direct problem: minT ! J 0 ), or the time of
suppression of vibrations corresponding to the minimum value of the criterion
(inverse problem: T ! minJ).

420

11.5

11 Krein Moments Method

Optimal Vibration Suppression of a Plate

as a Mathematical Programming Problem

Along with the constraints typical for the moments problem, additional constraints
may need to be imposed in the design process of the VP system. The most natural is
the imposed restriction on the state of the system, when the displacement and/or
velocity of all or xed points of the system do not exceed the acceptable values.
Another important limitation is the requirement u0 uT 0; the meaning of
this relation was discussed in Sect. 11.4. Of course, the dynamic model of the VP
system may be nonlinear. When these conditions are added, the classical procedures of the moments method no longer work. These restrictions transform a
classical moments problem into a nonlinear optimization class. The only way to
solve such a problem of optimal non-classic vibration protection is mathematical
programming.
As an example, let us consider vibration protection of a plate with large
displacements. The state of the plate is described by the system of nonlinear partial
differential equations
2

D 4
w q
w  Lw;
,
h
g t2
h

11:99

1 4
1
Lw; w 0;
E
2
where w and are normal displacement of the plate and the Airy stress function
(1861), respectively. The linear operator 4 is dened by
4

2 2 2 4:
4
x
x y
y

The nonlinear operators are



Lw; w 2 wxx wyy  w2xy ,
Lw; wxx yy wyy xx  2wxy xy :

11:100

The plate is subjected to a load

q Px; y; t utx  , y  ;

11:101

where P(x, y, t) is the disturbing load, u(t) is a lumped vibration protection exposure
applied at a point with coordinates , ; and is a Dirac delta function.
A complete description of the model must also involve the initial and boundary
conditions.

11.5

Optimal Vibration Suppression of a Plate as a Mathematical Programming Problem

421

Here we must nd a vibration protection exposure u(t), constrained in norm in

the space Lp functions, which in the shortest possible time T leads to displacement
and velocity of the points of the plate to a xed level
wx; y; T wf x; y,

w_ x; y; T w_ f x; y:

11:102

Case p 2 corresponds to the limited energy required to suppress vibrations. Case p

1 means the restriction imposed on the limited possibility of the actuator. Here,
additional constraints on the displacements of the points of the plate jwx; y; tj  w,
t 2 0; T  should be taken into account.
To formulate the problem of optimal vibration suppression in terms of mathematical programming, a nite-difference approximation with respect to the time
and space coordinates was applied:
 0

 0

x y , t , a n 1 , b m 1 , N T=:

11:103

Equations of the plates state are recorded for internal nodes of the grid area in view
of the boundary conditions. The cost function T, which is a minimum time, is
j
constructed on the basis of the minimizing functional and VP exposures uk on
the jth j 0, . . . , N time step process of vibration suppression. Finally, we
obtaina mathematical
programming problem: nd the minimum of the functional

p
i
T T l ; uk with a certain system of nonlinear algebraic state equations and
constraints. Note that even if the problem is nonlinear, we can consider the norm
constraint lp, because the theory of moments problem later will not be applicable.
Equations of state, constraints, and functional expression are not presented here.
In the general case, the number of variable parameters and restrictions in the form
of equalities and inequalities depends on the numbers of partitions N of the time
interval, partition of the sides a and b of a plate, n0 and m0 , respectively.
0 0
j
For example, the number of variable parameters uk equals m n N 1 [28].
As an example, let us consider a simply supported rectilinear uniform steel plate
with parameters a 1:2m; b 0:8m, h 0:01m, h=g 78:5kgm2 (Fig. 11.6).
The modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio of the plate material are
E 2:06  1011 Nm2 , 0:3. Vibrations are caused by a transverse load Pt
P0 cos t applied at the center of the plate (point 8), P0 1000N, 175 sec 1 :
A vibration protection exposure u(t) is also applied at the same point. Energy resources


of the vibration suppression are limited by value l 149:9 N  sec 1=2 , p 2: At
the nal moment t T, displacement and velocity of point 8 should reach the xed
values wf 8 T 0:25  104 m; w_ f 8 T 0:15msec1 : Throughout the time interval
0  T, displacement of point 8 of a plate should not exceed w 1:92  103 m.
The plate is approximated by a grid with a step size of 0:2m; and therefore
0
0
n 5, m 3, M 15; the numbering of the contour points is not shown. The
time interval of vibration suppression 0  T is divided into N T= 10 parts.

422

11 Krein Moments Method

Fig. 11.6 Grid region

of a plate

10

11

12 13 14 15

10

x
l
a

P .10-3
u .10-3

w8

2
[w]
u
1

0
w8
P

-1

-[w]
-2

*
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Fig. 11.7 Excitation force P, vibration protection exposure u, limiting displacement [w], [w],
and displacement w8 of a central point vs. dimensionless time *

Since the VP exposure is located only at the one point (center of the plate), then our
j
problem contains 10 VP exposures u8 . The problem contains 150 equality-type
constraints and four inequality-type constraints. Numerical implementation problems are performed by one of the methods described in [29]. Equations of state are
solved sequentially at each time step j, j 0, . . . , 10. The results obtained by
solving the system on the step j are used as initial conditions for the step j 1:
Figure 11.7 T min 0:025 sec shows the perturbing load P(*), the vibration
protection exposure u(*), the displacements of center point w08 (*) referred to the
deection from P0, as a function of time * t=T, and the level lines of the
maximum permissible [w] and -[w].

11.5

Optimal Vibration Suppression of a Plate as a Mathematical Programming Problem

0

423

The displacements of the plate w0(*) along the line of points 6  10 at different
moments in time j 0,   , 10 of vibration suppression are shown in Fig. 11.8; the
curves for moment j 3 and 7 are not shown. It follows from Figs. 11.7 and 11.8
that the resultant exposure u(t) ensures vibration suppression of the specied point
of the plate; the displacement and velocity of point 8 at nal moment T do not
exceed the specied xed level wf 8 T , w_ f 8 T . Constraint jwx; y; tj  w is not
limiting in this case. The resultant exposure u(t) satises the condition u0 uT .
Fig. 11.8 Elastic curves of
the plate on the middle line
60 100 at different times
(J 010); curves for j 3
and 7 are not shown

w(t)

2
j=0

1.0

1
7
0.5

10

6
3

0.5

9
5
1.0

1.5
6

4
8
7
9
Axial line

10

10

The advantage of mathematical programming is that the replacement of continuous objects by their discrete analogs leads to a system of algebraic equations, and this
procedure allows us to consider different features of a system. Among these are an
arbitrary plate shape, a non-uniform plate, non-classical boundary conditions, and
local reinforcements of structures. Therefore, it is possible to consider not only the
various constraints, but also various optimality criteria, and even to formulate the
problem of multi-criteria optimization. In doing so, the question regarding the choice
of weighting coefcients for each of the optimality criteria should be justied.
The obtained results determine the theoretically possible level of vibration
reduction that can be realized by the passive vibration protection system.

424

11 Krein Moments Method

Problems
11.1. Explain the difference between the moments problem and l-moments
problem.
11.2. Describe the statement of the l-moments problem and mathematical procedure of its solution.
11.3. Explain the difference between conditions (11.3) of vibration elimination and
moment relationships (11.8).
11.4. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of the l-moments problem.
11.5. A dynamical system is described by equation q 2 q ut. Initial conditions are q0 q0 ; q_ 0 0 Controlled excitation u(t) is restricted
T
u2 tdt  l2 :
0

(a) Derive the equation for minimum time of complete elimination of

vibration.
(b) Derive the equation for optimal controller excitation u(t).
Answer: (a).

43 q20 2 cos 2  2 cos 2

; 2T.

sin
l2
4

11.6. Free vibration of a simply supported beam is described by equation EI

2

x4

y
0; the initial condition is yx; 0 y0 x; y_ x; 0 y1 x. Vibration
t2

protection torque u(t) is applied on the left support. Restraint

u2 tdt  l2 :

The time to totally eliminate the rst vibration mode is T. Calculate u(t); apply
the procedure in Sect. 11.3.2.
Answer: ut h1 cos t h2 sin t, 0  t  T;
4
1 2T  sin 2T  2 1  cos 2T ,
D
4
1 cos 2T  1 2 2T sin 2T  ,
h2
D
B
,
D 2T 2  2 2 cos 2T, 1 
lc
l
l

B y1 sin
d, 2
, A y0 sin
d:
l
lc

l
0
0
h1

11.7. The vibration of a simply supported uniform beam of length l is subjected

to initial displacement
yx; 0 y0 x, while the initial velocity
y_ x; 0 y1 x 0. Controller u(t) is a torque applied on the left support.
Determine the u(t) which suppresses the principal mode of vibration for a
T
minimum time; the energy is restricted
u2 tdt  l2 , 0  t  T:
0

References

425

11.8. A uniform simply supported beam of length l, bending stiffness EI, and mass
m per unit length is subjected to harmonic transverse disturbing load
Pt P0 sin t which acts at point x a. Initial conditions are yx; 0
y_ x; 0 0: To suppress vibration on the left support x 0acts the vibration
protection torque ut M0=EI. Derive the moment relationships.
00

Hint: Boundary condition are y0; t 0, M0=EI y 0; t ut,

00
yl; t y l; t 0:
Expression for displacement due to force P(t)
yPt x; t
k

,
k

1
X

1
ka
kx

 sin
sin
sin t,
4 1  2
l
l

k
k1 k
r
k2 2 EI
:
k 2
m
l
2P0
EIl

k
,
l

11.9. Consider (11.93)(11.98) from the text. Under the specied assumptions,
the vibration caused by external harmonic excitation can be completely
neutralized by vibration protection exposure. Is it possible to treat this case
as parametric vibration protection? Can we apply the two-channel concept?
Explain.

References
1. Akhiezer, N. I. (1961). Classical problem of moments. Moscow, Russia: Fizmatgiz.
2. Krasovsky, N. N. (1968). Theory of control motion. Linear systems. Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
3. Krein, M. G., & Nydelman, A. A. (1973). Markov problem moments and the extremal
problems. Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
4. Butkovsky, A. G. (1969). Distributed control systems. New York: Elsevier.
5. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow, Russia: Nauka.
6. Athans, M., & Falb, P. L. (1966). Optimal control: An introduction to the theory and its
applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Reprinted by Dover in 2006)
7. Butkovskiy, A. G. (1966). The method of moments in the theory of optimal control of system
with distributed parameters. Optimal and self-optimizing control. Cambridge, MA: The MIT
Press.
8. Gritsjuk, V. E., & Karnovsky, I. A. (1977). Optimal control of vibration in plates. Izvestiya
Vuzov. Aviation technics, 2.
9. Nowacki, W. (1963). Dynamics of elastic systems. New York: Wiley.
10. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
11. Butkovsky, A. G. (1983). Structural theory of distributed systems. New York: Wiley.
12. Butkovskiy, A. G., & Pustylnikov, L. M. (1993). Characteristics of distributed- parameter
systems: Handbook of equations of mathematical physics and distributed-parameter systems.
New York: Springer.
13. Korn, G. A., & Korn, T. M. (1968). Mathematical handbook (2nd ed.). New York: McGrawHill Book. Dover Publication, 2000.

426

11 Krein Moments Method

14. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
15. Vaughan, D. R. (1965). Application of distributed system concepts to dynamic analysis and
control of bending vibrations. Douglas Report SM-48759, National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
16. Vaughan, D. R. (1968). Application of distributed parameter concepts to dynamic analysis and
control of bending vibrations. Transaction of the ASME, Journal of Basic Engineering, 90,
157166.
17. Iskra, V. S., & Karnovsky, I. A. (1975). Control of bending vibration of the compressed rod.
Strength of materials and theory of structures (Vol. 27). Kiev, Ukraine: Budivelnik.
18. Chen, L. Q. (2005). Analysis and control of transverse vibrations of axially moving strings.
Applied Mechanics Reviews, 58, 91116.
19. Eppinger, S. D. (1988). Modeling robot dynamic performance for endpoint force control. MIT
Articial Intelligence Laboratory.
20. Tanaka, N., & Iwamoto, H. (2007). Active boundary control of an Euler-Bernoulli beam for
generating vibrationfree state. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 304, 35.
21. Doetsch, G. (1974). Introduction to the theory and application of the Laplace transformation.
Berlin, Germany: Springer.
22. Gantmacher, F. R. (1959). Theory of matrices. New York: AMS Chelsea Publishing.
(Reprinted by American Mathematical Society, 2000)
23. Dyrda, V. I., Karnovsky, I. A., & Iskra, V. S. (1974). Control of bending vibration of the
central- compressed rod. AN USSR. Institute of geo-technical mechanics, Dnipropetrovsk.
VINITI, #3053-74.
24. Butkovskiy, A. G., & Pustylnikov, L. M. (1987). Mobile control of distributed parameters
systems. New York: Halsted Press.
25. Kubyshkin, V. A. (2002). Methods analysis of control continuous systems with moving source
of excitations. Thesis Doctor Science thesis, Moscow.
26. Karnovsky, I. A., & Steklov, L. D. (1980). Semi-inverse method for problems of optimal active
control motion. Problems of Mechanical Engineering (Vol. 12). Naukova Dumka.
27. Karnovsky, I. A., & Steklov, L. D. (1981). Semi-inverse method of elimination of the critical
states of deformable systems. Problems of Mechanical Engineering (Vol. 15). Naukova
Dumka.
28. Karnovsky, I. A., Landa, M. Sh., & Pochtman, Yu. M. (1981). Optimal control of vibrations of
shallow shells and plates as a mathematical programming problem. Izv. AN USSR,
Mekhanika Tverdogo Tela, 16(1).
29. Richtmyer, R. D., & Morton, K. W. (1967). Difference methods for initial-value problems.
New York: Wiley.

Chapter 12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection

Systems

Modern theory of automatic control of dynamic systems contains in its arsenal an

extremely valuable tool. We are talking about the structural representation of an
arbitrary dynamic system. Such representation allows us to divert attention from the
physical nature of a process (thermal, vibrational, diffusion, etc) and from the
physical nature of the elements (mechanical, pneumatic, etc), but investigate only
character of the physical process [1]. In the context of structural representation of a
mechanical system, we can explore diverse aspects of dynamic processes (controllability, invariance, stability, etc.) [13]. The theory of vibration protection is a very
attractive application area of structural theory for several reasons. First, many
fundamental aspects and concepts of control theory in general and the theory of
vibration protection coincide; these include inputoutput concepts, transfer function, etc. Second, a vibration protection system consists of pronounced blocks and
can be represented in symbolic form by a functional block diagram. Successful
attempts that consider the problems of vibration protection in terms of the structural
theory have been performed by Kolovsky [4, 5], Eliseev [6], and Bozhko
et al. [7]. Systematic exposition of the structural theory to systems with distributed
parameters was presented by Butkovsky [8]. Structural representation of the system
in conjunction with the vibration protection device is a common way of describing
complex dynamic systems with lumped and distributed parameters. Structural
theory allows us to easily introduce changes into a vibration protection system of
the object and nd a relationship between any coordinates of a system, while the
differential equation of the system assumes a xed inputoutput. The Simulink
(MATLAB) package has a full set of blocks that allows us to implement just about
any structural model.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_12

427

428

12.1

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

Let us consider an arbitrary linear dynamic system with constant parameters. Its
behavior in the frequency domain can be described by operator characteristic
functions. For this purpose we need to introduce a complex frequency p j,
p
j 1. Characteristic functions relate the response of a system and its excitation
in operator form. Assume that a dynamic system is subjected to harmonic excitation
Ft F0 expjt. The total set of fundamental operator characteristics of the
dynamic system are presented. Each characteristic function may be treated as a
transfer function.

12.1.1 Types of Operator Characteristics

A dynamic state of an arbitrary linear dynamic system can be described by the
following variable kinematic parameters: displacement d, velocity , and acceleration a. They are harmonic functions and can be represented in complex form as
d, , a. The relationships between kinematic characteristics are
ap pp p2 d p;

12:1

Elements of a passive two-terminal device are mass m, stiffness k, and damper b.

The relationships between force Fp and stiffness k and kinematic characteristics
d, , a are
k
k
Fp kdp p 2 ap:
p
p

12:2

Similar relationships for damper b and mass m are presented in Table 12.1.
Strictly speaking, these formulas are the result of application of the Laplace
transform to the fundamental linear relationships for mass, stiffness, and damper
F ma, F b, F kd at zero initial conditions; in this case, parameter
p should be treated as the Laplace operator (for more details regarding the Laplace
transform, see Chap. 13). Transformation to the frequency-response function can be
performed using relationship p j [9].
Table 12.1 Force Fp in terms of kinematic characteristics
d, , a and parameters k, b, m of passive elements [10, vol. 5]
Displacement dp
Velocity p
Acceleration ap

Stiffness k

Damper b

Mass m

kdp
k
p
p
k
ap
p2

pbdp

p2 md p

bp

pmp

b
ap
p

map

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

429

The set of operator functions connects a force with kinematic characteristics.

They are classied as direct and inverse operator dynamic functions. The direct
functions are dynamic mass M( p), mechanical impedance (input and output) Z( p),
and dynamic stiffness R( p) [9, 10, vol. 5].
Dynamic mass or apparent mass M( p) is the ratio of applied periodic excitation
force (input) to the resulting vibration acceleration (output), Mp Fp=ap.
Acceleration is measured at the same point and in the same direction as the
applied force.
Mechanical impedance Z( p) is the ratio of applied periodic excitation force (input)
to the resulting vibration velocity (output) Z p Fp=p. If the velocity is
measured at the same point and in the same direction as the applied force, then we
have input (or driving-point) impedance, otherwise transfer impedance.
Dynamic stiffness R( p) is the ratio of applied periodic excitation force (input) to
the resulting vibration displacement (output) Rp Fp=dp.
The corresponding inverse complex functions are susceptibility G( p), mobility
Y( p), and compliance A( p), respectively.
Susceptibility (inertance, [9, 11]) is the ratio of output acceleration to the input force,
Gp ap=Fp. The susceptibility is reciprocal of apparent mass Gp M1 .
Mobility is the ratio of output velocity to the input force Y p p=Fp. The
mobility is the reciprocal of impedance Y p Z 1 .
Compliance (receptance, exibility [12, 13]) is the ratio of output displacement to
input force Ap dp=Fp. The compliance is the reciprocal of dynamic stiffness Ap R1 .
Relationships between some of these functions are
F p Z p
1

G1 p;

p
pY p
a p
F p
Z p
Y 1 p;
p
F p
p
A1 p;
Rp
pZ p
Y p
d p

12:3

ap
p
pY p M1 p;

F p Z p
p
Z1 p;
Y p
F p
d p
1
Y p

R1 p:

A p
p
Fp pZp

12:4

Mp

G p

Operator functions for the passive two-terminal elements mass, damper, and stiffness are presented in Table 12.2.

430

12

Table 12.2 Operator

functions of passive elements

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Mass m
Damper b
Stiffness k

M( p)
m
b/p
k/p2

Z( p)
pm
b
k/p

R( p)
p2m
pb
k

G( p)
1/m
p/b
p2/k

Y( p)
1/pm
1/b
p/k

A( p)
1/p2m
1/pb
1/k

Relationships between the variable force Fp and the generalized variable kp,
where kp is the ap, p, dp, can be presented as follows
Fp Dpkp;

12:5

kp D1 pFp:

Here, D( p) is a direct dynamic characteristic, i.e., Dp is the Mp, Zp, Rp,

while D1 p is an inverse dynamic characteristic, i.e., D1 p is the Gp,
Y p, Ap.
In the case of passive two-terminal networks connected in parallel, the resulting
direct dynamic parameter is equal to the sum of the direct dynamic parameters of
the separate two-terminal networks
X
F i p
n
n
X
Fp
F i p X
i
Dp
Di p:
12:6

kp
kp
i1 k i p
i1
The general formulas for calculating direct and inverse dynamic characteristics in
cases of parallel and series connections of passive mechanical two-terminal networks (M2TN) are presented in Table 12.3.
Table 12.3 Computation of the direct and inverse dynamic parameters
Dynamic parameter
Direct Dp

Fp
kp

Parallel connection
of passive M2TN
n
X
Di p
i1

Series connection
of passive M2TN
1
1
n
D1 p X
D1
i p
i1

kp
Inverse D1 p
Fp

1
1
n
Dp X
Di p

n
n
X
ki p X
D1

i p
i1 Fi p
i1

i1

Example 12.1 A dynamic system mkb is shown in Fig. 12.1. Determine the
direct dynamic characteristics at the point of application of F(t).
Solution (First Method) The differential equation of the system is
mx bx_ kx Ft. Let us introduce the differential operator p d=dt; with this,
the differential equation in operator form becomes mp2 bp kx F. According
to the denition of compliance A( p), the operator of dynamic compliance is

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

431

Fig. 12.1 Simplest

vibration protection system

F(t)
m

x
k

A p

xp
1

:
Fp mp2 bp k

The dynamic compliance and its modulus are (Appendix A)

Aj

1
2

mj bj k

1
,
k  m2 bj

1
jAjj q:
k  m2 2 b2
1
is a real function
k  m2
2
for any , and at k ! m , its absolute value grows unbounded.
If the force is changed by a harmonic law Ft F0 cos t, then the amplitude of
steady-state vibration is equal to the product of the amplitude F0 of the force by the
modulus of corresponding dynamic compliance |e( j)|, i.e.,
If we neglect damping, the dynamic compliance Aj

X0 F0  jAjj:
Second method. Since the velocities of all passive elements, i.e., mass, elastic
element, and damper, at the point of their connection are the same, this system
should be treated as a parallel connection.
Therefore, according to Tables 12.2 and 12.3, for dynamic stiffness, input
impedance, and apparent mass, we get:
Rp p2 m pb k;
Z p pm b k=p;
Mp m b=p k=p2 :
Operator functions for the simplest dynamic system m  k  b are presented in
Table 12.4.
In order to obtain the frequency characteristic functions, we need to substitute
p j in the operator characteristic functions. After this procedure, the operator
functions become complex, i.e., they contain the real and imaginary parts.
A complete table of relations for direct and inverse characteristic functions of the
multidimensional system is shown in Table 12.5.

432

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Table 12.4 Characteristic

functions of dynamical
system m  k  b with one
degree of freedom (Fig. 12.1)

Operator characteristics
Dynamic stiffness R( p)
Compliance A( p)
Mechanical impedance Z( p)
Mobility Y( p)
Dynamic mass M( p)
Susceptibility G( p)

Expression
mp2 bp k
1=mp2 bp k
mp b k=p
1=mp b k=p
m b=p k=p2
1=m b=p k=p2

Table 12.5 Interconnection of the operator characteristics for a multidimensional system [10, vol. 5]

Compliance A( p)

R( p)
R
j
 R

1
 2R

R1

Mobility Y( p)

jR1

Susceptibility G( p)

2 R1

Frequency characteristics
Dynamic stiffness R( p)
Mechanical impedance Z( p)
Dynamic mass M( p)

Z( p)
j Z
Z

M( p)

A( p)

Y( p)

G( p)

2 M
j M

A1
j
 A1

1
 2 A1

j Y1

2 G1

Y1

j G1

j
 Y1

j
 Y

G1

j
M
 Z

j
1
 Z1  2 M1

j
jA
Z1
 M1

jA
j Z1 M1

jY

1
 2G

j
 G

Each of these functions uses the concepts of inputoutput. The limitation of all
characteristic functions is that the nature of the input is only a force. Therefore,
these functions cannot describe ratios between different kinematic characteristics
for example, the ratio between input acceleration and output velocity, which are
measured at different points of a system. A case of two like characteristics (force,
displacement, velocity, or acceleration) for input and output (for example, force
force) leads to a dimensionless concept of transmissibility.
The transfer function concept allows us to compile output/input ratios for linear
systems independent of their physical nature. Therefore, all the above-mentioned
characteristic functions, as well as transmissibility, may be treated as a partial case
of the general concept of transfer function.

12.1.2 Transfer Function

Vibration protection systems consist of a number of blocks, and each block consists
of a separate element or combination of separate elements. Among the individual
elements of the system, we can distinguish, for example, the object of vibration
protection itself, the passive elements (stiffness, shock absorbers), actuator, and
sensors. The work of a vibration protection system as a whole is determined by the
interaction of the individual elements and blocks of the system.

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

433

Each element of a VP system, blocks, and the system as a whole are characterized by unidirectional action. This means that the element (block, system) has input
signal u(t) and output response x(t). The nature of both input and output may be
arbitrary. Assume that their behavior is described by a linear differential equation
with constant parameters. A corresponding equation in general form was given by
(4.1), and is repeated below
a0

dn
dn1
d
dm
x a1 n1 x    an1 x an x b0 m u    bm1 p bm u, m  n
n
dt
dt
dt
dt
12:7

In operator form,

dk
pk , this equation takes the form
dtk

a0 pn x a1 pn1 x    an1 px an x b0 pm u    bm1 p bm u;

x

b0 pm    bm1 p bm
K p
u:
u
N p
a0 pn    an1 p an

12:8
12:9

Polynomial N p a0 pn    an is called the characteristic function of differential

equation (12.7). If b0    bm1 0 we get (10.25); if m n we get (10.30).
The function
W p

x K p

u N p

12:10

is called the transfer function of an element (system), or transfer function between

output x and input u; this concept was introduced and briey considered in
Chap. 10. It is easy to see that the transformation of equations (10.25) and
(10.30) to Cauchy form implied a transformation on the transfer function. Thus
the transfer function allows us to easily nd the ratio between output and input, i.e.,
x W pu, provided that at the time of application of the input exposure, the
system was at rest. Strictly speaking, the Laplace transform method allows us to
nd the response of a system under any initial conditions. The signicance of the
transfer function is that it relates two Laplace images, the input excitation U( p) and
output response X( p)
Xp W pU p:

12:11

To nd the response of a system (separate element, or block) x(t) as a function of

time (i.e., the original of a function), we need to perform the following steps:
1. Find the Laplace transform of the input exposure U( p)
2. Find an image of the output X( p) according to (12.11)
3. Determine the inverse of the Laplace transform, i.e., xt L1 Xp

434

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The formula (12.7) is particularly useful when the system has a complex
interaction of blocks and requires dening the relationships between any of its
coordinates. Direct and inverse Laplace procedures may be performed with the use
of tabulated data, Appendix B.
Assume that the input excitation is constant u u0 . In this case, if time t will
tend to innity, the output responce x(t) will tend to some steady-state value
xy lim xt. This value is called the transmission factor. According to [14], this
t!1

factor on the basis of equations (12.8)(12.9) becomes

K

bm K 0
W 0:

an N 0

The transient function h(t) is the response x of a system subjected to unit step
function ut 1, if all initial conditions are zero. Determination of this function
and its applications are discussed below.

12.1.3 Elementary Blocks

The elements of a vibration protection system can be divided into two groups, such
as blocks with lumped and distributed parameters. Among the elements of the rst
group are summation, amplier, integrating, aperiodic, and oscillator blocks [15].
Structural theory of dynamic systems with distributed parameters is considered by
Butkovsky [8].
Each elementary block has the following properties:
1. The block is unidirectional (the excitation is transferred from the input to the
output).
2. The operation of an elementary block does not change if its input (output) is
connected to other blocks.
3. The order of the differential equation that describes the simplest element is not
higher than two.
The combination of simplest elements forms a block. Later, this term will also be
used for individual elements. Different blocks may be combined, and their schematic representation is called the block (or structural) diagram of the dynamic
system.
We now discuss some simplest blocks.
Summation block is shown in Fig. 12.2a. The input signals are u1, u2, u3, the output
signal is u u1 u2  u3 .
Amplier block (proportional). For this element, a relation between the input u and
the output x is x ku, where a gain factor k is any real number, positive or negative.
Since the input and output can be of different nature and therefore have different
units of measurement, the dimension of the factor k is the units of output divided by

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

435

the units of input, i.e., k x=u. Designation of the proportional block and its
properties is shown in Fig. 12.2b; the symbol > represents the direction of signal
transmission. If the input u is a step function, then the output x is also a
step function. Thus, the response presents a copy, without delay and without
distortion, of the input signal. Since this element has no transient processes, it is
an non-inertial block.

a
u2
u1

u1 + u 2 _ u3

b
k
u

ku

>

u3
Fig. 12.2 Representation of summation (a) and amplier blocks (b)

The transfer function of this block W p k can be obtained from (12.6) if we

set bm k, an 1, while all other coefcients are equal to zero.
Integrating block For this block, the rate of change of output value x is proportional to input value u, i.e.,
dx
ku:
dt
The equation of this block using the differential operator p can be written as
x k
follows: px ku, or . The transfer function of integrating block
u p
W p

k
p

can be obtained from (12.6) if we set bm k, an1 1, while all other coefcients
are equal to zero.
In the case of a unit step input u 1t, the response presents linear function
x kt, t  0 (Fig. 12.3a). If the input signal is u1 and the initial value of the signal
t
is u0, the output signal becomes u u1 dt u0 (Fig. 12.3b).
0

For any constant input signal, the output signal over time becomes innitely
large.
Assume that the transfer function W( p) contains m integrating blocks. Then
1
W( p) can be represented as W p m W 1 p, where W1( p) does not contain
p
integrating blocks. In this case the transmission coefcient, by denition, becomes
TC W 1 0 [14].

436

12

a
u

a ; tan a = k
t

u0

b
u1

u
1

k
p

>

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

dt

u = u1dt +u0
0

Fig. 12.3 (a) Integrating block, unit-step input and response x(t); (b) introduction of the initial
conditions

4p2 1
. In this case
3p3 2p
1
W 0 1. Let us represent the transfer function in form W p W 1 p, where
p
4p2 1
. Thus, a block with transfer function W( p) comprises one inteW 1 p 2
3p 2
grating block, and therefore the transmission coefcient becomes
T W 1 0 0:5.

Example 12.2 The transfer function is given by W p

Aperiodic block The equation of this block is

T

dx
x ku;
dt

where T is a time constant, T  0, and k is the gain coefcient of the block or static
transmission coefcient. This coefcient is the ratio of constant output value xc to a
constant input value uc, i.e., k xc =uc . The units of the gain coefcient are
k x=u. In the case when T < 0 we have an unstable aperiodic block.
k
. If the time
The transfer function of the aperiodic block is W p
Tp 1
constant T is small and can be neglected, the aperiodic block becomes a proportional element. If the time constant T >> 1, then the aperiodic block becomes an
integrating element with the coefcient k1 k=T. Indeed, the equation of the
dx 1
k
x u. The assumption above allows
aperiodic block can be written as
dt T
T
1
us to neglect by the term x.
T
To nd the transient function h(t) of the aperiodic block we need to solve an equation
dx
T x k  1t with the initial condition x0 0. Since the process is considered
dt
dx
at t  0, the equation takes the form T x k. The solution to this equation is
dt


t
xt ht k 1  eT :
12:12

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

437

x
k
Tp + 1
u

>

u
1

x2

k
t

k
P

x1

Fig. 12.4 Aperiodic block, unit step input, transient function, and one version of mechanical
realization of a block

The graph of the transient function of the aperiodic block, i.e.,, the response of the
system in the case of a unit step input with zero initial condition, is shown in
Fig. 12.4.
Since T  0, then at t ! 1 the solution x(t) tends asymptotically to the steadystate value x k. In the case of T < 0 the aperiodic block becomes unstable,
because as t ! 1 the function x(t) tends to innity.
The time constant T is shown in Fig. 12.4, where the line ON is a tangent to the
curve x(t) at the point x(0). Increasing the time constant T leads to an increase of
the inertial properties of the block. In other words, the larger the time constant, the
slower the curve x(t) will tend to its steady-state value.
Suppose that the function x(t) differs from the limit value k by not more than
n
n %. This means that the curve x(t) is located in a strip
k below the limit
100
value k. The time t1, which is required for the curve x(t) to enter into the strip is
100
. For example, if n 10 %, then t1 2:3T [14].
t1 Tln
n
A mechanical example of an aperiodic block is shown in Fig. 12.4. The forces
that arise in the spring and damper are Pb bx_ 2 , Pk kx1  x2 . In the case of a
series connection, Pb Pk , so we get T x_ 2 x2 u, where the time constant
T =k, u x1 .
Oscillator block The equation of this block is
T0

d2 x
dx
T x ku:
dt2
dt

12:13

Here, u, x are the input and output signals; the coefcient T 0 > 0 has the units [s2];
T > 0 has units [s]. The static gain coefcient k is the ratio of the input signal to the
response of a block in its steady-state condition. Static gain k is the ratio of
the vibrational level of the input signal to an output k us =xs in the steady-state
regime; the units of k u=x.
The transfer function of the oscillator block is
W p

k
:
T 0 p2 Tp 1

12:14

To nd a transient function h(t) of the oscillator block we need to solve an

d2 x
dx
dx0
0.
equation T 0 2 T x k with the initial condition x0 0,
dt
dt
dt

438

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The partial solution of this equation is xpart k. The roots of the characteristic
polynomial T 0 p2 Tp 1 0 are
p1 , 2

T 

p
T 2  4T 0
  j:
2T 0

The numbers and are known as the damping coefcient and the natural
frequency of free vibration, respectively. They are given by
q
 2

T  4T 0 
T

> 0,
> 0:
12:15
2T 0
2T 0
p
For the oscillator block, the discriminant is T 2  4T 0 < 0, or 2 T 0 > T.
The roots of the characteristic equation are complex, and the solution to the
equation is real and oscillating. For the case < 0 the oscillating block cannot be
presented in the form of other simplest elements.
The case T 2  4T 0 > 0 leads to the fact that at the zero initial conditions, the
transient function has an aperiodic character. This means that the block with
the transfer function (12.11) and > 0 becomes equivalent to two series-connected
ki
aperiodic blocks. Their transfer functions are W i p
, i 1, 2.
Tip 1
The equation of the oscillator block (12.13) is easily reduced to an equation of
the linear oscillator subjected to excitation f(t)
d2 x
dx
d2 x
dx

ku
!

T
2 20 x f t;
12:16
dt2
dt
dt2
dt
1
T
k
20 , 2 , f t u:
T0
T0
T0
T
Parameter
> 0is a damping coefcient; its units are [s1]. Parameter 0 [s1]
2T 0
is an un-damped natural frequency; the damped frequency of free vibration is
p
20  2 . The transient-response function of the oscillator block is
T0


et
sin t ,
xt ht k 1 
sin

sin p :
2 2

12:17

Since > 0 then at t ! 1 the expression h(t) asymptotically tends to the steadystate position lim ht k (Fig. 12.5). This equilibrium condition is the same as for
t!1

the proportional and aperiodic blocks. Thus, when the transition process is nished,
these three blocks, proportional, aperiodic, and oscillator, according to the output
signal are indistinguishable. The graph of transient function h(t) has a pronounced
oscillatory character around the equilibrium position xs k with the constant
2
frequency . The period of vibration is T * . Amplitude of vibration A1 , A2 ,

   decreases by a geometrical progression law. The ratio of this progression

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

439

A1 A2
*

  eT
A2 A3

12:18

is called the decrement of vibration, and the modulus of its logarithm, i.e., the
quantity T*, is called the logarithmic decrement.
x(t )
k
T0 p + Tp + 1
2

>

u
1

T*
A1
N

A3

T*

A2

ts

tp

Fig. 12.5 Oscillator block, unit step input and transient function

The peak time tp is the time required for the response to reach the rst peak of the
overshoot A1. The settling time ts is the time required for the response curve to reach
and stay within 2 % of the nal value [16]. The time needed for the response to
reach half of the nal value, i.e., 0.5k, is called the delay time. All parameters of the
oscillator block can be determined from the experimental curve of the transient
process.
Example 12.3 The mechanical oscillator block is shown in Fig. 12.6 [3]. This
d
system is described by equation m p2 bp kx2 Pt kx1 , p , where
dt
input x1 is the displacement of the endpoint of a spring, and output x2 is the
displacement of the mass.
Fig. 12.6 Mechanical
oscillator block and
corresponding mechanical
network

x1

x2

k
m

P (t )

x2

k
P(t)

x1

Since the velocities of mass m and damper b are the same, these elements are
connected in parallel.
Detailed information regarding other elementary blocks with lumped parameters
(e.g., the differentiating and delay blocks) can be found in [3, 14].
Continuous elements Deformable elements such as rods, beams, and springs with
distributed mass can be used in vibration protection systems. A feature of such
systems is that the displacement of an arbitrary point of the element depends not

440

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

only on time (as is the case with elements with lumped parameters), but also on the
position of the point. Such objects are described by partial differential equations,
integral equations, and more complex functional relationships [17, 18].
Let us consider the simplest example of continuous block. This is a homogeneous elastic rod of constant cross section which vibrates in the longitudinal
direction. The state of the element is described by partial differential equation
[8, 1820]
2

Q
Q
a2 2 ,
t2
x

a2

E
;

12:19

where Q is the axial displacement of the section in the x direction, E and are
Youngs modulus and the mass density of the elastic material, respectively. Assume
the boundary conditions are
Q0; t ut,

12:20

Ql; t 0;

where u(t) is axial displacement of section x 0 and l is a length of the rod.

The initial conditions (initial distribution of displacements and velocities) are
Qx; 0  Q0 x,
Qx; t
Q1 x,
t t0

0  x  l,
0  x  l:

12:21

where Q0(x) and Q1(x) are initial distributions of displacements and velocities,
respectively.
For determination of the transfer function, let us introduce the differential
2

operator with respect to time, i.e.,

p2 . In this case we get the ordinary
t2
differential equation
p2 Q a2

d2 Q
:
dx2

12:22

The solution to this ordinary differential equation of the second order with respect
to Q, with boundary conditions (12.20) and zero initial conditions, can be obtained
by the standard method. It easy to verify that the solution of (12.22) is
p
sin j l  x
a
u,
Q
p
sin j l
a

p
1:

The transfer function between input u and output Q becomes

12:23

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

441

p
Q sin j a l  x
:
W p
p
u
sin j l
a

12:24

We can see that the transfer function for elements with distributed parameters is not
a fractional rational function of the argument p, as is typical for systems with
lumped parameters [14].

12.1.4 Combination of Blocks. Bode Diagram

Separate blocks of the structural (block) diagram of the vibration protection system
can be connected to each other in different combinations. Here we consider the
most important connections.
The Series Connection of n Blocks In a series (cascade) connection, the output of
the rst block is the input of the second block, the output of the second block is the
input of the third block, etc. (Fig. 12.7).
For each block of the system, the relationships between input and output are
x1 W 1 pu,
x2 W 2 px1 ,

xn W n pxn1 :
Here the input and output for the overall connection are denoted u and xn..
Excluding the intermediate variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn1 , we can nd relationships
between the input u and output xn for the system as a whole
xn W 1 pW 2 p  W n pu

n
Y

W i pu:

i1

The transfer function of the cascaded system is the product of the transfer functions
of individual blocks
W p

W1 ( p)

x1

Fig. 12.7 Series connection of blocks

n
xn Y

W i p:
u
i1

W2 ( p)

x2

xn1

12:25

Wn (p )

xn

442

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Example 12.4 Find the equation of motion of a system consisting of three blocks
connected in series. They are aperiodic, integrating, and differentiating with the
transfer functions of these blocks, respectively
W 1 p

k1
,
T1p 1

W 2 p

k2
,
p

W 3 p

k3 p
:
T2p 1

The transfer function of the overall system is

W p W 1 pW 2 pW 3 p
Since W p

k1 k2 k3 p
:
T1p 1 p T2p 1

x3
, where x3 is the output of the third block and u is the input of the
u

rst block, then

k1 k2 k3 p
x3
;
T1p 1 p T2p 1
u
and the equation for the transfer function is T 1 p 1pT 2 p 1x3 k1 k2 k3 pu.
The required equation of motion of the system becomes
T1T2

d 3 x3
d 2 x3 dx3
du
k1 k2 k3 :

1
2
3
2
dt
dt
dt
dt

The expression for the transfer function on the channel u  x3 can be obtained
immediately.
The Parallel Connection of n Blocks In the case of parallel connection, the input of
the all n blocks is subjected to the same exposure u, and the output signal x of the
overall connection is equal to the sum of the output responses of each block
(Fig. 12.8).
For each block of the system we have
x1 W 1 pu,
x2 W 2 pu,

xn W n pu;
Fig. 12.8 Parallel
connection of blocks

W1 ( p)

x1

W1 ( p)

x2

Wn ( p)

xn

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

443

Therefore, the input of the connection becomes

x

n
X

xi

i1

n
X

W i pu:

i1

The transfer function of the system as a whole is equal to the sum of the transfer
functions of the individual blocks
W p

n
x X

W i p:
u
i1

12:26

Example 12.5 Find the equation of motion of a system consisting of two blocks,
static and aperiodic, connected in parallel. The transfer function of these blocks is
W 1 p k1 ,

W 2 p

k2
:
Tp 1

The transfer function of a system as shown in Fig. 12.8 is

W p

x
k2
k1 Tp k1 k2
W 1 p W 2 p k 1

:
u
Tp 1
Tp 1

The required equation of motion of a system becomes

Tp 1x k1 Tp k1 k2 u:
Assume that k1 k2 . In this case the transfer function becomes
W p

k1 Tp
:
Tp 1

Thus we get the differentiating block which can be constructed by means of the
parallel connection of static and aperiodic blocks.
Closed-Loop System The elementary linear feedback system is shown in Fig. 12.9.
The input signal u is fed to a summation block, and after passing through several
blocks the changed signal is again fed to the same summation block. The directtransmission channel contains block 1 with transfer function W1( p), while the
feedback channel contains block 2 with transfer function W2( p). The input and
output controlled signals of the system are u and x. Output signal x is the input signal
of block 2 in the feedback channel, and its output x2 is summed with the input signal
u of the system, and the resulting signal x1 is fed to the input of block 1 [3, 21].

444

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

For each block of the system we have the following relationships

x W 1 px1 ,
x2 W 2 px,
x1 u x2 :
Fig. 12.9 Block diagram of
a feedback system

S
x2

x1

W1 ( p)

W2 ( p)

Eliminating x1 and x2 from these equations, we get the following relation between
input u and output x:
x

W 1 p
u:
1  W 1 pW 2 p

The transfer function of the overall system becomes

W p

x
W 1 p

:
u 1  W 1 pW 2 p

12:27a

If we assume that in Fig. 12.9 x1 u  x2 (this case is called a negative feedback),

then the transfer function should be written in the form
W p

x
W 1 p

:
u 1 W 1 pW 2 p

12:27b

The formulas (12.27) are fundamental relationships in control system theory. These
formulas are valid for any closed system with arbitrary transfer functions W1( p) and
W2( p).
Let us turn to (12.27a). If the transmission coefcient of block W2( p) in a steadystate regime is positive, then we have positive feedback; otherwise we have
4p2 1
negative feedback. Let W 2 p 3
. In this case, the transmission coefcient
3p 2p
TC 0.5 > 0 (see Example 12.2), and thus we have a positive feedback system.
If the absolute value is jW 1 pW 2 pj >> 1, then the closed-loop transfer
function can be approximated as follows [15]:
W p

x
1

:
u W 2 p

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

445

Example 12.6 Assume that the direct-transmission channel contains an integrating

k1
element 1 with transfer function W 1 p ; the feedback channel contains
p
amplier block 2 with transfer function W 2 p k2 (Fig. 12.9). In this case the
transfer function of the system is
x
W 1 p
W p

u
1  W 1 pW 2 p

k1
k1
p

:
k1
p  k1 k2
1  k2
p

If the numerator and denominator are divided by k1 k2 , and we denote

k
.
k 1=k2 , T 1=k1 k2 , then the transfer function becomes W p
Tp 1
Thus, the inputoutput relationship turns out to be the same as for an aperiodic
element. This system will be stable when parameter T satises the condition
T 1=k1 k2 > 0; this means that k1 and k2 must have opposite signs.
A block diagram can be used for the solution to the inverse problem. Its essence
lies in the fact that for a certain structural scheme it is neccesary to determine the
transfer function of one specied block, which provides the desired transfer function for the entire system.
Bode Diagram A logarithmic plot of frequency response for several typical
transfer functions was considered in Chap. 4. Below we consider the procedure
for constructing the Bode diagram for a system that contains different blocks
connected in series.
Let the transfer frequency functions of two blocks be presented in polar form [3]
W 1 j A1 ej1 ,

W 2 j A2 ej2 :

12:28

Since the blocks are connected in series, then the frequency transfer function is
W j W 1 j  W 2 j. In polar form W j Aej . The logarithm of
this expression is
ln W j ln A j lnW 1 j  W 2 j ln W 1 j ln W 2 j
ln A1 ln A2 j1 2 :
12:29
Thus in the case of blocks connected in series, the log-characteristics are obtained
by summing the corresponding parameters (A and ) of blocks. This conclusion is
true for arbitrary numbers of blocks.

446

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Example 12.7 A dynamic system is described by the following transfer function in

complex form [3]
W j

41 j  0:5
:
j1 j  2

12:29a

Construct the log magnitude (Lm) curve.

Solution The logarithm magnitude-frequency characteristic is


41 j  0:5

:
Lm 20 logjW jj 20 log
j1 j  2 
First, we need to calculate the corner frequencies [3]. For factor 1 j  0:5 the
0

corner frequency is 1=T 1=0:5 2, while for factor 1 j  21 the

corner frequency is 1=T 1=2 0:5. Numeration for corner frequencies is
1 < 2 < 3 <   , so in our case we have 1 0:5 and 2 2. The log
magnitude and angle characteristics for each factor of the transfer function in
complex form are conveniently represented in tabular form (Table 12.6).
Table 12.6 Characteristics of log magnitude and angle for factors of expression (12.29a) [3]
Corner
frequency
None
None

Factor
4
j1
0

1 j  21

1 0:5

1 j  0:5

2 2:0

Log magnitude (Lm), dB

Constant magnitude 20 log 4 12 dB
Constant slope of 20 dB/decade
0 slope below the corner frequency
20 dB/decade slope above the corner
frequency
0 slope below the corner frequency;
+20 dB/decade slope above the corner
frequency

Angle
characteristics
Constant 0

Constant 90

Varies from 0
to
90

Varies from 0
to
180

The frequency range contains three frequency bands: 0:1  0:5; 0:5  2:0; >
2:0 (Fig. 12.10).
1. In the rst frequency band 0:1  0:5, only two terms, 4 and j1 , are effective.
For these factors the logarithm magnitude-frequency characteristic
Lm 4 log 4 12 dB is constant and logj1 20 dB=decade. They are
shown by dotted lines. At 1 0:5 we have the following ordinates:
Lm 4 12 dB and
logj1 20

log 1  log 0:5

6:0 dB:
log 1  log 0:1

Thus, the composite curve at frequency 1 0:5 has a value of 18 dB, while at
0:1 the value is 32 dB; this portion is shown by a bold line.

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

447
0

2. In the second frequency band 0:5  2 the following term, 1 j  21 , must
0

be added to the terms from the previous step. For this factor, Lm1 j  21
has a slope of 20 dB=decade. After this, the slope will be added to the terms in
step 1; then the composite curve has a total slope of 20  20
40 dB=decade. Since the frequency interval 0:5  2 contains two octaves
(0.51 and 12), the value of the composite curve at 2:0 equals
40
18 
12 dB:
2  3:32

Lm (db)
40
4/j, 20 db/dec

32

30
20

18

10

4/j(1+j2, 40 db/dec

Lm4

4(1+j0.5)/j(1+j2),
20 db/dec

1/j, 20 db/dec
10
-12

20
-22

30
0.1

0.5

1
2 octaves

10

100

1decade

Fig. 12.10 Log magnitude curve for frequency transfer function W j

41 j  0:5
j1 j  2

3. Above 2 2:0, the last factor Lm1 j  0:5 is effective. The slope of this
factor is 20 dB=decade. The composite curve has a total slope of 40 20
20 dB=decade at the frequencies > 2 2:0.
The frequency c corresponds to Lm W j 0.
The phase frequency characteristics can be constructed as the sum of the
frequency characteristics of the separate factors. This procedure does not require
any numerical computations.
The characteristic functions for a dynamic system m  k  b with one degree of
freedom are presented in Table 12.4. Substitution p j transforms the characteristic functions from operator form into complex frequency form.
Logarithmic magnitude-frequency and angle-frequency diagrams can be
constructed for each characteristic function.

448

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

12.1.5 Block Diagram Transformations

Some important transformation rules are given in Table 12.7. In all cases the input
signals are x1 and x3, and the output is x2. A transfer function of each element is
shown inside the block. A complicated structural block diagram can be transformed
into an equivalent block diagram via a step-by-step rearrangement.
Relocating a summation block or a pickoff point ahead (or behind) of a functional block leads to the emergence of an additional block. Relocation of a summation block through a pickoff point, or vice versa, is not possible. A more detailed
table of equivalent transformations of block diagrams may be found in [16].
Example 12.8 A block diagram is shown in Fig. 12.11a. The system has two inputs,
Z p
X and Y, and output Z. Calculate the transfer function W ZX p
and
X p
Z p
W ZY p
.
Y p

Table 12.7 Block diagram transformations [21]

Transformation
Moving a pickoff
point behind a
block

Moving a pickoff
point ahead of a
block
Moving a summing point behind
a block

Original block diagram

x1

Equivalent block diagram

x2

x1

x1

x1

x1

x1
x2

x2
x1 +

x1

x3

Eliminating a negative feedback

loop

x1

x2

x3
Moving a summing point ahead
of a block

x2

x1

x2

x2

1W

x2

x1

x2

W1
W2

x2

x1

W1
1 + W1W2

x2

1W

x3
x2

x3

12.1

Operator Characteristics of a Dynamic System

449

Using the rules of structural transformations (Table 12.7), we need to perform

the following steps:
1. Relocate the summing block 2 in front of block W1 (Fig. 12.11b).
2. Interchange the positions of blocks 1 and 1 (Fig. 12.11c).
3. Transform the series connected blocks W1 and W2 to a single element
(Fig. 12.11d).
4. Transform the closed contour 1  W 1 W 2  W 3  1 with a negative feedback loop to a single element (Fig. 12.11e).
5. Transfer the summation block 2 to the right of block W 1 W 2 =1 W 1 W 2 W 3
(Fig. 12.11f).
6. Transform two series of connected blocks into one block (Fig. 12.11g).
a

Y ( p)

X ( p)

+ S
1

S2

W1 ( p)

W2 ( p)

Z ( p)

W3 ( p)

X ( p)

+ S
1
-

1
W1 ( p)

Y ( p)

W1 ( p)

W2 ( p)

S2

Z ( p)

Z ( p)

W3 ( p)

X ( p)

S2

S1

1
W1 ( p)

Y ( p)

W1 ( p)

W2 ( p)

W3 ( p)

X ( p)

S2

S1

1
W1 ( p)

Y ( p)

W1 ( p)W2 ( p)

Z ( p)

X ( p)

1
W1 ( p)

S2

W3 ( p)

f
Y ( p)

Y ( p)

W1 ( p)W2 ( p)
1 + W1 ( p)W2 ( p)W3 ( p)

Z ( p)

g
1
W1 ( p)
X ( p)

W1 ( p)W2 ( p)
1 + W1 ( p)W2 ( p)W3 ( p)
W1 ( p)W2 ( p)
1 + W1 ( p)W2 ( p)W3 ( p)

S2

Fig. 12.11 Rearrangement of block diagram

Z ( p)

Y ( p)

W2 ( p)
1 + W1 ( p)W2 ( p)W3 ( p)

X ( p)

W1 ( p)W2 ( p)
1 + W1 ( p)W2 ( p)W3 ( p)

S2

Z ( p)

450

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The inputoutput relationship takes the form

Z p

W 1 pW 2 p
W 2 p
X p
Y p
1 W 1 pW 2 pW 3 p
1 W 1 pW 2 pW 3 p

This expression emphasizes the superposition principle.

The transfer functions along channels X  Z and Y  Z are

12.2

W XZ p

W 1 pW 2 p
,
1 W 1 pW 2 pW 3 p

W YZ p

W 2 p
:
1 W 1 pW 2 pW 3 p

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

This paragraph explains the procedure for constructing block diagrams for systems
which contains mass m, damper b. and stiffness k. The construction of the block
diagram is based on the compatibility equations, continuity, and physical equations
for each element of the structure [15]. Each block diagram contains a feedback that
reects the intrinsic properties of the system.

12.2.1 Representation of bk and bm Systems

as Block Diagram
Parallel and series connections of bk and bm elements are considered. In the
parallel connection of two elements, the input velocity of the connection is equal to
the input velocity for each element. In a series connection of two elements, the input
force of the connection is equal to the force arising in each element
Series Connection of Damper b and Spring k (Fig. 12.12)
The following physical concepts are used:
(a) Compatibility condition: The relative velocity 13 12 23 . The relative
velocity of the endpoints of a structure is 13 .
(b) Continuity property: Both elements, damper and spring, are subjected to the
same force; therefore F Fb Fk .
(c) Elemental behavior: For damper and spring we have

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

u1

F(t)

451

u2

Fb

u3

k
Fk

F(t)
F0

u-F b =

1 dF
k dt

dF
dt

dt

1
b

F b

Fig. 12.12 Series connection of damper b and spring k and corresponding structural block
diagram

12 Fb =b;
y2  y3 k Fk ! 2  3 23

1 dFk
:
k dt

Substitution of 12 and 23 as well as 13 in the compatibility equation

leads to the equation
F 1 dF

:
b k dt

12:30

Thus, this differential equation connects the active force F and relative
velocity 13 of the endpoints of the structure. If the input and output of
the system are and F, respectively, then (12.30) can be represented as a block
diagram, as shown in Fig. 12.12.
Parallel Connection of Damper b and Spring k (Fig. 12.13)
The following physical concepts are used:
Compatibility condition: The applied force is divided between damper and
spring; therefore,
F Fb F k !

dF dFb dFk

dt
dt
dt

Continuity property: The input velocity and the relative velocities of the endpoints
for both elements are the same; therefore, 12

452

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Elemental behavior: For damper and spring we have

dFb
d12
dFb
d
b
!
b ;
dt
dt
dt
dt
dFk
dFk
k12 !
k:
dt
dt

Fb b12 !

Substitution of dFb/dt and dFk/dt in the compatibility equation leads to a

differential equation which connects the relative velocity 12 and the active
force F
b

d
dF
k
:
dt
dt

12:31

For this system F is input and is output. The feedback circuit includes a
proportional block with a gain coefcient k, the integrating block, and the summing
block, which allows us to take into account the non-zero initial conditions F0
(Fig. 12.13).
u1

u2

b
F(t)

Fb
Fk

k
u

1
b

bu

F(t)

F - bu

S
F0

F - bu

dt

ku

ku =

dF
du d
= (F - bu )
-b
dt
dt dt

Fig. 12.13 Parallel connection of damper b and spring k and corresponding block diagram,
12

The output of the proportional block is k; according to differential equation

(12.31), the expression for k becomes
k

dF
d d
 b F  b:
dt
dt dt

Therefore, for the output of the integrating block we obtain F  b.

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

453

Complex Connection of b1, k, b2 (Fig. 12.14)

Fig. 12.14 Complex
connection of b1, k, b2

u1

u2
b1

F(t)

Fb1
Fk

b2

u gr = 0

Fb2 = F

This structure consists of two blocks. The rst block involves two parallel
elements b1  k, while a second block is a single damper b2. These two blocks
are connected in series.
Compatibility condition: 12 2 ! 12  2 .
Continuity property: F Fb1 Fk Fb2 . After differentiation, we have
dF dFb1 dFk dFb2

.
dt
dt
dt
dt
Elemental behavior: For damper and spring we have
Fb1 b1 12 ,
Fb2 b2 2 ,
dFk
k12 :
dt
If we substitute the physical equations in the ratio of continuity property, and take
into account the compatibility condition, we get
b1

d12
d2
k12 b2
:
dt
dt

From this equation we can eliminate 12 using the compatibility condition

12  2 , thus
b1 b2

d2
d
k2 b1 k:
dt
dt

Now let us eliminate 2 from the last equation. For this purpose we need to take into
account the following relationship: F Fb2 b2 2 . After differentiating, we have
dF
d2
b2
. As a result, we obtain the mathematical model of the vibration
dt
dt
protection system


dF
d
kF b2 b1 k :
b1 b2
dt
dt

12:32a

454

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

This differential equation establishes a relationship between the force F applied to

the input of the rst block b1  k and the input velocity of this block, if an
additional damper b2 is connected with the output point of the rst block.
Equation (12.32a) may be rewritten as follows


dF
d
F b2 T 1 ;
T0
dt
dt

12:32b

b1 b2
b1
, T 1 are time constants.
k
k
In symbolic form we have T 0 p 1F b2 T 1 p 1, where p d=dt. The
transfer function

where T 0

W p

F b2 T 1 p 1

T 0 p 1

is the input mechanical impedance. For construction of the Bode diagram we need
to set p j.
Parallel Connection of Damper b and Mass m (Fig. 12.15)
u0
u1
F(t)

u 1g
m

Fm

Fb

F - bu = m

du
dt

u g = const

bu

1
m

du
dt

dt

Fig. 12.15 Parallel connection of damper b and mass m and corresponding block diagram

At rst glance it may seem that the mass m and the damper b are connected in
series, but this is not true, since these elements have a common velocity [15].
Compatibility condition: Velocity of the mass m and damper b are equal,
1 1g .
The applied force is divided between the mass and damper; therefore, the
continuity property becomes F Fm Fb .
Elemental behavior: For mass and damper we have
d
,
dt
Fb b:

Fm m

Substitution of Fm and Fb in the continuity property leads to the equation

m

d
b F:
dt

12:33

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

455

Thus, this differential equation connects the acting force F and the common
velocity of two elements, m and b. The presence of the term m d/dt means that
the force Fm that is perceived by the mass m differs from a given force F. This once
again conrms the parallel connection.
If the input and output of a system are F and , respectively, then (12.33) can be
represented as a block diagram, as shown in Fig. 12.15. We can see that the block
diagrams in Figs. 12.12 and 12.15 are dual. This means that transformation of one
scheme into another can be done by the following replacements: F $ , b $ 1=b,
m $ 1=k. This is a result of structural coincident equations (12.30) and (12.33).
Series Connection of Damper b and Mass m (Fig. 12.16)
Such connection means that the mass and damper have the same force, while the
input velocity 1 is divided between the mass and the damper. There is no
physical connection between the mass and ground. Thus, no force is transmitted
from the mass to ground.

F(t)

u1 = u +

b
u1

1
F
b

Fm

Fb

ug = const
u2

F
ub

uc = u -

uc0

F
b

dt

F
m

1
m

F du 1 dF
d
F d
u - = uc
=
=
m
dt b dt
dt
b
dt

Fig. 12.16 Series connection of damper b and mass m and corresponding block diagram

Compatibility condition: The relative velocity of the point of application of force

with respect to ground
1g 12 2g :
Continuity property: F Fb Fm .
Elemental behavior: For damper and mass we have
1
d12 1 dFb 1 dF
;

Fb b12 ! 12 Fb !
b
b dt
b dt
dt
d2g
d2g Fm
Fm m
!

:
dt
dt
m
d1g d12 d2g

, substitute
dt
dt
dt
the elemental behavior equations and take into account the continuity property, we
obtain

If we differentiate the compatibility equation in time,

456

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

F 1 dF d

:
m b dt
dt

12:34

Thus, this differential equation relates the acting force F and the velocity 1g at the
point of the forces application. If the input and output of a system are and F,
respectively, then (12.34) can be represented as a block diagram, as shown in Fig. 12.16.
The duality properties for bm and bk systems are presented in Table 12.8.

Table 12.8 Duality of parallel and series bm and bk systems [15]

Combination of damper and mass
d
(12.33)
Parallel bm m b F
dt
1 1g , 0 at t 0
1g

1
F(t)

Fm

Duality
Combination of damper and spring
1 dF F
F$

(12.30)
Series bk
m $ 1=k
k dt b

,
F

0
at
t
0
23
13
b $ 1=b 12

F(t)

g = const

Fb

Fb

3
k

Fk

F(t)

Block diagram Fig. 12.12

Block diagram Fig. 12.15
1 dF F d
dv
dF
$F

(12.34)a
(12.31)b
Series bm
Parallel bk b kv
1=b $ b
b dt m dt
dt
dt
1 1g , F b0 at t 0
1=m $ k F F F , F0 at t 0
b
k
b

Fm

Fb
F(t)

F(t)

g = const

Block diagram Fig. 12.16

Fb
Fk

F(t)

k
Block diagram Fig. 12.13

The initial condition must specify to F [15]

The initial condition must specify to

Parallel Connection of Spring k and Mass m The parallel connection in Fig. 12.17
means that the mass and spring have the same displacements and the same velocities at point 2. Indeed, the mechanical two-terminal network (Fig. 2.8) contains
blocks for impedances Zm and Zk which are connected in parallel. Thus the
compatibility conditions for the system in Fig. 12.17 are x1 x2 x, 1 2 .

Fig. 12.17 Parallel

connection of mass m and
spring k

x1 (u1)

F(t)

m
Fm

x2 (u2)
k
Fk

xg (t)

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

457

Continuity property: F Fm Fb .
Elemental behavior: For mass and spring we have
d
Fm m ,
 dt 
Fk k x  x g ;
where xg presents the kinematic excitation.
Substitution of the elemental behavior equations Fm and Fb into the continuity
equation leads to the relationship
m



d
k x  xg F:
dt

12:35a

If xg 0, then we obtain the well-known differential equation for an mk system

m

d
k dt F:
dt

12:35b

The construction of a block diagram for this case as well as for other connections of
passive elements of VP systems should be performed as described previously [15].
The block diagram contains blocks 1/k and differentiating block p in the direct
channel and blocks p and m in the feedback channel.

12.2.2 Vibration Protection Closed Control System

Let us consider mechanical system with one degree of freedom subjected to
kinematic excitation (Fig. 12.18a).
The system is governed by the following differential equation
mx1 bx_ 1 kx1 bx_ kx:

12:36a

In symbolic form, p d=dt, this equation is given by




mp2 bp k x1 bp kx:

12:36b

The transfer function x1  x is

W p

x1
bp k

:
mp2 bp k
x

12:37

In order to construct a block diagram of the vibration protection system as a closed

control system, (12.36a) will be presented in the form

458

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

mx1 bx_  x_ 1 kx  x1 :
The output of the rst summation block is the relative displacement x2 x  x1 of
mass m; for the output of the second summating block, according to (12.36a),
we get mx1 . After double integration we get the output coordinate x1. Finally,
in order to have a signal x2 x  x1 as the output of the rst summation block,
we need to introduce a negative feedback with transfer function W 1
(Fig. 12.18b) [6].

x1 (t)

b
x

x2

bp

1
mp2

x1

b
x(t)

-1

Fig. 12.18 (a) Kinematic excitation of vibration protection system; (b) corresponding block
diagram; relative displacement x2 x  x1

The transfer function of this detailed block diagram has the form of (12.37).
Indeed, the transfer function of parallel blocks k and b is W kb p W k p
W b p k bp. The transfer function of two series blocks in the direct channel
with transfer functions Wkb( p) and W m p 1=mp2 is W dir p W kb pW m p
k bp=mp2 . The transfer function of the closed system is
1
W dir p
bp k
mp2
W p

1
1  W dir p1
mp2 bp k
1 k bp 2
mp
k bp

Detailed block diagrams allows us to trace the path of signals. Initially, we assume
that there is no feedback. The input signal x(t) (the displacement of support) of the
system is fed to the input of parallel blocks k and bp. This means that the points of
spring and damper, associated with the mobile support, have the same displacement x(t) (and velocities). Output signals of these blocks, kx and bpx represent the
forces which arise in the spring and damper, respectively; the sum of these forces,
bpx kx u, represents the input for a subsequent block with transfer function
1/mp2. Transformation u/mp2 leads to a displacement x1 of the mass m: u mp2 x1 .
Indeed, mp2 x1 mx1 u. The mass and other passive members (spring, damper)
are two terminal elements. One terminal is located on the mass itself, and the
second terminal is located on the moving support. Feedback reects the bipolar
nature of the mass. The difference x1  x in the differential equation (12.36a) and
on the block diagram represents the relative displacement of the mass with respect
to the moving support.
Now let us consider a system with one degree of freedom subjected to force
excitation; the support of the system is xed (Fig. 12.19a).

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

F (t)

a
m

b
x(t)

459

F (t)

m
x 1

1 mp

-b

-k

x 3 1 p

Fig. 12.19 (a) Force excitation of vibration protection system; (b) corresponding block diagram

The differential equation of the system is

mx bx_ kx Ft:
In order to detect the systems feedback, this equation needs to be solved with
respect to mx, i.e.,
mx bx_ kx  Ft

12:38

The corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. 12.19b. The output of the
summation block is mx. This diagram allows us to control x, x_: , and x. Let us nd
the transfer function on channel input F(t)- output x(t). The transfer function
1=mp
1

. For blocks 1, 2 and 3 we get

of blocks 1 and 2 is W 12
1 1=mpb mp b
1
W 123 W 12 W 3
. The required transfer function is
mp2 pb
W p

Xp
W 123
1
W 1234
:

2
F p
1 W 4 W 123 mp pb k

12:39

A two-cascade vibration protection system with one degree of freedom is shown

in Fig. 12.20a. The system is subjected to dynamic (force) excitation F(t) and
kinematic excitation x(t) of the massless plate. The differential equation governing
the system is given by
mx1 b b1 x_ 1 k k1 x1 f t,

f t bx_ kx Ft:

12:40

The transfer function is

W p

x1
1

:
mp2 b b1 p k k1
f

Differential equation (12.40) in operator form may be presented as follows

bpx  x1 kx  x1  b1 px1  k1 x1 F mp2 x1 :

460

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

It is easy to verify [6] that the corresponding detailed closed-block diagram is

shown in Fig. 12.20b.

F (t )

k1

F (t )

S1

x1 (t )

b1

x2

S2

k
bp

b
x(t )

1
mp 2

- k1

-b1 p

x1

-1
F (t )

c
x

S1

W1 ( p )

S2

W2 ( p )

x1

W3 ( p )
Fig. 12.20 (a) Two-cascade vibration protection system under force and kinematic excitation;
(b, c) detailed and transformed block diagram

Kinematic input excitation x(t) is fed to the summation block 1. The force
excitation F(t), which should also be regarded as the input excitation, is supplied to
the summation block 2. It is evident that blocks k and bp are connected in parallel,
while blocks 1/mp2, k1 , and b1 p are connected in antiparallel. The block diagram
allows us to nd the transfer function separately with respect to input x(t) and F(t).
For this purpose, we will show the modied block diagram (Fig. 12.20c), where the
transfer functions of the assembled blocks are
W 1 p k bp,

W 2 p

1
:
mp2 b1 p k1

The transfer function of the feedback loop is W 3 1. We can see that the block
diagram in Fig. 12.20c is the same as in Fig. 12.11, except the fact that the transfer
function W3 is negative. Therefore, according to Example 12.8, the inputoutput
relationship can be immediately written in the form
x1

W1W2
W2
x
F:
1  W1W2W3
1  W1W2W3

12:41a

This equation expresses the principle of superposition: the output function x1 is a

linear combination of the input excitations x and F. The required transfer functions are

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

W x1 =x p

461

x1
W1W2
bp k

x
1  W 1 W 2 W 3 mp2 b b1 p k k1

12:41b

x1
W2
1
W x1 =F p
:

F 1  W 1 W 2 W 3 mp2 b b1 p k k1

Let us assume that the system has several inputs. In this case, the superposition
principle for nding of a particular transfer function should be used as follows.
Assume that all input excitations, except the one specied input, are equal to zero.
We need to transform the block diagram with one input into one dynamic block.
Turning back to Fig. 12.20c we can easily derive expressions (12.41a).
Here it is important to note that a feature of block diagrams of vibration
protection systems is the presence of feedback. The true state of the system is
characterized by the minimum value of the energy functional [22]. From this
perspective, each system can be treated as optimal, because self-adjustment to an
optimum mode (such as in the cases of strength and stability [23, 24]) occurs in the
system. Feedback is a mandatory element of self-tuning. In problems of active
vibration protection, the character of the feedback is obvious, because it will be
introduced articially, and it will have a clear physical nature. The other situation is
considered in Sect. 12.2.2, where feedback is an intrinsic property which is inherent
in the system itself. The physical nature of the feedback and the mechanism of selftuning are not discussed.
Now let us construct the block diagram for a one-dimensional two-cascade
vibration protection system with two degrees of freedom, shown in Fig. 12.21.
The system is subjected to kinematic excitation x(t) of the bottom massless plate.
Displacements of mass m1 and m2 are x1(t) and x2(t). The object of vibration
protection is the mass m2. The input and output of the system will be x(t), and
x2(t), respectively.
Fig. 12.21 Design diagram
of a two-cascade system
subjected to kinematic
excitation x(t)

k2
m2

k1
m11

k0

x2 (t)
x1 (t)

x(t)

If damping forces are neglected, then the differential equations are

mx1 k0 x  x1  k1 x1  x2 ,
mx2 k1 x1  x2  k2 x2 :

12:42a

462

12

Using the differential operator p

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

d
, these equations may be presented in the
dt

symbolic form
k 0 x  x 1  k 1 x 1 k 1 x 2 m 1 p2 x 1

12:42b

k1 x1  x2  k2 x2 m2 p2 x2

The corresponding detailed structural diagram is shown in Fig. 12.22a. This

diagram shows the presence of two partial systems. They are linked via feedback:
the output signal of the second partial system x2 through the proportional block k1 is
supplied to the summation block, which determines the behavior of the rst partial
system. Each partial system contains two negative feedbacks with transfer functions
1 and k.
To construct the assembled block diagram, relationships (12.42b) should be
solved with respect to x1 and x2. Image output coordinates are
x 1 k 0 x k 1 x 2
x2 k1 x1

m1

p2

1
,
k0 k1

12:42c

1
:
m1 p2 k1 k2

The corresponding block diagram is presented in Fig. 12.22b. Finding the

transfer function in channel x  x2, i.e., W x2 =x, may be performed
analytically, eliminated x1 from (12.42c), or directly using the block diagram in
Fig. 12.22b.

a
x

k1

k0

- x1

x1

1
m1 p 2

-k1

k1

- x2

-1

1
m2 p 2

-k 2

x2

-1

b
x

k0

1
m1 p 2 + k 0 + k1

x1

k1

1
m 2 p 2 + k1 + k 2

x2

k1

Fig. 12.22 (a) Detailed and (b) assembled block diagram for two-cascade system in Fig. 12.21

12.2

Block Diagrams of Vibration Protection Systems

463

12.2.3 Dynamic Vibration Absorber

A mechanical system with two degrees of freedom is shown in Fig. 12.23a [25].
The source of excitation is a force F(t) applied to a mass m. Generalized coordinates of the system are x(t) and x1(t) [25]. The input of the system is F(t), while the
output is x(t) and x1(t).
Differential equations governing the system are given by
mx k k1 x  k1 x1 Ft,

12:43a

m1x1  k1 x k1 x1 0:
Solve each equation for the highest derivative
k k1
k1
F t
x 
,
x x1
m
m
m
k1
k1
x1 x  x1 ;
m1
m1
Alternatively,
x a1 x a2 x1 f t,
x1 a3 x  a4 x1 , a3 a4 k1 =m1 ,

12:43b

f t Ft=m:

Block diagram is shown in Fig. 12.23b, and the equivalent form of the block
diagram is shown in Fig. 12.24a. We can see that the partial systems are connected
through blocks a2 and a3. Both partial systems in the direct channel contain two
integrating blocks 1/p connected in series (Fig. 12.23b); this makes it possible to
record the output velocity of the rst block. Since the dissipation of energy in
the system is not considered, x_ and x_ 1 are not used for generation of the dissipative

b
a

f (t)

k
F (t)

a1

a1 x
-

..
x

.
x

1
p

1
p

a2 x1
m

a2

x(t)

a3

k1
m1

a3 x
x1 (t)

S
a4 x1

.
x. 1

1
p

.
x1

1
p

a4

Fig. 12.23 Dynamic vibration absorber (a) and corresponding block diagram (b)

x1

464

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

force. Therefore, in Fig. 12.24a, two series-integrating blocks are shown as a

single block with transfer function 1/p2. We can see that each partial system has
a negative feedback with a gain coefcient of a1 and a4, and the system as a whole
has a positive feedback with gain a2. Step-by-step elimination of feedback for each
partial system is shown in Fig. 12.24b.

a1
a1 x
-

f (t)

..
x

a4

a4 x1

1
p2

a3 x

a3

..
x1

1
p2

x1

a2 x1
a2

b
f (t)

p2
p 2 + a1

S
a2 x1

a3

a3 x

p2
p2 + a 4

x1

a2

c
f (t)

S
a2 x1

p
p 2 + a1
2

a3 p
p 2 + a4

x1

f (t)

W ( p)

a3 p2
p 2 + a4

x1

a2 a3 p 2
p 2 + a4

Fig. 12.24 Transformation of the block diagram shown in Fig. 12.23b

Two series-connected blocks with transfer functions a3 and p2 =p2 a4

(Fig. 12.24b) are replaced by a single block with transfer function
a3 p2 =p2 a4 . The pickoff point is then placed in front of this block, and in
doing so, it is necessary to introduce a block with transfer function
a3 p2 =p2 a4 in the feedback. This block, together with block a2, leads to block
a2 a3 p2 =p2 a4 (Fig. 12.23c). Finally, we can eliminate feedback (Fig. 12.23d).
The transfer function from f to x becomes
W x=f p W p

p2 p2 a4
:
p2 a1 p2 a4  a2 a3 p4

12:44

Response x(t) on the arbitrary excitation f(t) in the operator form is

xp W x=f pFp, where x( p) and F( p) are image of the response and force
excitation, respectively.
Assume that the system is subjected to harmonic excitation Ft F0 sin t.
In this case we get

12.3

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Passive Linkages

p2 a4 j2

465

k1
k1
2
:
m1
m1

k1
2 , then the transfer function from excitation F to response x becomes
m1
W p 0, and therefore, the response xt 0. This means that if the excitation
frequency is equal to the frequency k1/m1 of free vibration of the partial system
k1  m1 , the displacement of the mass m is zero. This result was obtained previously (Sect. 6.1) analytically. Note that the transfer function from excitation F to
response x1, i.e.,
If

W x1 =f p W p

a3 p2
a3 p4
2
2
a4 p a1 p a4  a2 a3 p4

p2

is not equal to zero.

12.3

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional

Passive Linkages

Introducing additional elements into the vibration protection system inherently

changes the systems properties. Parametric optimization of these elements can
improve the quality of VP process, expand the band of an effective vibration
protection, and in some cases discover new effects. Introduced linkages from the
energy point of view can be passive or active, in terms of their mathematical
description are linear and nonlinear; their physical matter not specied. Below we
consider the inuence of passive linkages on the mathematical model of the
vibration protection system [6].

12.3.1 Linkage with Negative Stiffness

A vibration protection system under kinematic excitation and the corresponding
block diagram are shown in Fig. 12.18. To change the properties of the system, we
introduce additional linkage I which is connected to elements k and b in parallel
(Fig. 12.25a). The transfer function of this linkage is I( p); the physical nature of the
linkage may be arbitrary. The corresponding block diagram is shown in Fig. 12.25b.
In particular, additional linkage allows a reduction in the stiffness of the system.
This leads to an expanded frequency band at which the vibration isolation is
effective.

466

12

b
x1 (t)

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

k
x

x2

1
mp2

x1

bp

I ( p)

x(t)

-1

Fig. 12.25 (a) Vibration protection k-b system with additional member I in the case of kinematic
excitation x(t); (b) block diagram

The transfer function of the parallel blocks k, b and additional member I is

W kIb p W k p I p W b p k bp I p:
The transfer function of series-connected blocks in the direct channel with transfer
1
functions WkIb( p) and W m p
equals
mp2
W pr

ch p

W kIb pW m p k bp I p

1
:
mp2

The transfer function of the closed system is

W
 pr
W p
1  W pr

1
mp2

1
chanel p1
1 k bp I p 2
mp
chanel p

bp k I p
:
bp k I p

mp2

k bp I p

12:45

If bp k I p, then W p 0. This means that the system becomes

absolutely invariant with respect to external excitation (see Chap. 8). If damping
is neglected b 0 then complete compensation of external disturbances at any
frequency is achieved when the elastic element I has a stiffness that equals k.
Different mechanical devices that implement negative stiffness are described by
Alabuzhev et al. [26].

12.3.2 Linkage by the Acceleration

Suppose that an additional resistance to movement of the mass m appears
when the relative motion of the mass occurs with acceleration. In this case, the
expression for the transfer function of the additional passive device should be

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Active Linkages

467

taken in the form I p m p2 . Now the transfer function of the entire system
becomes [6]
0

m p2 bp k
W p
:
m m0 p2 bp k

12:46

The transfer function (12.46) of the system with an additional passive linkage leads
to a lower natural frequency. Indeed, the real mass of system m is increased by the
value m0 . This type of additional passive linkage signicantly changes the dynamic
properties of the system: the polynomial degree in the numerator of the transfer
function has risen by one and becomes equal to the degree of the polynomial in the
denominator.
We need to make two important remark.
If the mass of the system m is increased by the value of m0 , but without the
additional passive linkage, then the denominator of the transfer function will be as
indicated by formula (12.46). However, the numerator of the transfer function,
unlike (12.46), remains bp k.
Other properties of amplitude-frequency characteristics of the system with the
transfer function (12.46) are described by Eliseev [6].

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional

Active Linkages

The idea of active suppression of vibrations is to compensate the external disturbances by additional exposures, which can have force or kinematic character.
Active VP systems, in contrast to passive systems, comprise a set of elements
inherent in automatic control systems. These include recording devices, sensors,
correcting blocks, lters, and executive mechanisms (servomotor) [1, 3, 6].
A servomotor is a device that performs permutation of the regulatory body in
accordance with signals received from the system. In order to ensure function of
the servo motor, the VP system must contain a source of energy; it is precisely the
presence of a source of energy that is a fundamental sign of an active vibration
protection system.
Active vibration protection systems are used in areas with stringent requirements
on vibration levels for example, vibration protection of precision machines,
rocket launch platforms, and pilot protection against vibrations and overloads
[12, 27]. Signicant merits of active vibration protection systems include, in
particular [1, 5, 28]:
1. Low sensitivity to changes in the weight of the vibrating object.
2. Ability to achieve effective vibration protection over a wide range of
frequencies.
3. Ability to obtain the required form of amplitude-frequency characteristics.

468

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Depending on how the active linkages are used, active vibration protection
systems can be of the following types:
1. Active VP systems in which the controlling forces are applied directly to the
object of vibration protection.
2. Active VP systems in which controlling displacements are applied to the systems support.

12.4.1 Functional Schemes of Active Vibration

Protection Systems
The functional schemes of active vibration protection systems we will discuss in the
example of a system with one degree of freedom (Fig. 12.26).
The object of vibration protection of mass m is subjected to force excitation F(t).
To reduce vibration, the passive and active vibration protection elements are
applied together. In general, the passive part (block 1) of a VP system consists of
passive elements such as elastic elements and dampers connected in an arbitrary
way. In what follows, we assume that the passive part consists of parallel connected
damper b and spring k; in this case, the transfer function of these two elements is
W pas p bp k.
The active part of a VP system contains sensor 2, device 3 for converting the
signals, and executive mechanism 4 [29, 30]. The input excitation of the system is
F(t), and the output is displacement x(t) of mass m.
Two principal approaches are possible. In the rst case, sensor 2 receives information about excitation of the object (Fig. 12.26a); in the second case, the information is about the state of the object (Fig. 12.26b). The corresponding cases are
described as vibration protection on the basis of excitation and on the basis of
state of the object. Further passage of signal is the samecorrective device
(block 3), executive mechanism (block 4). In both cases the nature of output signal
of the block 2 are different. Both schemes show that vibration protection exposure is
applied on the support, i.e., the VP exposure has a kinematic character. A case when
F (t) 2

F (t)
2

x(t)

x(t)

upas
1
upas

x (t)

u pas
1
u pas

x(t)

Fig. 12.26 One-dimensional active kinematic vibration protection system in the case of a
force excitation: the functional scheme is based on F(t) excitation (a) and on dynamic condition
x(t) of the object (b). 1Passive part of VP system, 2Sensor, 3Device for converting signals,
4Executive mechanism

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Active Linkages

469

the VP exposure is applied on the object is possible, i.e., the VP exposure has a
dynamic character.

F(t)
m

F(t)

x (t)

b
x (t)

Fig. 12.27 Functional schemes when vibration protection is based on the state of object m

Various functional schemes of vibration reduction on the basis of the state of an

object are shown in Fig. 12.27. A recorder is placed on the object of mass m.
The signal describing the state of the object is fed into the different functional
blocks (not shown). The case of force excitation F(t) and dynamic (force) VP
exposure U(t) is shown in Fig. 12.27a. The case of kinematic excitation (t) and
dynamic VP exposure U(t) is shown in Fig. 12.27b. The case of force excitation F(t)
and kinematic VP exposure (t) is shown in Fig. 12.27c. Information about the state
of the object used in these schemes (displacement, velocity, acceleration, or any
combination thereof) [31] is not specied.
Various modications of the above schemes are possible. They can include,
in particular, the active vibration protection systems, in which the actuator
changes the parameters of the passive elements [6, 7, 28, 32].

12.4.2 Vibration Protection on the Basis of Excitation.

Invariant System
Consider the steady-state vibration of an object of mass m subjected to a harmonic
excitation force Ft F0 sin t. The kinematic VP exposure (t) is formed on the
basis of excitation of the object (Fig. 12.28). As before, the passive part consists of
an elastic member of stiffness k and damper b connected in parallel.
F (t) 2
x(t )

upas
1
upas

x (t)
Fig. 12.28 Functional scheme of a one-dimensional VP system subjected to force excitation; the
active vibration protection exposure is a kinematic excitation (t) of the support

470

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

In this case, the motion of the object is described by the equation



d
mx  b k x  Ft;
dt

12:47

where x  is the relative displacement of the object with respect to the support.
We need to determine a displacement law of the support (t) in order for the
force that arises in the passive elements (spring k and damper b) to be equal and
oppositely directed to the given force Ft F0 sin t. In this case, the right- hand
side of (12.47) is equal to zero, i.e.,


d
b k x  Ft:
dt
If the total force acting on the mass m is equal to zero, then
mx 0 ! x_ C1 ! x C1 t C2 . Assume that the initial conditions are
x x_ 0. Thus, for displacement of support we get the following differential
equation
b_ k F0 sin t:

12:48

To nd the solution to this equation we represent (12.48) in complex form. The

e jt; here
complex disturbing force and complex solution are F F0 e jt , ~
is the amplitude of the supports displacement. Substitution of these expressions
into (12.48) leads to a relationship between amplitude F0, , parameters of the
system and frequency of excitation, jb k F0 , so the amplitude of support
displacement in complex form becomes


F0
:
k jb

The solution to (12.48) in real form is

t  sin t  :

12:49

The vibration amplitudes of coercive displacement of the support and the phase
angle are
F0
p ,
2
k b 2 2

tan 1

b
:
k

12:50

This means that steady-state motion of the support occurs with a frequency of
excitation , but lags behind the excitation by in phase. It is easy to verify that for
such coercive displacement of foundation, the force that arises in the passive kb
elements is F0 sin t. Indeed,


 b_ k b cos t  k sin t  
 fb cos t cos sin t sin  k sin t cos  cos t sin g:

12:51

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Active Linkages

471

k
b
cos p , sin p, then expression (12.51)
2
2 2
2
k b
k b2 2
becomes equal to F0 sin t. Thus, the displacement of the support (12.49) leads
to complete compensation of disturbing harmonic forced excitation. In other words,
at any frequency and amplitude of excitation F0 the active system of vibration
protection (Fig. 12.28) leads to the following: the displacement of the object x(t)
becomes invariant under external excitation F0 sin t. It is obvious that the condition of invariance is understood here in the narrower sense of the word than in
Chap. 8. If the vibration protection system includes a device that monitors the
change in amplitude and frequency of excitation, the invariance properties are
preserved. It is clear that we are talking only about a steady-state mode, and not
transient vibration [1, 21].
Since

12.4.3 Vibration Protection on the Basis of Object State.

Effectiveness Criteria
Various schemes of active vibration protection of the mkb system (Fig. 12.27ac)
are considered by Kolovsky [4, 5]. Some of them are considered below.
Case 1 A system is subjected to force excitation F(t). Active vibration protection
implies that the force exposure U(t) is applied to the object. The feedback is
constructed on the basis of the state x(t) of the object of mass m (Fig. 12.27a).
In a general case, the relationship between exposure U(t) and state x(t) can be
represented as
U t W x pxt:

12:52

Here, Wx( p) is a operator of a known type. If the exposure excitation U(t) is

proportional to the displacement of the object, then W x p . If exposure
excitation U(t) is proportional to velocity or acceleration, then W x p 1 p,
W x p 2 p2 , respectively. It is obvious that we can construct the expression for
operator Wx( p) that will take into account an arbitrary combination of the displacement, velocity, and acceleration with different weighting coefcients [31].
The mathematical model of the vibration protection system is given by


d
mx b k x Ft U t:
dt
In operator form,
mp2 x bp kx Fp  W x px

12:53

472

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The solution to this equation is


1
x mp2 bp k W x p Ft:

12:54

The transfer function displacement x - force F " for a vibration protection system
that involves passive elements m, b, k and active linkage with operator function
Wx( p) is
W x=F p

1
:
mp2 bp k W x p

12:55

1

If feedback is absent, then xpas mp2 bp k Ft. Therefore, the efciency of

vibration protection in the operator form according to displacement x(t) of the
object becomes
K x p

x
xpas

mp2 bp k W x p
mp2 bp k1

1

W x p
mp2 bp k

1
; 12:56a

where the subscript pas represents the corresponding parameter when the vibration protection system consists only of a passive part, while an additional active part
is absent. Note that Kx( p) cannot be treated as a transmissibility coefcient. In order
to numerically estimate the degree of vibration protection at the specied vibration
frequency , it is necessary to make the change p j in the expression of the
efciency coefcient, and then calculate the modulus of a complex number.
The efciency coefcient (12.56a) may be presented in another way. Since the
1
dynamic compliance and dynamic stiffness are Ap mp2 bp k , and
Rp A1 p mp2 bp k, respectively, then expression (12.56a) may be
rewritten as follows
K x p

Rp
:
R p W x p

12:56b

The condition of efciency of active vibration protection can be written as

K x j

jRjj
< 1:
jRj W x jj

The effectiveness of active vibration protection is particularly noticeable at low

dynamic stiffness, i.e., in the near-resonance mode. The efciency at resonance
frequencies is determined by the fact that with the introduction of VP devices, these
frequencies cease to be resonant, since the natural frequencies are shifted.
A different effectiveness criteria in the case of different types of operator
function Wx( p), such as 0, 1p, and 2p2, as well as the areas of their most effective
application, are presented by Kolovsky in [5]. This book also contains the effectiveness criteria for polyharmonic, random, and non-stationary excitations.

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Active Linkages

473

Let us investigate the effect of feedback (active vibration protection) on the

value of force F transmitted to the foundation. In the presence of feedback,
Fact bp kx W x px bp k W x px

bp k W x p
Ft:
mp2 bp k W x p

12:57

In the absence of feedback,

Fpas bp kx

bp k
Ft:
mp2 bp k

Therefore, the efciency of vibration protection in operator form, according to

force F transmitted on the foundation is
K F p

1
Fact
bp k W x p
mp2 bp k
W x p
W x p
1

2
:
1 2
bp k
bp k
mp bp k
Fpas mp bp k W x p

12:58

Here it is pertinent to note some principal remarks. If we consider case 1

(Fig. 12.27a) and assume that the state of the system is determined by the acceleration of the object, then we need to set W x p 2 p2 in the expression
U t W x pxt. In this case, the term 2p2 should be added to the vibration
equation of a passive system in the symbolic form mp2 bp kx Ft. This
means that the vibration equation of an active VP system in operator form becomes
m 2 p2 bp kxt Ft. At rst glance, it seems that instead of a compound active VP system, it is sufcient to enter only an additional mass a2.
However, this is not true. In the case of adding a mass, the static characteristics
of the system are changed. The active VP system with feedback allows us to
create exposure W x p 2 p2 without increasing the weight of the object; in
the case of kinematic excitation (Fig. 12.27b), the active VP system with exposure
W x p 2 p2 ensures a constant relative static position of the object and oscillating
support for different values of the load [5, 27].
Similar situations arise when the VP exposure Ut W x pxt is formed on
the basis of the object displacement W x p 0 and the velocity of the object
W x p 1 p. In the rst case, the equation of active vibration protection
takes the form mp2 cp k 0 xt Ft. In the second case, we obtain
mp2 b 1 p kxt Ft.
Information regarding the state of a system can be expanded. The feedback
of the active vibration protection system can be constructed on
the basis of
x(t), px(t), p2x(t), and higher derivatives of the displacement x(t),
of their combinations [31].

xtdt, or any

474

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Case 2 A system is subjected to kinematic excitation (t). Active vibration

protection is carried out, as in case 1, by using the force VP exposure U(t)
(Fig. 12.27b). Assume that the feedback is based on the absolute displacement of
the object, i.e., U t W x pxt. The vibration of the object of mass m is
described by equation



d
mx b k x  U t;
dt

12:59

where x(t) is absolute displacement, (t) is the displacement of support, and

xt  t is the relative displacement of the object.
In operator form, the expression (12.59) becomes
mp2 x bp kx   W x px, or
 2

mp bp k W x p x bp k:
For absolute displacement, we get
x xabs

bp k
:
mp2 bp k W x p

12:60

For relative displacement we get

xrel x 


bp k

mp2 bp k W x p

mp2 W x p
:
mp2 bp k W x p

12:61

The force transmitted to the base contains two components

F Fpas Fact bp kxrel W x pxt


mp2

mp2 bp k
:
bp k W x p

12:62

The expressions for the transfer functions obtained by dividing the output characteristics xabs, (xrel, R) at the input excitation .
W xabs  p

xabs
bp k

:
mp2 bp k W x p

12:63

Equations (12.6112.63) allow us to nd the expression of relevant characteristics

of vibration protection process in the absence of active linkages. They are

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Active Linkages

xpas
abs

475

bp k
;
mp2 bp k

12:64

xpas
rel 

mp2
;
mp2 bp k

12:65

Rpas 

mp2 bp k
:
mp2 bp k

12:66

The efciency coefcients of vibration protection in operator form [5]

K xabs p

x
xpas

W x p
1 2
mp bp k

1
;

1

xrel
W x p
W x p
1
K xrel p pas 1 2
;
mp bp k
mp2
xrel

1
R
W x p
K R p
1 2
:
Rpas
mp bp k

12:67

12:68

12:69

If the feedback is constructed according to relative displacement of the

object, then the exposure force, instead of (12.52), should be taken as
U t W y pyt, yt xt  t.
Case 3 An object of mass m is subjected to a disturbance force F(t) and force Upas
that develops in the passive part (block 1) of the VP device. Vibration protection is
carried out in a kinematic way, i.e., by displacement of the support (Figs. 12.27c
and 12.29a). The passive part 1 of the VP system, as before, consists of spring k and
damper b connected in parallel. The law of kinematic exposure (t) is determined
by the state of the object m. It is obvious that the force Upas which arises in the
passive elements depends on the relative displacement of the object with respect to
support.
The motion of the mass m is described by equation



d
mx  b k x  Ft;
dt

12:70

where x(t) and x  are the absolute and relative displacement of the object m.
Assume that VP exposure (t) is formed according to absolute displacement of
the object, i.e.,
t W x fxtg;

12:71

476

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

Relationship (12.71) displacement (t) of supportstate x(t) of the object is

inserted into (12.70), and using the differential operator notation p, we obtain a
linear differential equation
mp2 x Ft  bpx  kx  bpW x px  kW x px;


or

mp2 bp k1 W x p xt Ft:

12:72a
12:72b

In operator form, the absolute displacement of the object is given by

xt

mp2

1
Ft
bp k1 W x p

12:73

The transfer function displacement x-force F is

W x=F p

mp2

1
:
bp k1 W x p

12:74

On the basis of (12.72a), a block diagram (Fig. 12.29b) is constructed. Here, blocks
3 and 6, according to (12.72a), allow us to take into account the feedback active
linkage; they are shown by dotted lines. To obtain the transfer function for the
passive vibration protection system m  b  k, we need to set W x p 0.
Compute the transfer function for this diagram
W1
1
W 12
1
, W 123 p
,

1 W 1 W 2 mp b
1 W 12 W 3 mp b1 W x
1
W 1234 p W 123 W 4
,
mp2 pb1 W x
W 1234
1
W 12345 p
:

1 W 1234 W 5 mp2 pb1 W x k

W 12 p

After the last procedure W x=F p W 123456

W 12345
we get expression
1 W 12345 W 6

(12.74).
The criterion of efciency in operator form is

2
1
xt
mp bp k1 W x p

xpas t
mp2 bp k


bp kW x p 1
1
:
mp2 bp k

K p

12:75

It is easy to modify the problem and consider, for example, active kinematic
exposure on the basis of relative displacement of the object xt  t, i.e.,
t W y fxt  tg; on the basis of an absolute acceleration of the object
t W x fxtg.

12.4

Vibration Protection Systems with Additional Active Linkages

b
a

6 -kW (p)
x
3 -bW ( p)
x

F(t)
F (t)

..
mx 1

1
mp

1
p

b
x (t)

-b

-k

c
F (t )

477

Wx F ( p)

F (t)

Wx F ( p)

-Wx F (p)

x0

-x

Fig. 12.29 Active kinematic vibration protection according of the object state. (a) Functional
scheme of the one-dimensional VP system; (b) detailed block diagram; (c) equivalent block
diagram; (d) invariant system with respect to external excitation (implementation of Petrovs
two-channel principle)

The block diagram of the system and transfer function (12.74) make it possible to
construct the system, which will be invariant with respect to the external excitation.
For this purpose, a detailed block diagram (Fig. 12.29b) can be represented in an
equivalent form (Fig. 12.29), where Wx/F( p) is a transfer function from excitation
F to the absolute displacement x of mass m. Let us introduce into the system an
additional corrected parallel channel as shown in Fig. 12.29d; suppose the transfer
function of this channel will be determined by (12.74) with opposite sign, i.e.,
W cor W x=F p. In this case, the response of the system (absolute displacement
x of the mass m) will be invariant with respect to external excitation F(t). Thus we
articially create a second channel for transmission of the signal. If a system has two
transmission channels with a resulting transfer function
W W x=F p W cor p0;

12:76

then absolute invariance of output quantity is achieved. This is exactly Petrovs

two-channel principle [1, 21, 33]. Note that in Chap. 8 we determined the conditions that lead to a two-channel system without additional correcting channels.

12.4.4 Block Diagram of Optimal Feedback Vibration

Protection
In Chap. 10 we considered in detail the problem of optimal vibration suppression of
a linear oscillator (Bushaws minimum-time problem). Now let us present this
problem using a block diagram and briey discuss the realization of optimal
vibration protection exposure [2].

478

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

The presentation of the VP exposure is possible in two forms. In the rst case,
the VP exposure is determined as a function of current time u(t). This case is
presented in Chap. 10 by formulas (10.74), (10.77), (10.83), (10.84).
In the second case, the optimal VP exposure u(t), constrained in value, was
determined in terms of the current state of the system, as predicted by formula
(10.122), Chap. 10. This allows us to apply a concept of feedback and to realize the
vibration protection according to the state of a system instead of programming
vibration suppression.
The corresponding block diagram for the optimal vibration protection of a linear
oscillator is shown in Fig. 12.30. This diagram reects a system with feedback
which converts the phase coordinates x1, x2, and forms the optimal VP exposure
ut 1. The system contains two nonlinear blocks NB1and NB2. The block
NB1 has inputoutput characteristics that are the same as the switch curve
(Fig. 10.8). The block NB2 contains a relay nonlinearity; the relay is the engineering realization of the signum operation. In other words, this block serves for
implementation of optimal VP exposure. The state variables x1 (output) and output
rate x2 are measured at each instance of time. The output variables x1 and x2 are
introduced to the block ; the outputs become x1 and x2.
NB1
w x1

NB2
b ()
t

a ()
t
-

u*()
t

+1
-1

..
x + w2 x = Ku(t)
K > 0, u 1

w x2
w x1

x1
x2

w
w

Fig. 12.30 Block diagram of the time-optimal vibration protection of a linear harmonic oscillator;
vibration protection exposure juj  1

An important part of the problem is that it is necessary to determine in what part

of the phase plane, R or R (Fig. 10.8), the point with phase coordinates x1 and
x2 is located. For this purpose the output x1 is introduced to the block NB1;
the output signal of this block is (t). Then the output x2 is introduced to the
summation block and subtracted from (t) to form the signal t t  x2 t.
If (t) is positive, then a point (x1, x2) belongs to region R; if t < 0, then the
point x1 , x2 2 R .
At the output of NB2 we obtain limiting values of the optimal active VP
exposure (+1 or 1); the switching points correspond to the switching curve in
the NB1.
As indicated previously, it is possible to monitor not only the state of a dynamic
system, but the external excitation of the system as well. The corresponding selfadapting dynamic vibration absorber is presented by Zakora et al. [34]. This system
contains a feedback device; as a result, the dynamic absorber is automatically
tunable over the frequency of the excitation.

Problems

479

Problems
12.1. Explain the following concepts: inputoutput, direct and inverse operator
characteristics, transmissibility, transfer function.
12.2. Set up the table for all operator functions of passive elements.
12.3. How are the direct and inverse dynamic parameters computed in the case of
parallel and series connection of passive two-terminal networks?
12.4. Describe the concept of transient function and explain the specic parameters of a transient curve for a linear oscillator.
12.5. Describe the elementary blocks, write their equations, and explain their
main properties.
12.6. Compare the transient functions for proportional, integrating, and aperiodic
blocks.
12.7. Describe the typical connections of elementary blocks. Explain the physical
criterion for cases of parallel and series connection of two or more elements.
12.8. Explain the concept of block diagrams and their advantages.
12.9. Describe the equivalent transformation of block diagrams.
12.10. Explain the concept of the closed-loop system. Explain the physical meaning of the positive and negative feedback.
12.11. Which physical concepts are used for deriving the mathematical model of
dynamic systems?
12.12. What is active vibration protection? Explain the purpose of feedback. What
is meant by feedback designed on the basis of external excitation and on the
basis of object state?
12.13. Describe possible types of feedback on the basis of object state.
12.14. Explain Bushaws problem, peculiarities of the solution, and features of the
block diagram.
12.15. Explain the difference between the two systems shown in Fig. P12.15.
12.16. A block diagram is presented in Fig. P12.16. Transfer function
W 1 p k1 =p. Determine the transfer function W2( p) of feedback if the
transfer function of the entire system is W p k=Tp 1.
p Tp 1
Answer: W 2 p 
k1
k
Fig. P12.15

F(t)

F(t)

Fig. P12.16

m
k

S
x2

x1

W1 ( p)
W2 ( p)

480

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

12.17. The design diagram of a VP system is shown in Fig. P12.17. The feedback is
constructed according to relative displacement of the object, i.e., the VP
exposure is U t W y pyt, yt xt  t. Derive expressions
for effectiveness coefcients in operator form for the following parameters:
(a) Absolute displacement; (b) relative displacement; (c) the force transmitted on the support.
Answer:


1

W y p
W y p
R
(c) K R p pas 1 2
1
:
R
mp bp k
bp k
Fig. 12.17

x (t )

12.18. A dynamic system with two degrees of freedom is subjected to forces F1(t)
and F2(t) (Fig. P12.18). Determine the dynamic compliance of system
eA( p), eB( p), and eAB( p).
m1 p2 b1 p k1 x1 b2 p k2 x1  x2 F1 t;
Hint:
m2 p2 x2 b2 p k2 x2  x1 F2 t:
Answer:
eA p 1 pm2 p2 b2 p k2 ;

eAB p 1 pb2 p k2 ;

eB p 1 pm1 p2 b1 p b2 p k1 k2 ;


 m 1 p2 b1 p b2 p k 1 k 2
b2 p k2 


:

m2 p2 b2 p k2 
b2 p k2
Fig. P12.18

m2

x2

B
b2

k2
m1

A
F1(t)

x1

k1

F2(t)

b1

12.19. A dynamic system is subjected to forced F(t) and kinematic excitation x(t)
(Fig. P12.19). Consider excitations as input and displacement of mass m as
output. Construct a block diagram and determine the transfer functions by
channels F  x1 and x  x1 .

References

Answer: W Fx1 p

481

1
.
mp2 b b1 p k k1

Fig. P12.19

k1

F (t)

b1

x1 (t)

b
x(t)

References
1. Solodovnikov, V. V. (Ed.). (1967). Technical cybernetics (Vol. 14). Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
2. Athans, M., & Falb, P. L. (2006). Optimal control: An introduction to the theory and its
applications. New York: McGraw-Hill/Dover. (Original work published 1966)
3. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw Hill.
4. Kolovsky, M. Z. (1999). Nonlinear dynamics of active and passive systems of vibration
protection. Berlin: Springer.
5. Kolovsky, M. Z. (1976). Automatic control by systems of vibration protection. Moscow:
Nauka.
6. Eliseev, S. V. (1978). Structural theory of vibration protection systems. Novosibirsk, Russia:
Nauka.
7. Bozhko, A. E., Gal, A. F., Gurov, A. P., Nerubenko, G. P., Rozen, I. V., & Tkachenko, V. A.
(1988). Passive and active vibration protection of ship machinery. Leningrad, Russia:
Sudostroenie.
8. Butkovsky, A. G. (1983). Structural theory of distributed systems. New York: Wiley.
9. Newland, D. E. (1989). Mechanical vibration analysis and computation. Harlow, England:
Longman Scientic and Technical.
10. Chelomey, V. N. (Editor in Chief). (19781981). Vibrations in engineering. Handbook: Vols.
16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
11. Inman, D. J. (2006). Vibration, with control. New York: Wiley.
12. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
13. Bishop, R. E. D., & Johnson, D. C. (1960). The mechanics of vibration. London: Cambridge
University Press.
14. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow: Nauka.
15. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
16. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Int.
17. Lenk, A. (1977). Elektromechanische systeme. Band 2: Systeme mit verteilten parametern.
Berlin: VEB Verlag Technnic.
18. Butkovskiy, A. G., & Pustylnikov, L. M. (1993). Characteristics of distributed-parameter
systems: Handbook of equations of mathematical physics and distributed-parameter systems.
New York: Springer.
19. Nowacki, W. (1963). Dynamics of elastic systems. New York: Wiley.
20. Butkovsky, A. G. (1969). Distributed control systems. New York: Elsevier.

482

12

Structural Theory of Vibration Protection Systems

21. Shinners, S. M. (1978). Modern control system theory and application. Reading, MA: Addison
Wesley. (Original work published 1972)
22. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.
23. Karnovsky, I. A. (1973). Pontryagins principle in the eigenvalues problems. Strength of
materials and theory of structures: Vol. 19, Kiev, Budivelnik.
24. Iskra, V. S., & Karnovsky, I. A. (1975). The stress-strain state of the bar systems with variable
structure. Strength of materials and theory of structures: Vol. 25. Kiev, Budivelnik.
25. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
26. Alabuzhev, P., Gritchin, A., Kim, L., Migirenko, G., Chon, V., & Stepanov, P. (1989).
Vibration protecting and measuring systems with quasi-zero stiffness (Applications of Vibration Series). New York: Hemisphere Publishing/Taylor & Francis Group.
27. Frolov, K. V. (Editor). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol. 6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief) (19781981) Vibration in engineering, vols. 16, Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
28. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1982). Dynamic properties of linear vibration protection systems.
Moscow: Nauka.
29. Hsu, J. C., & Meyer, A. U. (1968). Modern control principles and application. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
30. Fuller, C. R., Elliott, S. J., & Nelson, P. A. (1996). Active control of vibration. London:
Academic Press.
31. Karnovsky, I. A. (1977). Stabilization of the motion of a cylindrical panel. Sov. Applied
Mechanics, 13(5).
32. Genkin, M. D., Elezov, V. G., & Yablonsky, V. V. (1985). Methods of controlled vibration
protection of machines. Moscow: Nauka.
33. Petrov, B. N. (1961). The invariance Principle and the conditions for its application during the
calculation of linear and nonlinear systems. Proc. Intern. Federation Autom. Control Congr.,
Moscow, vol. 2, pp. 11231128, 1960. Published by Butterworth & Co. London.
34. Zakora, A. L., Karnovsky, I. A., Lebed, V. V., & Tarasenko, V. P. (1989). Self-adapting
dynamic vibration absorber. Soviet Union Patent 1477870.

Part III

Shock and Transient Vibration

Chapter 13

Active and Parametric Vibration Protection

of Transient Vibrations

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of transient vibration of linear dynamical

systems. The Laplace transform method and Heaviside expansion method are
explained. These methods are applied to analysis of linear oscillators subjected to
different types of forced and kinematic excitation (shock, impulse, recurrent instantaneous pulses). Active vibration suppressions through forces and kinematic
methods, as well as parametric vibration protection, are discussed.
Motion of a dynamical system subjected to an arbitrary exposure consists of two
characteristic stages: transient and steady-state vibration. Transient vibration
occurs when starting and stopping a machine, changing the mode of operation of
the machine, or on sudden decrease or increase in useful load. This movement
occurs with the natural frequency of the system and with the amplitude, depending
on the type of excitation. Steady-state vibration starts some time after a change to
the load; this movement does not depend on the initial conditions and is determined
only by the forces acting on the system.
The Laplace transform is an effective method for studying transient processes in
linear systems. The choice of this operational method is explained by the fact that
the classical methods of vibration theory in cases of transient vibration analysis
encounter signicant difculties. Among them, the necessity to consider specic
types of perturbations, such as shock and discontinuous excitations [1].

13.1

Laplace Transform

The advantage of this operational method is that the solution to linear differential
equations is reduced to the solution to algebraic equations, and the initial conditions
can be taken into account in a formalized way [2, 3].
Denition Assume that we have a function f(t) of a real variable t; this function is
called the original function. The Laplace transform of the real function f(t) is
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_13

485

486

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

determined by multiplying f(t) by ept , where p is a complex variable, and then

integrating the product from t 0 to t 1. Thus the image function or Laplace
transform of the function f(t) is [4]
1

Fp Lff tg

f tept dt:

13:1

According to (13.1), for every function f(t) of a real variable t there is the
corresponding function F( p) of a complex variable p.
Example 13.1 Find the image function F( p) if the original function f t A.
Solution For given function f t A, formula (13.1) leads to the following result:
1

Lf A g

Ae

pt

1
A pt 
A
dt  e  :
p
p

The case when A 1 leads to the unit step function H(t) (Heaviside function)
(
H t

0 for t < 0,
for t  0:

The Heaviside function allows us to represent any function f(t) in the form
f(t)H(t). The Laplace transform of the unit impulse -function (Dirac delta function)
which acts at time is Lt   ep . If 0, then Lt 1.
Example 13.2 The original function is
function F( p).
Solution Since sin t
1

Lf sin tg

pt

sin t  e
0

ejt  ejt
,
2j
1

dt

f t sin t. Determine the image

p
1, then (13.1) becomes



ejt  ejt pt
1
1
1
1

e dt
:
2
2j p  j p j
p 1
2j

Tables of Laplace transforms [35] contain a large number of functions f(t) and
their corresponding image functions F( p). These tables allow us to avoid the
integration procedure for functions encountered in practical applications. If
the image is not in the table, then in many cases it can be led to a tabular form
using the basic properties.
1

Note Carsons transform Fp p f tept dt Fp ; this transform is the

0

opposite of the Laplace transform and contains the factor p [6].

13.1

Laplace Transform

487

Fundamental Properties [1, 3]

1. Linearity. Assume that the original function f(t) is transformable according to
(13.1) and that c is a constant. In this case, if f(t) is multiplied by a constant c, the
image function is multiplied by the same constant, i.e.,
Lfc f tg c Fp:
2. Superposition. If functions f1(t) and f2(t) are both Laplace-transformable, then
the image of the algebraic sum of original functions equals the algebraic sum of
their images
Lf f 1 t  f 2 tg F1 p  F2 p,

, -const:

13:2

3. Change of scale in the time domain. Assume that we have the Laplace transform
relation Lff tg Fp. The procedure to change the scale is presented by
multiplying the variable t by a positive scaling factor . In this case, the Laplace
transform of a new function f(t) becomes
1 p
Lff tg F
,

> 0:

13:3

Hence, scaling by the factor in the time domain corresponds to scaling the
complex variable p by a factor of 1/.
For example, if f t sin t, and the corresponding Laplace transform
Lf sin tg 1=p2 1, then the Laplace transform L{sin t} may be calculated
as follows:
Lf sin tg

1 p 1
1

F
2
:
 2

p
p 2
1

Of course this result can be obtained if the formula (13.1) is directly applicable
to the function sin t.
4. Translation (shifting) theorem [7]. This theorem makes it possible to nd an
image for function f(t) translated on the time axis by an amount , i.e., for
function f t  , if the image of the unshifted function f(t) is known. The graphs
in Fig. 13.1a, b are the same, but in the Fig. 13.1b the curve is shifted by a time .

Fig. 13.1 (a) Graph of the

f(t) process; (b) graph of the
shifting process f t 

488

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

According to the theorem, the image of the function f(t) which is shifted by a
time is
Lff t  g ep Fp,

Lff tg Fp,

 0:

13:4

In order to obtain the image of function f(t), which is shifted to the right by ,
we need to multiply the image F( p) of the function f(t) by ep .
Example 13.3 Calculate the image of the step function shown in Fig. 13.2a and
the same step function shifted to the right by 1; 2 1 (Fig. 13.2b).
Fig. 13.2 Step function:
(a) original function;
(b) shifted function

a
t

t1

t2

Solution The analytical expression of the step function (Fig. 13.2a) is

8
>
< 0 for t < 0
f t a for 0 < t <
>
:
0 for t >
Using the concept of Heaviside function, the given function f(t) can be expressed
in an analytical form:
f t aHt  H t  :
The rst term describes the unit step function that begins at t 0 and continues
indenitely. The second term describes the unit step function that begins at t
and continues indenitely. Since LfH tg 1, then for the image of the given
function we obtain
Fp ab1  ep c:
In the case of a shifted step function (Fig. 13.2b) we get
f t aH t  1  H t  2 ,


Fp aep1  ep2  a ep1  ep1 aep1 1  ep :
5. Borels convolution theorem. Convolution of two functions f1(t) and f1(t) is
given by
t
f 1 f 2 t  d:
0

13:5

13.1

Laplace Transform

489

Suppose that the Laplace transform of two functions, f1(t) and f2(t), is F1( p) and
F2( p), respectively. The Laplace transform of the convolution of two functions
is the product of the images of these functions
8t
9
8t
9
<
=
<
=
L
f 1 f 2 t  d L
f 1 t  f 2 dt F1 pF2 p:
13:6
:
;
:
;
0

6. Time differentiation. The theorem regarding the Laplace transform of derivatives is perhaps among the most important theorems of operational methods. If
the Laplace transform of function f(t) is F( p) and the rst derivative of f(t) with
respect to time, f0 (t), is transformable, then the Laplace transform of the derivdf
0
is
ative f t
dt
n 0 o
L f t pFp  f 0:
13:7
 0 
If f 0 0, then L f t pFp, i.e., the Laplace transform of the rst
derivative of the original function is equal to the multiplication of the image
function by p.
The Laplace transform of the nth derivative of function f(t) is
n
o
0
L f n t pn Fp  pn1 f 0  pn2 f 0      pf n2 0  f n1 0: 13:8
The Laplace transform of the second derivative of the function f(t) is
n 00 o
0
L f t p2 Fp  pf 0  f 0:
In the case of zero initial conditions,
 00 
L f t p2 Fp.

13:9

f 0 f 0 0, and we get

We can see that the Laplace transform method incorporates the initial condition
into the procedure itself; unlike in the classical method of solving differential
equations, the initial conditions are introduced separately at the stage of determining unknown coefcients of the solution to the differential equation.
We will apply the Laplace transform for the analysis of a dynamical system with
one degree of freedom.
Example 13.4 The motion of vibration protection mbk system, excited by an
arbitrary force F(t), is described by
mx bx_ kx Ft, or
x 2nx_ 2 x ht

13:10a

with the initial conditions x0 x0 , x_ 0 x_ 0 . It is required to nd the Laplace

transform of response x(t) of system.

490

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

Solution The image of the response x(t) is X( p), and the image of excitation
ht Ft=m is H( p), i.e., Lfxg Xp, Lfhg H p. The Laplace transform
of equation (13.10a) is


L x 2nx_ 2 x Lfhtg:

13:10b

According to the linearity and time differentiation theorems,



L 2 x 2 Xp,
Lf2nx_ g 2npXp  x0 ,

13:10c

Lfxg p2 Xp  px0  x_ 0 :
These formulas demonstrate the way in which the initial conditions are incorporated into the equation. Inserting terms (13.10c) into (13.10b) and collecting like
terms, we obtain
 2

p Xp  px0  x_ 0 2npXp  x0  2 Xp H p,
p2 2np 2 Xp  p 2nx0  x_ 0 H p:

13:10d

After simplication we get




p2 2np 2 Xp H p p 2nx0 x_ 0 :

The required image of the response of the system is

X p

p2

1
H p p 2nx0 x_ 0 :
2np 2

13:10e

If initial conditions x0 x_ 0 0, then from (13.10e) we get

X p

p2

1
H p, or
2np 2

13:10f

Xp W pH p;
W p

1
:
p2 2np 2

13:10g

The structure of this equation is typical for the image of the solution to different
engineering problems.
The left part X( p) of (13.10f) is the Laplace transform of the output, W( p) is a
transfer function, which only depends on the system parameter and H( p) is the
Laplace transform of the input. Thus, more strictly, the transfer function
X p
is a ratio of the Laplace transform output to the Laplace transform
W p
H p
input in the case of zero initial conditions [6].

13.2

Heaviside Method

491

The inverse Laplace transform, L1 , leads to the required response x(t) of the
system
xt L1 fXpg,

e p,
Xp W pH

e p H p p 2nx0 x_ 0 :
H
This problem will be considered in Sect. 13.2.

13.2

Heaviside Method

The image of the response of the system allows us to nd the original response
(or simply response). To do this, we need to apply the inverse Laplace transform to
the expression of the images response. The Heaviside expansion method is the
procedure of decomposition of the image function into the simple fractions; this
allows us to use tabulated data [3, 4, 7].
The response X( p) can in general be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials
A( p) and B( p). The polynomial orders are m and n, where m and n are positive
integers, with m < n.
X p

Ap am pm am1 pm1    a1 p a0

:
B p
bn pn bn1 pn1    b1 p b0

13:11

The rst step is to factor B( p) into linear and quadratic factors with real
coefcients
Xp

A p
A p

B p p  p 1 p  p 2 . . . p  p k . . . p  p n

13:12

The roots p1, p2, . . . pn of numerator Ap 0 and denominator Bp 0 are called

the zeroes and poles of the response transform X( p), respectively.
The poles may be zeroes, simple or repeated, real or complex. The Heaviside
decomposition depends on the type of roots of equation Bp 0.
Case 1 All roots of equation Bp 0 are simple. In this case decomposition of
response transforms X( p) becomes
Xp

n
X
Ap
A1
A2
Ak
An
Ak




: 13:13

p  pk
p  pn k1 p  pk
Bp p  p1 p  p2

The constants Ak are calculated by


Ap
Ak p  pk
:
Bpppk

13:14

492

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

This procedure leads to the fact that the factor p  pk and the same factor in the
denominator are reduced. The decomposition (13.13) can be expressed in the
following equivalent form:
Xp

n
A p X
Ak

,
Bp k1 p  pk

Ak


Ap 
;
0
B pppk

13:15

where B0 ( p) is the derivative of the denominator B( p) with respect to p.

Example 13.5 Given the Laplace transform Xp

A p
p5
2
, nd the
Bp p 3p 2

original function x(t) [1].

Solution The roots of equation Bp 0 are p1 1,
X p

p2 2; therefore,

A p
p5
A1
A2

:
B p p 1 p 2 p 1 p 2

Now let us evaluate the constants A1 and A2 using (13.14). The constant
A1 p  p 1

A p
p5
p  p1
:
B p
p 1p 2

After reducing on factor p  p1 p 1 we get


p  5 
1  5
6:
A1

p 2pp1 1 2
Similarly,
A2 p  p2


A p
p5
p  5 
2  5
p  p2

7:


B p
p 1p 2 p 1 pp2 2 1

Now the decomposition of X( p) may be presented as follows:

X p

p5
6
7

:

p2 3p 2
p1 p2

Using the equivalent form (13.15) we get



A p 
p  5 
1  5
6,
A1 0 

2p 3pp1 21 3
B p pp
1


A p 
2  5
A2 0 
7:

B p pp2 22 3

13.2

Heaviside Method

493

The inverse Laplace transform (Table A.1) leads to the original function


6
7

xt L1 fXpg L1 

6et 7e2t :
p1 p2
Example 13.6 Given the Laplace transform Xp

Ap 16p2 6p 10
3
, nd
B p
p 2p2 5p

the original function x(t).

Solution The roots of equation Bp 0 are p1 0, p2 1  2j, p3
1 2j. Since the roots are simple (one zero root and two conjugated complex
roots), the decomposition is
X p

A p
A p
A1
A2
A3

:
Bp pp 1 2jp 1  2j
p p 1 2j p 1  2j

The constants of decomposition (13.14) are

A 1 p  p1


A p
16p2 6p 10 16p2 6p 10
p

2:
B p
pp2 2p 5
p2 2p 5 pp1


A p
16p2 6p 10
16p2 6p 10
p 1 2j

A 2 p  p2
B p
pp 1 2jp 1  2j
pp 1  2j pp2

161  2j2 61  2j 10 11  13j

7  3j:
1  2j1  2j 1  2j
2j

Since the roots p2 and p3 are complex conjugates, then A3 A*2 7 3j. Now X( p)
may be represented as follows:
X p

16p2 6p 10 2
7  3j
7 3j

:

3
2
p 2p 5p
p p 1 2j p 1  2j

Original function
1

1

xt L fXpg L

2
7  3j
7 3j

p p 1 2j p 1  2j

2 7  3je12jt 7 3je12jt :
On rearrangement, this result can be written as
 



xt 2 et 7 e2jt e2jt 3j e2jt  e2jt :

494

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

Taking into account the well-known relations

cos z

ejz ejz
,
2

sin z

ejz  ejz
;
2j

the response of the system may nally be presented in the form

xt 2 2et 7 cos 2t 3 sin 2t:
Case 2 Let one of the roots of the equation Bp 0, for example, p1, have a
multiplicity s (repeated roots), and let the remaining roots be simple. In this case,
the Laplace transform may be presented in the form [1]
Xp

A p
A p

;
B p p  p 1 s p  p 2 p  p 3 . . .

13:16

The corresponding decomposition with repeated roots into simple fractions

becomes
X p

A p
A11
A12
A1s
A2
A3




s
s1
B p p  p 1
p  p1 p  p2 p  p3
p  p1
13:17a

The constant A11, A12, . . ., A1s for repeated roots can be determined by formulas



Ap
d
k Ap
p

p
A11 p  p1 k
;
A

,   ,
12
1

Bp pp1
dp
Bppp1
13:17b
 i1


1
d
k Ap
p  p1
:
A1i
i  1! dpi1
Bp pp1
For simple (not repeated) roots, the procedure described in Case 1 can be applied.
Example 13.7 The Laplace transform is Xp

A p
p2

. Determine the
3
B p p p 1 2

decomposition into partial fractions.

Solution Let us consider equation Bp p3 p 12 0. This equation has root
p1 0 of the multiplicity s 3 and root p2 1 of multiplicity s 2. The
Heaviside decomposition X( p) as a sum of partial fractions is
X p

A p
p2
A11 A12 A13
A21
A22

3 2

Bp p3 p 12
p
p
p
p 1 2 p 1

13.2

Heaviside Method

495

The constants A1k, A2k are found by formulas



p

2

2,

A11 p  p1 3 Xp p  03
2
2 
3
p p 1
p 1 p 0
( "
#)
i

dh
d 3
d p2
3
A12
p X p
p  p1 X p
3,
dp
dp
dp p 12
p p1
( "
#)


 1 d2 p 2
1 d2
1 d2  3
3
A13
p  p1 X p
p X p
4,
2! dp2
2 dp2
2 dp2 p 12
p p1

p 2
2
A21 p 1 Xp 3 
1,
p pp
2



d
d p2
2
A22 p 1 Xp
4:
dp
dp p3
p p2
p2

Thus,
X p

p2
p3 p

2
3 4
1
4
:
 2 

2
3
p
p
p p 1
p 1

The original of each term can be found using Table A.2, Appendix. Generally,
depending on the roots of the denominator of (13.12) in the expansion of the
fraction (13.13), we can expect to see the following types of partial fractions:
1

A
B
Ap b
Ap b
; 2
, b2  4c < 0; 4
:
s ; 3
2
2
pa
p  a
p bp c
p bp cs

Here, A, B, b, c are real numbers, and s is a natural number. Detailed tables can be
found in [35].
Let us show the application of the Laplace transform for deriving Duhamels
integral. The behavior of the linear oscillator is described by equation
mx kx f t:

13:18a

The initial conditions are x0 x0 , x_ 0 0 . In order to nd the response x(t) of

a system subjected to arbitrary excitation f(t), we will apply the Laplace transform
to both sides of (13.18a)
Lmx kx Lf t:

13:18b

The initial conditions can be taken into account according to (13.8):

Lx p2 Xp  px0  0 . Therefore, from (13.18b) we get


m p2 Xp  px0  0 kXp Fp, or
mp2 kXp  mpx0  m0 Fp;

13:19

496

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

where X( p) and F( p) are images of the response and excitation, respectively. The
solution to this equation is
X p

mpx0
m0
F p
2
2
:
2
mp k mp k mp k

13:20

To nd the response of the system, we need to apply the inverse Laplace transform
1

1

L X p  L


mpx0
m0
F p

:
mp2 k mp2 k mp2 k

13:21

According to Table A.1,

we get


mpx0
p
p
1
1
L
L
x0 cos t,

x
The rst term L1
0
0
p2 k=m
p 2 2
mp2 k
k
2 ;
m


m0
1
1
1
The second term L1
L
0 sin t;

0
2 2
p

mp2
k


The

third

L1

term

Fp
1
1 Fp
1 1 Fp
L1  2

L
mp2 k
m
p 2
m
p2 2


1 1

L Fp  2
.
m
p 2
The last expression represents the convolution integral; therefore,

1


t
F p
1
f sin t  d:

mp2 k
m
0

The last term presents the Duhamel integral, and Greens function becomes
1
sin t  . The general solution is the well-known expression
Gt 
m
t
o
1
xt x0 cos t sin t
f sin t  d:
m

13:22

Derivation of the Duhamel integral and Greens function for (13.18a) using Fourier
transform will be presented in Sect. 14.1.3, Example 14.5.
Example 13.8 A body of mass m is attached to a spring of stiffness k. The body is
subjected to an impulse forced excitation Ft F0 t, where (t) is unit impulse
or delta function (Dirac delta function). Determine the motion of the body.
Solution The differential equation of motion for the body is mx kx F0 t.
The Laplace transform is
Lmx kx LF0 t:

13.2

Heaviside Method

497

In the general case, the initial conditions are x0 x0 and x_ 0 0 , so the

Laplace transform procedure leads to the following equation for the Laplace
transform X( p) of the response x(t):


m p2 Xp  px0  0 kXp F0  1:
If the initial conditions are x0 0 0, then the image of the response becomes
X p

F0
k
, 2 :
2
m

13:23

mp2

In fact, the expression (13.23) is the transfer function for the given system.
In order to nd the required motion, i.e., the original x(t), apply the inverse
Laplace transform


F0
xt L1 Xp L1
:
m p 2 2
Finally, we obtain
F0
F0
sin t:
xt p sin t
m
mk
Example 13.9 A body of mass m is attached to an un-stretched spring of
stiffness k. The body is subjected to non-periodic force Ft F0 t cos t.
Determine the motion of the body if the initial conditions are x0 0 0 [8].
Solution The differential equation of the body motion is mx kx F0 t cos t.
The Laplace transform is
Lmx kx LF0 t cos t:
Taking into account zero initial conditions, the Laplace transform leads to the
following relationships:
mp2 Xp kXp F0

p2  2
p 2 2 2

The image of the response X( p) becomes

X p

F0
p 2  2
:
m p2 2 2 p2 k=m

13:24a

In order to present the right part of (13.24a) in tabulated form, expand this
expression into partial fractions as follows:
p 2  2
p2

2 2 p2

k=m

Ap B
Cp D
Ep H
:

p2 2 p2 2 2 p2 k=m

13:24b

498

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

To determine the unknown coefcients A, B, . . ., H, we need to reduce the right part

of (13.24b) to a common denominator, and then in the left and right sides of the
obtained identity to equate the coefcients at the same powers of operator p:
A E 0,
B H 0,


k
2
A
C 2E2 0,
m


k
B 2
D 2H2 1,
m
k
k
A2 C E4 0,
m
m
k
k
B2 D H4 2 :
m
m
The solutions to these equations are
A C E 0,

B H

k=m 2
k=m  2

,
2

D

22
:
k=m  2

If we substitute these coefcients into (13.24b), then the L1 procedure leads to the
expression for a response of the system
xt


F0
sin t
sin t  t cos t
sin kt
D
B

23
k
m

After simple transformations, we nally obtain

p
F0
F0 k m2 sin k=mt
p :
xt
sin t
t cos t 
k  m2
k=m
k  m2 2
k  m2 2
2mF0

The next example shows the advantage of the Laplace transform for the analysis of
transient vibration caused by impact excitation; this case corresponds to non-zero
initial conditions.
Example 13.10 A device of weight W mg is placed into an absolutely rigid
container and is connected to it by an elastic element of stiffness k (Fig. 13.3). The
container falls from a height h onto a hard surface [1]. The damping and a local
deformation of the container and surface are neglected. We must determine the
motion of the mass m.
The equation of motion of the device caused by the shock of the container is
mx kx 0;

13:25a

13.2

Heaviside Method

499

Fig. 13.3 Elastic

suspension of a device
in a container

x
m

k
h

where x is measured from a static equilibrium position. The initial displacement of

the device due to the deformation of elastic elements is
x0 x0 stat 

W
mg
g

 2,
k
k

k
,
m



g 9:81 m=s2 :

Thus, the device falls from a height

0

h h  stat h 

g
:
2

13:25b

Therefore, the velocity of the device at the time of the collision of the container with
the hard surface, i.e., the initial velocity, is
q
0
x_ 0 x_ 0 2gh :
The Laplace transform of the equation (13.25a), according to (Example 13.4 and
formula 13.25b), is
1
p
1
mpx0 mx_ 0 2
x0 2
x_ 0
mp2 k
p 2
p 2
q
 g
p
1
0
2


2gh :
p 2
2
p 2 2

X p

The response of the system is xt L1 fXpg. This procedure leads to the
following result:
s
p0
0
g
2gh
g2
2gh
sin t  2 cos t
xt
4 sin t  ,
2

g
tan p0:
2gh

13:25c

Using (13.25b), the response (13.25c) may be rewritten in term of h as follows:

r
2gh g2
x t
 sin t  A sin t  ,
2 4

g
A 2

s
2h2
 1:
g
13:25d

500

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

Successive derivation of expression (13.25d) leads to the formulas for the velocity
x_ t and acceleration xt. Overload of the device is xt 2 A sin t  .
The maximum overload is
xmax

s
2h2
 1:
Ag
g
2

The relative maximum overload of the device m is

xmax

s
2h2
 1:
g

Suppose that the maximum overload is equal to n, i.e.,

s
2h2
 1 n:
g
Solve this equation with respect to the frequency of free vibration of the device
n2 1g
. The corresponding stiffness of the elastic element which leads to
2
2h
the required overload n is
k

mn2 1g
:
2h

If n 10, h 1:5 m, then 2 330s2 . In this case, the static displacement

of the device is st g=2 0:02967m, while the dynamic amplitude displacement becomes
din

p p
2gh  st =2 2g1:5  0:02967=330 0:2956m:

If there is no rebound of the container, then the maximum relative displacement of

the device is 2din 0:5912m.
To reduce the dynamic relative displacement of the device, it is necessary to
increase the natural frequency of vibration ; this will inevitably lead to an increase
in overload n of the device [1].
Advantages of the Laplace Transform Method
1. This method allows the integrating procedure of the linear differential equations
to be reduced to algebraic operations.
2. The method makes it easy to take into account the initial conditions and the
different types of excitations, in particular the discontinuous and non-elementary
excitations.

13.3

Active Suppression of Transient Vibration

501

3. The method allows us to nd steady-state and transient motion independently

of each other.
4. The presence of extensive reference literature can signicantly facilitate
analytical solutions.
Short Historical Remark The integral transform was introduced by Laplace in
1812. Heaviside was the rst to show that a solution of certain mathematical
physics problems can be reduced to specic algebraic operations (1893, 1894);
these methods and rules were not reasonably clear. Bromwich explained
Heavisides method and rules from the point of view of functions of a complex
variable (1916). Carson established a link between the Heaviside calculus and the
functional Laplace transform (1922). Van der Pol, Carson, Niessen, Koisumi,
Doetsch, Lurie, Carslaw, Jaeger, etc. expanded the information about functional
transformations and applied them to solve particular problems. The general theory
of the new method and the collections of results of many authors is called operational
calculus. Fundamental properties of the Laplace transform are presented in [3].
A short list of original functions and their transforms are presented in [9]. Detailed
tables are presented in [35]. For practical applications of this powerful method, the
authors recommend the books by Carslaw and Jaeger [2] and Doetsch [3], among
others. The application of the Laplace transform to the problems of mechanics is
presented by Lurie [10]. This a classical book containing a vast number of examples
related to mechanics of materials, vibration of systems with lumped parameters, and
continuous systems, including strings, rods, membranes, and plates, as well as
problems of hydrodynamics.

13.3

Active Suppression of Transient Vibration

Here a system with one degree of freedom is considered. The system is subjected to
step and impulse excitation (Heaviside and Dirac excitation). We discuss the
problem of complete suppression of transient vibration by incorporating active
vibration protection kinematic exposure.

13.3.1 Step Excitation

The damped mass-spring system is subjected to force step excitation Ft W 0 H t
which is applied to the mass m at the moment t 0 and kinematic step excitation
yt y0 Ht  t0 , which is applied to the support at time t0 (Fig. 13.4a, b). Let us
consider each of these excitations separately.
1. The system is subjected to step dynamic excitation W0H(t). The mathematical
model of the system is

502

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

c
a

F (t )

x(t )

b
x (t )

b
y0 H (t - t0 )

W0

2xstat

W0 H (t - 0)
t0

y0

x1 = xstat (1- cosw t)

x(t )
2xstat

xstat
t

xstat

t0

y0 H (t - t0)

t0

x2 = - xstat(1- cosw t)

Fig. 13.4 Active suppression of the transient vibration. (a) Design diagram; (b) The system is
subjected to step force and step displacement of support; (c) Displacement due to force (solid line)
and displacement due to kinematic exposure (dotted line); (d) Resulting displacement of the mass

mx bx_ kx W 0 Ht;

13:26a

0 t < 0,
1 t  0:
The positive direction for x(t) is shown in Fig. 13.4a. The mathematical model
is rewritten as follows:
where H(t) is a Heaviside function, i.e., Ht

x 2nx_ 2 x wH t,

2n

b
,
m

k
,
m

W0
:
m

13:26b

The initial condition is x0 x_ 0 0. The Laplace transform of (13.26b) is



L x 2nx_ 2 x LfwH tg

or


w
p2 2np 2 X1 p :
p

13:27

The image of the displacement mass x(t) is

1
X1 p w 2
:
pp 2np 2

13:28

This expression is not tabulated; therefore, we expand it in the following partial

fractions:
1
A
Bp C

:
pp2 2np 2 p p2 2np 2

13:29

From (13.29) we get



1 A p2 2np 2 Bp Cp:
For determination of unknowns A, B, C, we apply the method of partial
values [8]
1
;
2
If p 1, then 1 A1 2n 2 B C;
If p 1, then 1 A1  2n 2 B  C.

If p 0, then A

13.3

Active Suppression of Transient Vibration

503

We substitute the expression for A into the last two relationships and solve
1
2n
them. Finally, we obtain B  2 , C  2 . Now the image of the response

takes the form


w 1
p 2n
X 1 p 2  2
:
p p 2np 2
Since p2 2pn 2 p n2 2  n2 , then X1( p) may be presented as
follows:
"
#
w 1
pn
n
X1 p 2


:
p p n2 2  n2 p n2 2  n2

13:30a

The inverse Laplace transform is

(
L1 fX1 pg L1

"
#)
w 1
pn
n


:
2 p p n 2 2  n 2 p n 2 2  n 2

The original response becomes

x1 t


p
p 
w
n
nt
2  n2 t p sin 2  n2 t
1

e
cos

:
2
2  n 2

13:30b

This expression describes the transient vibration around the static equilibrium
w
W0
.
position xstat 2

k
Determine the maximum displacement and corresponding dynamic coefcient. For this purpose we will consider equation x_ t 0, which leads to
p
sin t 0, 2  n2 . Maximum displacement occurs at t ; therefore,


xmax xstat 1 en= , and the dynamic coefcient becomes
xmax =xstat 1 en= :
Since the transient process is short in duration, damping does not have time to
manifest. Assume that b 0, so n 0. In this case, the dynamic coefcient
becomes max 1 e0 2, and for the corresponding xt x1 t we get
x1 t

W0
1  cos t:
k

13:31

The graph of the vibration is shown in Fig. 13.4c by a solid line. If t0 2=,
then xt0 x_ t0 0.
2. Kinematic excitation. First, we consider the auxiliary problem: the kinematic
step excitation y y0 Ht  0 is applied to the support at time t 0 in the

504

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

positive direction. At this moment. the initial conditions are xt0 x_ t0 0

[1]. The state of the system is described by the equation mx kx  y, where
x  y is the relative displacement of object m. In this case we get
mx kx ky0 Ht. The Laplace transform is
Lfmx kxg Lfky0 Htg,

or


1
mp2 k X2 p ky0 :
p

13:32

The image of the displacement x(t) is

X2 p ky0

1
2

y
:
0
pmp2 k
pp2 2

This equation can be expanded in the following partial fractions:

2
A
B
1
p
2
 2
:
2
2
2
p p 2
pp p p
The displacement is



1
p
y0  2
:
xt L fX2 pg L
p p 2
1

1

Finally, for the displacement of the mass m we obtain expression

x2 t y0 1  cos t:

13:33a

Now assume that the displacement of the support occurs at time t0, i.e.,
yt y0 H t  t0 . In this case, (13.33a) should be modied as follows:
x2 t y0 f1  cos t  1  cos t  t0 H t  t0 g:

13:33b

Thus the resulting motion of the mass is caused by two effects. They are the load
which is suddenly applied and then remains on the mass constantly,
Ft W 0 H t  0, and the kinematic excitation yt y0 H t  t0 . Assume
that y(t) occurs at time
t0 2=. In this case, the function
1  cos t  t0 H t  t0  coincides with function 1  cos t, but is shifted
right by one period. Let the amplitude of the displacement of the support be
y0 xstat W 0 =k. The graph of the vibration x2(t) due to the displacement of
support y y0 H t  t0 is shown in Fig. 13.4c by a dotted line.
The compensation zone of force action starts at t0 2= and continues to
innity (Fig. 13.4c). The compensation effect of the forced excitation by the
kinematic exposure can be explained as follows. At time t0 just before the
kinematic excitation is applied, the displacement and velocity of mass m are

13.3

Active Suppression of Transient Vibration

505

xt0 x_ t0 0, the spring is not deformed, and the object is subjected only to
the force W0. If the displacement of the support is y0 xstat W 0 =k, then starting at
t t0 , we have the relationship x1 t x2 t. Indeed, at t t0 , the deformation of
the spring equals y0 , and the corresponding force at the spring is ky0 W 0 ,
which compensates the given force W0. Therefore, starting from the moment t0, the
position of the mass m becomes xed. As such, the mass is not in the new position
of static equilibrium x xstat , but in the original position, i.e., at x 0 (Fig. 13.4d).
Thus we observe total suppression of vibration. This example clearly shows
implementation of active compensation of dynamic excitation F(t) by kinematic
exposure y(t).

13.3.2 Impulse Excitation

The un-damped mass-spring system is subjected to impulse forced excitation Ft
Jt  0 at time t 0 and kinematic impulse excitation yt y0 t  t0 which
is applied to the support at time t0 (Fig. 13.5a, b).
Generally, the function t  T is called the unit impulse function, or the Dirac
-function. The fundamental properties of this function are as follows [1]:
1.
2.

t  T 0 for t 6 T;
1

t  T dt 1;
0
1

f tt  T dt f T .

3.
0

The last property means that behavior of this function is similar to a lter. The
Laplace transform of the -function is Lft  0g 1; Lft  t0 g ept0 .
Consider each excitation F(t) and y(t) separately.
1. The un-damped mass-spring system is subjected to impulse forced excitation J,
which is applied to the mass m at the moment t 0. The mathematical model of
the system is
mx kx Jt  0

13:34

The positive direction of displacement x is shown in Fig. 13.5a.

The Laplace transform is Lfmx kxg LfJt  0g. Let the initial conditions be x0 x_ 0 0; therefore.



mp2 k X1 p J  1

The image of the response x1(t) of mass m is

506

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

c
F (t ) = Jd (t - 0)
m

x (t )

x(t )

x1 =

J
sin w t
mw

x(t )
J mw

Jd (t - 0)
0

t0

y0d (t - t0 )

y0 d (t - t0 )

t0
x2 = -

t0

ky0
sin(w t - p )
mw

Fig. 13.5 Active suppression of transient vibration. (a) Design diagram of the system; (b) the
system is subjected to impulse force Ft Jt  0 and impulse displacement of support yt
y0 t  t0 ; (c) displacement x1(t) caused by force F(t) and x2(t) caused by impulse displacement
y0 J=k at t0 =; (d) resulting displacement x(t) of the mass m

X1 p

J
1
J

,
m p2 2 m p2 2

k
m

The inverse Laplace transform, i.e., the displacement due to impulse excitation
which acts on the mass m, is
x1 t xJ t L1 fX1 pg L1

J
sin t,
m

t > 0:

m p2 2

13:35

The motion of the system is harmonic and occurs around the static equilibrium
position x 0 with natural frequency and amplitude J/m. This graph is
shown by the solid curve in Fig. 13.5c.
Here we note an important relationship. For this, let us return to the problem
considered in Sect. 13.3.1. The response of the system subjected to the step
excitation (Heaviside excitation), according to (13.31), is
xS t
W0
1  cos t ; the superscript S refers to a step excitation. The system
k
response to the unit step excitation W 0 1 at zero initial conditions is referred
to as a transient function of the system and is identied by h(t). The system
response to the Dirac -function excitation (unit impulse excitation) at zero
initial conditions is referred to as an impulse transient function (or weight
function of a system) and is identied by K(t). Thus, if J W 0 1, then ht
1
1
sin t: In this partial case as well as in the
1  cos t, and K t
k
m
general case, the transient function of the system and impulse transient function
satisfy the fundamental relationship [6]
K t

dht
:
dt

13:36

13.3

Active Suppression of Transient Vibration

507

2. Now consider the kinematic excitation. The support of a system at time t0 is

subjected to impulse displacement yt y0 t  t0 in the negative direction
(Fig. 13.5a) [8]. The relative displacement of the object is x  y, so the
mathematical model becomes mx kx y, y y0 t  t0 , so we get
mx kx ky0 t  t0 :

13:37

The initial conditions for this stage of loading are determined according to
(13.35) at t t0 . Assume that t0 =. Thus we get xt0 0, x_ t0 J=m.
The Laplace transform is Lfmx kxg Lfky0 t  t0 g. According to
(13.8) we get
mp2 Xp  mx_ t0 kX2 p ky0 ept0 :
The second term takes into account a non-zero initial condition. After the
rearrangement, we obtain



mp2 k X2 p J ky0 ept0 :

The image of the response x2(t) of mass m is

X 2 p

ky0 ept0  J
ky ept0
J

 0 2

:
2
mp k
m p 2 m p2 2

The inverse Laplace transform, i.e., the displacement due to impulse excitation
acting on the support, is


ky ept0
J


x2 t L1 fX2 pg L1  0 2
m p 2 m p2 2


ky0
J
sin t:
sin t  t0 
m
m

In short form,
x2 t x2 y0 x1 J :

13:38

The term x1(J) takes into account the initial conditions at t t0 , which are the
result of force impulse excitation on the mass m at t 0 ; the term x2(y0)
describes the vibration caused by the impulse displacement of the support at
t t0 . If the impulse displacement of the base y0 and impulse J of the force are
J
related by y0 , then the impulse displacement of the support yt
k
y0 t  t0 , t0 = has a compensating effect. Indeed, in this case,
x2 t 


ky0

J
sin t  0;
sin t 


m
m

13:39

508

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

Therefore, from the moment of t0 =, the mass m is at rest; thus we observe

complete active suppression of vibration (Fig. 13.5d).

13.4

Parametric Vibration Suppression

Here we consider transient vibration of a system with one degree of freedom,

subjected to two types of excitation:. recurrent instantaneous pulses and recurrent
rectangular pulses of nite duration. We show that for certain parameters of the
system, it is possible to signicantly reduce the level of vibration.

13.4.1 Recurrent Instantaneous Pulses

The un-damped mass-spring system is subjected to periodic impulses J, which act
at interval . During the shock excitation, neither the nonlinear phenomena nor the
dissipation energy have time to develop. Therefore, the differential equation is
written in the form mx kx Ft. The periodic impulse excitation may be
presented in analytical form using the Dirac delta -function as follows:
Ft J t  0 t  t  2   :

13:40

If the initial conditions are x0 x_ 0 0, the Laplace transform Lfmx kxg

LfFtg becomes





mp2 k Xp J 1 ep e2p   

13:41

The image of the displacement of the mass m is

X p


J 
1 ep e2p   
mp2 k

J 1 ep e2p   
,

m
p 2 2

k

m

13:42

The inverse Laplace transform leads to the following expression for the response:
x t

J
sin t sin t  sin t  2   
m

13:43

The response of the system depends on the relationship between time interval of
the applied impulse load J and frequency of free vibration of the system.
2
Let time interval T , where T is the period of free vibration (Fig. 13.6a).

Now we will consider some intervals of time t.

13.4

Parametric Vibration Suppression

Fig. 13.6 Recurrent

impulse J and
corresponding response x(t).
Case (a): T; Case (b):
T/2, T 2/

509

a
J

t =T

x(t)

pw

b
J

t =T 2

1
T

J
3

x(t)

pw

2
J
T. In this case, xt
sin t.

m
2
4
 t  . In this case,
2. Second interval (24)



J
2
xt
sin t sin t 
m

1. First interval (02) 0  t 

J
2J
sin t sin t cos 2  cos t sin 2 
sin t:
m
m

4
6
 t  . In this case,





J
2
4
3J
xt
sin t sin t 
sin t:
sin t 

3. Third interval

The corresponding response x(t) is shown in Fig. 13.6a. Thus, if the interval
p
between two successive impulses is equal to the period of free vibration 2 m=k,
an unlimited growth of amplitudes occurs in system.
T
Let time interval (Fig. 13.6b). The response of the system at different
2
intervals is as follows:

J
1. First interval (01) 0  t  . In this case, xt
sin t.

2
2. Second interval (12)  t  . In this case,


J h
i
x t
sin t sin t 
m

J
sin t sin t cos  cos t sin  0:

510

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

2
3
 t  . In this case,




J

2
xt
sin t sin t 
sin t 
m





J

2
sin t sin t 

sin t 
m

J
sin t:
0 sin t cos 2  cos t sin 2 
m

3. Third interval (23)

Thus, if the interval between two successive impulses is equal to half the period
p
of natural vibration T=2 m=k, then periodic repetitive modes of operation
occur in the system. The duration of each mode is T/2. Within all odd intervals (01,
23, 45, . . .), vibration occurs by a harmonic law with a constant amplitude
J/(m), while in all the even intervals (12, 34, 56, . . ..), the displacement of
mass m is absent (Fig. 13.6b).

13.4.2 Recurrent Impulses of Finite Duration

The un-damped mass-spring system is subjected to periodic rectangular impulses of
intensity F0. The duration of each impulse and the time between two successive
impulses is equal to (Fig. 13.7a). The differential equation of motion is
mx kx f t. The periodic discontinuous excitation may be presented in analytical form using the Heaviside H-function as follows:
Ft F0 H t  0  H t  H t  2  H t  3   :

13:44

Here the rst term in the brackets is the unit step function that starts at t 0 and
continues indenitely to the right. The second term describes the negative unit step
function that starts at t and continues indenitely. Starting at t , both
functions compensate each other; as result we obtain a rectangular unit function
in the interval 0  . The following two terms in the expression (13.44) describe a
unit step function in the interval 2  3.
If initial conditions are x0 x_ 0 0, then the Laplace transform Lfmx kxg
LfFtg becomes



1  ep e2p  e3p   
mp2 k Xp F0
:
p

13.4

Parametric Vibration Suppression

511

F0

2t

x(t)
4 xst

3t

t=

4t

T p
=
2 w

2 xst
xst

5t

2t

3t

4t

t ( factor p w)

-2 xst
- 4 xst

F0

0
x(t)
2 xst
xst

6t

2p
t =T = w

1
T

t (factor p w )

Fig. 13.7 Recurrent rectangular impulse F0 and corresponding response x(t): a

b 2=; xst F0 =k, 2 k=m

=,

The image of the displacement of the mass m is

X p F0

1  ep e2p  e3p   

pmp2 k

F0 1  ep e2p  e3p   

,
p p 2 2
m

k
:
m

The inverse Laplace transform leads to the following expression for the response:
F0
xt
m2

1  cos t  1  cos t   1  cos t  2

1  cos t  3   

)
:

13:45

512

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

Let time interval

T
. The response of the system at the different intervals is
2

as follows:

1. First interval (01) 0  t  . In this case,

xt

f0
1  cos t xst 1  cos t,
m

xst

F0
:
k

2
 t  . In this case,

h

F0 n
io
xt
1  cos t  1  cos t 
2xst cos t:

2. Second interval (12)

3. Third interval (23)

xt

2
3
 t  . In this case,



h

F0
i
2
1  cos t  1  cos t 
1  cos t 

xst 1  3 cos t:
4. Fourth interval (34)

3
4
 t  . In this case,


 9
h

i
2 >
>
>
>
1  cos t 
>
> 1  cos t  1  cos t 
=

F0 <
x t



>
k>
3
>
>
>
>
 1  cos t 
;
:

4 xst cos t:
The corresponding response x(t) is shown in Fig. 13.7a. Thus, if the system
parameters m and k and the duration of each rectangular impulse are related as
p
m=k, an unlimited growth of vibration occurs in the system.
2
Let time interval T
(Fig. 13.7b). The response of the system at the

different intervals is as follows:

1. First interval (02) 0  t 
xt

2
. In this case,

F0
1  cos t xst 1  cos t,
m

xst

F0
:
k

Problems

513

2
4
 t  . In this case,


 
F0
2
x t
1  cos t  1  cos t 
0:

2. Second interval (24)

4
6
 t  . In this case,






F0
2
4
xt
1  cos t  1  cos t 
1  cos t 

3. Third interval (46)

xst 1  cos t:
Thus, if the parameters of a system m and k and the duration of each rectangular
p
impulse is related as 2 m=k, then two alternating modes occur in the
system. Within the loading intervals (02), (46), . . ., vibrations obey xt
xst 1  cos t, while within the intervals (24), (68), ...., which are free from
loading, the system is at rest. Thus parametric vibration protection allows us to
restrict the maximum value of displacement and even to create periodic time
intervals for which the dynamical system will be at rest. As result of parametric
vibration protection, the vibrational stress level on the system will be attenuated.

Problems
13.1. Describe what is meant by transient and impulse transient functions, and
explain the relation between them.
13.2. Describe the Dirac delta function and its fundamental properties.
13.3. Explain the Laplace transform and its fundamental properties.
13.4. Describe the advantages of the Laplace method and restrictions of its
application.
13.5. Explain the meaning of the Heaviside decomposition method. Describe
different partial cases.
13.6. Find the Laplace transform for the function shown in Fig. P13.6.
f(t)
a2

a3

a1
a0
0
Fig. P13.6

514

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

13.7. Find the Laplace transform for the function shown in Fig. P13.7.
Hint: Show graph f0 (t) and take into account
t
f 0 0,

f t f tdt,

0
1 h 0 i
Lf t L f t :
p

Answer: Fp

a
1  ep .
p
f(t)

Fig. P13.7

13.8. A periodic step function with period 2 and amplitude 1 is shown in

Fig. P13.8. Find the Laplace transform.
Hint:
f t 0 t  2 0 t  2 0 t  2  2 0 t  3   
Answer:
Fp 1  2ep 2e2p  2e3p   

f(t)
1

0
-1
Fig. P13.8

2t

3t

4t

5t

1  ep
1 ep

Problems

515

13.9. An image function is Fp

5p2 5p 10

. Expand this expression by the

p p 2 2
Heaviside method and determine the original of the function f(t).

5=2
10
5=2

:

2
p
p2
p 2
5
5
f t L1 fFpg  10t e2t e2t
2
2
1
13.10. Find the inverse Laplace transform of Fp
2
pp 2p 2
Answer:

LfFpg

Hint: Take into account that the denominator of has a pair of complex
conjugate roots.
1 1
1
Answer: f t  et sin t  et cos t, t  0:
2 2
2
p2
13.11. Find the inverse Laplace transform of Fp
pp 1p 3
x 4x_ 40x
13.12. Solve differential equation

 0, x0 x0 , x_ 0 0
1
Answer: xt e2t sin 6t cos 6t x0 :
3
13.13. A dynamical system is described by differential equation
y a1 y_ a0 y b1 x_ b0 x. The initial conditions are y0 y0 , y_ 0
y1 , x0 0. Determine the Laplace transform of the solution.
b1 p bo
p a1
1
y ,
X p
y
Dp
Dp 0 Dp 1
Dp p2 a1 p a0 .
13.14. A process is described by differential equation x 3x_ 2x e3t . The
initial conditions are x0 0, x_ 0 0. Determine the image and the
original of the solution.
Answer: Y p

1 p
1 p
p
1
1


, xt e3t et  e2t .
2p 3 2p 1 p 2
2
2
13.15. A dynamical system m1  k  m2 is subjected to unit impulse excitation
F0(t) (Fig. P13.15). Determine the response if the initial conditions are
zeroes.
Answer: Xp

Answer:


F0
m2
t
sin t ;
x 1 t
m1 m2
m1


F0
1
m1 m2
t  sin t , 2 k
x2 t

m1 m2
m1 m2

516

13 Active and Parametric Vibration Protection of Transient Vibrations

x2

x1
F0 d (t)

m1

m2

Fig. P13.15

13.16. Consider Sect. 13.3.1 and formulate the duality problem (treat kinematic
excitation yt y0 H t  0 as the source of vibration, and Ft W 0 H
t  t0 as the force vibration protection exposure)
13.17. Find the response x(t) of a mechanical bmk system subjected to the force
unit step input (Fig. P13.17). Initial conditions are x0 x_ 0
0, y0 0. Apply the Laplace transform.
bp
mp2 bp k
q
2
xt p e0 t sin 0 1  2 t
1  2
Answer:
p
0 k=m, 20 b=m

Hint: mx bx_  y_ kx by_: ; Xp

Unit step input

y(t)

b
m

x(t)

Fig. P13.17

13.18*. A dynamical system is described by equation mx bx_ cx f sin t.

Determine the solution at x0 x_ 0 0. Separate the transient and
steady-state vibrations.
Hint. (1) Laplace transform Lmx bx_ cx Lf sin t ; (2) Image
solution X( p) and it decomposition of a fraction
X p

p2

h
Ap B
Cp D
 2
2
;
2
2
2
p
p 2np k2
p 2np k

(3) Determination of unknown parameters A, B, C, D; (4) Inverse Laplace

transform.
p
Answer: k2 c=m, 2n b=m, k1 k2  n2 , n < k, h f =m;

References

517

8 2
9

k  2 sin t  2n cos t
>
>
<
=
h


xt
:

 2
2 > nt  2

2n2  k2
sin k1 t 2n cos k1 t >
;
4n2 2 k  2 : e
k1

13.19. Solve Problem 13.18 if damping is neglected b 0.

h 

sin
kt
.
Answer: xt 2
sin
t

k
k  2
13.20. Solve Problem 13.19 for the case of resonance k.
Hint: Apply the LHopitals rule.


h 1
Answer: xt
sin t  t cos t .
2k k

References
1. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
2. Carslaw, H. S., & Jaeger, J. C. (1945). Operational methods in applied mathematics. London:
Oxford University Press.
3. Doetsch, G. (1974). Introduction to the theory and application of the Laplace transformation.
Berlin: Springer.
4. Abramowitz, M., & Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). (1970). Handbook of Mathematical Functions with
Formulas, Graphs and Mathematical Tables. National Bureau of Standards, Applied Mathematics Series, 55, 9th Printing.
5. Korn, G. A., & Korn, T. M. (2000) Mathematical handbook (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Book/
Dover, New York. (Original work published 1968)
6. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow: Nauka.
7. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). New York: PrenticeHall.
8. Bat, M. I., Dzhanelidze, G. Y., & Kelzon, A. S. (1973). Theoretical mechanics (Special
topics, Vol. 3). Moscow: Nauka.
9. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill,
New York.
10. Lurie, A. I. (1938 or after). Operational calculus and application to the mechanical problems.
L-M.: .

Chapter 14

Shock and Spectral Theory

I have concluded that this question of impulse forces is

theoryvery obscure, and I think that, up to the present, none
of those who have treated this subject have been able to clear
up its dark corners which lie almost beyond the reach of
human imagination.
Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences Galileo Galilei
(1638)

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of one degree of freedom systems subjected
to shock excitation [1, 2, 3], etc. Some important concepts are discussed, among
which are types of shock excitation and different approaches to the shock problem.
Fourier transformation of aperiodic functions and corresponding concepts are
considered and are then applied to the shock phenomenon. The spectral shock
theory method and the concepts of residual and primary shock spectrums are
discussed [4]. The transient vibration caused by different force and kinematic
shock excitation (Heaviside step excitation, step excitation of nite duration,
impulse excitation) are considered. Dynamic and transmissibility coefcients are
derived and discussed in detail.

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

Shock is a phenomenon in which the velocities of the points of a system undergo a

nite change in a very small impact time. The forces that arise during the shock are
called impact impulse forces, or forces of impact; these forces may reach very large
values.

14.1.1 Types of Shock Exposures

Shock excitation can be of dynamic or kinematic character. Examples of shock
exposures are the action of a blast wave on an object, landing of a plane, or seismic
Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_14

519

520

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

excitation on a support of the object. The phenomenon of shock occurs in the case
of sudden imposition (or elimination) of constraints [5]. Kinematic exposure can be
presented as a displacement of support, its velocity or acceleration [6], or in the
form of the nth derivative of support displacement [4]. Shock excitation leads to
vibration of a system.
There are different assessments of the impact time. Mechanical exposure can be
treated as a shock if the impact time is comparable with the period of free vibration
of the system, or with the minimum partial period of vibration in the case of a
system with a nite number of degrees of freedom. Therefore, the same excitation
(for example, dropping of a body onto a structure) can be considered a shock
exposure (if the period of free vibration of the structure is small) or non-shocked.
The graph of shock interaction (t) is shown in Fig. 14.1a. In the case of dynamic
interaction, (t) is a force F(t) acting on the object, called an impact force, while in
the case of kinematic excitation, (t) is the acceleration of support w(t), but can also
be velocity or displacement. Shock interaction increases from zero to a maximum
value and then decreases rapidly to zero. A shock excitation can be described in the
time domain by the parameters of the amplitude, duration, and form [6].
In many instances, detailed knowledge of (t) as a function of time is not
required. Therefore, various approximating graphs of the shock excitation are
introduced in practice. These include impulse excitation (Dirac excitation) and
short-duration excitation of a constant intensity (Heviaside excitation) [2, 6].
Some of these are shown in Fig. 14.2; they were used in Chap. 13.
The integral characteristic of the shock excitation may be presented in the form
t
S tdt:

14:1

In case of dynamic shock t Ft, the integral (14.1) represents the impulse SF
of the force F(t); units of SF are F  T . In case of kinematic shock, (t) is
Fig. 14.1 Types of shock
excitation: (a) force
acting on the object; (b)
acceleration of support,
as a function of time

w (t)

F (t)

1
t

1
a

Fig. 14.2 Standard excitations: (a) unity step excitation; (b) unity shifted step excitation; (c)
short-term unity exposure of duration ; (d) shifted unity impulse

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

521

acceleration, i.e., t xt. By analogy with the dynamic shock,

 we denote
 the
L
L
integral (14.1) as Sx and call it acceleration impulse; units of Sx 2  T
.
T
T
The purpose of the analysis of a system subjected to shock excitation may be
different. These may include determination of relative and absolute displacement
(acceleration) of the object or the forces transmitted to the base. These expressions,
in the framework of the adopted model object + vibration protection device, allow
us to evaluate the inuence of parameters of the model on the vibration process and
to nd parameters, which lead to reduction of vibrations and their harmful effects.
A more complex formulation of the problem requires optimization not only of the
system parameters within the accepted structure of the vibration protection device,
but also the structure of the VP device itself [7].

14.1.2 Different Approaches to the Shock Problem

To date, there have been various approaches for analysis of mechanical systems
under shock exposures. They are based on different assumptions that have allowed us
to construct the shock theories reecting their fundamental features. Here we briey
note the main concepts, the corresponding shock theories, and typical examples.
Reduction of the Shock Problems to the Forced Vibration In some cases the impact
forces can be regarded as external forces which do not depend on the mechanical
properties and the motion of a dynamical system. Let the force, which acts on a
system as a result of the shock, be represented graphically (Fig. 14.1a). Formally,
this impact force can be treated as external excitation, and the analysis of the forced
vibration can be performed using well-known methods, in particular the Laplace
transform or Duhamel integral [8]. However, a serious problem is then encountered,
which is the determination of the parameters of the impact force. The problem can
be simplied by applying the standardized exposures; these are the unit impulse and
unit step excitation, the impulse of nite duration, half-sinusoidal excitation, etc.
(Fig. 14.2). The same approach can be applied in case of the kinematic excitation
(Fig. 14.1b). The motion of the object presents a resultant motion consisting of
relative, transport, and absolute motion. In this case, the transport inertial forces, as
in the case of impact forces, lead to forced vibrations. In the general case of
resultant motion, we must not forget about Coriolis inertial forces [9].
Shock of a Rigid Body on a Massless Structure This theory is based on the
following assumptions: a heavy, absolutely rigid body collides with an elastic
massless structure, and then both body and structure move together. In other
words, the phenomenon of the bodys rebound from the structure is not taken into
account. In this formulation of the problem, the motion of the body on the elastic
structure executes a free vibration. Indeed, assume that the deformation of the
elastic system is indicated by x; the elastic force which acts on the mass m is then
kx, where k is a stiffness coefcient of the system. Therefore, kx mx leads to the

522

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

differential equation of free vibration mx kx 0. The initial conditions are

x0 0, x_ 0 0 , where 0 is the velocity of the body together with the elastic
system at the time of collision. The motion of the body obeys the law
p
xt 0 = sin t, k=m. The maximum displacement of the body and
the maximum force which arises in the elastic system are xmax 0 =, N max
p
kxmax 0 km, respectively. Displacement and elastic force reach maximum
value at time t T=4 after the moment of contact of the body with the structure,
where T 2= is a period of free vibration of a massless structure connected with
mass m of the body. A convenient method of determining the stiffness of the
deformable arbitrary system can be found in [10].
The maximum force which arises in the elastic structure can easily be determined by the method of energy balance (Cox, 1850) [11, 12]. Kinetic energy of the
body at the time of collision is T m20 =2. Potential energy of deformation in
the elastic structure is U kx2max =2. Relationship T U immediately leads to the
expression for xmax and then for the maximum force N max kxmax .
Let a body of mass m fall from height h onto the elastic massless structure
(Fig. 14.3).
p
In this case, the dynamic coefcient is x=xstat 1 1 2h=f stat , where
x is the amplitude of the displacement of the beam, and xstat is a static displacement
of the beam loaded by force F mg. Increasing the stiffness of the beam leads an
increase of the dynamic coefcient. If h 0, then dynamic coefcient 2; this
result corresponds to the sudden application of a load to the beam.
Fig. 14.3 Transverse shock
of a heavy rigid body on a
massless elastic beam

h
f

If the mass of the system M is comparable to the mass m of the falling body, then
the dynamic deection is determined by the formula [11, 12]
s
2
xst
x xst x2st 
:
g 1 k0 M=m
Coefcient k0 is the fraction of mass of the structure M that should be added to the
body mass m, in order for the structure to be considered a system with one degree of
freedom. If the body falls on the middle point of the uniform simply supported
beam then k0 17=35 [13].
Often the analysis of the more complicated systems, even under the above
assumptions, leads to the need to investigate differential equations motion of a
system [5]. Let a two-cascade vibration protection system include an object of mass
m and massless plate P (Fig. 14.4a). The body of mass M with given velocity
0 strikes the plate P and then moves together with it; the model of this system is

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

Fig. 14.4 Two-cascade

system of vibration
protection from shock
(a) and its mechanical
model (b)

523

a
M

k1
m

EI

k1

k2

x1
x2

k2eq

shown in Fig. 14.4b. The equivalent stiffness keq

2 takes into account the boundary
conditions of a beam, it exural stiffness EI, and the stiffness k2 of a spring; for
calculation keq
2 , we may apply the mechanical impedance method.
This impact problem can be analysed as follows: for given initial conditions
x1 0 x2 0 0, x_ 1 0 0 , we nd the laws of motion of each mass, then
determine the maximum displacements of both lumped masses, and nally calculate the corresponding forces that arise in the elastic elements.
The solution to the above considered problems about shock excitation on
massless structures can be performed by methods of classical theory of vibrations
without any additional assumptions.
Newtons Hypothesis in Impact Theory Problems Unlike the colliding of a body
and a massless structure, the next group of problems of shock theory deals with a
body of mass m1 colliding with a body of mass m2. The principal feature of these
types of problems lies in the fact that they cannot be solved in the frames of
mechanics of an absolutely rigid body. Let us try to solve the problem of changing
the velocity of the bodies as a result of the collision. We assume that two bodies of
masses m1 and m2 are moving in one direction (along the same line) with the
velocities 1 and 2. Assume that 1 > 2; otherwise the rst body will never catch
up with the second body. Let us apply the theorem of the change in linear
momentum to the colliding bodies [9], considering them as a single system
m1 1 m2 2 m1 u1 m2 u2 ;

14:2

where u1 and u2 are the velocities of the bodies after colliding. It is the only
independent equation which can be obtained from the general theorems of mechanics. It contains two unknown velocities u1 and u2. Therefore, the problem is
uncertain.
Let us try to solve this problem in another way. Apply the theorem of the change
in linear momentum to the colliding bodies, considering them separately:
m1 u1  1 S,
m2 u2  2 S;
where S is impact impulse. Thus we have two independent equations that contain
three unknown quantities, u1, u2, and S.

524

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

Technical shock theory is based on Newtons hypothesis. According to this

theory the relative velocity of the colliding bodies after the impact is proportional
to the relative velocity of the bodies before impact
u1  u2 k1  2 :

14:3

Proportional factor k is called a coefcient of restitution [2]. It reects the physical

properties of the bodies, and does not depend on the velocities of the colliding
bodies. The minus sign in the right-hand side of (14.3) is introduced so that the
coefcient k is positive. Factor k lies in the range of 0  k  1. The case when
k 1 (perfectly elastic impact) means that the mechanical energy of the bodies is
completely restored after impact; if k 0, then the impact is perfectly inelastic; the
case 0 < k < 1 means the collision is not completely elastic. The restitution
coefcient for different materials is determined experimentally. Equations (14.2)
and (14.3) allow us to nd the velocities of bodies after the collision
u1

m1  m2 k1 m2 1 k2
,
m1 m2

m1 1 k1 m2  km1 2
u2
:
m1 m2

14:4

Let us consider special cases.

1. Perfectly inelastic impact k 0. In this case there is a coalescence of bodies,
their relative velocity after impact is zero, and both bodies are moving with the
same velocity
u1 u2

m1 1 m2 2
:
m1 m2

The corresponding impact impulse is

S2 S1

m1 m2
1  2 :
m1 m2

2. Perfectly elastic impact k 1. In this case

2m2
1  2 ,
m1 m2
2m1
1  2 :
u2 2
m1 m2

u1 1 

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

525

The corresponding impact impulse is

S2 S1

2m1 m2
1  2
m1 m2

and is twice as big as in the case of an inelastic collision. Two bodies of equal
mass exchange their velocities.
Note
1. Newtons shock theory leads to an important conclusion: the duration of the
impact is considered to be zero, so the velocities of the colliding bodies change
instantly.
2. In all cases except case k 1, a loss of kinetic energy occurs [5]. In the case of a
perfectly inelastic impact of two bodies, the loss of kinetic energy is equal to the
kinetic energy the system would have had if its bodies had moved with the lost
velocities [Carnot (17531823) theorem]
1
1
T 0  T 1 m1 1x  ux 2 m2 2x  ux 2 :
2
2
3. The impact impulse is determined by the formula S

t2

Ftdt, where F(t) is

t1

the force acting during time interval t1  t2 . The change in the momentum of a
system during impact is equal to the total impulse of all the external impact
forces acting on the system mx  ux Sx . If we introduce an average force
Fave , the impact impulse takes the form S Fave t2  t1 . If we assume that the
collision time tends to zero, then the impulse will tend to zero. This means that
the effect of an instantaneous impulse vanishes. To eliminate this contradiction
with experiment, we need to assume that the impact force varies, for example,
proportionally to 1/. This impact force, when ! 0, becomes innitely large;
this is called an instant impact force, and its impulse has a nite value and is
called an impact impulse. Recall a similar approach, typically presented in
mechanics of materials courses, when a load of innite intensity is applied to a
beam at an innitesimal portion; this approach leads to the concept of a lumped
force.
Example 14.1 A body of mass m1 falls on a stationary body of mass m2 which is
suspended on a spring of stiffness k. The velocity of the falling body 1 on body 2 is
1. The restitution coefcient at the shock is k. Find the dynamic coefcient.
Solution Since 2 0 then the velocity of body 2 immediately after the collision,
according to (14.4), is
u2

m 1 1 k
1 :
m1 m2

526

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

Corresponding kinetic energy is

T

m2 u22 m21 m2 1 k2 2

1 :
2
2m1 m2 2

The potential energy stored in the spring is U kf 2 =2, where f is deformation of the
spring. Since T U, then maximum deformation of the spring becomes
f

m 1 1 k
1
m1 m2

r
m2
:
k

This formula may be applicable for any k, except k 0. In the case of perfectly
m1 1
inelastic impact, both bodies move together with velocity u1 u2
u.
m1 m2
Therefore, the kinetic energy should be calculated by the formula
T*

m1 m2 u2
m21 21

;
2
2 m 1 m 2

while the potential energy, as above, is U kf 2 =2. In this case, the maximum
deformation of the spring becomes
m1 1
f q :
km1 m2
Force transmitted on the xed support is F f k. The dynamic coefcient is

f
f stat

f
m1 1

m2 g=k m2 g

s
k
,
m1 m2



g 9:81 m=s2 :

The ratio of the kinetic energy T* for a perfectly inelastic impact (k 0) to the
kinetic energy T for a collision that is not completely elastic 0 < k < 1 is
m1
T*
m1 m2
m2

;
T
m2 1 k2 1 2k k2

T*
> 1, if m1 =m2 > 2k k2 ,

< 1, if m1 =m2 < 2k k2 :

T
1

Thus, at the certain ratios between m1, m2, and k we get T * > T. This means that the
assumption about the absolutely inelastic impact may lead to an underestimation of
the impact effects [5].

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

527

Technical impact theory is widely used because of its simplicity; however, as

shown by experiments, Newtons assumption is not always true in practice. Therefore, to solve the problem of the collision of two bodies, taking into account the
masses of each body, additional assumptions should be used. In the framework of
classical mechanics of an absolutely rigid body, the additional assumptions cannot
be introduced. Therefore, we need to abandon the concept of a rigid body and take
into account the deformation.
Further development of the theory of shock bodies possessing mass is associated
with the assumption of deformations of the colliding bodies. Shock theory and the
history of its development are presented by Goldsmith [1], Harris [2], Timoshenko
and Goodier [14], Kilchevsky [12], and Filippov [11]. Following these books we
briey note the most important theories. Hertz theory of collision of bodies
(or impact on the beam) takes into account only the local deformation of bodies,
considering them as static deformations. This theory can be applied only at low
impact velocities; in this case the contact stress does not exceed the elastic limit.
Shtaerman theory takes into account the more snug collisions of bodies than
considered in the Hertz theory and the deformation of a rod due to its vibration.
Saint-Venant constructed the wave theory of impact. Searss shock wave theory
takes into account not only the deformation associated with the elastic vibrations
of the rod, but also the local deformation of the striking body. Timoshenko theory
takes into account the form of the surface of the striking body, the local deformation of the body, and deformation of the beam caused by its elastic vibration.
This theory unites the most important concepts of Hertz and Saint-Venant theories. Timoshenko theory makes it possible to penetrate deeply into the processes
that are involved in impacts and collisions. To date, the theory of impacts is far
from complete.
Note that many and varied problems of impact theory can be found in a number
of fundamental books, such as [1, 3]. Specically, transverse impact on beams and
plates as well as longitudinal impact on rods are presented in [11, 12, 15].

14.1.3 Fourier Transform

In problems of vibrations caused by impact, it is often convenient to replace the
variable physical quantities by their frequency spectrum. The relationships between
physical quantities are represented by the relationships between the spectra of these
same quantities [16]. Fourier transform is a procedure that for a given function of a
real variable allows us to nd another function of a real variable, which describes
coefcients, or amplitudes, of the decomposition of the original function into
harmonic components with different frequencies. The Fourier spectrum contains
all the information presented in the original impact excitation and can be effectively
used to study the transmission of a shock through a structure [6, 17].

528

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

Any periodic function f(t) with period T on the interval (0, T ) can be expanded in
a Fourier series [18, 19]
f t a0

1
X

an sin nt bn cos nt,

n1

2
,
T

T
T
1
2
2
a0 f tdt; an f t sin nt dt; bn f t cos nt dt:
T
T
T
0

14:5

This expansion is not only a convenient mathematical technique, but clearly reects
the physical nature of periodic processes.
Equation (14.5) can be rewritten in the form
f t a0

1
X

Cn cos nt  n ,

n1

q
Cn a2n b2n ;

14:6

tan n bn =an :

The set of values Cn forms a spectrum of amplitudes, and the values n form a
spectrum of phases. Amplitudes of the individual harmonics are presented in a
graphical form as a function of a frequency (Fig. 14.5a).
This spectrum consists of discrete, equally spaced spectral lines-harmonics, for
which the frequencies are simple integer ratios. Therefore, this spectrum is also
called linear or harmonic. The envelope curve drawn through the all maximum
ordinates of Cn represents a spectral function of process (or spectral function of the
amplitude distribution); another name for this function is spectral density of
process. In complex notation, the expression (14.5) has the form
f t

1
X

Dn eint ;

n1

where the complex amplitude is

1
Dn
T

T=2

f teint dt, D0 a0:

T=2

p
In this section, for imaginary unit we will use letter i; i 1. Each ordinate of
spectral density is a complex amplitude of a harmonic at a specic frequency.
Fig. 14.5 Discrete (a) and
continuous (b) spectrum

S (w)

Cn

2 w 3w 4w

nw

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

529

Suppose now that the function f(t) is non-periodic. Just this case is typical for
impact, since the interaction force between the bodies, as well as a kinematic
excitation of the system, is non-periodic; we are talking about a single impact
exposure, rather than a series of exposures, including periodic impacts. In this case
the single impact can be seen as a limiting case of a periodic phenomenon, when the
period tends to innity. Since the period is T 2=, then if T ! 1 we have
! 0. This means that if a periodic function f(t) is substituted with a non-periodic
function, for example, a single shock impulse of any formthe distance
between the spectral lines in the graph of the spectral function will tend to zero,
and the discontinuous spectrum turns into a continuous spectrum. Instead of a
discrete set of amplitudes Cn, the graph will represent an innite number of
amplitudes (Fig. 14.5b). Their envelope is the spectral distribution function S()
of complex amplitudes [6, vol. 2]. In order to determine S(), the complex
amplitude Dn is substituted into expressions for f(t), i.e.,
T=2

1
1 X
int
f t
Dn e
f teint dt:
T n1

14:7

T=2

If we consider the limiting continuous case, described above, we need to introduce

coefcient 1/2. The sum is replaced by an integral, i.e.,
1
f t
2

it

e d
1

f teit dt:

14:8

1

The function f(t) in the form (14.8) has a continuous spectrum. If we denote
S

1
1

f teit dt;

14:9a

Seit d

14:9b

then the Fourier integral

1
f t
2

1

presents a non-periodic function as a sum of sine functions with a continuous

sequence of frequencies. This function describes a single impact of any form.
The function S() is called spectral density. Here the time variable and frequency
variables, t and , are continuous-valued and vary from 1 to 1. In scientic
literature, for example [6, vol. 2, 20], it is possible to encounter another notation for
the spectral function and Fourier integral, namely

530

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

1
S
2

f teit dt;

14:9c

1

Seit d:

f t

14:9d

1

This implies that coefcient 1/2 is included into the second integral in (14.8).
The Fourier transform may be represented in other forms, for example,

1 1
S1 p
f teit dt [6].
2 1
In the general case a spectral density S() is a complex function
S ReS i ImS;

14:10a

tan ImS=ReS:

14:10b

and phase spectrum [6] is

The modulus of spectral density jS()j is called the amplitude spectrum of the
signal. It characterizes the distribution of amplitudes of the harmonic components
of a signal as a function of frequency. The spectral density argument is called the
phase spectrum of the signal and characterizes the distribution of the initial phases
of the harmonic components of a signal as a function of frequency.
Functions f(t) and S() are called Fourier conjugate functions, and allow us to
nd one of them if we know the other. It is precisely the formulas (14.9b), (14.9d)
that enable us to determine, with high accuracy, the non-periodic function f(t)
(which in the theory of shock is an impact force, or impact kinematic excitation),
knowing the spectral density S().
The Fourier transform (FT) of derivative equals the FT of the function multiplied
by i, i.e.,
FTx_ t i FTxt,

FTxt 2 FTxt, . . .

Relations (14.9) are elementary for analysis of non-stationary processes caused by

shock. Thus, the impact force can be presented in a deterministic form (if we need
to determine the spectral density) or in the form of a complicated spectrum of
decaying amplitudes on the oscillograms [20].
Examples of determining spectral functions for some deterministic shock
impulses are presented below.

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

531

Example 14.2 Determine the Fourier transform of the Heaviside function

(Fig. 14.6a).
Solution Analytical representation of the Heaviside function is
f t 0, t < 0;
f t H, t  0:
The spectral function is given by
1
S
2

it

He
0

1
H it 
H
iH
e 

:
dt 
2 i
2
i
2
0

H
. Thus, the ampli2
tudes of the harmonic components decrease with increasing of frequency . The
amplitude spectrum of the input exposure f(t) is shown in Fig. 14.6b.
This is a purely complex function, its modulus is jSj

Fig. 14.6 Excitation f(t) is

Heaviside function (a) and
its spectra S() (b)

f (t )

S (w )

Since the spectral density is a purely complex function, then for the phase
spectrum we get tan 1.
Example 14.3 A single rectangular impulse of magnitude H and duration ti is
shown in Fig. 14.7a. Find the spectral function.
Solution Analytical presentation of the function f(t) is
f t 0, t < ti =2, t > ti =2,
f t H,  ti =2  t  ti =2:
Spectral function
1
S
2

ti =2

ti =2

Heit dt 

t =2

H it  i
H  i ti =2
e 
e

 ei ti =2 :
2 i
2i
ti =2

Since eiz  eiz 2i sin z, then for the spectral function we get
S

H
ti Hti sin ti =2 HT
ti
sin

2 sin
,

ti =2
2
2
2
T

2
:

532

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

f (t )
H
ti 2

S (w )

k 2p

ti 2

6p
ti

2p
ti
4p
ti

S (w)

k 2p

d
0
p

k 3p 2

j (w )

2p

k 5p 2

3p

w ti 2
w ti 2

Fig. 14.7 (a) Rectangular pulse f(t), (b) spectral function S(), (c) absolute value of spectral
function and (d) phase spectrum (); factor k Hti

The spectrum of the rectangular impulse is a real function of the form sin(x)/x and
has a petalled character. Each ordinate of the graph represents the amplitude of a
harmonic of the corresponding frequency. The spectral function is symmetrical
about the origin and for positive ti/2 is represented in Fig. 14.7b. The width of the
main half-petal and all other petals on the axis of frequencies is equal to . This
function has an oscillating character with decreasing amplitude; the spectral density
at zero frequency is equal to the impulse Hti divided by 2. Absolute value of
the spectral function in terms of ti/2 is shown in Fig. 14.7c. Since the spectral
density is a purely real function, then for the phase spectrum () we get
tan ImF=ReF 0. Thus, the phase spectrum takes one of two
values, 0 or  radians, depending on the sign of the real part of Re[F()]
(Fig. 14.7d).
As can be seen from Fig. 14.7b, the zeroes of the spectral function S() are
located on the frequency axis at the points 2n=ti , n 1, 2, 3, . . .. This means that
the smaller the impulse duration ti, the further away from the origin the zeroes of the
spectral function S() are located. If the duration of impulse is close to 0 ti ! 0,
then the rst zero of the spectral function goes to innity, so S ! 0. Thus the
shorter the impulse duration, the more a frequency band makes up the spectrum.
This implies that in order to increase the accuracy of reconstruction of a shock
impulse, we need to increase the frequency band [20].
Assume that the impulse shown in Fig. 14.7a is shifted right by the value ti/2;
thus the impulse is applied at time 0 and ends at the ti. According to the Fourier
transform property, the spectrum of function f(t) and the spectrum of the same
function g(t), which is shifted with respect to f(t) on time ti/2, are related by
G Feiti =2 . Thus the amplitude spectrum remains unchanged, while the
phase spectrum gets an extra term ti =2; this means that all the spectral components
are shifted by the phase which is linearly related to the frequency.

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

533

Example 14.4 Determine the Fourier transform of an impulse excitation in the

form of a sinusoid with decreasing amplitudes, i.e., f t Aet sin 1 t [20].
Solution The spectral function is
A
S
2

t

sin 1 t  e

it

A
dt
2

eit sin 1 t dt:

For computation of this integral, we can use a tabulated integral

eax
eax sin bx dx 2
a sin bx  b cos bx:
a b2
Making a change of variables a !  i,
of excitation in the form
S

b ! 1 we get a spectral function

A1
1
:
2
2
2 1  2 i2

If we denote 2 21 20 and =0 , then the expression for the spectral

function can be presented as
S

A
1 =20

:
2 1  =0 2 2=0 i

The modulus of the spectral function is

A1
1
A1

q
S ,
2 0
 2
2
2
2
0
0  2 42 2
1

S0 q, z :

2
2
0
1  z2 4 z2
j S j

The different types of shock excitations and corresponding characteristics are

presented in [6, 18].
We now note some features of the application of Fourier and Laplace transforms,
as well as the relationship between these transformations. The Fourier transform
may be applicable for solutions to linear differential equations. However, this
method is much more cumbersome than the Laplace transform method. These
difculties stem from the fact that it is necessary to use a special section of the
theory of complex numbers, namely the theory of residues. For higher order
differential equations, the difculties in using the Fourier transform method are
compounded. Another disadvantage of a fundamental nature is that the Fourier
transform, unlike the Laplace transform, does not allow us to automatically consider the initial conditions of the system.

534

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

Here it is pertinent to show an example illustrating the difculties in applying the

Fourier transform for solutions to linear differential equations, and the disadvantages of this method compared with the Laplace transform method.
Example 14.5 The mathematical model of a system is described by a linear secondorder differential equation
mx kx f t

14:11a

The system is subjected to step excitation dened by


f t

0 for t < 0,
H for t > 0;

where H is a constant. Initial conditions are x0 x_ 0 0. Derive the Duhamel

integral and Greens function for (14.11a) and determine the response x(t) by the
Fourier method.
Solution Denote the Fourier transform of x(t) by X(), i.e.,
1

Ffxtg

xte dt X; similarly Fff tg

f teit dt F:

it

1

1

Fourier transform applied to (14.11a), i.e., Ffmx kxg Fff tg, leads to the
relationships
m2 X kX F
Fourier transforms of the response is X

F
.
m2 k

Inverse Fourier transform

1
xt
2

it

Xe
1

1
d
2

1

F it
e d:
k  m2
1

Accordingly, (14.9a) F() can be rewritten in the form F

1

where t0 is simply a dummy variable.

So the expression for the response becomes
1
x t
2

1

d
eit
k  m2

1

f t0 eit dt0:

f t0 eit dt0,

14.1

Concepts of Shock Excitation

1

Here inner integral

535

f t0 eit dt0 presents the Fourier transform of the function f(t0 ).

1

After elementary procedures, we have

1

xt

f t dt
1

1

d eit it0
e
2 k  m2
1

We can evaluate integral

1

f t 0

1

d eitt
:
2 k  m2

14:11b

d eitt
by contour integration [21]. Accor2 k  m2

ding to Cauchys residual theorem,

1

X
d eitt
2i
Residues:
2
2 k  m
0

1

Singularities are the roots of the denominator, k  m2 0. They are

p
p
0
 k=m. Letting k=m we get
1

1

"
#
0
0
0
0
0
i
0
d eitt
ei tt ei tt
i h i0 tt0
i tt0

i

e

0
0
0
2 k  m2
2m
2m
2m
0

sin t  t0
:
m0

Plugging this result into (14.11b), we get the general solution

1

xt

f t0 Gt  t0 dt0;

14:11c

1
0

sin t  t0
is a Greens function, while (14.11c) presents the
m0
Duhamel integral. These results were obtained in Sect. 13.2, Example 13.7.
where Gt  t0

536

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

The solution of (14.11a) is

t
xt
1

sin t  t0 0
f t Gt  t dt H
dt
m0
0

0
i
0
H h i0 tt0
H
1 i0 tt0
1 i0 tt0 t t
i tt0
0
e

e

e

e
dt
2im0
2im0 i0
i0
t0 0
t

0 
H 2i 2i cos t
H

1  cos t:
2im0 0
0
k

This result was obtained in Sect. 13.3.1 in a much easier way.

The Fourier method requires only zeroes as initial conditions, i.e.,
x0 x_ 0 0.

14.1.4 Time and Frequency Domain Concepts

Linearity and stationarity are fundamental properties of the broad class of vibration
protection systems. Linearity means that if the input excitation u(t) of the system is
a sum of excitations, i.e., u(t) A u1(t) + B u2(t), the response of the system is the
sum of responses to each of the excitations, i.e., x(t) A x1(t) + B x2(t) for any
constants A and B. Stationarity in the narrow sense means that the delay of the input
signal in time by a certain amount, the output signal will be delayed for the same
amount.
Analysis of the linear stationary vibration protection system can be performed in
the time and frequency domain. These concepts emphasize the independent argument (time or frequency) in expression of the response on the external excitation.
Fundamental characteristics of linear stationary dynamic system are, in a general
sense, the transfer function W( p) of a system (or specied operator functions such
as impedance, mobility, etc.), the transient function h(t) and impulse transient
function K(t). The transient and impulse transient functions are the response of
the system to the unit step excitation and the -excitation, respectively. They are
dht
related as follows: K t
.
dt
By denition, the transfer function in operator form, W( p), can be determined as
a ratio of output Laplace transform to input Laplace transform. Transfer function
W( p) and impulse transient function K(t) are related as LfK tg W p, where the
symbol L indicates the forward Laplace transform. Substitution of operator p j
leads to the complex frequency transfer function W().
The Fourier transform may be treated as a partial case of the Laplace transform, if
p j. Indeed, according to (Sect. 13.1.1), the Laplace transform

14.2

Forced Shock Excitation of Vibration

u(t)

Time domain
LT
Frequency domain

U(w )

537

K(t)
LT
W(w )

x(t)=K(t)*u(t)
L-1T
X(w )=W(w ) U(w )

Fig. 14.8 Schematic relationship between time and frequency domains; LT and L1T are forward
and inverse Laplace transforms
1

f tept dt is a function of complex variable p, while according to

1

0
f teit dt is a function of frequency
(14.9a), the Fourier transform Fff tg
[22].
1
Relationships between the input and output of a system and their characteristics
K(t), W( p) in time and frequency domains are shown in Fig. 14.8, where u(t), x(t)
are the input and output of a system in the time domain; U(), X() are the images
of input and output (input and output in the frequency domain); K(t), W() are the
impulse transient function and transfer function in frequency form; and LT, L1T
are the forward Laplace and inverse Laplace transforms.
We can see that it is possible to transfer from the characteristics in the time
domain to the characteristics in the frequency domain and vice versa.
The response of a linear system in the time domain is the convolution of the
impulse transient function K(t) and the input signal u(t), i.e., x(t) K(t) * u(t). The
response of a linear system in the frequency domain is the product of the frequency
transfer function W() and the Laplace transform of the input signal u(t), i.e.,
X() W() U(), where U Lfutg. In other words, a convolution in the
time domain corresponds to multiplication in the frequency domain. While timedomain analysis shows how a signal changes over time, frequency-domain analysis
shows how the signals energy is distributed over a range of frequencies.
Lff tg

14.2

Forced Shock Excitation of Vibration

This section develops Sect. 4.2.1 and shows the application of Duhamels integral
to the case of shock excitation of a standard type. The following classic problems
are considered: the sudden application of a load, sudden application of a load with
its subsequent elimination and the instantaneous application of a load.
The linear viscously damped single-degree of freedom system is subjected to the
force impact excitation P(t) (Fig. 14.9). The mathematical model of the system is
described by the following second-order differential equation:

538

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

P (t)

Fig. 14.9 Design diagram

of mkb system

SEP

mx bx_ kx Pt,

or x 2hx_ 2 x

x
b

1
Pt:
m

The initial conditions are x0 x_ 0 0. The damping coefcient is h b=2m,

p
k=m is the natural angular frequency of the un-damped system (when b 0);
p
the frequency of free damped vibration is 2  h2 . Below we consider the
case of small damping, 2  h2 > 0.
The response of the system may be calculated using Duhamels integral [8]
t
1
xt
Pet sin t  d:
m
0

where b=2m h=.

Coordinate x is measured from the position of static equilibrium position. The
Laplace transform, another method for computation of the response, was considered in the Chap. 13.

14.2.1 Heaviside Step Excitation

The system, at t 0, is subjected to load P0, which then remains in the system
(Fig. 14.10); the graph of this excitation is called the Heaviside function [17].

P t

0,
P0 ,

t < 0,
t > 0:

If damping is neglecting h 0, then Duhamels integral becomes

t
1
Pu sin t  udu:
xt
m
0

In this case, the expression for the response becomes

14.2

Forced Shock Excitation of Vibration

P(t)

539

x(t )

c)

2 xstat

P0

x1 = xstat (1 cos w t )

xstat
t

t0

Fig. 14.10 Step excitation and corresponding response

0t
1
t

1
P0 @
xt
P0 sin t  udu
sin t cos u  cos t sin uAdu
m
m
0

1
t
t
P0 @

sin t cos u du  cos t sin u duA

m
0

 

P0
1
1
t
t
sin t  sin uj0  cos t  
cos uj0

m


P0
sin t sin t  sin 0  cos t cos t  cos 0
2 m
 P0
P0 

sin 2 t cos 2 t  cos t 1  cos t:

k
k

14:12
This result was obtain in Sects. 13.3.1, 14.1.3.
If a force is suddenly applied to the system and remains there, the system moves
around a new equilibrium position. The body creates an un-damped vibration
around the shifted equilibrium position xst P0 =k with the frequency of free
vibration (Fig. 14.10); this result was obtained previously in Chap. 13, Eq. 13.31,
Fig. 13.4. Maximum displacement occurs at cos t 1, so the peak response to
the step excitation of magnitude P0 is equal to twice the static deection: the
dynamic coefcient is
dyn xmax =xstat 2:
If h 6 0, then Duhamels integral leads to the following response:
x t



P0
h
1  eht cos t sin t ,

0 < t < :

14:13

540

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

The dynamic coefcient



h
dyn xt=xstat 1  eht cos t sin t

14:14

is variable in time. The maximum displacement and corresponding dynamic coefcient occurs at t T=2 =; they are
xmax

P0

max xmax =xstat

!
h
;
1e


14:15

h
1 e < 2:


14:16

If damping is neglected (h 0), then the dynamic coefcient max 2.

14.2.2 Step Excitation of Finite Duration

The system at t 0 is subjected to load P0, which remains in the system during time
and then suddenly disappears (Fig. 14.11).
8
>
< 0, t < 0;
Pt P0 , 0 < t < ;
>
:
0, t > :
The analytical expression for P(t) may be presented in the form
Pt P0 Ht  H t  ;

14:17

where H(t) is the Heaviside function, and so P0H(t) and P0 H t  are two step
functions of constant magnitude P0 and different signs. The rst function (line 1)
begins at t 0, and the second function (line 2) begins at t ; both functions
continue indenitely (Fig. 14.11). Therefore, Duhamels integral leads to the
following result:
P(t )

Fig. 14.11 Excitation of

nite duration

P0

1
t

t
2

14.2

Forced Shock Excitation of Vibration

541



P0
h
ht
1e
xt
cos t sin t

k



P0
h

1  eht cos t  sin t  :

14:18

In this expression, the underlined term allows us to determine the displacement for
0 < t < ; for t > we need to use the full expression of (14.18). To nd the steadystate motion, it is necessary to set t ! 1. In this case lim yt 0. Thus, the
t!1

system executes steady-state vibration around the initial SEP.

Assume that h 0, (i.e., ), in this case the expression (14.18) becomes
xt

P0
P0
1  cos t  1  cos t  :
k
k

14:19a

The structure of this expression reects the principle of superposition of excitations

1 and 2 applied at time 0, and respectively, as shown in Fig. 14.11. Within the rst
interval 0   we get
x1 t

P0
2P0
t
1  cos t
sin 2 :
2
k
k

14:19b

x1
t
2 sin 2 :
2
xstat

14:19c

The dynamic coefcient is

1 t

The dynamic coefcient increases with increasing t, and reaches maximum value at
t . Therefore, the maximum dynamic coefcient in the rst stage is
1
max
1 2 sin 2

:
2

14:19d

If the duration of the shock excitation and the period of free vibration T satisfy
the condition  T=2, then  , and therefore the velocity is
1 xstat sin > 0, xstat P0 =k:
This means that within the rst stage, the displacement of the object will not
have time to reach the static deformation of the spring, and the velocity of the body
will remain positive. Therefore, the maximum displacement of the body occurs in
the second interval, after the disappearance of the load, i.e., at t > [23]. In this
stage, both terms of (14.19a) should be taken into account.

542

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

P0
P0
1  cos t  1  cos t  
k
k

P0
2P0

:
sin t  sin
cos t   cos t
2
2
k
k

x2 t

14:20

It is obvious that the Duhamel integral leads to the same result. Indeed,
2
3

t
1 4
xt
P0 sin t  udu 0  sin t  udu5
m

P0 1
P0
 cos t  uj0 cos t   cos t:

m
k
According to (14.20), after disappearance of force the object makes free harmonic
2P0

oscillations about the unloaded state with a frequency and amplitude

sin .
2
k


Maximum displacement in the second stage is reached at sin t  2 1. In this case
x2

max
min

2P0

:
sin
2
k

14:21a

The dynamic coefcient is

2

dyn


xmax

2 sin :
2 sin
2
T
xstat
2

14:21b

The effect of short-duration load depends on its duration expressed in fractions of

the period T of a free vibration. Table 14.1 contains values dyn for different values
of /T.
We can see that in the case of assumption  T=2, the dynamic coefcients in
both stages 1 and 2 of loading satisfy the condition 1 < 2 . The force transmitted on the support is
8
t
>
< F1 2P0 sin 2 , t  ,
2
Ft kx


>
: F2 2P0 sin t  sin ,
2
2

14:22
t > :

Table 14.1 Dynamic coefcient on the rst and second intervals in terms of /T;  T=2  T=2
[15, 23]
/T
(1)
(2)

0.0
0.0
0.0

0.125
0.29289
0.76536

0.167
0.5
1.0

0.25
1.0
1.4142

0.375
1.70711
1.84776

0.5
2.00
2.00

14.2

Forced Shock Excitation of Vibration

543

The transmissibility coefcients are

1
TCmax

2
TCmax

F1

1 ,
2P0 sin 2
2
P0

F 2

2 ,
max 2P0 sin
2
P0

t  ,
14:23
t > :

It is evident that the decrease in suspension stiffness (decreasing the frequency of

free vibration) leads to a decrease of the dynamic and transmissibility coefcients.
Here we must make one important note. We have tacitly assumed that the
vibration protection system obeys Hookes law. However, numerous experimental
data show that, in contrast to the linear dependence P  x under static loading, the
diagram at shock loading is nonlinear [2, Chap. 33; 24, Chaps. 6, 7, 12]. Of course,
the commercially available absorbers [2, Chap. 32; 24, Chap. 7] have nonlinear
characteristics on impact. Therefore, the solutions derived above should be
regarded as the simplest.

14.2.3 Impulse Excitation [15, 17, 25]

The un-damped system with one degree of freedom is subjected to severe shock.
The motion of the body after the shock of nite duration occurs according to
(14.20)
x2 t


2P0

:
sin t  sin
2
2
k

14:24

Let us nd the limit of this expression if the duration of impact tend to zero. For this
multiply and divide this expression by /2 and nd the limit of this expression
when ! 0
lim xt lim

!0

!0



2 sin t  sin =2 S sin t S sin t:
k
2
=2
k
m
14:25

2P0 

Here, S P represents the impulse of a force.

Here we should note an important observation. In the case of an instantaneous
impulse, we must distinguish between two different cases: the case of a constant
force and the case of constant impulse. If we assume that P0 const, then at ! 0
the impulse S ! 0; this means that the effect of a constant force is zero. In order to
resolve this paradox, we need to distance ourselves from the concept of a constant
force, and introduce the concept of a constant impulse. In this case, decreasing the
impact time for the fulllment of condition S P const requires an increase in

544

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

the impact force P. The concept of constant impulse is useful for estimating impact
effects due to various types of impulses. Among these are impulses in the form of a
triangle, trapezoid, half-sine, and sine wave [2].
In the case of a series of unidirectional impulses S with an interval between
them (the rst impulse is applied at t 0), the response of an un-damped system
with one degree of freedom becomes
xt

S
sin t sin t  sin t  2   :
m

14:26

In the rst time interval t < , only the rst term of (14.26) should be taken into
account; in order to transfer to the next time interval, we need to introduce the next
term from (14.26) for which t  n > 0, n 1, 2, . . .. For a damped system with
one degree of freedom, the expression (14.26) should be modied as follows:
xt

i
S h ht
e sin t eht sin t  eht2 sin t  2    :
m
14:27

The modication of basic relations for an impact problem of deformable systems

such as beams and arches can be found in [10]. Two models of support for system
mkb with rigid and compliant support are considered by Newland [26].

14.3

Kinematic Shock Excitation of Vibration

A system with one degree of freedom, neglecting damping, is subjected to kinematic excitation of support x(t). In this case, the object m performs a resultant, or
combined, motion. This means that two observers, one of which is located on the
movable support and the second at a xed point outside the system, will record the
movement of the object in different ways (Fig. 14.12). For analysis of such motion,
we need to introduce two frames of reference, one assumed to be connected with
moving support and the second as xed reference. The motion performed by the
body with respect to the moving coordinate system is called relative motion. The
motion performed by the moving frame of reference (together with all the objects of
Fig. 14.12 Motion of
particle M considered in
xed XOYZ and moving
xoyz coordinate systems

y
Y

M
r

O
Z

R0
z

14.3

Kinematic Shock Excitation of Vibration

545

space xed relative to it) for the body with respect to the xed system is the motion
of transport. The motion of the body with respect to the xed frame of reference is
called the absolute, or resultant, motion.
The fundamental relationship of the combined motion is
r R 0 r0 :
Here, vector r denotes the position of the moving particle in the xed system
(absolute position), and vector R0 denotes a position of the origin of the moving
coordinate system with respect to the origin of the xed system (transport position).
The vector r0 denotes the position of the point M of the moving coordinate system
where the moving particle is located, with respect to origin of the moving coordinate system (relative position) [9].
If the transport motion is translational, and relative motion is rectilinear of the
same direction, then the fundamental relation of the combined motion is yt xrel
xt; this equations connects the absolute coordinate y(t) of mass m, transport
coordinate x(t), and the relative coordinate xrel.

14.3.1

Forms of the Vibration Equation

The equation of motion of the object can be formed in different ways, depending on
the type of kinematic excitation. The most interesting cases are excitation in the
form of displacement x(t) and acceleration xt of the support. Of course, kinematic
excitation can be represented as the nth derivative of the displacement, i.e., x(n)(t)
[2, 6]. Let us consider several mathematical models of kinematic excitation [27].
1. Differential equation for absolute displacement y(t) of the object. The primary
equation which describes the absolute motion of the object is
my kxrel kyt  xt;

14:28a

my ky kxt:

14:28b

and therefore,

This equation describes the motion law of the absolute coordinates y(t) of the
object if the base of the vibration protection system moves according to x(t). This
equation is similar to the equation of forced vibration subjected to the force
excitation (Sect. 13.2); the analog of the force F(t) is kx(t), i.e., Ft ! kxt. If
we perform this replacement, then the absolute motion of the body due to
kinematic excitation x(t) coincides with the motion of the body due to forced
excitation F(t). Therefore, all the results obtained for forced excitation can be
applied to the case of kinematic excitation, taking into account the
corresponding analogies.

546

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

2. Differential equation for relative displacement of the object. Since

yt xrel xt, the primary equation becomes mxrel x kxrel , or
mxrel kxrel mx:

14:29

The right side of this equation mx represents the transport inertial force. This
equation is similar to the equation of forced vibration subjected to the force
excitation, Pt $ mxt.
3. Differential equation for absolute acceleration of the object. Assume that kinematic excitation is presented as the acceleration of the support, i.e., the transport
acceleration xt. After differentiating (14.28a) twice with respect to time, we get
m

d 2y
ky kxt:
dt2

14:30

This is a differential equation of second order with respect to the absolute

acceleration y of the object; the right side of equation is a known function xt
of the support acceleration, which should be considered as excitation.
4. Differential equation for relative acceleration of the object. Since
yt xrel t xt, from the primary equation we have mxrel x kxrel ,
and thus
mxrel kxrel mx:

14:31

We can see that the differential equations in the second and fourth cases
coincide.
In the case of forced excitation F(t), the vibration equation of the linear oscillator
is my ky Ft.
It is easy to observe that the structure of this equation and the equations
(14.28b14.31) which were obtained in the cases of kinematic excitation are
the same. The correspondence between the forced and kinematic excitation for
each of these cases is easy to verify.

14.3.2 Response of a Linear Oscillator to Acceleration

Impulse
Assume that the base of the m  k system is subjected to acceleration x0 , which acts
in a time interval 0  , and then disappears (Fig. 14.13).
8
< 0, t < 0;
xt x0 , 0 < t < ;
:
0, t > :

14.3

Kinematic Shock Excitation of Vibration

547

..
x(t)

Fig. 14.13 Kinematic

excitation

..
x0
0

1
t

t
2

The differential equation of the absolute acceleration of the object according to

(14.30) has the form
m

d 2y
ky kxt;
dt2

where xt x0 is the acceleration of the support. As in the case of forced excitation

(Sect. 14.2.2, Fig. 14.11), kinematic excitation of nite duration is replace by two
constant excitations (lines 1 and 2) which are equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign, and the second excitation is delayed for time ; as previously,  T=2.
With t  , for computing the acceleration of the object and dynamic coefcient,
we can use formulas similar to (14.19b14.19d), replacing Pt ! kxt
yt

2kx0
t
t
sin 2 2x0 sin 2 :
k
2
2

14:32

yt
t
2 sin 2 ,
x0
2
y
2
:

2 sin
x0
2

14:33

The dynamic coefcient is

kin t
kin
max

If the shock time is equal to half a period of free vibration, then the dynamic
coefcient at T=2 is equal to 2.
If t > (the second stage), in the case of < T=2, we can use formulas similar to
(14.2014.21b) [20]


2kx0

t

sin t  sin
2x0 sin t  sin
,
k
2
2
2
2

ymax 2x0 sin

,
2

kin
max
2 sin ;
2 sin
2
T

yt

14:34

where T 2= is the period of free vibration. We can see that the acceleration of
the object lags behind the acceleration of the base by /2. To compute the transmissibility coefcient, we can use formulas (14.2214.23) with the substitution
P0 ! kx0 .

548

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

The impulse kinematic excitation occurs when ! 0. The limit of the rst
expression of (14.34) is
lim yt 2x0
!0



sin =2
2x0
sin t 
sin t Sx0 sin t;
2
=2
2
14:35




where Sx0 is acceleration impulse. The units of Sx x L=T 2 T L=T
The structure of formulas (14.3214.35) in the case of shock kinematic excitation and formulas (14.19b14.21b) in the case of shock forced excitation are the
same. This is explained by the fact that in both types of excitation, the nature of the
shock excitation (impulse of nite duration, instantaneous impulse) are identical,
and the mathematical model of vibration protection system for both types of
excitation does not change. The analysis of these formulas and properties of
vibration protection system, numerical results (Table 14.1) and short comments
are given in Sects. 14.2.2 and 14.2.3.

14.4

Spectral Shock Theory

This section is devoted to analysis of a dynamic system subjected to shock

excitation; this analysis is performed in the frequency domain. The concepts of
the primary and residual shock spectrum are discussed, and a computation of these
characteristic for an mk vibration protection system is presented. The fundamental
concepts of the spectral method for determining the response of a linear system
subjected to shock excitation is discussed. In the nal portion of this section we
summarize and compare the different analytical methods for computation of the
response of the dynamical system.
The analysis methods in the time domain, strictly speaking, allow us to determine the response of the system subjected to an arbitrary perturbation, including
non-periodic and discontinuous. Therefore, formally in the case of an arbitrary
graph of the shock excitation, an analysis in the time domain can be applied.
However, in this case a number of difculties arise. In particular, they are determined by the complexity of the interaction-time graphs and an indeterminacy of
its parameters.
Analysis of a linear system in the frequency domain in the case of shock
excitation is more effective. Its essence is as follows. Shock load using the Fourier
transform is decomposed into harmonic components. Next, the system response to
each harmonic is determined. For this purpose, time domain methods may be
applied; in the case of separate harmonic excitation computation of response, it is
not a difcult procedure. And nally, the response of the system is determined by
the summing all the responses. The impact process presents a fairly wide spectrum
of the harmonics with amplitudes, which decrease with increasing frequency. This

14.4

Spectral Shock Theory

549

approach deals with a nite set of frequencies and, therefore, leads to approximate
results [28]. However, the value of this approach lies in the idea that is implemented
in the spectral method. This exact method allows us to nd an analytical formula for
the response of a dynamical system subjected to shock excitation.
From an energy point of view, energy of a shock pulse acting on a system is
distributed over the individual harmonics of a vibrating structure. Each harmonic
excites vibrations of a particular element or a whole block of a structure. Therefore,
in a system subjected to a shock, we can observe the complex combination of the
damping vibrations, which typically are not correlated in phase. If a mechanical
system is subjected to shock excitation, then the general problem is to determine its
response (displacements, velocities, accelerations of individual points of the structure), both during impact loading and after its completion.

14.4.1 Biots Dynamic Model of a Structure: Primary

and Residual Shock Spectrum
The shock spectrum can be divided into two groups, as follows [2]:
1. Primary or initial shock spectrum. This spectrum presents the peak response of
the resonator as a function of its frequency during the time interval of the shock.
2. Residual shock spectrum. This spectrum presents the peak response of the resonator as a function of its frequency after the shocks termination. As such, a
response means that the displacement, velocity, or acceleration of the oscillating
mass is most often dimensionless. The greatest of the response maxima attained at
any time during the response is called a maximax response [4].
Let us consider the physical meaning of the residual shock spectrum concept.
Figure 14.14 shows a platform that supports a number of oscillators with different
natural frequencies 1, 2, . . ., n; assume that 1 < 2 <    < n . Following
Biot [29], we assume that the damping coefcient for all oscillators is equal; the
dampers are not shown. Also assume that all masses are equal
mi m, i 1, . . . , n. The platform is subjected to impact x(t) of a specic
shape; the dependence of acceleration and time xt is shown in Fig. 14.14. The
duration of impact is t0. Each of the oscillators starts a motion; the corresponding
graphs of displacement are yi t, i 1, . . . , n. The response of each oscillator
(with frequency i) is independent of the other oscillators. On the rst graph the
greatest ordinate is marked by maxty1(t); it is shown by a dotted line. This ordinate
denes the point of the graph of the residual shock spectrum, S(), for frequency
1. The same procedure should be performed for all remaining responses y(t) of
oscillators (for the frequencies 2, . . ., n, . . .). The result is a graph of the spectral
density of the response (displacement) Sy() of the oscillator. The spectral density
graphs of velocity Sy_ and acceleration Sy() of the oscillator can be similarly
constructed.

550

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

S (w )

w1

w2

y1 (t)

y2

wn

k1
x(t)

w1

y2

yn

t
y1

yn

k2

w2

kn

wn

..
x(t )

Fig. 14.14 Concept of residual shock spectrum

The primary shock spectrum can be determined using the Duhamel integral on
the interval of the shock excitation. For adopted impact excitation f(t) which acts
during the interval 0  t, we have (Sect. 14.2)
t
y; t f sin t  d:
0

We then x the frequency 1 and determine the maximum displacement, i.e.,

maxt[y(1)]; this value is the ordinate of a graph of the spectral density of the
displacement Sy() at the frequency 1. Such an operation is performed on the
same observation interval for other frequencies. Thus, to obtain the shock spectrum,
we need to select from the Duhamel spectral characteristics for each frequency the
maximum value

t




y max  f sin t  d;
t 

0

where f() is the analyzed shock process. This formula shows that damping is not
taken into account.
As in the case of the residual shock spectrum for displacement, Sy(), it is
possible to construct the primary shock spectrum for a velocity Sy_ and acceleration Sy().

14.4

Spectral Shock Theory

551

14.4.2 Response Spectra for the Simplest Vibration

Protection System
Here we will show an analytical construction of the amplitude response spectra for
the case of the simplest m  k oscillator; the damping is neglected. The oscillator is
subjected to a single rectangular pulse. The duration of the shock pulse is , and the
magnitude of excitation is P0 (Fig. 14.11). Construction of the spectra is based on
the analytical formulas for primary and residual responses [4]. According to
formulas (14.19b) and (14.20), we have
P0
2P0
t
1  cos t
sin 2 , t  ;
2
k
k

P0
2P0

,
yres t cos t   cos t
sin t  sin
2
2
k
k
ypr t

14:36
t > :
14:37a

Formula (14.36) refers to the time interval of the shock, i.e., describes the forced
vibrations caused by constant load P0 at the zero initial conditions; the interval of
vibration is 0  t  . Formula (14.37a) describes the free vibration with the initial
conditions that coincide with the conditions at the end of the primary interval, i.e.,
at t ; an observation time is t  . 

The peak of yres(t) is reached at sin t 
1. Therefore,
2
ymax
res

2P0

2stat sin
:
sin
2
2
k

14:37b

For dimensionless ordinates of the amplitude spectrum we obtain

ymax

res
2 sin
:
2 sin
2
2
P0 =k

14:38

The ordinates of this spectrum depend on two parameters: the natural frequency
of the oscillator and the duration of impact . This formula, in terms of the natural
period of responding system T 2=, becomes
ymax

res
2 sin :
2 sin
2
T
P0 =k

14:39

The graph of this function is shown in Fig. 14.15a by a dotted line.

The maximax dimensionless amplitude response according to (14.36) and
(14.39) for =T  0:5 is
ymax
ymax
ymax
pr

res 2:
P0 =k P0 =k P0 =k

14:40

552

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

a
y d st

y d st

MMRA
RRA

0 0.5 1

t T

0.1

0.5

10

50

100

t T

Fig. 14.15 Spectra of maximax response amplitude (MMRA) (a) and residual response amplitude
(RRA) (b)

The graph of the residual and maximax shock spectra of the rectangular pulse
excitation of duration time is presented in Fig. 14.15a. The dimensionless value
max
y=st ymax
pr =st yres =st , st P0 =k. The maximax response amplitude spectrum in a semi-logarithmic coordinate system is shown in Fig. 14.15b [4].
Thus, the shock spectrum determines the maximum response of internal resonators on the input pulse, and therefore allows us to determine the frequency of a
separate oscillator from the whole structure which perceives the greatest loading.
A large number of examples of shock spectra are represented by Ayre [4] and
Lalanne [6, vol. 2]. Shock spectra may be constructed by the Smallwood method [30].
International standards related to shock-response spectrum analysis are presented in
ISO 18431-4:2007.

14.4.3 Spectral Method for Determination of Response

This method is based on the spectral representation of excitation f(t) and the use of a
mathematical model of a system in the form of its dynamic stiffness K( j).
Assumptions
1. We will consider a linear dynamical system with one degree of freedom. Its
dynamic stiffness on the vibration frequency is


K j k  m2 jb,

p
1:

The system is subjected to deterministic excitation f(t).

2. Any function f(t) may be represented as
1
f t
2

Sjejt d;
1

14.4

Spectral Shock Theory

553

where S( j) is the Fourier spectrum (spectral density); thus the external

deterministic force f(t) is represented in the form of its spectrum S( j) (14.9b).
3. Prior to the application of force, the system is at rest.
1
The input harmonic force 2
Sjejt d leads to the following vibration of a
system:
1 Sj jt
e d:
2 K j

14:41a

Then, according to the superposition principle, the vibration of a system caused

by the total spectral components is
1
x t
2

Sj jt
e d:
K j

14:41b

This expression may be treated as the presentation of the response x(t) in the
Sj
should be considered as a
form of Fourier transform. Therefore, Bj
K j
spectral density of the response x(t), which is the vibrating displacement of the
object. Expression (14.41b) may be treated as follows: the vibration spectrum
B( j) of displacement x(t) is equal to the spectrum S( j) of the external force
f(t) divided by the dynamic stiffness K( j) of the system. Recall that the complex
amplitude of displacement X is equal to the amplitude of force F0 divided by the
dynamic stiffness of a system K, i.e., X F0 =K. This means that the relationship
between the spectra of external force and displacement is the same as that between
the complex amplitudes of these values. This statement can be summarized as
follows: for an arbitrary process in a linear system, the ratio between the spectra
of different values is the same as that between the complex amplitudes in the case
of forced harmonic vibration [16].
Note: In presenting the non-periodic force and response of a system by their spectra,
we do not divide a vibration into two classes, the natural and forced. Formula
(14.41b) represents the entire transient (non-steady-state) process as a whole.
All these arguments allow us to generalize and briey formulate the essence of
the spectral method. Let a linear time-invariant system with a frequency transfer
function W( j) be subjected to an arbitrary input excitation u(t) with a spectral
characteristic U( j). As is well known, functions u(t) and U( j) are related by
formulas of direct and inverse Fourier transforms:
U j

1
1

utejt dt;

14:42a

554

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

1
ut
2

Ujejt d:

14:42b

1

According to the spectral analysis method, the spectral characteristic X( j) of the

output signal x(t) of a system is
Xj W jU j:
Applying the inverse Fourier transform to this expression, we will nd the response
of a system:
1
xt
2

W jU jejt d:

14:43

1

Thus, the response x(t) of the linear stationary system can be obtained by summing
the spectral components U( j) of the input excitation u(t), combined with the
weight W( j). For signals that satisfy the condition ut0 when t < 0, used
1

one-sided transformation U j
utejt dt.
0

14.5

Brief Comments on the Various Methods of Analysis

Some comments for linear dynamical systems and methods for their analysis are
briey discussed.
Linear dynamical systems have a remarkable property: knowing the response of
a system with zero initial conditions on any single excitation, we can nd the
response to any other excitation. This means that a linear system can be fully
characterized by its response to the standard inputs. Among the standard excitations
are, a unit step function 1(t) and unit impulse excitation. The corresponding
responses of the linear system are called a transient step function h(t) and an
transient impulse function (or weighting function, or function of weight) K(t).
d
These functions are related by K t ht.
dt
The differential equation is a universal mathematical tool for analysis of dynamical systems. In the case of a linear system with constant parameters, the differential
equation in operator form is





d
a0 pn a1 pn1    an1 p an x b0 pk b1 pk1    bk1 p bk u, p :
dt

14:44

14.5

Brief Comments on the Various Methods of Analysis

555

This equation connects two functionsa given excitation of the system (input) u(t)
and an unknown response of the system (output) x(t)and should be solved at the
given initial condition x0, px0, . . . , pn1 x0 with respect to x(t). The function
of excitation may be continuous, discontinuous, or impulse. For an arbitrary system,
the output can be chosen in different ways depending on the purpose of analysis; as
a result, the differential equations for the same object will be different. The form
(14.44) describing a linear dynamical system is a source of essential concepts,
including transfer function, transient and steady-state vibration, and stability. Differential equations may be solved analytically or numerically.
The mechanical impedance method allows us to perform analysis of the linear
dynamic systems subjected to harmonic force and/or kinematic excitation. The
method is based on a system of electro-mechanical analogies, and each passive
element is considered a two-terminal network. These elements are connected in a
special way and form the mechanical two-terminal network for the entire design
diagram; the processes in both two-terminal networks and mechanical systems are
identical. The method allows us to determine steady-state vibration, kinematic
characteristics for arbitrary points of a system, and the force distribution between
elements. Initial conditions are not taken into account. Computational procedures
are reduced to simple algebraic operations.
The convolution (Duhamel) integral allows us to represent the response (output
signal) x(t) in terms of external excitation (input signal) f(t) and a weight function
K(t) of a system when it has zero initial conditions, as follows:
t
xt f K t  d:

14:45

This procedure entails the following: a graph of arbitrary excitation f(t) is approximated by a series of strips of constant width and height f(i). Thus the input
signal is considered a series of impulses. The values of these impulses are equal to
the area of the corresponding strip, i.e., f(i). Therefore, the approximate expresn
X
K t  i f i . Impulse transient function K
sion for a response is xt
i1

t  i characterizes the relative importance, or weight, of the input impulse at

time i among other impulses which form the required response x(t). The precise
expression for response x(t) is calculated as the sum of the responses upon the each
impulse when the duration of the impulses tends to zero.
If we integrate (14.45) by parts, and take into account the relationship
0
K t h t, the convolution integral (14.45) may be written in terms of the initial
value of the input signal f(0) and a transient function h(t) [22]
t

xt f 0ht f ht  d:
0

14:46

556

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

The convolution integral method is visualized as follows: the response of the

system presents a limit of the sum of transition functions h(t), and therefore
considers the behavior of the system as a permanent transient regime, even if the
system works in a steady-state regime. For a known exposure f(t), the method
allows us to obtain an analytical solution. In numerical implementation of the
Duhamel integral and its variations, signicant computing power is required.
The Laplace transform (operational) method allows us to perform analysis of
dynamical systems subjected to arbitrary excitation, including discontinuous and
impulse excitations. The operational method deals with the linear
non-homogeneous differential equation of an arbitrary order that describes the
behavior of system. The essence of the method lies in the fact that the Laplace
transform L{f(t)}
1

Fp Lff tg

f tept dt

14:47

transfers a description of the problem from the space of originals f(t) in the space of
images F( p). As a result, the mathematical operations on the original functions
correspond to simpler operations on their images. Thus, the convolution of two
functions in the original space is reduced to multiplication of theirs images in the
image space, and linear differential equations becomes algebraic. This analytical
method allows us to take into account non-zero initial conditions in a formal way
and to consider transient and steady-state vibrations. The method for the formal
application is quite simple.
The Fourier transform method also allows to solve linear differential equation
(14.44): however, the use of the method is not sufciently effective because there
are objective disadvantages (difculties in solving, inability to take into account the
non-zero initial conditions).
Spectral theory comprises a set of applied issues. The most important of these
are the representation of a known input signal u(t) in spectral form U( j), and the
method for determining the spectral characteristic of response x(t) for a linear
deterministic system. The rst problem, even in the case of a single non-periodic
signal, is solved using direct Fourier transform
1

U j

utejt dt;

14:48a

1

where the function u(t), according to the inverse Fourier transform, is

1
ut
2

Ujejt d:
1

14:48b

Problems

557

The essence of the second problem is that for arbitrary processes in a linear system,
the ratio between the spectra of different values is the same as that between the
complex amplitudes in the case of forced harmonic vibration. Therefore, the
response x(t) of a linear system can be expressed in terms of the transfer function
W( j) and Fourier image U( j) of external excitation u(t)
1
xt
2

W jU jejt d:

14:49

1

The spectral method allows us to obtain a solution in an analytical form. The

method operates with spectra of signals and with frequency characteristics of
systems because they have a clear physical meaning and can be represented
graphically. Therefore, the method is readily visualized. The method does not
take into account the initial conditions, and any output signal of a system found
by the spectral method can be formally regarded as inherent to the steady-state
process.
Frequency-domain analysis tools are of utmost importance in signal processing
applications. Their elds of application are vast, and include communications,
seismology, remote sensing, image processing (image analysis, ltering, reconstruction, compression), biomedical engineering [2833], and acoustics.

Problems
14.1. Describe the features of kinematic and dynamic characters that are typical
for all shock excitations.
14.2. Explain the necessity of Newtons hypothesis in impact theory.
14.3. Explain the Fourier transform for a single non-periodic function.
14.4. Explain features of the application of the Fourier and Laplace transforms.
14.5. Explain the concepts amplitude spectrum, and phase spectrum.
14.6. Explain the concept instantaneous impulse and the difference between
cases of constant force and constant impulse.
14.7. Explain the fundamental concepts of the spectral theory of a shock.
14.8. What is the difference between the transient function and impulse transient
function?
14.9. Describe the properties of linear systems and the meaning of standard
excitation.
14.10. Dene the transfer function, and explain the difference between transfer
functions in operator and complex form.
14.11. Explain the concept of dynamic stiffness of an mbk system.
14.12. What is meant by analysis of a system in the time and frequency domains?
14.13. Explain the difference between the concepts primary (initial) shock spectrum and residual shock spectrum.
14.14. Explain the concept spectra of maximax response.

558

14 Shock and Spectral Theory

14.15. Let the spectral density of signal x(t) be X( j). Prove that the spectral
density of signal x_ t is jX( j). Compute the spectral density of the nth
derivative of x(t) [16].
Hint: All derivatives until n  1 (including) tend to zero when t ! 1
Answer: ( j)nX( j)
14.16. Determine the spectral density for a single function in the form of a triangle
(Fig. P14.16) [20].
Answer:
h
F
2

it

1 2t=tb e
tb =2

h
dt
2

tb=2

1  2t=tb eit dt

htb 1  cos tb
:
2 tb =22
f(t)
h
0t
b

Fig. P14.16

14.17. Find the forced response of the un-damped system with a single degree of
freedom subjected to the force shown in Fig. P14.17. Apply the Duhamel
integral [34].
t1
t
1

1
Hint: xt
F0 sin t  d
F0 sin t  d.
m
t1
m
t1
0


F0 1 sin t  t1 sin t

Answer: xt
 2
.
2 t1
t1
m
f(t)
F0
0

t1

Fig. P14.17

14.18. A linear mk oscillator is subjected to the following excitations: (1) simple

step in force Fc (Heaviside excitation); (2) simple step in displacement of

References

559

support uc; simple step in acceleration of support uc. Find the following
responses of the system: in cases 1 and 2, the absolute displacement y(t) of
the mass, and in case 3, the absolute acceleration y(t) of the mass. Discuss all
responses.
Answer: 1 yt Fkc 1  cos 0 t, 2 yt uc 1  cos 0 t, 3 yt
q

uc 1  cos 0 t, 0 mk .
14.19. A linear mk oscillator is subjected to parabolic force excitation f t F1


1  t2 =t21 at 0  t  t1 ; the excited force f t 0 at t < 0 and t  t1 .
Determine the response of the system [35].




k
F1
2
t2
Answer: xt
1 2 2 1  cos t  2 , 0  t  t1 ; 2
m
k
t1
t1


F1 2
2
cos t  t1  cos t 
sin t  t1  cos t ,
x t
t1
k 2 t21
t  t1 :

References
1. Goldsmith, W. (2014). Impact: The theory and physical behaviour of colliding solids.
New York: Dover.
2. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
3. Zukas, J. A. (1990). High velocity impact dynamics. New York: Wiley.
4. Ayre, R. S. (1996). Transient response to step and pulse functions. In Harris C.M. (Ed.), Shock
and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Chapter 8.
5. Panovko, Ya. G. (1967). Fundamentals of applied theory of the vibrations and shock. Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
6. Lalanne, C. (2002). Mechanical vibration & shock (Vol. 14). New York: Hermes Penton
Science.
7. Balandin, D. V., Bolotnik, N. N., & Pilkey, W. D. (2001). Optimal protection from impact,
shock and vibration. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science.
8. Clough, R. W., & Penzien, J. (1975). Dynamics of structures. New York: McGraw-Hill.
9. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/ColeThomson Learning.
10. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. New York:
Springer.
11. Filippov, A. P. (1970). Vibration of the deformable systems. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
12. Kilchevsky, N. A. (1969). The theory of the collision of solid bodies (2nd ed.). Kiev, Ukraine:
Naukova Dumka.
13. Lenk, A. (1977). Elektromechanische systeme. Band 2: Systeme mit verteilten parametern.
Berlin: VEB Verlag Technnic.
14. Timoshenko, S. P., & Goodier, J. N. (1987). Theory of elasticity (Classic textbook reissue
series 3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
15. Rabinovich, I. M., Sinitsyn, A. P., & Terenin, B. M. (1958). Analysis of structures subjected to
short-duration and impact forces. Moscow: Voenno-Inzhenernaya Akademiya (VIA).
16. Strelkov, S. P. (1964). Introduction to the theory of vibrations. Moscow: Nauka.

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14 Shock and Spectral Theory

17. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). New York: PrenticeHall.
18. Korn, G. A., & Korn, T. M. (2000). Mathematical handbook (2nd ed.). New York: McGrawHill Book/Dover. (Original work published 1968)
19. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
20. Ilinsky, V. S. (1982). Protection of radio-electronic equipment and precision equipment from
the dynamic excitations. Moscow: Radio.
21. Brown, J. W., & Churchill, R. V. (2009). Complex variables and applicationsSolutions
manual (8th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
22. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow: Nauka.
23. Karnovsky, I. A. (2012). Theory of arched structures. Strength, stability, vibration. Berlin:
Springer.
24. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol. 6. In
Handbook: Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief) (19781981) Vibration in engineering, vols.
16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
25. Ogata, K. (1992). System dynamics (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Int.
26. Newland, D. E. (1989). Mechanical vibration analysis and computation. Harlow, England:
Longman Scientic and Technical.
27. Crandall, S. H. (Ed.). (1963). Random vibration (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
28. Lebed, E. (2009). Sparse signal recovery in a transform domain. Theory and application.
Saarbrucken, Deutschland: VDM Verlag Dr.Muller, Aktiengesellschaft &Co. KG.
29. Biot, M. A. (1943). Analytical and experimental methods in engineering seismology. Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 108(1), 365385.
30. Smallwood, D. (1981, May). An improved recursive formula for calculating shock response
spectra. The Shock and Vibration Bulletin, Bulletin No. 51, Part 2.
31. Lebed, E., Mackenzie, P. J., Sarunic, M. V., & Beg, M. F. (2010). Rapid volumetric OCT
image acquisition using compressive sampling. Optics Express, 18(20), 21003210012.
32. Lebed, E., Lee, S., Sarunic, M. V., & Beg, M. F. (2013). Rapid radial optical coherence
tomography image acquisition. Journal of Biomedical Optics, 18(3), 0360403613.
33. Lebed, E. (2013). Novel methods in biomedical image acquisition and analysis. PhD Thesis,
Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
34. Shabana, A. A. (1991). Theory of vibration: Vol. 2: Discrete and continuous systems. Mechanical Engineering Series. New York: Springer.
35. Timoshenko, S., Young, D. H., & Weaver, W., Jr. (1974). Vibration problems in engineering
(4th ed.). New York: Wiley.

Chapter 15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration

Protection Systems

Surely nothing is so at variance with reason and stability as

chance? Hence it seems to me that it is not in the power even
of God himself to know what event is going to happen
accidentally and by chance. For if He knows, then the event
is certain to happen; but if it is certain to happen, chance
does not exist.
Marcus Tullius Cicero. On Divination, book II, 7, (18).

Until now, we have assumed that the external exposure on the system can be
represented as a known function of time. However, such representation of exposure
on the system is not always possible. Many products operate on movable carriers
(automotive and railway transport, ships, planes, rockets, guided missiles). In these
cases, the products are subjected to excitations, which mostly have a random
(stochastic) character [1]. In the case of stochastic excitation, the response of a
system also has a random character; therefore, probability methods should be
applied for analysis of such a system. Random factors may enter into dynamic
analysis of a vibration protection system not only through exposures, but also
through parameters of a system [2].
In this chapter we will only consider random vibration caused by random
excitation. The following issues are presented: (1) short information about the
random processes, their fundamental characteristics, and properties; among which
are stationary and ergodic processes, a spectral density, transformation of a random
process by a linear ordinary differential equation; (2) some typical problems of
vibration protection of a linear one degree of freedom systems, subjected to
dynamic and kinematic random excitations.
It is assumed that the reader is familiar with elements of probability and
statistics. Prerequisite information can be found, for example, in [3, 4].

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_15

561

562

15.1

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

Random Processes and Their Characteristics

This section describes elements of the theory of random functions with continuous
argument [5, 6].
A random function of any argument is a function such that for each value of the
argument, the output is a random variable. A random function of time is called a
random process [7]. If a variable can take on any value between two specied
values, it is called a continuous variable; otherwise, it is called a discrete variable.
The specic form that takes a random process as a result of the experiment is called
realization of the random process. In type-one systems under permanent conditions
of the experiment, the observations lead to different realizations of the random
process. It is impossible to predict which will be the realization of any single
experience of a random process. Only statistical data, which characterizes the set
of processes that take place in the same conditions, can be determined.
The random process X(t) contains n realizations x1(t), . . ., xn(t). This is the total
collection of samples forming a statistical ensemble. Examples of sampling realizations x1(t), x2(t), and xk(t) in the vicinity of time t1 and t2 are shown in Fig. 15.1a.
A section of random process is a set of values of all realizations taken at a xed
time; in Fig. 15.1a, two sections are shown at t1 and t2. Each specic realization can
be interpreted as a deterministic function; on the other hand, the random process as
a whole should be analyzed considering an innite aggregate of such realizations,
corresponding to the different sections. When t t1 the values of realizations x1(t1),
x2(t1), and xk(t) are A1, B1, and C1, while at the t t2 , the same realizations take the
values A2, B2, and C2.
a

b
xi (t)

C1
*
B1
*

xk (t)
x2 (t)
x1 (t)

*A1

t1

xi (t)

m(t)

C1
*
B1 x2 (t )
*
*A
1

t1

xi (t)

xk (t)

C2
*

m(t)

x2 (t)

* A1

B2
*t

* C1
B1 *

t
2

A2 *

t1

m(t1)
* C2
* B2

t2

*A2

m(t2)

C2
*
B2 *

t2

* A2

Fig. 15.1 (a) Realization x1(t) of the random process and fragments x2(t) and xk(t) in the vicinity
of t1 and t2; (b) expected values for time t1 and t2, and expectation of the whole process m(t);
(c) expected value m(t) and realization x2(t) of a random process

15.1

Random Processes and Their Characteristics

563

15.1.1 Probability Distribution and Probability Density

A prediction of what will be the realization x(t) of a random process in any single
instance is not possible. We can nd only the statistical data characterizing the
processes occurring in the same conditions [7]. Characteristics of the random process
provide an opportunity to compare the probability of occurrence of different curves
x(t). The simplest probabilistic characteristics are one-dimensional distribution laws
P(x, ti) and one-dimensional probability density functions p(x, ti).
Probability distribution function P(x, ti) determines the probability that at time ti
the value of the random variable X(ti) does not exceed the value x: Px; ti
PfXti  xg. The distribution function is non-decreasing and satises the conditions Pf1, tg 0, Pf1; tg 1. Thus, the probability distribution function for
any time t satises the condition
0  Px  1:

15:1

Probability density function p(x, t) of a random process X(t) describes the probability distribution of the realization of the random variable X(ti) at any given time ti.
The probability density function is equal to the derivative of the probability distribution function
px; ti lim

x!0

Px x  Px dPx; ti

:
x
dx

15:2

A time ti is a section of a random process X(t) in the space of possible states and the
probability density of the random variables X(ti) for a given section is p(x, ti). The
product p(x, ti)dx means the probability of realizing the random value X(ti) in an
innitesimal interval dx in the neighborhood of value x. The probability that a
random value X(ti) will be in the interval [a, b] in terms of probability density
function p(x, ti) is
b
Pfa < Xti < bg px; ti dx:

15:3

The concepts P(x, ti) and p(x, t) have a clear physical interpretation. Dynamic
process x(t) is shown in Fig. 15.2a. We will show an arbitrary value for coordinate
x x1 . We formulate the question: how does the value x1 inuence the probability
that a random variable X will not exceed x1? Condition X < x1 is performed during
time intervals t1 and t2. The lower the line x1, the fewer the intervals t within
which the condition X < x1 is fullled. It is obvious that if X ! 1, the probability
function PX < x1 ! 0. The higher the line x1, the greater the intervals t within
which the condition X < x1 is fullled. It is clear that if X ! 1, the probability

564

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

function PX < x1 ! 1. Therefore, the probability distribution function has a

cumulative character. This function is presented in Fig. 15.2b. In this graph, P1
means the probability that the random value X < x1 , while P2 means probability
that the random value X < x2 .

x(t )

P(x, ti )
1

x2
x1

*P
1

0
t1

t2

x1 x2

P2

P
x

p(x, ti )

0
Fig. 15.2 (a) Interpretation of the probability distribution; (b) cumulative (probability) distribution function, P(x, ti); (c) probability density function p(x, ti)

The graph in Fig. 15.2b allows us to compute the probability that a value X in the
realizations will fall within a certain interval of values [x1, x2]
Px1 < X < x2 PX < x2  PX < x1 :

15:4

A one-dimensional probability density function is shown in Fig. 15.2c. The shaded

area under the probability density function between the two values x1 and x2
represents the probability P of the variable X being in this interval x1  x2  [8, 9].
This means that the total area under the density curve must be unity
1

Pf1 < Xti < 1g

px; ti dx 1:

15:5a

1

Let us return to the concept of density distribution p. The value x(t1) is a random
variable, which is characterized by its distribution law. The one-dimensional
function of distribution density p1(x1, t1) allows us to determine the probability of
passing a function x(t) at time t1 through a single slit of size dx1, whose ordinate is
x1 (Fig. 15.3).
Fig. 15.3 The concept of
one- and n-dimensional
probability density
functions p(x, t)

dx1

x1
0

t1

dxn

xn
tn

15.1

Random Processes and Their Characteristics

565

A multidimensional distribution function gives more information about the

random process; this function allows us to compare the probability of occurrence
of different curves. The function pn(x1, t1; x2, t2; . . ., xn, tn) is called an n-dimensional density distribution. It allows us to determine the probability of passing a
function x(t) through n slits of size dx1, dx2, . . ., dxn; the ordinates of the slits are x1,
x2, . . ., xn. The greater the number of slits n, the more detail with which one can
estimate the probability of occurrence of certain realizations [7]. In practice, we are
usually limited to one- and two-dimensional probability density processes.
In addition to the distribution function for describing the basic properties of
random processes, other non-random functions are used. Among them are mathematical expectation or expected value and dispersion, correlation functions, and
spectral density. These are fundamental concepts. Details about other functions of
random processes can be found in [1, 5, 6, 10, 11].

15.1.2 Mathematical Expectation and Dispersion

Among the fundamental non-random characteristics of a random process are
mathematical expectation and dispersion.
Mathematical Expectation (Expected Value) Let us consider a random process
X(t) at a specied time t t1 (Fig. 15.1a, b). In this section of random functions, we
have a set of number xi(t1) of different realizations, i.e., a discrete random value.
These realizations at time t t1 are denoted as A1, B1, . . ., C1. For this set of numbers
n
1X
xk t1 , where
xi t1 i 1, 2, . . . , n, the arithmetic mean value is mx t1
n k1
n is the number of realizations, and xk(t1) is the value x at section t1 for the kth
realization. The next concept, expected value of the discrete random value X, is
the sum of the product of all values xk and the probabilities Pk of their occurrence,
n
X
xk t1 Pk [12]. In other words, the mathematical expectation of
i.e., mx t1
k1

the random values X(t1), i.e., m{X(t1)}, are the weighted averages (with weights Pk)
over the ensemble of realizations in the specied section t1 of the random
process [3].
In the case of a continuous random variable, the expected value associated with
the probability density p(x1, t1) of the random variable x(t1) is determined by the
formula
1

mx t1

x1 p1 x1 ; t1 dx1:
1

15:5b

566

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

This procedure can be performed for different sections, i.e., for different t. In the
general case, the expected value mx(t1) is different for different moments of time.
We can see that after integration, the right-hand side of (15.5a, 15.5b) will be a
function of the parameter t1. Therefore, the expected value of the random process
1

mx t MXt

xpx; tdx

15:6

1

is a function of time (Fig. 15.1b). The expected value mx(t) of a process and the
possible realization x2(t) of the random function X are shown by the dotted line in
Fig. 15.1c. Formula (15.6) allows us to compute the expected value of a random
process in terms of the one-dimensional probability density p(x, t) of the random
variable x(t) [7]. This expression presents the rst moment, which is analogous to
the centroid of the area under the probability density curve about the x 0 axis
(Fig. 15.4) [8].
p(x)

Fig. 15.4 The concept of

the rst and second
moments of p(x)

mx =

mx

xp(x)dx

x2 =

x p( x)dx
2

dx

As shown in Fig. 15.1a, c, each realization at any one time consists of two
components. The rst, expected value mx(x), is a non-random component of the
random process X(t). The second component, dispersion (or variance), represents
the uctuation of each realization.
Dispersion or variance D(t) of a random process characterizes the spread of values
of a random variable with respect to its mathematical expectation m(t). The greater
D(t), the higher the probability of the appearance of large positive and negative
magnitudes of the process.
For a discrete random value, the dispersion D(t) is dened as the expected value
M of the squared difference of random values X(t) about its expected value mx(t) [8, 12]
n
o
Dx t M Xt  mx t2 :

15:7a

For a continuous random variable,

1

xt  mx t2 px; tdx:

Dx t
1

15:7b

15.1

Random Processes and Their Characteristics

567

This expression can be rewritten in another form [8]

1

xt  mx t2 px; tdx

Dx t
1
1

x2 tpx; tdx  2mx t

1

xtpx; tdx m2x t

1

1

px; tdx:
1

x2 tpx; tdx x2 t,

Since

15:8a

xtpx; tdx mx t,
1

px; tdx 1, we
1

then get
Dx t x2 t  m2x t;

15:8b

where x2 t is the mean-square value (MSV) or the second moment, which is

analogous to the moment of inertia of the area under the probability density curve
about x 0 (Fig. 15.4).
The standard deviation of a random process provides an estimate of the spread of
its possible values along the time axis about the expected value of the process. The
standard deviation x(t) is equal to the positive square root of the dispersion [8]
x t

p
Dx t:

15:9
1

x2 tpx; tdx x2 t. Only if

This value should be distinguished from the MSV

1

the mean value mx t 0 then the standard deviation equals to the root-meanq
square (rms) value, i.e., x x2 t [8]. Therefore, the dispersion D is usually
denoted by 2. The uctuation component of the process X(t) in one of its realizations in comparison to a standard deviation  of random variables from the
expected value mt 0 is shown in Fig. 15.5

Fig. 15.5 Fluctuation

component of the process
X(t) in one of its realizations

mx (t)= 0

x(t) mx (t)
s (t)

0
s (t)

568

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

The standard deviation of the process and the random process itself have the same
units. If the random process describes, for example, the displacement of a mass, then
the expected value, i.e., the average displacement, is measured in units of length [L];
the unit for dispersion is [L2], and the unit for a standard deviation is [L].

15.1.3 Correlational Function

One-dimensional laws of probability distribution density of random processes
allow us to estimate the behavior of the random process at a xed time; however,
they do not consider the relationship between values of the random process at
different times. The different realizations of two random processes are shown in
Fig. 15.6a, b. The dynamics of the processes are completely different, though the
mathematical expectation and variance coincide, and the state space of both
processes is practically the same. The statistical relationship between the sections
in Fig. 15.6a is stronger than in Fig. 15.6b; this is explained by the fact that the
process (a) is smooth, while process (b) is rapidly varying.
The concept correlated and uncorrelated processes allows a clear physical
interpretation. If two independent oscillators are subjected to kinematic excitation,
the dynamic processes in them are uncorrelated. However, if the masses of the same
oscillators are coupled by elastic connection, the processes become correlated.
In order to estimate the degree of statistical dependence of the instantaneous
values of one process X(t) at arbitrary times (in other words, variability or rate of
change of a process), we need to use two random values X(t1) and X(t2), which
should be considered together.
Fig. 15.6 Different
realizations of two random
processes with the same
expected values and
dispersion: (a) smooth
process; (b) rapidly varying
process. For both processes
mathematical expectation
and variance are same

a
x
mx + 3s
mx
mx 3s

t1

t2

b
x
mx + 3s
mx
mx 3s

t1

t2

15.1

Random Processes and Their Characteristics

569

The correlation function of a random process X(t) is a non-random function

Kx(t1, t2) of two variables (time) t1 and t2; this function is equal to the mathematical
expectation of the product of two random variables X(t1) and X(t2) at corresponding
sections t1 and t2, i.e.,
1

K x t1 ; t2 MfXt1 Xt2 g

x1 t1 x2 t2 p2 x1 ; t1 ; x2 ; t2 dx1 dx2: 15:10

1 1

Here, p2(x1, t1; x2, t2) is the density of the joint distribution of random variables
xt1 x1 and xt2 x2 (two-dimensional probability density). After integrating,
the right-hand side is dependent on t1 and t2. From the denition of the correlation
function, we should have K x t1 ; t2 K x t2 ; t1 .
For analysis of two random processes, X(t) and Y(t), a mutual correlational
function should be introduced; this function is determined as the mathematical
expectation of the product X(t1) and Y(t2) of two random processes at the moments
t1 and t2
1

K xy t1 ; t2 MfXt1 Y t2 g

x1 t1 y2 t2 p2 x1 ; t1 ; y2 ; t2 dx1 dy2:
1 1

15:11
The mutual correlational function satises the condition of symmetry with simultaneous permutation of the indices x, y and the time t1, t2 i.e.,
K xy t1 ; t2 K yx t2 ; t1 .
Some Useful Relations
1. If two random processes are related linearly, i.e., Y t ctXt, where c(t) is a
deterministic function, then
my t ctmx t;

Dy t c2 tDx t;

K y t1 ; t2 ct1 ct2 K x t1 ; t2 :
15:12

2. If the relationship between two random processes is Y t Xtdt, then

t1 t2

t
my t mx tdt;
0

K y t 1 ; t 2

K x t1 ; t2 dt1 dt2 :
0 0

15:13

570

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

3. If the relationship between two random processes is Y t

m y t

d
mx t;
dt

dXt
, then
dt

K y t1 ; t2

K x t1 ; t2
:
t1 t2

15:14

Example 15.1 Random function Xt A sin t B cos t, where A and B are

random values with expected values mA, mB, the standard deviation A, B, and
correlation function between coefcients K AB 6 0 (this means that the random
coefcients are correlated). Determine the correlation function [12].
Solution By denition,
K x t1 ; t2 MfXt1 Xt2 g MfA sin t1 B cos t1 A sin t2 B cos t2 g

M A2 sin t1 sin t2 AB sin t1 cos t2 AB cos t1 sin t2

B2 cos t1 cos t2 :
Since the expected value of the sum is equal to the sum of the expected value, then
 
 
K x t1 ; t2 sin t1 sin t2 M A2 sin t1 t2 MfABg cos t1 cos t2 M B2 :
 
 
Assume that mA mB 0. In this case, DA M A2 2A , DB M B2 2B , so

K x t1 ; t2 2A sin t1 sin t2 K AB sin t1 t2 2B cos t1 cos t2 :

We can see that the correlation function depends on the moments of observation
t1 and t2.

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

Many processes in dynamical systems occur uniformly in time, i.e., their probability characteristics remain constant over time. Such processes are called
stationary.

15.2.1 Properties of Stationary Random Processes

In the case of a stationary random process (SRP), a distribution of probability
density does not depend on the process start time. The one-dimensional density
distribution function p1(x1, t1) of a stationary process is the same for any moment in
time, i.e., p1 x1 ; t1 p1 x1 . The two-dimensional density distribution function of

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

571

an SRP p2 x1 ; t1 ; x2 ; t2 p2 x1 , t1 t0 ; x2 , t2 t0 does not depend on times t1 and

t2 themselves, but on their difference t2  t1 . Thus, in the case of an SRP, all
average values based on p(x) are independent of the time [1]
mx t1 mx t2 mx const;
Dx t1 Dx t2 Dx const:

15:15

If two sections t1 and t2 are shifted by any time t0, then the correlation function of
the SRP remains unchanged
K x t1 ; t2 K x t1 t0 , t2 t0 const:

15:16a

This means that this function depends only on the time interval between the two
times t1 and t2
K x t1 ; t2 K x :

15:16b

In other words, the correlation function of the SRP is a function of only one
argument t2  t1 .
Let us note the following properties of the correlation function of an SRP:
1. Since K x t1 ; t2 K x t2 ; t1 , the correlation function is even K x K x .
Therefore, the graph of correlation function Kx() is symmetrical about the
y-axis [7].
2. The value of the correlation function for any does not exceed its initial value,
i.e., jK x j  K x 0.
3. The initial value of the correlation function is equal to the mean value of the
square
of oa random process (rst square, and then the average) K x 0
n
M Xt2 , or K x 0 2 . In other words, a dispersion D 2 of the

SRP is equal to Kx(0).

4. The correlation function of a constant xt A0 is equal to the square of this
constant K x A20 . Regardless of how large the observation time, the relationship for the constant process at different times will be invariant.
5. The correlation function of a periodic process xt A sin t has the form
A2
K x
cos .
2
n
X
6. The correlation function of the process xt A0
Ak sin k t k has the
n
2
k1
X
Ak
cos k .
form K x A20
2
k1
A random process is called stationary, in the wider sense, if the mathematical
expectation and dispersion does not depend on time, and the correlation function
depends on only one variable t2  t1 , where t1 and t2 are the moments of time
for which the ordinates of the random process are taken, i. e., K x K x .

572

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

Example 15.2 A random process is Xt A sin t B cos t, where A and B are

random values for which the expected values mA, mB, standard deviations A, B,
and correlation function between coefcients is KAB. Determine the conditions
under which the correlation function describes a stationary process.
Solution As shown in Example 15.1, the correlation function for the case when
mA mB 0 is
K x t1 ; t2 2A sin t1 sin t2 K AB sin t1 t2 2B cos t1 cos t2 :
Let A B , and the random values A and B are not corrected with each other,
i.e., K AB 0. In this case, the correlation function may be presented as follows:
K x t1 ; t2 2 cos t1  t2 :
Since the correlation function Kx(t1, t2) depends on the time interval between the
two sections t1 and t2, the random function X(t) under the above assumptions
describes the SRP. Examples of correlation functions and corresponding characteristics of different SRPs are presented in Handbook [11].
Two correlation functions of the same structure K x 2 ejj , but with
different parameters , and the corresponding character of random processes x1(t)
and x2(t), are shown in Fig. 15.7a, b [12].
Dynamical systems whose properties are reected in the curves K1() and K2()
have different inertia. Since K1() decreases more slowly than K2(), the object with
the correlation function K1() has greater inertia than the object with the correlation
function K2(). The faster the correlation function decreases, the higher the frequencies that observed in a random process. This means that the process shown in
Fig. 15.7a has a coarser structure compared to (b), since the process in (a) is missing
higher frequencies.

K1 (t )

x1 (t)

K1 (0) = s x2

s x2 e
tc

0
b

K 2 (t )

t
x2 (t)

K 2 (0)

= s x2

s x2 e

tc

Fig. 15.7 The correlation functions of a stationary random process K x 2 ejj ,

>0

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

573

The time interval c on which the correlation function decreases by e times, i.e.,
the magnitude relation between the values of a random process, is called the
correlation time interval of a random process (Fig. 15.7). We can say that the
values of a random process on the correlation interval c are weakly related to each
other. Thus, knowledge of the correlation function gives an indication of the rate of
change of the random process.
Random process in which there is no relationship between previous and subsequent values is called white noise. This distinctive property determines its special
role as the simplest model of a random process. For white noise, c 0.

15.2.2 Ergodic Processes [12]

To determine the probabilistic characteristics of a stationary random process X(t),
we need to have different realizations of the random process. SRP X(t) for which it
is possible to obtain the probabilistic characteristics of the entire set of realizations
using only one realization is called an ergodic process (ergodicfrom the Greek
words ergon: (work) and odos: (path or way). This term was coined by Boltzmann
while he was working on a problem in statistical mechanics.)
The average value over a plurality is determined on the basis of observations
over the multiple realizations for the same time. The average value over time is
determined on the basis of an observation over a single realization within a time T.
The distribution law of random variables in the ergodic process is the same for the
ensemble of realizations and over time. For ergodic processes we can apply the
Birkhoff-Khinchine theorem (1931, 1934) [13]
T
1
mx t lim
xtdt;
T!1 T

15:17

where the left- and right-hand sides of this relationship represent a mean value over
the plurality of realizations and the mean value over time for a single realization,
respectively. In other words, for an ergodic process with a probability equal to
unity, the average value over the plurality of realizations is equal to the average
over time.
For practical verication of the ergodicity of the process, we need to check the
condition
T
1 

lim
1  K x d 0:
T!1 T
T
0

15:18

574

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

Example 15.3 The SRP X(t) has correlation function K x Dx ejj . Is this
process ergodic?
Solution We apply an ergodic test
T
T
1 

1 

lim
1  K x d lim
1  Dx ejj d
T!1 T
T!1 T
T
T
0

T
Dx  jj jj
e
 e
lim
d
T!1 T
T
0




Dx 1 T
1 
 e
 1  2 TeT  eT 1
lim
T!1 T

T
0:
Thus, the ergodic condition is satised.

15.2.3 Spectral Density

In Sect. 14.1.3, we found that any periodic function f(t) and its spectral density S()
were associated by direct and inverse Fourier transform, as follows:
1

1
f t
2

Seit d,

1
1

15:19

f teit dt:

S
1

The Fourier transform (15.19) can be formally applied to any non-periodic function
f(t) under certain assumptions imposed upon it [14]. For such a non-periodic
function f(t), we will take the correlation function Kx() of a random process. On
the basis of the relation (15.19), we get
1
K x
2
1

Sx ei d,
1

S x
1

K x ei d:

15:20

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

575

In this case, the function of a frequency S() is called the spectral density of a
random process. Since Kx() is a deterministic characteristic of a random process,
its Fourier transform is also is a non-random characteristic of a random process. The
function S() is real, non-negative, and even function [7]. Thus the graph of S() is
located above the horizontal axis and is symmetrical around the vertical axis S().
In the case of deterministic processes, we use two approaches: analysis of
processes in the time and frequency domains. These two approaches complement
each other. In the case of random processes, we have a similar situation. The main
time domain characteristic of a stationary process is a correlation function, while
the frequency properties are described by the spectral density. The physical meaning of the function Sx() is that it describes the distribution of the signal power over
the frequency spectrum [7].
If we consider the stationary (in the broad sense) and ergodic processes, then
K x K x , and from (15.20) we obtain the Wiener-Khinchine (1931, 1934)
relationships [7]
1
K x
2
1

Sx cos d,
1

Sx

15:21a

K x cos d 2 K x cos d:
1

Since cos cos , then Sx Sx ; therefore,

1

Sx 2 K x cos d:

15:21b

If a random process x(t) has any units [a], then the correlation function has units ba2c,
and the units of the spectral density are the square of the units of x per unit frequency,
i.e., ba2 s c.
Properties of the Fourier transform imply that compression of the function Kx()
along the axis leads to a stretching of the frequency spectrum Sx(), and vice
versa.
Example 15.4 Suppose the correlation function of the SRP is K x Dx ejj ,
> 0. The corresponding spectral density becomes
1

S x

Dx e
1

jj

cos d 2 Dx e cos d
0

2Dx
:
2 2

The correlation function and corresponding spectral density are shown in

Fig. 15.8a. Two special cases of correlation function Kx() are shown in

576

15

K x (t )

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

K x (t )

Dx

c
d (t )
t

S x (w)

S x (w)

2Dx a

Kx (t )
1
0
Sx (w )

2pd (w )
1

Fig. 15.8 Correlation function Kx() of stationary RP and corresponding spectral density Sx():
(a) K x Dx ejj ; (b, c) limiting cases of (a): (b) white noise, K x , (c) process x(t)
0
0
includes constant component, K x 2K x , Sx 2Sx

Fig. 15.8b, c. The case in Fig. 15.8b corresponds to white noise, in which all parts of
the spectrum are presented. The constant correlation function indicates a constant
x(t) (Fig. 15.8c) [7].
Let us show these features in more detail. We will use the following property of
the -function:
1

xtt  t1 dt xt1 :
1

The integration procedure of the product x(t) and t  t1 on an innite interval

leads to the value x(t1) (ltering property of the -function). If t1 0, then
1

xttdt x0 for any function x(t).

1

1. Let the correlation function of the stationary RP be K x . The spectral

density, according to (15.21a), is
1

S x


ei d ei 0 1:

1

The correlation function and corresponding spectral density are shown in

Fig. 15.8b. The stationary RP with a uniform frequency spectrum
Sx const is called white noise [1]. The white noise is a product of
idealization, because the process x(t) with mutually uncorrelated neighboring
values does not exist. However, the white noise concept is very useful for
engineering purposes [10].

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

577

2. If the spectral density of a process Sx() is a unit impulse function, i.e.,

Sx , then the correlation function of the process becomes
1
K x
2

ei d
1

1  i 
1
e 0 :
2
2

If we introduce a factor 2, the modied spectral density and correlation

0
0
function are Sx 2 and K x 2K x 1. The corresponding
graphs are shown in (Fig. 15.8c).
The criterion of the presence of a harmonic component in a random process is
described in [7, 10].
The graphs in Fig. 15.8b, c can be seen as a limiting cases for the graph in
Fig. 15.8a. Indeed, assume the curve of the correlation function Kx() narrows,
and in the limiting case is reduced to a vertical segment , i.e., the delta function;
in this case, the curve of the spectral density Sx() is expanded, and in the limit
becomes a horizontal line (Fig. 15.8b). If the curve of the correlation function
Kx() expands and in the limit case is reduced to a horizontal line, then the curve
of the spectral density Sx() narrows and in the limit case is reduced to the delta
function. If a spectral function has a component of type k, k const, this
indicates the presence of a constant component in the process x(t) [7].
The correlation function, spectral density, and some corresponding characteristics for important technical applications are presented by Sveshnikov [6], Bolotin
[11, vol. 1], Bendat and Piersol [10], etc.

15.2.4 Transformations of Random Exposures

by a Linear System
In this section we consider a vibration protection system subjected to a random
stationary exposure. The problem is to determine the probabilistic characteristics of
the response. Assume that the parameters of the system are deterministic, and the
process is ergodic.
Let us consider the stationary dynamical system with one input and one output.
Its state is described by linear differential equations with constant coefcients
a0

d n y t
dn1 yt
dyt
d m xt
dm1 xt





a
y

b
1
n1
n
0
1
dtn
dtn1
dtn1
dtm
dtm1
dxt
bm xt:
   bm1
dt
15:22a

578

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

In the case of an arbitrary deterministic or random input excitation, there is a

correspondence between the response y(t) of the system and input excitation x(t).
However, in the case of a random excitation x(t) with known probability characteristics, the stochastic characteristics of a response y(t) of the system will be
changed.
The input x(t) of the linear vibration protection system (15.22a) is a stationary
random function X(t) with expected value mx and correlation function Kx(). The
response y(t) of the system is a random function Y(t) with unknown probability
characteristics. To determine these characteristics, we will rst determine the
response x(t) in the case of deterministic exposure, and we will then move on to
the probability characteristics of the response [7].
1. The differential equation (15.22a) can be represented in operator form
d
An pyt Bm pxt, where p is a differential operator, as follows:
dt
a0 pn a1 pn1    an1 p an yt b0 pm b1 pm1    bm1 p bm xt

15:22b
The transfer function of the system in (15.22b) is
y
Bm p b0 pm b1 pm1    bm1 p bm
W p

:
x
An p
a0 pn a1 pn1    an1 p an

15:23

The general solution to the linear differential equation (15.22a) has the form
yt y1 t y2 t. The rst term y1(t) is the solution of the homogeneous
equation and determines the free vibrations of the system. These vibrations are
caused by the non-zero initial conditions and by virtue of the fact that resistance
is inevitably damped over time. The term y2(t) describes the forced vibration of a
system caused by a given exposure x(t). The so-called probe functions should be
highlighted among the various perturbing functions. These include the unit
impulse or delta function, unit step function, and harmonic function.
The impulse transient function K(t) is a response of the linear system to the input
action in the form of a unit impulse -function with zero initial conditions
a0

d n K t
dn1 K t

a
   an K t t:
1
dtn
dtn1

15:24

The transition function h(t) is a response of the linear system to input action in
the form of a unit step function with zero initial conditions
a0

dn ht
dn1 ht

a
   an ht 1t:
1
dtn
dtn1

15:25

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

579

The impulse transient function K(t) and the transition function h(t) are related as
0
follows: K t h t. The impulse response function denes the relationship
between the response y(t) of the system and the external exposure x(t) in the form
of a convolution integral
t
yt K t  xd:

15:26

Thus, the response K(t) to the delta-function excitation completely characterizes the
behavior of the linear system.
We now turn to the probability characteristics of the response of the system in
the case of random exposure [13].
First, we must note a fundamental feature of linear stationary system: If a
stationary random function passes through a linear time-invariant system, its
spectrum is reconstructed in such a way that some frequencies are amplied,
while others are attenuated (ltered).
The expected value of the response my(t) and expected value of the input
excitation mx(t) are related as follows:
t
my t K t; mx d

15:27

t0

If excitation x(t) is a harmonic of frequency , then the response of the stationary

system presents a harmonic vibration of the same frequency, but with changed
amplitude and phase. Indeed, if the linear system is subjected to the harmonic
excitation xt eit , then the response y(t) of system (15.22a) can be found in the
form of the harmonic vibration of the same frequency . That is,
yt Fieit ;

15:28

where F(i) is an unknown complex amplitude. For computation of F(i), we

substitute input xt eit and response yt Fieit into (15.22a). Finally, we
obtain
Fi

Bm i
,
An i

An i an in an1 in1    a1 i a0 ,

15:29

Bm i bm im bm1 im1    b1 i b0 :
The function F(i) is known as the frequency characteristic of a linear system. For
its computation in the transfer function W( p) (15.23), it is necessary to make the

580

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

change p i, i.e., Fi W i. If a linear system with constant parameters is

subjected to harmonic exposure eit, the response of the system is then represented
as a harmonic oscillation, multiplied by the frequency characteristic of the system
W(i ).
Let the input excitation be xt Ueit , where U does not depend on t. In this
case, the response of the system becomes yt UW ieit . This property is
preserved even when U is a random value (so long as it does not depend on t).
Below we apply the techniques of transformation of harmonic vibrations by a
linear system to the probability characteristics in the case of random excitations.
We represent the mathematical expectation mx of a stationary random function X(t)
as a harmonic oscillation of zero frequency 0. From formulas (15.29) we get
B m 0 b0
. Therefore, the expectation of the response of the system is
F 0
An 0 a0
my

b0
mx :
a0

15:30

We state without proof some important properties of linear dynamical systems with
constant parameters [6].
1. The spectral density of external excitation Sx() and spectral density of the
response of a system Sy() are related by the formula
Sy jW ij2 Sx ;

15:31

where jW(i)j2 is the square of the modulus of the frequency characteristic of the
system
jW ij2

jBm ij2
jAn ij2

15:32

2. The spectral density of the rst and second derivatives of the stationary random
input exposure are
Sx_ 2 Sx ,
Sx 4 Sx :

15:33

The spectral density of the rst and second derivatives of the response of the
system in terms of spectral density Sx() is
Sy_ jW ij2 2 Sx ,
Sy jW ij2 4 Sx :

15:34

15.2

Stationary Random Processes

581

The dispersion of the response of a system and its derivatives in terms of spectral
density at the input Sx() [12] is
1
Dy
2
Dy_
Dy

1
2
1
2

1
1

1
Sy d
2

jW ij2 Sx d,
1

jW ij2 2 Sx d,

15:35

1
1

jW ij2 4 Sx d:
1

jW ij2 Sx d depends on the coefcients of the differential

Expression
1

equation of system (15.22a). This integral is tabulated in [6, 12]. The two
simplest cases are presented below:
1

b0 d
2

1
1

1

ja0 i a1 j

b0
2;
2a0 a1

b0 i2 b1


 d 
a0 i2 a1 i a2 2

b0 a0 b1 =a2
2:
2a0 a1

Now we can solve the problem formulated above: knowing the characteristics mx
and Kx() of the random stationary function X(t) at the input of a linear system, to
determine the characteristics of the random function at its output. The procedure for
solving this problem is presented below [15]; all random output characteristics are
presented in terms of expected value mx and spectral density Sx() at the input of the
system.
1. Determine the mathematical expectation of the output, according to (15.30), i.e.,
my

b0
mx .
a0

2. The spectral density at the input Sx() in terms of correlation function Kx(),
according to (15.20):
1

Sx
1

K x ei d:

582

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

3. The square of the modulus of the frequency characteristic of a system according

to (15.32):
jW ij2

jBm ij2
jAn ij2

4. The spectral density at the output Sy() in terms of spectral density at the input
Sx(), according to (15.31):
Sy jW ij2 Sx ;
5. The correlation function at the output Ky() in terms of spectral density at the
output Sy(), according to (15.21a):
1

K y

Sy ei d:
1

Assume, that the input random excitation consists of two terms

X1 t U 0 Xt;

15:36

where U0 and X(t) are a random value with dispersion D0 and stationary random
function, respectively. The response of the system to the random excitation X1(t) is
the sum of the responses to individual effects in the right side (15.36). The
excitation U0 will be treated as a harmonic vibration with zero frequency, 0;
b0
according to (15.30), the corresponding response is V 0 U 0 . Thus, the term V0
a0
should be added to the response of the system to the excitation X(t).

15.3

Dynamic Random Excitation of a Linear Oscillator

This paragraph is devoted to analysis of linear vibration protection system with one
degree of freedom. The probability characteristics of the response of the system are
determined, and the effectiveness of vibration protection is evaluated [1, 9, 16].

15.3

Dynamic Random Excitation of a Linear Oscillator

583

15.3.1 Transient Vibration Caused by Impulse Shock

The design diagram of the mechanical system is presented in Fig. 15.9a. This
system consists of an absolutely rigid body, which is hinged at point 0, and the
linear vibration protection device of stiffness k and viscous damper [12]. The
body is subjected to a sudden random wave of pressure, so this impulse excitation
creates torque JM with respect to point 0. The probabilistic characteristics of
random pulse JM are expected value mJ and variance DJ. We must determine the
probabilistic characteristics of the response of the system and the parameters of the
vibration protection device according to the requirements of the dynamic process.

b
j (t )

Ce -nt

j1

k
b

J0

t1

j2

j3

ji

t3
T

- Ce -nt

ti = t1 + (i - 1) p p

C=

t
.
j0
w 02 - n 2

Fig. 15.9 (a) Design diagram of a structure. (b) Transient process

The initial angular velocity _ 0 of the body caused by impulse excitation may be
determined from equation J M J 0 _ 0 , where JM is a torque and J0 is the moment of
inertia of a body with respect to its axis of rotation. Assume that the probability
characteristics of the random impulse JM are given. They are the expected value mJ
and dispersion DJ. Therefore, the expected value, variance, and mean-square
deviation for the initial angular velocity _ 0 are
m_ 0

p
p
mJ
DJ
DJ

, D_ 0 2 , _ 0 D_ 0
:
J0
J0
J0

15:37

Let us estimate the inuence of parameters k and of the vibration protection

device on the probabilistic characteristics of the system response. The differential
equation of the rotational motion of a rigid body is
t Mpre :
J0

15:38a

The principal moment of the external forces is Mpre Mk M , where the

moments of the forces generated in the spring and damper relative to point 0 are
Mk k  l  l kl2 ,

M   l_  l l2 _ :

The moment of gravitational force of a body with respect to point 0 is neglected.

584

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

Differential equation (15.38a) leads to the linear equation of vibration J 0

l2 _ kl2 0; we reduce this equation to the form
2n_ 20 0,

2n

l2
,
J0

20

kl2
:
J0

15:38b

The general solution to (15.38b) is





n
_
t ent 0 cos pt sin pt 0 sin pt ;
p
p

15:39

p
where p 20  n2 is the frequency of free vibration of the body, taking into
account the energy dissipation. The corresponding graph of the transient vibration
is shown in Fig. 15.9b. Since the initial conditions are 0 0, _ 0 0 , then
t

_ 0 nt
e sin pt:
p

15:40

This relationship allows us to nd the probability characteristics of the angle of

rotation (t) of the body.
The mathematical expectation m, correlation function K, and standard deviation of the response (t) are
m_ 0 nt
e sin pt;
15:41
p



_ 0 nt
_ 0 nt1
e sin pt
e
sin pt1
K t; t1 M
p
p
n
o
ntt1
e
entt1
2
_

sin
pt
sin
pt

M

sin pt sin pt1 ;

D
_

1
0
0
p2
p2
15:42
m

_ 0 nt
e sin pt:
p

15:43

The probability characteristics of the response (t) in terms of probability characteristics of the excitation become
mJ nt
e sin pt,
J0p
entt1
K t; t1 DJ 2 2 sin pt sin pt1 ,
p J 0 p
DJ nt
e sin pt:

J0p
m

15:44

15.3

Dynamic Random Excitation of a Linear Oscillator

585

Expressions (15.44) concerning the probability characteristics for response allow

us to determine the parameters and k of the vibration protection device, taking
into account the following conditions:
1. The maximum angle of rotation should not exceed the permissible, i.e.,  .
2. Within the specied time t*, the amplitude of the angular vibration of the body
should be decreased by times.
The expression for the maximum angle of rotation can be formed using the threesigma rule [3]
max m 3

mJ 3 J nt
e sin pt:
I0 p

15:45

The rst maximum (max)1 happens at t1 =2p.

Assume the viscous coefcient 0. As result, we have n 0, ent 1 and
p 0 . We then obtain the following expression
max m 3

mJ 3 J
sin 0 t:
I 0 0

15:46a

Condition   becomes
max t1

mJ 3 J
 :
I 0 0

15:46b

If we take into account expression 20 kl2 =J 0 , then condition (15.46b) is satised at

k

mJ 3 J 2
I 0 2 l2

15:47

This formula allows us to determine the stiffness of an elastic element taking into
account the probabilistic characteristics of external excitation, allowable angle of
rotation, and physical parameters of the structure.
The graph of motion of a body for arbitrary initial conditions is shown in
p
Fig. 15.9b. The period of vibration is T 2=p, where p 20  n2 . Since the
rst maximum occurs at t1 =2p, each subsequent maximum occurs at
T=2 =p, and the ith maximum then occurs at ti t1 i  1=p, i 1, 2, . . .
The probability of angular displacement of a body at moments t1 and ti,
according to (15.45), is
mJ 3 J nt1
e
sin pt1 ,
I0 p
mJ 3 J nti
e sin pti :
max ti
I0 p

max t1

586

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

The ratio of two maximum deections of a body at moment t1 and ti is

max t1 ent1 sin pt1
nt
:
max ti
e i sin pti

15:48a

Now we need to determine total time ti when the ratio in (15.48a) is equal to , i.e.,
ent1 sin pt1
:
enti sin pti
Since t1

15:48b

, then the required time, when condition (15.48b) is satised is

2p

i  1 2i  1,
ti t1 i  1
p 2p
p 2p
Denote n1

i 1, 2, . . .

n
to compute the auxiliary parameters
0

n1
nt1 p ,
2 1  n21

pt1 ;
2

nti

2i  1n1
p ,
2 1  n21

pti

2i  1
:
2

Then condition (15.48b) becomes

(

i  1n1
exp p
1  n21

)
jj:

For the required parameter n1 we get the expression

lnjj
n1 q :
i  12 2 ln2 jj

15:49

For a given coefcient of vibration reduction, this formula contains one free
parameter i 1, 2, 3, . . . which species the required time ti according to condition
(15.48b). This means that reduction of vibration in times can be accomplished by
applying dampers with various damping factors , depending on the required time
of the vibration protection process. Table 15.1 contains parameter n1 which is
dependent on the ratio of vibration reduction and the corresponding time, which
is determined by the number i 1, 2, 3, . . ., as shown in Fig. 15.9b.
Table 15.1 Parameters
n1 l2 =2J 0 0 in terms
of and i

i
2
3
4

2
0.2154
0.1096
0.07334

3
0.3301
0.1722
0.1158

4
0.4037
0.2154
0.1455

5
0.4559
0.2481
0.1683

15.3

Dynamic Random Excitation of a Linear Oscillator

587

If the threefold reduction of vibration should occur at time t2 (Fig. 15.9b), then
we need to use a damper with parameter 0:33010 , 0 2J 0 0 =l2 , while at
time t3, we use the damper 0:17220 . At rst glance, the desired damping
parameter is determined only by the deterministic parameters of the system
itself and does not depend on the probability characteristics of the random
excitation. However, one should recall that according to (15.47), the natural
p
frequency 0 l k=J 0 is a random value.

15.3.2 Force Random Excitation

Below we present some fundamental relations between a random input excitation
and the response of a linear vibration protection system with one degree of freedom.
Consider the linear vibration protection system whose state is described by the
equation
my by_ ky Ft,

y 2ny_ 20 y

F t
:
m

15:50

We introduce the following assumptions [1]:

1. The parameters of the system are deterministic.
2. The initial conditions y0 and y_ 0 are random, with expected value my0 , my_ 0 , and
dispersion Dy0 , Dy_ 0 .
3. The external excitation F(t) is random, with expected value mF(t) and correlation
function KF(t, t1).
4. The initial conditions and external excitation are independent, so the
corresponding cross-correlation functions are K y0 y_ 0 K y0 F K y_ 0 F 0.
The solution to (15.50) with the initial conditions y0 and y_ 0 may be written in
the form




t
n
1 nt
y_ 0
y0 cos pt sin pt sin pt
e
sin pt  Fd,
y t e
p
pm
p
0
q
b
k
2
2
2
2n , 0 , p 0  n :
m
m
15:51
nt

588

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

With the above assumptions, the probability characteristics of the response system
(15.50) are




t
my_
n
1 nt
my ent my0 cos pt sin pt 0 sin pt
e
sin pt  mF d;
p
pm
p
0





Dy_
n
n
ntt1
cos pt1 sin pt1 20 sin pt sin pt1
Dy0 cos pt sin pt
K y t;t1 e
p
p
p
t t1
1
2 2 ent ent1 1 sin pt  sin pt1  1 K F ;1 dd1 ;
pm

0 0

2 D
y_ 0
2
2nt
n
Dy0 cos pt p sin pt 2 sin pt
Dy t e
p
t t1
1
2 2 ent ent1 1 sin pt  sin pt1  1 K F ;1 dd1 :
pm
00

15:52
In the case when y0 y_ 0 0, the set of equations (15.52) becomes
my

t
1 nt
e
sin pt  mF d;
pm
0

1
K y t; t1 2 2
p m

t t1

ent ent1 1 sin pt  sin pt1  1 K F ; 1 d d1 ;

00

Dy t

1
p2 m 2

t t1

ent ent1 1 sin pt  sin pt1  1 K F ; 1 d d1 :

00

15:53
These equations allow us to consider the transient vibration in the case of any
random excitation F(t).
Assume that the system is subjected to a random constant force Ft aH t [12].
Here, a is a random force with a known expected value ma and variance Da, H(t) is a
unit step Heaviside function. In this case, the expected value, correlational function,
dispersion, and mean-square-value (MSV) of the response y in terms of random
parameters of excitation ma and Da are
ma
Da
Et, K y 2 2 EtEt1 ;
m20
m 0
Da
a
Et:
Dy 2 4 E2 t; y
m 0
m20



n
nt
E t 1  e
cos pt sin pt :
p
my

15:54

15.3

Dynamic Random Excitation of a Linear Oscillator

589

The maximum value of the displacement y(t) can be found from equation
ymax t my 3 y



ma 3 a
n
nt
sin
pt
:
1

e
cos
pt

p
m20

15:55a

If we assume n 0, then the rst ymax happens at t =0 and its value is



ymax 2ma 3 a = m20 :

15:55b

Allowable displacement [y] of the mass m determines the overall dimensions of the
vibration protection system as a whole [17, 18]. Knowing [y], we can dene the
required stiffness of a system
k2

ma 3 a
:
y

15:56

The force transmitted to the foundation is N t ky by_ . The expected value of

this force is



 2


n
cp
n
mN ma 1  ent cos pt sin pt ent 2 1 sin pt :
p
k
p

15:57a

If n 0, then the expected value of a force N is mN ma 1  cos 0 t. The upper

limit of the maximum force is
N max 2ma 3 a :

15:57b

In the problem of vibrational overloading, we are usually required to nd the upper

limit of the acceleration of the body [17]; this problem in the random statement can
be solved similarly.
We now present the fundamental relationships for system (15.50) subjected to
dynamic random exposure F(t). The transfer function between input xt Ft and
output (displacement y(t) of mass m) is [1]
1
1

,
m20 1  =0 2 i2=0
r
p
k
c
0
, , ccr 2 km 2m0 :
m
ccr

W i

15:58a

The unit of W(i) is [Length/Force L/F].

The square of the modulus of the transfer function is
jW ij2

1
1
h
:
i2
m2 40
2
1  =0 2=0 2

15:58b

590

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

If spectral density of the random force F(t) is Sx(), then the spectral density of the
response Sy() is
Sy jW ij2 Sx
1
1
2 4h
Sx :
i2
m 0
1  =0 2 2=0 2

15:59

The units Sx() and Sy() are [Force2 Time F2T] and [Length2  Time L2T]
respectively.
The spectral density of the response of system Sy() and excitation Sx() are
related by formula (15.59) [1]. Thus the output spectral density of stationary
random process (SRP) is equal to the square of the system transfer function W()
multiplied by the input spectral density [8].
The mean-square-value of the response (displacement of the object) is
1

y2

Sy d:

15:60

To exclude physically unrealizable negative frequencies, the lower limit is assumed

to be zero. Substituting (15.59) into (15.60) leads to the relation [1]
1

y2

jW j2 Sx d:

15:61

This formula establishes the connection between the displacement MSV of the
object, modulus of the transfer function and spectral density of the force exposure
(input excitation). In the case of a system which is described by (15.50) we have
1

jW j2 Sx d

y2
0

1

m2 40

h
0

Sx d
: 15:62a
i2
1  =0 2 2=0 2

This integral should be calculated for a particular spectral function Sx() of

exposure. Analytic evaluation of (15.62a) presents certain difculties. We can
achieve a simplication, assuming that at a specic frequency range the spectral
density of excitation Sx const. Such spectral density is characterized by white
noise [11]. In this case Sx() can be taken outside the integral. The mean-square
displacement of the mass becomes [1]
y2

1
2 4  S x 
m 0

h
0

d
S x
2 4  0 : 15:62b
i2
m 0 4
1  =0 2 2=0 2

15.4

Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator

591

Let us consider acceleration of the object as a response of the system. The spectral
density of acceleration in terms of spectral density of displacement Sy() and input
spectral density Sx SF are [12]
Sy 4 Sy :
Sy

 
1 4
h
m 2 0



Sx
, L2 =T 3 :
i2
1  =0 2 2=0 2

15:63a
15:63b

The MSV of the acceleration is

2

Sy d
0

  1

1 4
h
m2 0
0

Sx d
:
i2
2
2
1  =0 2=0 

15:64a

For constant input spectral density we obtain

1
 

1 4
d
 S x h
i2
y 2
m 0
2
2=0 2
0 1  =0
 
1 4

2
S x  0 :
m 0
4
2

15:64b

The dispersion of the response of a system and its derivatives in terms of spectral
density at the input Sx() can be determined using expressions (15.35).

15.4

Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator

The linear vibration protection mk system with internal friction m is subjected to

random kinematic excitations. These include harmonic and polyharmonic excitation of support as well as a set of damping harmonic functions. The probability
characteristics of the system response and evaluation of vibration protection effectiveness are presented [1, 8, 16].

15.4.1 Harmonic and Polyharmonic Excitations

A dynamical system with one degree of freedom with internal friction is subjected
to kinematic excitation x(t) (Fig. 15.10).

592

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

Fig. 15.10 Kinematic

excitation

gm
x

If y(t) is the absolute displacement of the object, and m is the structural damping
factor, then the differential equation of vibration of the mass m is
my k1 i m y k1 i m x, i

p
1:

15:65a

The quantity k1 i m is known as the complex stiffness of the vibration

protection device. If a base is subjected to excitation xt B cos t, then
my k1 i m y k1 i m B cos t:
In complex form,
my k1 i m y k1 i m Beipt :

15:65b

The transfer function of the system and its modulus are [16]
W p

k1 i m

k  mp2 ik m

jW pj

1 i m
1 i m
1 i m

;
1  2 i m
mp2
p2
i m 1  2 i m
1
k
0

s
1 2m

k
:
, 0
,
2
2
2
0
m
1  m

15:66a
15:66b

Assume that the spectral density of excitation Sx() (input) is given. The spectral
density of the response Sy() (output) can be determined by relationship (15.34)
Sy jW ij2 Sx :

15:67

Thus the output spectral density is equal to the square of the systems transfer
function multiplied by the input spectral density.
If input and output are the acceleration of a base and a body, respectively, then
the spectral density of the output acceleration Sy () and input acceleration Sx
are related as follows:
Sy jW ij2 Sx :

15:68

15.4

Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator

593

The mean-square acceleration x and spectral density acceleration of the input

Sx [L2/T3] are related as [8]
1

Sx d:

15:69

Similarly, the mean-square acceleration and spectral density acceleration of the

response
1

Sy d

15:70

If relation (15.68) is substituted into (15.70), we obtain a relationship between the

mean-square acceleration of the response and the spectral density acceleration of
excitation [16]
2

jW ij2 Sx d:

15:71

0
2

Relation (15.71) allows us to nd the mean-square acceleration of the output y

for any spectral density of the excitation Sx . Computational difculties arise in
evaluating the integral (15.71). Assume that there exists a frequency range of the
excitation 1  2 for which the spectral density of the excitation is constant Sx
Sx const [14]. In this case, from (15.71), for transfer function (15.66a) we
get
1

y Sx jW ij d Sx
2

1 2m
1 

2 2

2m

d,

:
0

15:72

Evaluation of the integral can be achieved with an analytical software package such
as Maple. The result is
1

1
1 

2 2

2m

d 

p
i0
, i 1:
p p p
2 1  i m 1 i m 1 2m
15:73a

594

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

Thus expression (15.72) becomes

2

y Sx

p
i0 1 2m
p p
:
2 1  i m 1 i m

15:73b

If internal damping is neglected m 0, then expression (15.73b) becomes

2

y 



 2  0
Sx :
y 
4

i0
Sx ,
4

15:74a

2
The unit
h of ihyi is [L/T ], and the unit of acceleration spectral density is
2
y
L2 =T 4 L2

3 . If we use a concept of a technical resonance freSx 

0 
1=T
T
quency f [Hz], where 2f 0 , then the unit for the spectral density of acceleration
becomes [g2/ Hz]. This means that units for Sx are expressed in term of units of
gravitational acceleration. As such, the spectral density of acceleration equipped
g2
with an additional index g and dots above x is cancelled, i.e., Sx Sxg ,
2
g 9:81 m=s2 [16].
Now formula (15.74a) takes the following form:

0
 2f
g2 f g2
 Sxg
Sx

 Sxg 75:6f Sxg

4
4
2
4

15:74b

The mean-square acceleration of the output y depends on the resonant frequency f, Hz and spectral density acceleration of the input Sx(g). The mean-square
displacement of the output at frequency excitation fe is
2

y2

y
2f e

75:6
2f e 4

f Sxg :

15:75

Since the spectral density of excitation Sx Sx const is observed in the

frequency range 1  2 , then the mean-square acceleration of the input may be
presented in form [16]
2

x Sx 2  1 Sxg

g2
2  1 96 f 2  f 1 Sxg :
2

15:76a

The mean-square displacement of the input at frequency excitation fe is

2

x2

x
2f e

96 f 2  f 1
2f e 4

Sxg :

15:76b

15.4

Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator

595

The vibration protection coefcient is a ratio of mean acceleration of the output

and mean acceleration of the input

s
2
y

s
s
75:6f Sxg
f
0:866
:

2
f
96

f

f
S

f1
2
1 xg
2
x

15:77

The vibration protection coefcient as a ratio of mean displacement of the object

p
and support 1 y2 =x2 leads to the same result, i.e., 1 .
Thus, if there is a frequency range in which the excitation spectral density is
constant, the vibration protection coefcient depends on the upper and lower limits of
the frequency range, and the resonance frequency. An increase of resonant frequency
leads to an increase of the vibration protection coefcient. The narrower the frequency range f 2  f 1 , the higher the efciency of the vibration protection system.
Example 15.5 A dynamical mk system is subjected to random kinematic harmonic excitation with spectral density Sxg 0:1g2 =Hz. The resonance frequency
is f 30 Hz, the frequency excitation range is f 1 10 Hz, f 2 1000 Hz, and the
weighted average (notable) of the frequency range is f e 50 Hz [16]. Determine the
effectiveness of the vibration protection system.
Solution The mean-square acceleration and mean-square displacement of the
support are
2

x 96 f 2  f 1 Sxg 96  1000  10  0:1 9504 m2 =cek4

x 97:49 m=cek2 9:937 g;
96  1000  10
x2
 0:1 9:7567  107 m2
2  504
x 9:8779  104 m 0:9878 mm:
The mean-square acceleration of the object vibration protection and its meansquare displacement are
2

y 75:6 f Sxg 75:6  30  0:1 226:8 m2 =sek4 ! y 15:05 m=sek2 1:535 g:

y2

75:6
2f e

f Sx g

75:6
2  504

 30  0:1 2:3283  108 m2

y 1:5259  104 m 0:1526 mm:

2

If we take into account the internal friction [16], then the expression for y should be
written in the form
q
2
y 75:6 f Sxg 4 1 2m ;
for real materials, the factor

p
4
1 2m 1 [19].

596

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

The vibration protection coefcient is given by

s
2
y

s
y2
1:535 0:1526

0:1544:

2
2
9:937 0:9878
x
x

The mean-square displacement of the input x2 and output y2 depend on the notable
frequency fe, however vibration protection coefcient is independent of fe. The
same conclusion is true for mean-square acceleration. The sensitivity of the vibration protection coefcient to the damping coefcient is insignicant.
If the maximum amplitude of displacement of a base exceeds the mean-square
displacement x2 by no more than three times, then the maximum displacement of the
support becomes xmax 3  0:9878 mm 2:963 mm. Thus the maximum displacement of the object m from the static equilibrium position is ymax
3  0:1526 mm 0:4578 mm. The maximum possible absolute displacement of
the body from the position of static equilibrium is 2:963 0:4578 3:4208 mm.
Here, the arithmetic sum is taken since the amplitude of the kinematic excitation and amplitude of the object displacement may be shifted in phase by
180
[16].
Polyharmonic excitation of the support may be taken in the form [1, 16]
xt

An 2n sin n t n :

15:78

p
The MSV for each harmonic is 1= 2 of its amplitude value. Therefore, the MSV for
a polyharmonic vibration is
x2

r
X
A2n 4n =2:

15:79

This means that in order to determine the MSV of the response of a system
subjected to polyharmonic exposure, it is necessary to calculate the response of
the system for each harmonic separately, and then extract the square root of the sum
of the mean-square values. The response of a system subjected to a narrowband
random vibration obeys the same laws as in the case of harmonic vibration. This
means that the MSV of the response of the system with one degree of freedom for
narrowband random excitation with the given MSV is the same as for simple
harmonic excitation with the same MSV [1]. The response of the system for few
narrow-band random excitations obeys the same laws as in the case of several
harmonics [16].

15.4

Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator

597

15.4.2 Shock Vibration Excitation by a Set of Damped

Harmonics
A linear dynamical system m  k of stiffness k and internal damping m is subjected
to shock impulse excitation of the support (Fig. 15.10). Shock excitation as an
acceleration of a support presents a set of damped sinusoids, which in general form
are presented as an independent damped sinusoid [16]
xt Aet sin 1 t:

15:80

For such a shock vibration of the support, the frequency intervals of excitation
max
min
are known, and restrictions on the number of frequency bands are not
1  1
imposed. The problem is to determine the coefcient of vibration protection for
different frequency ranges. The coefcient of vibration protection of the system
r
.
2
2
2
2
will be found by the formula y x , where x and y represent the meansquare acceleration of the input and response.
Let a dynamical system be described by linear differential equation (15.65a),
where response y is the absolute displacement of the object m, while the input x is
described by (15.80).
For mathematical model (15.65a), the modulus of transfer function is described
by formulas (15.66b)
s
1 2m
;
jW ij 
2
1  21 =2 2m

15:81

p
where k=m is a natural frequency of the mk system;
1 is a frequency of kinematic excitation; in the case of a set of damped
harmonic functions (15.80), 1 represents the set of frequencies;
1 = is a dimensionless tuned parameter of the system.
The spectral function of exposure (15.80) was derived in Sect. 14.1.3,
Example 14.4:
F

A1
1
A1
1

;
2
2
2
2
2
2 1  i2
2 0  i2

15:82

where 20 2 21 . Since 1 , then 20 21 . In the case of a single

excitation, frequency 0 is equal to excitation frequency 1. In the case of a set
of excitations in the frequency range [min, max], the frequency 0 is the averaged
frequency of vibration in the specied range.

598

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

2

The mean-square accelerationx in terms of spectral density Sx F [L2/T3] of

the input, according to (15.69), is
2

Fd:

15:83

If the frequencies of excitation belong to the interval blow, highc, and taking
into account (15.82), the expression (15.83) for computation of input mean-square
2

acceleration x becomes
A1
x
2
2

high

low

1
20

i2

d:

15:84a

This expression determines

the

mean-square acceleration of the input x in the
frequency range low  high of excitation 1. The assumption of constancy of
the spectral density Sx F in this range allows us to write 1 before the
integral sign.
If 0 in (15.82), then from (15.83) we get
A1
x
2
2

high

low

1
d:
20  2

15:84b

Assume that we have two intervals of frequency excitation. They are [1400, 2000]
Hz, or 8800; 12; 550 s1 and [100, 650] Hz, or 628; 4080 s1 , [16]. The average
frequency for the two intervals is 0 10, 650 s1 and 0 2350 s1 .
Integral (15.84b) for rst frequency interval
2
x 1

A1

high

low


1
A1 1
0 12, 550

d
ln
2 20 0  8800
20  2


 

10, 650 12, 550
A1
1
10, 650 8800


ln
 ln


10, 650  12, 550

10, 650  8800
2 2  10650
0:7  105

A1
:
2

15:84c

For second frequency interval

2
x2


A1 1 0 4080
A1

:

ln
0:163  103

2 20 0  628
2

15:85

15.4

Kinematic Random Excitation of Linear Oscillator

599

Now we need to determine the MSV of the response. According to (15.71),

high

jW j2 Fd;

15:86

low

where jW()j is the modulus of the transfer function of the system. For our system
we have
2

high


low

1 2m
A1
1
d:
q

2

2
2
1  1 =2 2m 2
2  2 42 2

15:87a

In the expression for the transfer function (the rst factor under the integral sign),
1 is the frequency of excitation and is the natural frequency of vibration, while
in the expression for the modulus of spectral density (the second factor under the
integral sign), is the frequency of excitation. Therefore, we need to move on to a
new integration variable p. In the rst factor 1 and in the second factor must be
replaced by p, and the natural frequency is denoted by 0; in addition, we set 0.
As a result, using the new variables, we obtain

phigh

y
2


plow

1 2m
A1
1

dp
2
2  p2
2
2
2
2

1  p =0 m
0


A1 
1 2m

phigh


plow

1

2
p2 =20

2m

dp
:
20  p2

15:87b

The analytical expression of this integral is cumbersome [16], so we will calculate it

p
numerically. Let the natural frequency of system 0 k=m 280 s1 , and
structural damping coefcient m 0:2. For the rst frequency range, the integral
(15.87b) equals
12,550


8800

1
1  p2 =280


2 2

0:2

1
dp 0:869  107 :
10, 6502  p2

15:88a

According to (15.87a), the mean-square value of the response becomes

2

y1


A1 
1 2m  0:869  107 :
2

15:88b

600

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

The coefcient of vibration protection

v
u 2
uy
t 1

x 1

s


1 2m  0:869  107
0:7  105

0:11:

15:89

This means that in the rst frequency interval of excitation, only 0.11 of the input
energy is transferred onto the object. In other words, the vibration overload of the
object is 0.11g.
In the second frequency range, the integral in formula (15.87b) and mean square
value (15.87b) of the output become
4080


628

1

2
p2 =2802

0:2

y2

1
2350  p2
2

dp 0:188  103 ;


A1 
1 2m  0:188  103 :
2

15:90a
15:90b

The coefcient of vibration protection is

v
u 2
uy
t 2

s
1 2  0:188  103

1:09:
3
0, 163  103
x 2

15:91

This means that in the second-frequency interval of excitation, the vibration

protection device does not show a capacity to absorb energy, and the energy of
kinematic excitation is fully transmitted onto the object.
Note that a large number of interesting and important problems of random
vibration protection are presented by Larin [2]. Vibration of the complex mechanical systems (ships, rockets, guided missiles, etc.) subjected to random excitation
are discussed in book [1].

Problems
15.1. Dene the following terms: random function, stationary random process,
ergodic process.
15.2. Explain the concepts average over time and average over assembly.
15.3. Dene the following terms and units: mathematical expectation, dispersion,
spectral density, correlation function.
15.4. Describe transformations of the input random functions by a linear differential equation with deterministic constant parameters.
15.5. Describe relationship between expected value of the response my(t) and
expected value of the input excitation mx(t).
15.6. Describe relationship between spectral density Sx() of any function and
spectral density of derivatives of this function

References

601

15.7. Describe the relationship between spectral density of output (and its derivatives) and spectral function of input.
15.8. Describe the relationship between dispersion of output (and its derivatives)
and spectral function of input.
15.9. Describe the relationship between correlation function Kx() of any function and spectral density Sx() of the same function.
15.10. Describe the difculties of computation integral in Formula 15.71. How
we can overcome them? What is meant by white noise? Explain the
concept weighted average or notable (signicant) frequency.
15.11. Explain the concept mean-square displacement (acceleration). How is
the MSV of the response related to the spectral density of the response?
How is the MSV of any function related to the dispersion of same function?
15.12. A random process is Zt Xt Y, where X(t) is a stationary ergodic
process, Y is a random value, and correlation function between X and Y,
K XY 0. (a) Is the process Z(t) stationary? (b) Is the process Z(t) ergodic?
15.13. A sine wave with a steady component is described by the equation
xt A0 A1 sin t. Determine the expected value mx.
1

15.14* Prove that h

0 for 1.
i2
4
2
2
2=0 
0 1  =0
15.15*. Lumped mass m is mounted at the middle span of a simply supported
massless beam of length 2l. A viscous damper with damping coefcient
is connected to the mass. The mass is subjected to random excitation force

f(t) with spectral density Sf  2 1 2 . The cross-section of the beam

2 2
is b  h, and the exural stiffness of the beam is EI. Determine the meansquare acceleration of the mass.
Hint: my y_ ky  f t.

1 2 =m 20
k
6EI Ebh3
2
2


Answer: y
,
k

3 :
0
m
2l
l3
2m 2 =m 20 22
15.16. A linear mkb system is subjected to kinematic excitation yt Y sin t.
This dynamical system is described by equation mx bx_  y_
kx  y 0, where x(t) is the absolute motion of the mass, y(t) is the
transport motion, and z x  y is the relative motion. Derive the expression for absolute acceleration. Determine the mean-square acceleration x.
k jb
y, j2 1.
Answer: x
k  m2 jb

References
1. Crandall, S. H. (Ed.). (1963). Random vibration (Vol. 2). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2. Larin, V. B. (1974). Statistical problems of vibration protection. Kiev, Ukraine: Naukova
Dumka.

602

15

Statistical Theory of the Vibration Protection Systems

3. Milton, J. S., & Arnold, J. C. (1986). Probability and statistics in the engineering and
computing sciences. New York: McGraw Hill.
4. Papoulis, A. (1991). Probability, random variables, and stochastic processes (3rd ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Pugachev, V. S. (1965). Theory of random functions and its application to control problems.
Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.
6. Sveshnikov, A. A. (1966). Applied methods of the theory of random functions. Oxford,
England: Pergamon Press.
7. Feldbaum, A. A., & Butkovsky, A. G. (1971). Methods of the theory of automatic control.
Moscow: Nauka.
8. Thomson, W. T. (1981). Theory of vibration with application (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
9. DeJong, R. G. (1996). Statistical methods for analyzing vibrating systems. In Handbook:
Harris, C.M. (Editor in Chief) (1996). Shock and vibration (4th edition). New York: McGraw
Hill.
10. Bendat, J. S., & Piersol, A. G. (1980). Engineering applications of correlation and spectral
analysis. New York: Wiley.
11. Bolotin V.V. (1978).Vibration of linear systems. vol.1. In Handbook: Chelomey, V. N. (Editor
in Chief). (19781981). Vibrations in engineering: Vols. 16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
12. Svetlicky, V. A. (1976). Random vibration of mechanical systems. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
13. Mikhajlov, F. A., Teryaev, E. D., Bulekov, V. P., Salikov, L. M., & Dikanova, L. S. (1971).
Dynamics of continuous linear systems with deterministic and random parameters. Moscow:
Nauka.
14. Korn, G. A., & Korn, T. M. (2000). Mathematical handbook (2nd ed.). New York: McGrawHill Book/Dover. (Original work published 1968).
15. Ventcel, E. S. (1999). Theory of probability (6th ed.). Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola.
16. Ilinsky, V. S. (1982). Protection of radio-electronic equipment and precision equipment from
the dynamic excitations. Moscow: Radio.
17. Balandin, D. V., Bolotnik, N. N., & Pilkey, W. D. (2001). Optimal protection from impact,
shock and vibration. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science.
18. Frolov, K. V. (Editor). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. Vol. 6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief). (19781981). Vibration in Engineering. Vols. 16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
19. Nashif, A. D., Jones, D. I. G., & Henderson, J. P. (1985). Vibration damping. New York:
Wiley.

Part IV

Special Topics

Chapter 16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source

of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

Chapter 16 considers two objects. The rst is a body that rotates around a xed axis.
The emergence of additional dynamic reactions that act on the supports of a rotor is
shown to be possible. These harmonic pressures exert dynamic exposures on the
supports or joined structures. The purpose is to determine conditions of occurrence
of these pressures on the axis in order to reduce or eliminate them.
The second object is reciprocating (slider-crank) machines. The analytical
expressions for dynamic reactions and the conditions of their invariance with
respect to parameters of the mechanism are presented; fulllment of these conditions means the parametric elimination of the dynamic reactions.
In both cases we consider objects (rotating body and slider-crank machine) as a
resource of dynamic exposure on the structures; therefore, in fact, we solve the
problem of suppression of vibration in the source [14].

16.1

Dynamic Pressure on the Axis of a Rotating Body

This section contains the derivation of equations for determining the dynamic
responses of a rotating body. We show that under certain conditions, dynamic
reactions do not occur.
Let us consider a rigid body rotating uniformly with an angular velocity about
an axle mounted in bearings A and B (axis z), as shown in Fig. 16.1. Such a body is
called a rotor. We formulate the following problems:
1. Determine the components of reaction at the supports that arise when the body
rotates.
2. Find conditions when dynamic reactions of supports caused by the bodys
rotation do not arise. In this case, the support structure will be subjected to a
static load only.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_16

605

606

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

Fig. 16.1 Design diagram

of a body uniformly rotating
about z axis, hC OC

z
YB

B
XB

0
x
Pn
Mxin
x

P1
hc

C
R in

ZA
A
XA j
yc

YA

xc

Myin

Rin

We introduce a moving coordinate system rotating together with the body; the
origin is chosen as an arbitrary point on the axis of rotation (for example, at support A).
The body is subjected to given external forces and inertial forces.
1. The given external
X forces are P1 , . . . , Pn , and the principal vector ofe external
e
Pk , k 1, . . . , n. The projection of this vector R onto the
forces is R
coordinate axes is
X
X
X
e
e
e
Rx
Pkx , Ry
Pky , Rz
Pkz :
Moments of the principal vector with respect to coordinate axes are
X  
X  
X  
e
e
e
Mx
mx Pke , My
my Pke , Mz
mz Pke :
d
Mze ,
dt
where Jz is a moment of inertia of the body with respect to the axis of rotation,
is angular velocity, and Mez is a turning moment of external forces (or torque).
Since angular velocity of rotation const, Mze 0.
2. For computation of inertial forces, we will apply DAlemberts principle
[1]. This principle allows us to write a problem of dynamics in the form of the
The differential equation of rotational motion of a rigid body is J z

in

equations of statics. The principal vector of the inertial forces is R Mac ,

where M is the mass of the body and ac is the acceleration of the center of mass
C. Let us transfer R
in

in

to the center of reduction A. As a result, we obtain the

in
principal vector R on the plane xAy and two moments Min
x , My that are the
moments of the principal vector of the inertial forces about the x, y axis as shown
in Fig. 16.1.
The support reactions of the rotating body are XA, YA, ZA and XB, YB
(Fig. 16.1). These reactions rotate together with body. The equations of equilibrium for the effective forces and the inertial forces are

16.1

Dynamic Pressure on the Axis of a Rotating Body

X
X
X
X
X

607

Fx XA XB Rxe Rxin 0,
Fy Y A Y B Rye Ryin 0,
Fz Z A Rye Rzin 0,

16:1

Mx Y B l Mxe Mxin 0,
My XB l Mye Myin 0:

Here the distance between supports A and B is denoted by l.

Forces of Inertia The projections of the principal vector of the inertial forces onto
the coordinate axis are
Rxin M2 hc cos M2 xc ,
Ryin M2 hc sin M2 yc ,

Rzin 0:

16:2

in
Moments of Inertial Forces Min
x , My For an arbitrary point of mass mk with
coordinates xk, yk, zk, the inertial force is Fkin mk 2 hk . Therefore
in
Fkx
m k 2 x k ,

in
Fky
m k 2 y k ,

Fkzin 0:

Thus the moments of inertial force with respect to the x and y axis are

mk yk zk 2 J yz 2 ,
X

Myin 
mk xk zk 2 J xz 2 :
Mxin 

16:3

These formulas involve products of inertia of the rigid body Jxz and Jyz. Substitution
of (16.2) and (16.3) into (16.1) leads to the following dynamic equilibrium equations of a rotating body:
XA XB Rxe  M2 xc ,
Y A Y B Rye  M2 yc ,
ZA Rze ,
XB l

Mye

16:4
 J xz ,
2

Y B l Mxe  J yz 2 :
In the general case, (16.4) relate instantaneous values of forces. The adopted
character of the supports provides the static determinacy of a system [5].

608

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

Equation (16.4) shows that the support reactions are the result of the action of
two groups of forces: static (external) and inertial forces. The static component of
the reactions is caused by the action of static forces only (these terms contains the
superscript e). If we consider the dynamic components only, the corresponding
equations should be written in the form
XA XB M2 xc ,
Y A Y B M2 yc ,
16:5

Z A 0,
XB l J xz ,
2

Y B l J yz 2 :
Dynamic reactions rotate together with the body and thus act as harmonic forces on
the support portion. The concept of dynamic reactions is related only to the
rotating body. Dynamic reactions do not arise if
xC yC 0;

16:6

J xz J yz 0:

16:7

Expressions (16.6)(16.7) present analytical conditions of dynamic balancing of

masses of the body in its rotation about axis z. Condition (16.6) signies that the
center of mass of the body must lie on its axis of rotation. Condition (16.7) means
that the axis of rotation z should be the principal axis of inertia of the body with
respect to the origin of the coordinate system A. If both of these conditions are
simultaneously satised, the axis of rotation is the central principal axis of inertia of
the body. The fulllment of these conditions means that the harmonic reactions on
the structure are not affected. In other words, the dynamic reactions on the axle of a
rotating body and static reactions are equal.
Note
1. The balancing conditions depend only on the masss distribution. Therefore, if
the rotor is balanced for one rotational speed, it will be balanced at all speeds
[1, 6].
2. In the case of non-uniform rotation 6 0, (16.5) should be modied. It is
obvious that the values of the dynamic reaction will then change; however, the
nal conclusion regarding the conditions of dynamic balancing will be valid [7].
3. Other methods of deriving the dynamic pressure on the axis can be found in
[8]. The dynamics of a rotating system are presented in [9].

16.2

Types of Unbalancing Rotor

16.2

609

Types of Unbalancing Rotor

This section describes different types of unbalance of bodies rotating about a xed
axis and the corresponding forces acting on the rigid unbalanced rotor.
In the rotor body we will highlight two axes: the principal central axis of inertia
of a body and the axis of rotation z. Depending on the relative position, different
types of unbalancing are possible. They are static, couple (or moment), dynamic,
and quasi-static unbalancing.
The rotor is said to be dynamically balanced if and only if the axis of rotation
z is a principal central axis of the rotor. In this case, the additional dynamic
reactions (shaking forces) vanish. Analytical conditions of dynamic balancing are
(16.6), (16.7), i.e., xc yc 0, J xz J yz 0. In this case, the rotation does not
affect the reactions of bearings A and B. In other words, a suppression of vibration
of a structure is performed at the source of its occurrence.

16.2.1 Static Unbalance

(Static unbalance is also known as force unbalance). Here, the axis of the rotor and
its principal central axis of inertia are parallel; distance between them is eccentricity
e (Fig. 16.2). Simplest physical model presents a single unbalanced lumped mass
m with eccentricity e. Unbalanced force reduces to the principal vector of the
inertial force. Analytical conditions of static unbalance are [10]
x2c y2c 6 0,

J xz J yz 0:

16:8

The degree of unbalancing is known as unbalance, and presents the product of mass
and eccentricity D me. The change in angular velocity leads to a change in the
force of inertia of the unbalanced rotor, while the value of the unbalance D remains
unchanged. Static unbalance leads to the occurence of the vector of the inertial
force. This inertial force rotates together with rotor and transmits onto the support
of the rotor as a harmonic disturbing force.
The term static unbalance of the rotor means that the presence of unbalance of
this type can be detected under a static experiment.
Principal central axis of inertia;
point C is a center mass

F in
m

C
e
Axis of rotation
Fig. 16.2 Static unbalance and simplest design diagram

610

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

16.2.2 Couple Unbalance

In this case, the axis of a rotor and its principal central axis of inertia are concurrent
in the center of mass of the rotor (Fig. 16.3). The simplest physical model presents
two equal unbalanced masses m with equal eccentricity e; both masses and the axis
of the rotor form a single plane. Unbalanced forces reduce to two equal and
oppositely directed forces Fin; they are located in two planes which are perpendicular to the axis of the rotor. These two forces form a couple Min Fin h, where h is
an arm of the couple. Thus a couple unbalance leads to the occurrence of a couple
(moment) of the inertial forces. Analytical conditions of couple unbalance are [10]
xc yc 0,

J 2xz J 2yz 6 0

16:9

Couple unbalance can not be detected under the static experiment.

16.2.3 Dynamic Unbalance

In this case the intersection point of the axis of a rotor and its principal central axis
of inertia does not coincide with the center of mass C (Fig. 16.4); a case when these
two axes crisscross is also possible [4]. The simplest physical model presents two
different unbalanced masses m1 and m2 with different eccentricities e1 and e2; the
F in
m

Principal central axis of inertia

e

e
m
F in

Axis of rotation
Fig. 16.3 Couple (or moment) unbalance and simplest design diagram

Principal central axis of inertia

F1 in

m1
e1
The axes are intersecting
or criss-cross

Axis of rotation

Fig. 16.4 Dynamic unbalance and simplest design diagram

e2
q

m2

F2 in

16.2

Types of Unbalancing Rotor

611

masses and the axis of the rotor does not form a single plane. Dynamic unbalance is
a combination of static and the couple unbalance. Unbalanced forces are reduced to
the principal vector and the principal moment. Dynamic unbalance can be detected
only in the case of a rotating rotor.

16.2.4 Quasi-Static Unbalance

This is a special case of dynamic unbalance, and it occurs if 0 (Fig. 16.4). The
simplest physical model presents two different unbalanced masses m1 and m2 with
different eccentricities e1 and e2; both the masses and the axis of the rotor form a
single plane (Fig. 16.5a). In this case, unlike the couple unbalance (Fig. 16.3), the
inertial forces of the unbalanced masses are different (Fig. 16.5a). However, the
inertial forces and axis of the rotor form a single plane. This scheme may be
presented as the sum of two previous schemes (Fig. 16.5b, c).
Let m2 > m1 and e2 > e1 . The schema (b) corresponds to Fig. 16.3 (Couple
unbalance) and scheme (c) corresponds to Fig. 16.2 (Static unbalance). The inertial
forces for each mass are parallel. Analytical conditions of dynamic and quasi-static
unbalancing may be found in [10].
Static unbalancing of the rotor can be eliminated by introducing a corrected
mass. Balancing of the rotor in the remaining cases requires the introduction of two
corrected masses; these are located in two arbitrary cross-sections of the rotor.
Corrected masses can be added to or removed from the body of a rotor. There are
different methods for correction of a mass.
A set of methods and tools for static, couple, and dynamic balancing of rotors
has been developed [1, 4, 11, 12]; corresponding guidance materials and balance
quality requirements for rotors are presented specically in [ISO 19499:2007]. As
such, we should take into account the different design diagrams of the rotors,
location of the correction planes, and the rigidity of the rotor. From the perspective
of a design diagram, the rotors are divided into single-span (with cantilever or
without) and multispan. Correcting planes can be situated between the supports or
m1

F1 in
e1

e1

m1

e1

m1
e2
m2
F2 in

e2-e1
m2-m1

Fig. 16.5 Quasi-static unbalance; (a) simplest design diagram, (b) couple unbalance, (c) static
unbalance

612

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

within the cantilever; a mixed arrangement is also possible. With regard to methods
of dynamic balancing, rotors are classied into two major categories: rigid and
exible rotors.
The rotor may be considered rigid if it satises the following conditions [4, 11]:
1. Unbalance of the rotor can be corrected in any two correction planes if the
frequency of rotation is less than the rst critical (resonance) frequency.
2. Residual unbalance should not be more than the allowable unbalance at all
frequencies of rotation, which are less than the maximum working frequency.
If at least one of these conditions is not satised, then the rotor is considered
exible. Currently, a number of companies develop and commercially produce
universal balancing machines, covering a wide range of sizes and applications. For
example, some of them produce balancers for rotor diameters ranging from 0.3
mm to greater than 4 m, and weights from 50 mg to 40 tons.
Balancing means that dynamic reactions, which are generally of a harmonic
character, do not occur. Therefore, the structure is not subjected to dynamic
excitations, even in the case of operating equipment.
Detailed consideration of the vast range of issues of balancing rotors is beyond
the scope of this book. More information can be found in [4, 11, 12].

16.3

Shaking Forces of a Slider Crank Mechanism

The slider-crank mechanism, which is widely used in reciprocating engines, converts

rotary motion to a reciprocating motion or vice versa. The design diagram of a singlecylinder reciprocating engine is shown in Fig. 16.6a. The crank OA rotates with
angular velocity in a clockwise direction. The slider B moves on a xed guide. The
mass of each membercrank OA, connecting rod AB, and slider Bare m1, m2, m3,
respectively. The center of mass of the crank and of the connection rod are the points
C and G. The moment of inertia of the crank OA and the connection rod AB are J C
J 1 and J G J 2 , respectively. The problem is to determine the forces that are
transmitted onto the frame and to nd conditions for their elimination (or reduction).
Crank OCA executes rotational motion around the center of rotation O, connection rod AGB executes planar motion, and piston B executes rectilinear motion. The
position of the mechanism dened by the coordinates , and s. It is obvious that
these coordinates are connected.
Let us replace the original rod AB of mass m2 and moment of inertia J G J 2 by a
massless rod with two lumped masses mA and mB. The equivalent tip masses of the
rod AB are
mA m2 b=L,

mB m2 a=L:

16.3

Shaking Forces of a Slider Crank Mechanism

613

m3

m3

m3

RB

mB

mB

b
F in

m2

*G

a
s

F in

F in

At

An

F in

mA

A
r
y

M in

m1

m1 q
c

1t

in
F 1n

M 1in

mA

-a

M 1res

Y0

C
c

-c

m2

X0

m1

Fig. 16.6 (a) A single-cylinder engine model; (b) equivalent inertial parameters and free-body
diagram; mA, mB are equivalent tip masses of the connected rod AB; (c) statically balanced
mechanism: the mass mA is balanced by m1, the mass m3 is balanced by m2

In the case of such a substitution, mA mB m2 and center of mass of system

mA  mB remains at a point G for initial member AB. Let us determine the kinetic
energy of the member AB. In the case of a planar motion, the kinetic energy of the
link is equal to the kinetic energy of translation of the center of mass plus the kinetic
energy of rotational motion relative to the masss center [8]
1
1
T m2G J G _ 2 ;
2
2

16:10

where m m2 is the total mass of the member AB, JG is moment of inertia about
center G, velocity of point G and angular velocity of the rod AB are G and _ .
The velocity of the masss center G of the link AB and velocities of the endpoints
A and B are related as follows:
b
a
2G 2A 2B  ab2AB ;
L
L

16:11a

where AB _ is the angular velocity of the link AB [1].

Kinetic energy of the link in terms of total mass and velocities of the endpoints is
1 b
1 a
1
1
T m 2A m 2B  mab_ 2 J G _ 2 :
2 L
2 L
2
2

16:11b

Kinetic energy of the link in terms of tip masses mA mB and their velocities becomes
1
1
1
1
T mA 2A mB 2B  mab_ 2 J G _ 2 :
2
2
2
2

16:11c

614

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

If we denote J AB J G  mab, then for kinetic energy we get the expression

1
1
1
T mA 2A mB 2B J AB _ 2 :
2
2
2

16:12

Thus, connected rod AB is replaced by an equivalent massless rod with two lumped
tip masses mA m2 b=L and mB m2 a=L, for which the position of the mass center
G remains unchanged, and the moment of inertia of the rod is
J AB J G  m2 ab:

16:13

Justication of such distribution of mass of rod AB and related errors are discussed
by Goetz [13]. Detailed dynamic analysis of this mechanism is presented below [1].

16.3.1 Dynamic Reactions

The mechanism is subjected to an active force P (such as gas pressure), resisting
moment on crank Mres
1 and dynamic reactions of supports: X0, Y0 at point 0 and RB at
the piston B (Fig. 16.6b). To determine the reactions of support we apply the
DAlambert principle. According this principle, we need to introduce the inertial
forces and the inertial couples. They are as follows:
Point C :
Crank OCA :
Point A :

in
in
F1n
m1 aCn m1 2 c m1  c_ 2 , F1
m1 aC m1 c m1  c;
in

M1 J C ;
in
in
mA  aA mA  r mA  r :
FAn mA aAn mA 2 r mA  r _ 2 , FA

16:14
Connected rod AGB :
Piston B :

;
M2in J AB
in
FB m B

m3 aB mB m3 s:

16:15

Here the normal and tangential acceleration of a point C are anC and aC (not shown),
and the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the crank are _ and ; the
; the linear acceleration of a piston
angular acceleration of connecting rod AB is
B is s. The direction of inertial forces and couples is opposite that of the
corresponding acceleration.
Equations of dynamic equilibrium are [1]
X
 in

 in

in
in
X P X0 F1n
FAn
FA
cos F1
sin  FBin 0, or
X
X P X0 m1 c mA r _ 2 cos m1 c mA r sin  m3 mB s 0;
16:16

16.3

Shaking Forces of a Slider Crank Mechanism

615

Y RB Y 0 m1 c mA r _ 2 sin  m1 c mA r cos 0;

X
X

 in

in
M0 RB s  F1
c FA
r  M1in M2in  Mres
1 0,

or

 Mres
M0 RB s  m1 c2 mA r 2 J C J AB
1 0:

16:17
16:18

The forces which are transmitted from the engine to the frame are
Xfr P  X0 m1 c mA r _ 2 cos m1 c mA r sin  m3 mB s;
Y fr RB  Y 0 m1 c mA r _ 2 sin  m1 c mA r cos :
16:19
The torque which is transmitted from the engine to the frame may be determined
from (16.18)


 m1 c2 mA r 2 J C  Mres
Mfr RB s J AB
1 :

16:20

We now introduce the notation for reciprocating and rotating mass [1]
a
mrec m3 mB m3 m2 ,
L
c
mrot m1 mA :
r

16:21

Expressions (16.19), (16.20) become

Xfr mrot r _ 2 cos mrot r sin  mrecs;
Y fr mrot r _ 2 sin  mrot r cos ;
 m1 c mA r J C 
Mfr J AB
2

16:22

Mres
1 :

These equations contain derivatives of coordinates , , s. Since the system has one
degree of freedom, we can use only one generalized coordinate, for example, .
Geometric relationships for the slider-crank machine are [1]
s r cos L cos ,

1=2
r
sin sin sin ! cos 1  2 sin 2
,
L

r
:
L

16:23a

The binomial expansion of this expression is


1=2
1
1 4
cos 1  2 sin 2
sin 4    
1  2 sin 2 
2
24

16:23b

616

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

in terms of generalized coordinate

These relationships allows us to express s and
[1]
s r _ 2  cos  A2 cos 2 A4 cos 4    


A2
A4
r  sin  sin 2 sin 4    
2
4
1
15 5
  ,
A 2 3
4
128

16:23c

1
3
A4 3 5   
4
16

_ 2 C1 sin  C3 sin 3 C5 sin 5   



C3
C5

C1 cos  sin 3 cos 5    

3
5
1
3
C1 1 2 4   ,
8
64

3
27 4
  ,
C3 2
8
128

C5

15 4

128
16:23d

The introduction of (16.23a) and corresponding derivatives into system (16.22)

gives the nal expressions for forces Xfr, Yfr and torque Mfr transmitted onto the
frame in terms of
_ 2 A2 cos 2  A4 cos 4  
Xfr mrot mrec r _ 2 cos mrec r 

A2
A4
sin 2  sin 4   ;
mrot mrec r sin mrec r
2
4
Y fr mrot r _ 2 sin  mrot r cos ;

16:24
16:25

_2
Mfr Mres
1 J AB C1 sin  C3 sin 3   


C3
J AB C1 cos  sin 3     m1 c2 mA r 2 J C :
3
16:26
These equations show the nature of occurence of the multi-harmonic excitation of a
structure.
If we consider the uniform rotation of the crank _ const, 0, and take
into account only the rst harmonic in (16.24)(16.26), then for reactive forces and
reactive torque we get the following expressions:
X*fr mrot mrec r2 cos ;
Y *fr
Mfr

mrot r sin :

Mres
1

J AB sin :
2

16:27
16:28
16:29

16.3

Shaking Forces of a Slider Crank Mechanism

617

16.3.2 Elimination of Dynamic Reactions

1. Equation (16.28) shows that the horizontal force transmitted onto the frame is
Y fr 0 if
mrot r m1 c mA r 0:

16:30

Here we obtain a parametric condition for eliminating reaction

Y fr : m1 c mA r. This means that the static moment S of two masses, m1 and
mA, with respect to point 0 equals S0 m1 ; mA 0. Thus the mass m1 of the crank
and mass mA should be located on opposite sides of the center of rotation of the
crank; this condition may be easily realized in practice.
2. Equation (16.27) shows that the vertical force transmitted onto the frame is
Xfr 0 if
mrot mrec 0:

16:31

This means that if mrot 0 is enforced, and additionally mrec 0, then simultaneous fulllment of the conditions 1 and 2 leads to the fact that both forces Yfr
and Xfr on the frame will vanish [1]. According the rst relationships (16.21) we
can compile condition
mrec L m3 L m2 a 0

16:32

which means that the static moment SA(m2, m3) of two masses, m2 and m3, with
respect to point A is equal to zero.
The corresponding balancing scheme of the slider-crank machine is shown in
Fig. 16.6c. The counterweight m2 of the crank balances mass mA; as a result, the
reaction Yfr is eliminated. Similarly, counterweight m2 balances mass m3, leading to the elimination of Xfr.
3. According to (16.29), the engine is torque-balanced at constant angular velocity
_ const of a crank when
J AB J G  m2 ab 0,

b L  a:

16:33

This condition can be implemented by adding lumped masses A and B at the

two ends of the rod AB, as shown in Fig. 16.7.
Fig. 16.7 Connecting rod
AB with total mass m; the
tip masses A and B added
to produce JAB 0

L
mA

a
A

b
B

mB

618

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

According to [1], the inertia torque will be balanced if

L A L B mab  J G ;

16:34

where () are the distance between the point A (B) and the centroid of added
mass A(B), and m is the total mass of the connecting rod AB.
If we consider the complete equation (16.26), the balance conditions of the
inertia torque may be represented in the analytical forms J AB J G  m2 ab 0 and
m1 c2 mA r 2 J C 0. It is easy to show that these conditions are mutually
incompatible [1]. Therefore, in the case of non-steady operation, the inertia torque
at the source of the event cannot be eliminated in a passive way. As a result, a
structure will be subjected to multi-harmonic excitation (16.26).
A descriptions of the nature of dynamic effects as a result of unbalance and
related adverse effects is presented in [24]. A comprehensive mathematical analysis of engine balancing is presented in [1, 14]. Interesting examples of reducing the
vibrational activity of different planar mechanisms are presented by Williams [15]
and Uicker et al. [16]. Detailed kinematic and dynamic analysis of the slider-crank
mechanism is presented by Goetz [13].

Problems
16.1. Explain the concept of dynamic reactions. Derive conditions under which
dynamic reactions for a uniformly rotating body are equal to zero. Explain
the physical meaning of these conditions.
16.2. Describe the different types of unbalancing rotor, explain the nature of the
corresponding inertial forces, and present the simplest design diagram.
What is meant by the rigid and exible rotor?
16.3. Describe the design diagram of a slider crank mechanism, its simplied
design diagram, and character of inertial forces of this mechanism.
16.4. Explain the difference between the moment of inertia of a two-mass system
of a connecting rod and the actual moment of inertia of a rod.
16.5. A body AB of length l rotates uniformly with an angular velocity .
Determine the dynamic reactions if the rotor has two equal masses
m connected by a massless rod. Each mass is located eccentrically from
the axis, as shown in Fig. P16.5.
Answer: V A V B 12 m2 e2  e1 :
m
A
VA

e1
e2

l/2
m

Fig. P16.5

90

VB

Problems

619

16.6. A body AB of length l rotates uniformly with an angular velocity .

Determine the dynamic reactions if the rotor has two equal masses
m connected by a massless rod as shown in Fig. P16.6.
Answer: V A V B 1l me2 2 sin 2:
m

e
VA

VB

Fig. P16.6

16.7. A body AB of length L 3a rotates uniformly with an angular velocity .

The unbalanced mass m1 lies in plane xz, while the mass m2 lies in plane xy.
The eccentricity of each mass equals e. Determine the dynamic reactions.
Answer:
p
5
me2 :
R A RB
3
m1

e
w

A
a

a
m2

y
Fig. P16.7

16.8. A body AB of length L 3a rotates uniformly with an angular velocity .

The unbalanced mass m1 lies in plane xz, while mass m2 lies in plane xy. The
eccentricities of the two masses are e1 and e2. Determine the dynamic
reactions.
m1

e1
w

A
e2

a
m2

y
Fig. P16.8

B
a

620

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

16.9. Two equal bars of length 2l and mass m are each welded at right angles to a
vertical shaft AB of length b at a distance h from each other. Determine the
dynamic pressures acting on the shaft rotating with a constant angular
velocity . The force of gravity is negligible.
Hint: Fin1 Fin2 ml2 :
mlh 2
:
Answer: XA XB
b
y
XB

B
w

Fin2

2l

Fin1

XA
Fig. P16.9

16.10. Rod AB rotates with constant angular acceleration . The rods OC and OD,
each of length r, are perpendicular axis AB and to each other. The lumped
mass at points C and D are equal to M. Determine the dynamic reactions.
The masses of the rods OC OD are neglected. At the initial moment, the
system is at rest.
Answer:
X A XB


M  2
r t 1 ,
2

YA YB


M  2
r t  1 :
2

z
B
w, e

h
0

C
h
x
Fig. P16.10

Problems

621

16.11*. A homogeneous cylinder rotates with a constant angular velocity about

the z axis passing through the gravity center C of cylinder. The angle
between the axis of rotation Z and the axis of symmetry cylinder is .
Determine the dynamic reactions at supports A and B. The weight of the
cylinder is P; the radius and length are r and 2l, respectively.
Hint: The product of inertia for the cylinder is J xy J yz 0,


P r2
l3

J xz 2g
4
3 sin 2.
Answer:
N Ay N By 0,
N Bx N Ax



P r 2 l3 2

sin 2:
4gh 4 3
x

2l
y
Fig. P16.11

16.12*. A uniform thin rod AB of weight P and length l is rigidly connected to a

vertical rotor 001. The angle between 001 and AB is . The rotor rotates
with constant angular velocity . Determine the dynamic reactions at point
A of the rod.
Answer:
s
l2 4
1 2 sin 2 ;
4g
s
q Pl
l2
sin
MA M2Ax M2Ay M2Az
sin 2:
2
3g
q
RA X2A Y 2A Z2A P

622

16

Rotating and Planar Machinery as a Source of Dynamic Exposures on a Structure

z
01

C
a
A

*
y

Fig. P16.12

References
1. Burton, P. (1979). Kinematics and dynamics of planar machinery. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
2. Den Hartog, J. P. (1985). Mechanical vibrations (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill/Dover.
(Original work published 1956)
3. Tse, F. S., Morse, I. E., & Hinkle, R. T. (1963). Mechanical vibrations. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
4. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. Vol.6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief) (1978-1981). Vibration in Engineering. Vols. 16. Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
5. Karnovsky, I. A., & Lebed, O. (2010). Advanced methods of structural analysis. Boston:
Springer.
6. Krysinski, T., & Malburet, F. (2010). Mechanical vibrations: Active and passive control.
Wiley.
7. Targ, S. M. (1976). Theoretical mechanics. A short course. Moscow: Mir.
8. Fowles, G. R., & Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical mechanics (6th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/ColeThomson Learning.
9. Genta, G. (2005). Dynamics of rotating systems. New York: Springer.
10. Geronimus, Ja. L. (1973). Theoretical mechanics. Essays on the main propositions. Moscow:
Nauka.
11. Stadelbauer, D. G. (1996). Balancing of rotating machinery. In Handbook: Harris, C.M.
(Editor in Chief) (1996). Shock and vibration (4th ed). New York: McGraw Hill.
12. Schneider, H. (1991). Balancing technology (4th ed.). Darmstadt, Germany: Carl Schenck AG.
13. Goetz, A. N. (2005). Kinematic and dynamics of a slider crank mechanism. Vladimir, Russia:
Vladimir University.
14. Biezeno, C. B., & Grammel, R. (1954). Engineering dynamics (Internal-combustion engines,
Vol. 4). London: Blackie.
15. Williams, R. L. (2014). Mechanism kinematics & dynamics and vibrational modeling. Athens:
Mech. Engineering, Ohio University.
16. Uicker, J. J., Pennock, G. R., & Shigley, J. E. (2011). Theory of machines and mechanisms (4th
ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

Chapter 17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

This chapter considers the human body exposed to vibration and shock. Usually,
these effects have a negative impact on the person. The problem of protecting the
person from shock and vibration consists of two parts. The rst part is the consideration of the human body as complex biodynamic system; for this purpose the
mechanical model should be used. The second part is also based on the mechanical
model of the human body and considers the development of engineering methods of
protecting a human from vibration; this part of the problem is the subject of
numerous engineering solutions and is not discussed here. This chapter is devoted
to only the rst part of the problem. The following problems are discussed: (1) types
of vibration exposures and methods of their transfer on the person; (2) inuence of
vibration exposures on the human subject; (3) mechanical properties of the human
body and the characteristic functions of its frequencies; (4) dynamic models of the
human operator.

17.1

Introduction

The types and features of vibration exposure and methods of their transfer on the
human operator are discussed. The short list of International Standards related to
regulation of vibration acting on the human operator in various industries, is
presented in this section.

Tamara Moldon has contributed to this chapter.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2_17

623

624

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

17.1.1 Vibration Exposures and Methods of Their Transfer

on the Person
Vibration exposures on the human body (occupant or operator) are categorized
based on a number of indicators [13]. The most important among them are:
1. Modes of transmission of vibrations to the human
2. Frequency characteristics of excitation (frequency range, frequency content)
3. Direction of vibration
1. Modes of transmission of vibrations to the human. There are three principal
positions of the human operator: standing on a vibrating oor, sitting on a vibrating
seat, and lying on a vibrating surface. Each of these principal positions is divided
into different postures. For example, a sitting person can take the following
postures: natural straight/with support to the back, relaxed/rigid, leaning forward/
backward, etc.
Based on the methods of transmitting vibration to the human body, we are able to
distinguish whole-body or local vibration. Whole-body vibration occurs when a
body is supported on a vibrating surface (oor, seat, etc.) and vibration is distributed across the entire body; local vibration occurs when one or more limbs and/or
the head are in contact with a vibrating surface, but the spread of vibrations onto the
other parts of the body can be ignored.
Typical ways of transmitting vibrations to the human body are shown in
Fig. 17.1. Among the cases shown, there may be various directions in which
excitation occurs.

Fig. 17.1 Modes of transmission of vibrations to the human body [3]: (a) passenger, whole-body
vibration; (b) sitting human-operator, whole-body vibration over seat,oor and hands; (c) standing
human-operator, whole-body vibration over oor and hands, (d) standing human-operator, local
vibration over hands [3]

For the operator in a sitting position (Fig. 17.1b), there are two fundamentally
different formulations of the problem of vibration protection:
A. Normal operating condition of the operator. The operator is considered a
rigid body, and the body position is considered to be xed (stationary)
[3]. The design diagram of the system seat + operator is determined only
by the design of the chair. Human impact is taken into account by introducing
the operators effective mass, which is to be added to the vibrating mass of

17.1

Introduction

625

the chair. Vibration of the system seat + operator as one indivisible unit is
studied depending on the type of kinematic excitation (deterministic, harmonic/polyharmonic, random). The problem is to determine the vibration
displacements, velocities, accelerations of the human body (i.e., seat) and to
compare them with maximum allowable values. This is the simplest way to
evaluate the vibrational state of the subject (more detail see Sect. 17.3).
In aviation, vibration of the operator caused by the vibration of structures
which are in contact with the body surface is called structure-borne vibration.
High-frequency excitation is transferred to the human body not only through
point or surface contact, but also through the air. The vibration of crew and
passengers on aircraft caused by sound pressure waves in high-noise environments is called airborne vibration.
B. The operator in an impact situation. The body of the operator is considered
deformable, and the body position is changed rapidly [4]. The design diagram
of a system (seat + operator) at the point of impact is determined by the design
of the seat and restraints, and is affected by the biomechanical properties of the
operator. Analysis of the dynamic process of the impact can be used to predict
the nature of injury to the operator [5].
2. Frequency characteristics of excitation. Each source of vibration creates
oscillations that can be divided according to different indicators. The most
important among them are the frequency range and its frequency content.
The frequency range of excitation is divided into broadband (if the excitation
covers a range of more than several octaves) and narrowband vibration. Criteria
for broadband and narrowband excitation may be found in specic standards
(see Sect. 17.1.2). The excitation bandwidth has an impact on the choice of
dynamic model for the protected object. The model should be chosen such that
all the natural frequencies of the object have been located within the band of
excitation [3].
Depending on whether vibration is whole-body or local, frequency content
may be classied into low-frequency, middle-frequency, or high-frequency
vibration. For low-frequency vibration, the maximum levels of vibration are
located mostly in octave bands in the frequency of 14 Hz for a whole-body
vibration and 816 Hz for local vibration. For middle-frequency vibration, the
frequency bands are 816 Hz and 31.563 Hz for whole-body and local vibrations, respectively, while high-frequency vibrations are 31.563 Hz and
1251000 Hz, respectively.
Studies of higher frequencies are necessary for the analysis of vibrationinduced tissue changes [2]. At frequencies below approximately 100 Hz, the
body can be described for most purposes as a lumped parameter system. At
higher frequencies, the body behaves more as a complex distributed parameter

626

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

Table 17.1 Some mechanical equipment and corresponding type of vibration [3]
Mechanical equipment
Vehicles, vessels, planes
Railway transport
Machines, compressors, turbines, hydraulic units,
engines
Drilling machines, machinery for earthwork

Vibration
Random broadband
Random narrowband
Deterministic poly-harmonic
Random and deterministic polyharmonic

system [6]. Some types of objects (equipment) and the type of vibrations
transmitted to the person are shown in Table 17.1.
Depending upon the time characteristics (degree of change), vibrations are
classied as either constant (for which the monitored parameter during the observation does not vary more than two times) or non-constant.
Signicant adverse impacts on the operator occur at excitation frequencies in the
range 130 Hz [1, 7]. This is explained by the fact that the resonance properties of
the human body are exhibited at the frequencies lying in this region (approximately
below 60 Hz) [3].
The character of excitation of the human operator depending on the type of the
mechanical equipment is shown in Table 17.1
Human Subject Simulation Many dynamic characteristics of the vibrational state
of the operator subjected to vibration and shock can be investigated using models.
Commercially available dummies modelling the human body in size, form,
mechanical characteristics, mobility of different joints, stiffness of body parts,
total weight and distribution in body segments are used for such simulations. The
most important purpose of these investigations is to determine the frequency
characteristics of the body, resonance properties and response of separate segments,
transmissibility, vibration attenuation, etc.
For analysis purposes, standard body positions are considered. Among them are
the sitting, lying, and standing (Fig. 17.2). There are other positions of the body, for
example, an aircraft pilot in a chair during takeoff assumes a semi-reclined position.
Additionally, for each position there may be different postures and limb positions.
For biodynamic measurements, analysis, and reporting, and for describing the
vibrational state of human exposure to mechanical vibration and shock, standard
biodynamic coordinate systems are used. These systems are specied as anatomical
and basicentric coordinate systems.
Whole-body anatomical coordinate systems (ACSs) for the three standard
positions of the human are shown in Fig. 17.2. Bilateral (left-right) skeletal
symmetry of the human body is an assumption implicit in the adoption of the
ACSs. System axes are connected to the human body and rotate with the body.
Whole-body vibration is directional along the axes of an anatomical orthogonal
system of coordinates. Vibration is described by displacements ux, uy, uz, velocities x, y, z, or acceleration ax, ay, az. Additionally, segmental ACSs may be

17.1

Introduction

627

Fig. 17.2 Biodynamic coordinate system for description of forced vibration of the human
operator, as dened in ISO 2631

applied. Among these are ACS for the head, root of the neck, upper torso, pelvis,
and hand [1, 2]. For each of these segments there is an established origin and axis
orientation [ISO 8727:1997, 2014]. This standard recognizes no difference
between male and female skeletal anatomy.
Basicentric coordinate systems may also be applied for describing whole-body
and local vibration. These coordinate systems are dened with respect to the
structure of a vehicle, a workplace, or a source of vibration or shock affecting
persons, such as a vibrating tool. The origin of the basicentric coordinate system is
on the surface contacting the subject.
For the whole standing person, the origin of a basicentric coordinate system
coincides with the point of contact with a oor. In case of sitting human on a at
seat (Fig. 17.2) the origin of basicentric coordinate system beneath the points of the
ischial tuberosities and direction of axis approximately coincides with the
corresponding axis of the ACS, with origin in the pelvis [ISO 8727: 1997,
3.2.2.2]. This standard differentiates between the basicentric coordinate system
for local vibration in the following cases of hand-transmitted force (or motion):
(i) appliance grasped by one or both hands and (ii) appliances or tools guided or
pressed upon by the palm and ngers without grasping.
The Standard ISO 8727 also introduces the geocentric (in which the principal
axis lies in the direction of earths gravity) and instrumentation coordinate systems.
The origin for the latter systems coincides with head-mounted and seat reference
accelerometers.
Using these coordinate systems, for any given posture, a human may be treated
as a fully oriented object. For example, analysis of a sitting person may be provided
using a 12-axis basicentric coordinate system. The origin of the axes are (i) beneath
the feet; (ii) between the back and the backrest; (iii) beneath the points of the ischial
tuberosities. For each system we have three linear coordinates x, y, z with subscript f

628

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

(foot), b (back), and s (ischial). For axes in case (iii) we also introduce rotation
about axis xs, ys, zs; they are roll (rx), pitch (ry), and yaw (rz) [1, 2].

17.1.2 International and National Standards

Research has accumulated extensive material about the human response to different
vibrational effects. The fundamental books by [1, 8, 9] explore the many diverse
effects of vibration on the human operator. The various conditions of the person
exposed to vibration (position, character of excitation, frequency spectrum, duration, etc.) and the requirements for human vibration protection is set out in the
International and National Standards. Standards are based on criteria that are
accepted by medical experts, scientists, and engineers in government agencies,
research institutions, and industries in the USA, UK, Canada, and other countries.
Numerous standards exist to guide or govern vibration monitoring and analysis,
including some that establish classications for machinery vibration, how measurements should be made, and how the acquired data should be analyzed.
Standards can be classied into one of several categories devoted to particular
aspects of the problem of vibration protection of the human operator. Among them
are whole-body vibration standards (in buildings, transport, etc.), transmitted vibration standards, vibration requirements for specic conditions of the human operator, control of vibrational hazards at work, computation of vibration dose, etc. Many
standards overlap, complement each other, and can be assigned to different categories of problems.
Currently, intensive research is being carried out in the eld of protection of the
human operator from vibrations. As the technical characteristics of vibration
sources change and the requirements for vibration protection of the person are
increased, the corresponding standards systematically are revised, claried and
updated. Corresponding changes are reected in numerous periodicals. The list of
the National and International Standards, which encompass the period up to 2011
may be found in the review by Ellias and Villot [10].

17.2

Inuence of Vibration Exposure on the Human

Subject

The character of vibration exposure on the human body is determined by the

1. Type and purpose of the object in contact with the operator
2. Method of transmitting vibrations to the human
Several models of classication of harmful effects of vibrations on the human
subject are discussed, as well as physiological effects of vibrations on the human

17.2

Inuence of Vibration Exposure on the Human Subject

629

body. Further, estimation of dosage of vibration dependent on rms acceleration

level and time exposure are explored.

17.2.1 Classication of the Adverse Effects of Vibration

on the Person
Presently, there are several models of classication of the adverse effects of
vibrations on the human body. The following four models are based on differing
criteria of classifying these effects. They are the Four-Stage Model of classication,
Seven-Syndrome Model, as well as a model that classies vibrations based on the
degree of harm they impose on the human body, and a model that classies
vibrations and their inuences on the functional and physiological condition of
the person.
One of the earliest clinical models of the adverse effects of vibration was
proposed by Andreeva-Galanina (1956). Her name is associated with the important
concept of a vibration disease [11]. According to this concept both whole-body
and hand-transmitted vibration are responsible for disorders of the central nervous
system: the whole organism is involved with local manifestations in the peripheral
vessels, nerves, etc. Grifn [1, p. 568]. Further, vibration disease could be
considered a collective term for all adverse signs and symptoms caused by
whole-body or local vibration exposure (p. 569).
(a) Andreeva-Galaninas model (1959) of vibration disease is based on four stages
disease progression. They are: (1) initial, fully reversible stage; (2) distinct,
moderately marked symptoms; (3) pronounced pathology; (4) most stable and
irreversible stage with marked decrease or even loss of work capacity. Each
stage contains distinct clinical signs and symptoms. Each stage consists of
510 signs and symptoms distinctive of the stage of disease progression [1].
(b) Drogichina and Metlinas model (1967) of vibration disease is based on seven
group syndromes. These group syndromes are angiodystonic, angiospastic,
vegetative-polyneuritic, vegetative-myofascitic, neurotic, diencephalic, and
vestibular. Each group consists of several distinctive signs and symptoms [1].
(c) Model that classies the degree of harm caused by vibrations to the operator
[3]
1. Not uncomfortable: vibrations do not cause any negative effects on the
operator.
2. Conservation of tness to work: fatigue caused by vibration does not affect
performance.
3. Vibrational safe point: vibration does not cause lasting physiological damage to the operator.
4. Vibrational danger point: vibration may cause vibration disease in the
operator.

630

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

5. Vibrational disturbance: vibrations become unbearable for the operator or

cause trauma.
(d) A classication model of harmful vibrations based on (i) functional and
(ii) physiological effects on the human is presented by Frolov [3].
The harmful effects of vibration from a functional perspective leads to
increased fatigue, increased motor and visual reaction time, and disturbance of vestibular reactions and movement coordination.
The harmful effects of vibration from a physiological perspective leads to
development of neurological disease, disruption of cardiovascular function
and damage to muscle bers and joints.
The functional effects of vibrations lead to a decrease in productivity and
performance, whereas the physiological effects lead to the development of
pathology. Among them, for example, is vibration-induced Raynauds
disease (white nger); this pathology is associated with prolonged (35
years) occupational exposure to vibrations.
Frolovs model of classication allows for a symptom to be classied into one or
both groups. For example, vibration-induced physiological damage to nerves in the
hand may lead to functional impairment.
Equal Vibration Perception Curves Results of statistical analyses of the reported
perceptions of subjects exposed to vibrations has led to equal vibration perception
curve graphs, or equivalent comfort/discomfort contour (ECC) [1]. ECC provides
only subjective, qualitative, and averaged descriptions of vibrations.
These contours are plotted either as frequencyvibration displacement,
frequencyvelocity, or frequencyacceleration.
The Grifn handbook [1] presents a set of for a seated and standing person.
For a seated person the different vibration directions are considered; among them
are the x-, y-, and z-axes, as well as roll (rx-axis), pitch (ry-axis), and yaw (rz-axis)
vibrations. All contours are constructed in the coordinate system frequency
acceleration. The International Standard ISO 2631 uses estimates of comfort as
a function of weighted rms acceleration (for example, <0.315 ms2, not uncomfortable; then a little uncomfortable, fairly uncomfortable, uncomfortable, very
uncomfortable; and last, more than 2 ms2, extremely uncomfortable); the subjective valuations are represented by a numerical estimation.
Figure 17.3 shows averaged regions of equal vibration perception [3]. Different
degrees of vibration sensations are described in Table 17.2. The boundaries
between the regions represent the curves of equal perception of vibration.

17.2

Inuence of Vibration Exposure on the Human Subject

631

a, cm/sek 2

u, mm
1000

1000

100

100

5
4
3

10

10

2
1.0

1.0

1
0.1

0.1
f,Hz
0.01

0.4

10

20 40

f,Hz
0.01

100

0.4

10

20 40

100

Fig. 17.3 Regions of equal vibration perceptions

Table 17.2 Sensations of the human subject under vibration [3]
Region
1
2
3

Vibration
Not perceptible
Mildly perceptible
Moderately perceptible

Region
4
5
6

Vibration
Strongly perceptible
Unpleasant at prolonged exposure
Unpleasant at short-term exposure

17.2.2 Effect of Vibration on the Human Operator

The human body is a complex biodynamic system. The frequency of the vibrations
to which the human body is exposed may affect different regions of the body and
particular organs in a negative and pathological way [3]. This is explained by the
fact that different parts of human body, as a dynamic system, have their own
frequencies, and when these parts are exposed to the same frequency, they fall
into resonance which causes excitability of the organ or tissue exposed.
The effect of vibration exposure to the human can be effectively studied through
experimental methods. For this purpose, the object of investigation can either be
taken a mannequin (dummy), or a real human operator.
In the rst case we obtain the physical characteristics of the dynamic state of the
dummy. They allow us to dene, in particular, the frequency characteristics of
individual body parts. These experiments have a high degree of replication. They
carry an objective character, and the numerical results are applicable to situations
with a human operator. The degree of applicability is determined by biometric
similarities between the dummy and the human operator.
In the second case we gain not only the physical characteristics of the dynamic
state of the body, but also an overall subjective assessment of sensations for a
human under vibration. The degree of replicability of the experimental results is

632

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

reduced, since a number of additional factors are involved.. Among them are the
physiological state of a person and cumulative effects of the vibration dose.
Human Physiological and Subjective Responses to Vibration Inuence of
vibration on the human body depends on many factors. Among them are:
1. Frequency range of vibration.
2. Modes of transmission of vibrations; point of application and direction.
3. Vibration magnitude. The magnitude of vibration is quantied by its displacement, velocity or acceleration.
4. Duration of exposure.
5. The individual tolerance of a person.
In terms of the inuence of vibrations on a person we can consider two aspects:
1. Level of discomfort of the operator and the operators resulting performance.
2. Risk to health and safety of the operator and the resulting occupational injury or
illness.
The physiological response of the operator must be considered for cases of local
and whole-body vibration. Generally, local vibration transmitted to the human
hand-arm system entails risks to the health and safety of the operator, in particular
vascular, bone or joint, or neuromuscular disorders. With long-term exposure to
vibration exceeding permissible levels, risks to health and safety arise, as well as
occupational illness. One such disease is vibration white nger [1] or dead nger, a
secondary form of Raynauds syndrome, which results from using vibrating tools.
Whole-body vibration increases risk of injury to the operator, in particular, lowerback soft tissue injury and trauma of the spine.
Vibrations occur in a wide range of frequencies in industrial environments.
Numerous physiological and functional disorders in cases of whole-body vibration
are observed in the low-frequency range from 0.5 to 80 Hz. In cases of handtransmitted vibration, frequencies from 5 to 1500 Hz can provoke disorders in the
upper limbs [12]. The adverse effects of harmful vibrations as a function of the
excitation frequency is shown in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3 Effects on the human body due to vibration frequencies [3]
Adverse effects of vibrations
Motion sickness
Shortness of breath
Deterioration of visual acuity
Disruption of cardiovascular function
Loss of coordination in upper extremities
Deterioration of gross and ne motor skills
Cellular damage to soft tissue

Frequency, Hz
10

10

10

10

10

10

17.2

Inuence of Vibration Exposure on the Human Subject

633

Descriptions of different vibration exposures (through vehicles, aircraft, vessels,

equipment, tools, etc.), and corresponding vibration-associated disease have been
presented by Grifn 1996 [1]; this book also presents a very useful appendix, an
extensive list of references (over 1700 cited sources), which covers research
performed from 1918 until 1989.
Let us note very briey vibration in aviation and its adverse inuence on the
crew and passengers. Aircraft are a source of both internal and external vibration.
The primary internal vibration source in aircraft is the propulsion system. In
helicopters, vibration is associated with rotor speed frequency. Air turbulence is
the primary source of external structure-borne vibration. Other internal and external
sources of structure-borne vibration, conditions of their occurrence and typical
frequencies may be found in [7, 13]. It is evident that the subjects posture plays
a major role in transmission of vibration and its effects. For whole-body vibration of
a seated body, different seat design features can greatly impact the vibration effect
on the subject. Among these features are the structure of the seat itself and
adjustment mechanism, seat (back) cushions material, restriction belts. Passive
and active vibration protection of the seat are usually used in ground and rail
vehicles, but in aircraft design, weight minimization must be taken into
consideration.
Vibration of the human body over prolonged periods causes the accumulation of
mechanical stresses. These stresses cause functional and physiological changes to
the body (see classication #4 of harmful vibrations, Sect. 17.2.1), disruption to the
regular functions of organs, and may even lead to tissue damage to many parts of
the body. It is important to differentiate severe discomfort or even pain from harm
or injury as effects of vibration [1, p. 914].
A tolerance to vibration is a trait unique to each individual person. The tolerance
level depends on biological factors, as well as some psychological factors.
According the medical dictionary, vibration tolerance is the maximum vibratory
or oscillatory movement that an individual can experience and bear without pain;
the limit of tolerance is a function of amplitude and frequency of the vibration and
varies with the direction of application. Mathematical evaluation of the concept of
tolerance and the criteria for comparing the tolerance for different individuals are
absent. However, the clear, yet subjective meaning of the concept makes it useful to
analyze the effect of vibration on the individual.
Currently no objective criteria exists for dening an individuals tolerance to
vibration. Adverse effects of vibration encompass pain, blurred vision, nausea, etc.
A close parallel to developing a denition of tolerance is the Verbal Rating Scale
used in medicine to assess pain [14]. On this scale, pain is what the patient tells you it
is, as there is no objective test to determine the validity of the patients subjective
complaint. Pain is measured on a scale of zero to ten, with zero being no pain and ten
being the most severe pain imaginable. The same scale principle can be applied to
assess the level of discomfort due to the adverse effects of vibration. In this scenario,
intervention would be applied based on the level of stated discomfort, beginning with
modalities that are more readily available, easier to implement and less expensive at
the bottom end of the scale and moving up as discomfort increases.

634

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

The tolerance to vibrations is dependent on duration of exposure; the longer the

vibration exposure, the less it is tolerated by the subject. The tolerance limits of an
adult male subjected to z-axis vibration vs. frequency f, Hz, is shown in Fig. 17.4.
This plot presents a curve of equal tolerance, while the duration of exposure is a
parameter. An increase in acceleration at a xed frequency of excitation leads to a
decreased time of tolerance.
a, g
5
Short time

4
3

One minute

2
1
Three minute

10

f, Hz
12

14

16

Fig. 17.4 The curve of equal tolerance for vertical harmonic whole-body vibration for short-, oneand three-minutes exposures (after Magid et al. [15])

The human subject experiences multiple adverse symptoms at ranges of low

frequencies (120 Hz). At 49 Hz, the subject experiences general discomfort, head
sensations at 1320 Hz, and loss of bladder and bowel control at 1018 Hz. Chest
pain manifests at 57 Hz, lumbosacral pain at 812 Hz, and abdominal pain at
410 Hz. Muscle tone is affected at 1320 Hz, and vibration at low frequencies
(38 Hz) can be sufcient to affect respiration [1, 3, 7, 15].
Cardiovascular function, such as arterial blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen
consumption depend on the amplitude and frequency of vibration; these characteristics may be represented on the curve of equal level. In cases of prolonged
exposure to vibration, back pain or back injury are often the typical symptoms.
Repeated exposures to higher levels of vibration may lead to chronic conditions.
In cases of airborne vibration (frequency between 50 and 100 Hz, Sect. 17.1.1)
the following symptoms are observed: mild nausea, dizziness, cutaneous ushing,
and tingling sensations (at around 100 Hz), coughing, severe substernal pressure,
choking sensation, salivation, pain on swallowing, hypopharyngeal discomfort
(60 Hz), headache (5060 and 100 Hz). [7].
In aviation, vibration experienced by the pilot causes the eye to undergo a complex
motion. The relative motion of the eye is motion with respect to an observed display
(in this case, the instrument panel). This motion causes difculty in reading instruments and performing visual tasks in aerospace environments. Low frequency

17.3

Vibration Dose Value

635

vibration due to involuntary head movement leads to the degradation in head-slaved

tracking tasks. At higher frequencies, the eye resonance can result in blurred vision.
Effects of vibration on the probability of error-free operation (PEFO) with light
signaling is discussed in [3]. A steady decline of PEFO has been recorded with
increased time exposure to various frequencies. Laboratory tracking experiments
and tracking errors for such ndings are described by Smith (2006).
Protecting drivers and passengers during vehicular accidents is a signicant
problem in vibration protection. In order to provide solutions to this issue, computer
simulations have been applied to model a person in a crash environment [4, 16, 17].
These simulations have served to develop a set of standard guidelines for prevention of injury to various segments of the subject (spinal, thoracic, head, etc.) [5].
An important consideration of such problems is that the posture of a human cannot
be considered xed.

17.3

Vibration Dose Value

If the time of vibration exposure on a human operator increases, the physiological

and functional condition begins to deteriorate. This indicates that vibration energy
has a cumulative effect on the human body. According to British Standard BS 64721:2008, the numerical evaluation of energy stored by the human body can be
applied to two concepts: the Vibration Dose Value (VDV) and the Estimated
Vibration Dose Value (eVDV). These concepts each combine the characteristics
of the vibrational process and the time of exposure on the human operator. VDV
and eVDV present a cumulative measure of the vibration and shock received by a
person during a measurable time period [1]. Thus, we are able to numerically
evaluate a dose of vibration perceived by a human. In addition, we can objectively
compare the vibration effect on operators who are in different oscillating conditions. Both VDV and eVDV have the same units of measurement, the increase of
which means an increase in dose of vibration received by a person.
Among the most important factors inuencing the response of a human operator
are the vibration frequency and direction of exposure. Varying vibration frequencies cause the human body to respond in different ways. Therefore, their inuence
is accounted for by frequency weightings [1]. For this purpose the concept of
weightings curves is introduced. These curves W are constructed in a coordinate
system frequency-dimensionless modulus. In particular, according to BS 64721:2008, the curve Wb for vertical whole-body vibration in buildings is shown in
Fig. 17.5. This plot denes the value by which the vibration magnitude at each
frequency is to be multiplied in order to weigh it according to its effect on the
body. The weighting has a high value at the frequencies of greater importance and
low values at the frequencies, which have little effect. This means that sensitivity to
vertical acceleration in the frequency range 412 Hz, maximum W b 1:0554 at
f 6:3 Hz. Different frequency weightings are required for different axes of
motion. The frequency weighting curve Wd for horizontal vibration is shown in
Fig. 17.6.

636

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

Wb
10
5
6.3; 1.0554
1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.1

0.5

10

50 100

f (Hz)

Fig. 17.5 Frequency weighting curve Wb appropriate for vertical whole-body vibration

Wd
10
5
1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
0.1

0.5

10

50 100

f (Hz)

Fig. 17.6 Frequency weighting curve Wd appropriate for horizontal whole-body vibration

The Vibration Dose Value (VDV) that is accumulated by a human body

depends on the duration of the vibration, the frequency weightings, and the vibration acceleration. According to the British Standard BS 6472-1, 2: 2008, VDV can
be dened as follows:
VDVb=d; day=night

1=4
a tdt
4

17:1

Here, subscripts b or d refer to the appropriate frequency weighting curve Wb or Wd,

according to Figs. 17.5 and 17.6; a is the frequency-weighted acceleration (in ms2),
using Wb or Wd as appropriate; T is the total period of the day or night (in seconds)

17.3

Vibration Dose Value

637

h
i1=4
4
during which vibration can occur. The unit VDV is m=s2  s
m=s7=4
ms1:75 .
If the dominant direction of weighted acceleration is clear, it is only necessary to
determine the VDV in that direction. If the most signicant direction is unclear,
preliminary estimates to determine which direction will give the greatest weighted
acceleration should be made. It is evident that stored VDV carries a cumulative
character: the greater the time of vibration exposure to a person, the greater the
VDV becomes.

Table 17.4 Vibration dose value ranges resulting in various probabilities of adverse effect within
residential buildings, VDV in ms1:75 (BS 6472-1:2008)
Place and time
Residential buildings, 16 h day
Residential buildings, 8 h night

Low probability
of adverse effecta
0.20.4
0.10.2

Adverse effect
possible
0.40.8
0.20.4

Adverse effect
probableb
0.81.6
0.40.8

Below these ranges adverse effects are not expected

Above these ranges adverse effects are very likely

Table 17.4 contains three degrees of probability of adverse response to vibration

on a human operator depending on a dose vibration VDV and the time during which
the operator within the building is subject to vibration (16 h day or 8 h night).
Repeated Exposures Assuming the vibration conditions are constant or repeated
regularly, only one representative sample of duration seconds, needs to be
measured. If the VDVb/d, is the VDV for each event, then the total VDV for the
day becomes
VDVb=d, day

day

0:25

 VDVb=d, ;

17:2

where VDVb/d,day is the total VDV for the day

tday is the duration of exposure per day (in seconds)
is the duration of each event
Example 17.1 Forty repeated vertical events, each of duration of seconds, occur
during a 16 h day. The VDV for each event is VDVb, 0:2 m=s1:75 . Calculate the
VDV over the day and compare with data in Table 17.4.

638

17

Solution
VDVb, day

day

0:25

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

 0:25
40
 VDVb,
 0:2 400:25  0:2 0:503 m=s1:75 :

Referring to Table 17.4, it is concluded that an adverse effect to the human is

possible.
Expected Vibration Dose Values This concept may be used to predict a structural
vibration level if measurements cannot be carried out. For computation of eVDV
we apply a simple algebraic procedure instead of the integrating procedure for
calculating VDV (BS 6472-1:2008, C4)
eVDV 1:4  atrms  t0:25 :

17:3

Here, arms is the root-mean-square value of the frequency-weighted acceleration

(in ms2), using Wb or Wd as appropriate; t is the total duration of vibration exposure
(in seconds). The unit of eVDV is m=s2  s0:25 ms1:75 . The 1.4 coefcient in the
relationship for the eVDV has been determined empirically from typical vibration
environments having low crest factor. The crest factor is the ratio of the peak value to
the rms value of a quantity over a specied time interval [1]. The formula (17.3)
allows us to easily determine the eVDV in cases of repeated exposures.
Example 17.2 Ten exposures, each of duration 20 s and frequency-weighted rootmean-square (rms) acceleration of 0.1 m/s2 rms, occur during a 16 h day. Calculate
the estimated vibration dose value.
Solution
eVDV 1:4  atrms  t0:25 1:4  0:1  10  200:25 0:526 m=s1:75
Referring to Table 17.4, it is concluded that adverse effects are possible from
these exposures.
Example 17.3 Several exposures, each of duration 25 s and frequency-weighted
root-mean-square (rms) acceleration of 0.1 m/s2 rms, occur during a 16 h day.
The estimated vibration dose value should be no more than 1.6 m/s1.75. Calculate
limit number n of occurrences.
Solution
eVDV 1:4  atrms  t0:25 1:4  0:1  n  250:25 1:6 m=s1:75 :
Thus the limit number n of occurrences can be determined from the condition
n  250:25 11:428 ! n 682:
Example 17.4 How will the value of VDV change if the amplitude of vibration
doubles?

17.4

Mechanical Properties and Frequency Characteristics of the Body

Solution

639

1=4
a4 tdt
;
0

T
1=4

1=4
 1=4 T 4
VDV b=d, day=night
2a4 tdt
24
a tdt
2VDV:
VDVb=d, day=night

Thus the VDV doubles in magnitude with a doubling of vibration amplitude.

Example 17.5 How will the value of eVDV change in the case of a 16-fold increase
in the duration of exposure without any change in amplitude?
Solution
eVDV 1:4  atrms  t0:25 ;

eVDV 1:4  atrms  16t0:25 2eVDV

Expressions (17.1)(17.3) for determining the vibration doses that have accumulated in the body of a human operator, gives objective quantitative values.
Different input to the subject is possible (continuous, intermittent, or occasional),
as well as various characteristics of vibration (constant amplitude, variable amplitude, or impulsive). It is very important that adopted expressions for VDV and
eVDV allow comparison of all types of vibration exposure on a common basis,
i.e. the severity of impulsive and/or intermittent vibration is evaluated on a basis
applicable equally to continuous vibration (BS 6472-1:2008; 3.1 General).
A more in-depth exploration of VDV and Standardization of vibration acting on
the body are presented in the Standards BS 6472-1,2:2008, ISO 8727:1997, 2014,
ISO 2631: 2014, ISO 5982: 2011, review of existing standards (2012) [10], Guide
Manuals and Report (2007) [12], books and articles [1, 6, 7].

17.4

Mechanical Properties and Frequency Characteristics

of the Body

The principal concept in vibration protection of the human operator theory is a

dynamic model of the human body. The term dynamic model implies the
structural presentation of the human operator using passive elements and their
corresponding physical parameters. In order to represent a human operator in the
form of a mechanical model, extensive experimental studies should be performed.
Experimental studies utilize an anthropomorphic dummy or human under vibration
exposure. The dummy and the body of a human should have the same basic
parameters. Among them are elastic and dissipative properties of the human
body, the shape and geometrical dimensions of the body, mass distribution and
the center of mass of individual body parts, as well as for the whole body, and the
ways of connecting the individual segments of body (similar joint mechanics).
Results of experimental studies are the impedance, the effective mass, dynamic
stiffness, partial frequencies of the individual segments, etc. Based on these ratios,

640

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

and in accordance with the accepted design diagram of the human body, we are able
to dene the inertial, elastic, and dissipative parameters of the equivalent mechanical system. It is clear that we are talking about the equivalence of the human body
and mechanical model only in the sense of the physical components of the response
to the dynamic excitation while the subjective assessment of sensations of a human
under vibration is not taken into consideration.

17.4.1 Mechanical Properties of the Human Body

It is important to differentiate between the three principal positions of the subject:
sitting, standing, and supine. Each of these positions can be further differentiated
into various postures. For example, a sitting subject may be seated in several
different ways: upright, leaning forward or backward, some or all segments resting
on restricted surfaces (forearms may be resting on armrests or on a steering
apparatus), etc. Each posture has averaged anthropometric parameters for the
standard person (adult male, adult female, and child). These parameters include
geometrical dimensions of the specic body segments, their average mass, the
segments individual center of mass, moments of inertia, and the center of mass
of the whole body for different postures [3].
Individual segments of the body are connected to one another through several
types of joints. They are classied structurally and functionally.
Structural classication divides joints according to the type of binding tissue
that connects the segments to each other. A detailed description of this classication
may be found in [18].
Functional classication of joints is determined by the type and amount of the
movement they allow. There are brous joints, which allow no movement, cartilaginous (partially movable) joints, and synovial (freely movable) joints [19]. Some
types of synovial joints are hinge, pivot, ball-and-socket joint.
Articulation of segments of the arm, the humerus in the upper arm, and ulna and
the radius in the forearm, form the elbow. A mechanical model of this connection is
an example of a hinge joint. This hinge joint allows for movements of exion
(decreasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus) and extension (increases
the angle between the ulna and the humerus) only.
Articulation of functional segments of the leg form the knee. The knee consists
of two articulations; the femur and tibia, and the femur and patella. The mechanical
model of these connections is an example of a pivotal hinge joint. This joint allows
movements of exion (bending) and extension (straightening), as well as a slight
internal and external rotation.
In the shoulder joint, the spherical head of the humerus ts into the glenoid
cavity of the scapula. The mechanical model of this connection is a ball-and-socket
joint (spheroidal): the ball-shaped surface of one rounded bone ts into the cup-like
depression of another bone. The movement at the ball-and-socket joint is exion,
extension, adduction (movement towards the bodys midline), abduction

17.4

Mechanical Properties and Frequency Characteristics of the Body

641

(movement away from the midline), internal and external rotation. The shoulder
and hip joints are the only ball-and-socket joints in the human body; the shoulder
joint has the greatest range of motion.
A description of the human body joints is presented by Platzer [20], Herman
[21], Whiting and Stuart [18], and Tortora and Derrickson [19]. The resistance of
each human joint is a viscous damping torque with constant damping coefcient. In
the case of a crash environment, the resistance of a joint contains an additional
nonlinear term: angular displacementresisting torque [4, vol. 1]. Each joint of
the human body has a limiting value of the angle of rotation about axes x, y, z. For
example, limiting angles of rotation for the head are x 15
(lateral tilt); y 20

(exion); y 30
(extension); z 70
(twisting) [3].
Each tissue type of the human body (soft tissue, bone) is characterized by
mechanical parameters [21]. Among them are density, shear modulus, Youngs
modulus, Poissons ratio, bulk modulus, ultimate tensile strength. For bone (femur,
tibia, radius, etc.), the important parameter is a fracture load at compression
[3]. Biological tissues possess complex rheological properties. They depend on
the physical condition of the person and undergo signicant changes with the age
and health status of the person [3]. Numerous stressstrain relationships for bone
and soft tissues of a person under axial tension-compression are given in [3, 22];
among these are the muscles, tendons, cartilage, vertebral discs, bones. These books
also contain graphs of relations of torqueangle of relative rotation for various
elements (vertebral discs, lumbar vertebrae, etc.). Mechanical properties for several
critical parts of the human body (head, neck, and spine) are discussed by Frolov [3].
The stress-strain dependence for biological tissue generally carries a nonlinear
character.
In order to maintain a stationary sitting position, a person experiencing external
forces creates isotonic muscle contractions that allow the counteraction of external
forces [4, vol. 1]. The contact external normal N and tangential T forces applied to
the occupant in the transport seat are exerted by the cushions, elbow rest, and oor.
They act on the foot, thigh, back, elbow, and head; these forces are presented in
Fig. 17.7. All forces are applied at the center of mass of the corresponding segment.
Fig. 17.7 External forces
acting on the sitting
occupant; the restrictions
are shown by a dotted line

Nh
Nb
Ne

Tb
Nt

Te

Tt
Tf
Nf

This brief description shows the great diversity of possible dynamic models of
the human operator and the limitations of any selected model.

642

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

17.4.2 Frequency Characteristics of the Human Body

The fundamental characteristics of linear dynamic systems consisting of passive
elements were considered in Chap. 12. These include dynamic mass, mechanical
impedance, dynamic stiffness, mobility, and transmissibility. Each of these characteristics is a particular case of the general concept of transfer function. The
operator form p d=dt was used to describe these characteristics. All such
functions in operator form can be transformed into a frequency characteristic; for
this purpose the algebraic substitution p j should be applied. The frequency
characteristics are complex values, i.e., they consist of real and imaginary parts.
These characteristics allow us to determine the structure and parameters of dynamic
models of the human body and to describe the response of the human. All of these
characteristics may be applied to the human if the excitation frequency of the human
body is low (up to 100 Hz), while the body performs small oscillations. In this case,
the human body may be considered a linear viscoelastic mechanical system.
The dynamic characteristics of the body and its individual parts may be analyzed
utilizing the different types of operator transfer functions. The most frequently used
are the concepts of impedance and transmissibility [3, 2325].
Transfer impedance represents the ratio between the periodic excitation force,
which acts at one point of the body, and velocity at another specied point of the
body. If velocity is measured at the same point, but in another direction as the
applied force, then the force/velocity ratio also represents the transfer impedance. If
velocity is measured at the same point and in the same direction as the applied
force, then the force/velocity ratio represents the input (or driving-point) impedance. Generally, impedance is a complex number. The modulus |Z| of the impedance (amplitude-frequency characteristic) as a function of the excitation frequency
is a ratio of the amplitude of applied force to the amplitude of the resulting vibration
velocity. The argument of the input impedance (phase-frequency characteristic) as
a function of the excitation frequency is a phase shift between the applied force and
the velocity of a force application point. In cases of non-harmonic vibration, a
driving-point mechanical impedance is determined from the force and velocity
spectra. The modulus (absolute values) of impedance Z and phase shift can be
calculated using general theory of complex numbers (Appendix A).
Numerical values of frequency characteristics strongly depend on the point of
application of excitation and the point where the parameters of the forced vibration
on the human are measured. Dynamic properties of the human body depend
signicantly on the functional posture and the type of support surface interacting
with the human operator (oor, seat, elbow rest, supported feet, controls) [3].
Some experimental results related to the sitting (erect and relaxed) and standing
person on a vertically vibrating platform are shown in Fig. 17.8. The curves
represent the absolute value of input impedance of a human body of mass 84 kg
as a function of frequency excitation f, Hz. Excitation is applied at the support
surface for sitting (or standing) person. Methods of impedance computation are
described in [6, Chap. 12].

17.4

Mechanical Properties and Frequency Characteristics of the Body

643

Z, kNsec/m
7
Z= m

SDoFS

6
5

Standing erect

4
Sitting erect

3
2

Sitting relaxed

1
0

f, Hz
0

10

12

14

16

18

20

Fig. 17.8 Absolute value of input impedance of a person for several postures (standing, sitting erect,
sitting relaxed) compared with the impedance of mass m and damped single degree of freedom
system (SDoFS), Gierke and Brammer (1996) [2]

This graph presents impedance modulus for a lumped mass m, jZ m j m, and

for a damped single-degree-of-freedom system (SDoFS) as a baseline comparison.
We can see that below 2 Hz, the human body and a lumped simple mass behave
identically. Beyond 5 Hz, the erect sitting posture leads to an increase of the
impedance modulus, i.e., to an increase of dynamic stiffness. The peak values of
plot |Zm| in terms of frequency excitation point to the presence of resonance. For the
SDoFS, there exists one resonance, while for different postures of the human
operator there are several peak points, or several resonances. This means that in
such cases the human body should be treated as a system with more than one degree
of freedom. Approximate resonance frequencies for some different subsystems of
the human body are: head 820 Hz, eyes 1250 Hz, trachea 530 Hz, chest
215 Hz, lumbar spine 415 Hz, abdomen 420 Hz [1, 26].
Input mechanical impedance (its modulus and argument) for different postures
of the human (sitting, standing on the legs/knees, lying) can be found in [3, 24]. Various points of application of excitation (the chair/feet for sitting human, the feet/
hands for standing subject, the back/head for person in supine position) have been
considered. The modulus of the input impedance for a sitting person with a relaxed
posture both with and without additional mass is presented in Fig. 17.9. The person
in the gure is sitting on the hard seat without back rest or foot support.
If there is additional mass added to the human body, the maximum absolute
value of the impedance is shifted to higher frequencies (curve 2). This contradicts
the linear theory and points to the nonlinear properties of the human body [3].
Impedance of the human body varies considerably depending on the subjects
posture. For example, the impedance of a sitting person changes when the human is

644

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

|Z|103
10
m

Vz

5
3
2

1
f, Hz
3

10

20

50

100

200

Fig. 17.9 Absolute value of input mechanical impedance Z (N s/m) vs. frequency of excitation
f (Hz); sitting subject, relaxed posture. (1) Additional mass m 0; (2) Additional mass
m 7.84 N s2/m is xed at the lumbar region of the spinal column, Miwa [24]

leaning forward/backward. For vehicle passengers, the impedance depends on the

types of restraint used and the force of tension.
A large collection of graphs of the input impedance and the phase shift for the
various parts of the human body is presented in the book [3]. The various postures
of a sitting and standing person have been considered. These charts reect only the
physical characteristics of a person, but do not reect the physiological state.
Transmissibility is a nondimensional ratio of the response amplitude of a
system in steady-state forced vibration to the excitation amplitude. Both response
and excitation dene like characteristics, i.e., either forces, displacements, velocities, or accelerations belonging to different points of the system. Response and
excitation determine the output and input of a system, respectively. For example, if
a standing person is subjected to the vertical motion of a supporting surface
(excitation, input motion) with amplitude Zbase and amplitude of response of the
head is Zhead (response, output motion), then transmissibility becomes
T h=b Z head =Z base . This concept is very useful because it allows us to calculate
not only the magnitude transmissibility, but also the phase shift.
Off-axis effects is a disturbance in any direction which leads to the response of
the body in another direction. This effect is observed particularly in aviation (for
passengers and crew) [7]. This effect is explained by transfer of energy between the
various subsystems of the human body.
Apparent mass is a complex ratio of applied periodic excitation force (input)
at frequency f, F( f ), to the resulting vibration acceleration (output) at that frequency, a( f ), measured at the same point and in the same direction as the applied
force Mf Ff =af jZ f =2f [27]. In this formula the factor j means that
between velocity and acceleration exist /2 phase shift.
The concept of transfer function allows for linear systems to describe relationships between input and output (ratio output/input) independently of their physical
nature. Therefore, the concept of transfer function encompasses a larger scope than
the concepts of mechanical impedance, transmissibility, and apparent mass.

17.5

Models of the Human Body

645
T

azh
azh

azh

1
1

1
2

azs

azs

azs
0

f
1

6 8 10

20

50

100

Fig. 17.10 Absolute value of transmissibility support-to-head T azh/azs vs. frequency of excitation f (Hz). (1) Sitting subject with a relaxed posture; (2) Standing subject on a hard oor, relaxed
posture; (3) Standing subject, erect posture, 135
[3]

The envelope impedance modulus is a graph that determines the maximum and
minimum absolute value |Z( f )| among many posture variations of a human for a
given position (for example, sitting) as a function of frequency.
The transmissibility function T( f ) of any linear time-invariant system at frequency
f as a special case of the transfer function is: T( f ) Output( f )/Input( f ). These functions
reect the biodynamic properties of a subject. Assume that for different postures, the
input and output will be the acceleration of the specied points in the z-direction. They
are measured at the support (seat or oor), azs (input), and head azh (output). Different
postures of a subject and corresponding tentative functions are shown in Fig. 17.10.
This graph allows us to nd the excitation frequency which leads to the maximum
acceleration of the head. Similarly, the transmissibility function graph can be presented
for a case of an arbitrary observed point of the body and an arbitrary direction of the
vibration at this point. These graphs allow us to nd a range of the excitation
frequency, which provides the required modules of transmissibility function.
Transmissibility of vertical and horizontal vibration from a support to various
parts (head, shoulder, hip) of a standing and sitting human subject may be found
in [2]. The transmissibility largely depends on the human subject, particularly on
the mass and physical state.

17.5

Models of the Human Body

In this section, the various types of design models of a human operator are
discussed. These include 1D and 2D design diagrams for different postures of a
standing and sitting human operator and models of occupants for problems involving vehicle collisions [2, 3, 16].
Analytical investigation of the human response to dynamic excitation can be
performed on the basis of accepted mechanical models. Construction of the model
is a critical and difcult stage of the analysis of the dynamic state of the human

646

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

operator. The challenges of construction of the models have objective and subjective character.
Among the objective challenges is the enormous complexity of a human body as
a biomechanical object. The complexity is determined by the diversity of joints,
hard and soft tissues with different physico-mechanical properties, and depends not
only on gender, age, anthropomorphic data, but also on the physical condition of the
subject. The difculty of modeling different joints is also because mutual displacements of the segments involved in the joint have nonsymmetrical characteristics.
The challenges of compiling mathematical model signicantly increase with the
need to incorporate the nonlinear properties of tissues and joints. To estimate the
complexity of the human body in terms of the mechanics we will present some
characteristics of the highly detailed biomechanical model of the subject that was
developed for computer animation by Lee [28]. The skeleton is modeled as an
articulated, multi-body system. The model has a total of 75 bones with 165 DOFs.
Of these, 139 DOFs are associated with the head-neck-trunk region. A total of
846 muscle forces are modeled. A total of 354,000 body-centered cubic tetrahedra
are simulated to create detailed deformation of the embedded high-resolution
surfaces of the skin and each of the muscles.
Among subjective challenges is the intended purpose of the modelling. Similarity between the dynamic processes that occur in the human body and in the model is
a condition of the successful design of the model. A well-designed model accounts
for the features and parameters of the system which are necessary for a specic
study, and the model reveals only the data that is needed for the purpose of a
particular research study. Among the most important features and parameters of the
human body are the position of subject, the masses and inertia moments of the
individual segments of the body, the joints and their static and kinematic descriptions, and the elastic and dissipative properties of hard and soft tissues. Just these
features of the human tissue, segments and joints form the basis of the classication
of the human body model.
1. The simplest models consist of lumped masses, elastic elements, and dashpots
only. Additional masses lead to a change of DOF of the system.
2. The next type of model consists of nite elements, elastic elements, and dashpots. Finite elements may be used for modelling of the spine, and other welldened segments of the body. Such elements are considered a subsystem with
distributed parameters.
3. Lastly, a multibody model consists of two or more rigid bodies, spring-damper
systems, and different types of joints.
Compiling models is based on experimental data of the dynamic behavior of the
human operator and/or the dummy. The methods and instrumentation, physical and
biological measurements, simulation of mechanical environment and human subjects
are some of the challenges faced by the researcher in the development of a dynamic
model of the human body. The mathematical description of a dynamic model is
performed by established methods of theoretical mechanics and vibrations theory.

17.5

Models of the Human Body

647

Fig. 17.11 Biodynamic

model of the seated
human body

m2

x2
b2

k2
m1
x3
k3

k1

b3

x0

Fig. 17.12 Diagrams of

whole-body vibration of a
human. The body is
subjected to kinematic
excitation. The main
purpose of this type of
analysis is the computation
of impedance at the head

x1

m3
b1

m0

azh
azh

azh

azs

azs

azs

17.5.1 Basic Dynamic 1D Models

Modern scientic literature describes dynamic models of a person in various
positions, including a variety of postures of a human for each position [2, 16].
Each model is composed of segments having masses connected by elastic
and dissipative passive elements. A model with four DOF for calculating the
vertical (z-axis) transmissibility of the sitting human may be adopted according
the International Standard ISO 5982: 2011 (Fig. 17.11).
Harmonic excitation was applied to the mass m0. Varying mass of the operator
(55, 75, and 90 kg) and frequency excitation ranging from 0.5 to 20 Hz were used to
calculate the input (or driving-point) impedance, apparent mass, and seat-to-head
transmissibility. Driving-point impedance graphs for different postures of the seated,
standing, and supine human body can be found in [3]. This book contains the various
models and parameters of a standard standing, sitting, and supine human. Also
presented are models of a free-standing human with 2, 5, and 15 DOF, human standing
with slightly exed knees, as well as the simplest models of a sitting and supine person.
Several diagrams of the human are presented in Fig. 17.12. The human body is
subjected to vertical kinematic excitation from the seat (Case 1) or oor (2, 3),
where a refers to acceleration. The simplest design diagrams can be described by
1D lumped models of the human body. The corresponding support-to-head transmissibilities are presented in [3].
One obvious and natural version of the multibody model for a standing person is
shown in Fig. 17.13a. This model consists of 17 segments connected by hinge

648

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

Head

Head
Neck
Upper chest
Upper arm

Chest

Arm

Forearm
Torso

Hand
Abdomen
Pelvis

Hip

Spine
Hip

Thigh

Lower leg

Legs

Foot
Fig. 17.13 Multibody model of the standing person (a) and corresponding dynamic model with
lumped parameters (b)

joints. Corresponding simplied lumped mass model is shown in Fig. 17.13b. It

consists of lumped masses and spring-dashpots units. This 1D model assumes that
segments of the human body, as lumped masses, move in a vertical direction only.
In this case the generalized coordinates of a system are the z-coordinates of the
centers of mass of individual segments along the vertical axis. This model sufciently describes the response of the head and other segments of the human body in
cases of kinematic vertical harmonic or impact excitation of support.
Let us note a planar von Gierke model (1996) [2] of the human body which
describes the joint longitudinal vibration of the spinal column and transverse
vibration of the lungs (Fig. 17.14). In the case of a sitting occupant, element
1 presents a seat holding an effective mass of a human body, while a oor (2) is
immovable. In the case of a standing subject, element 1 is the pelvis of the subject,
while the oor (2) is subjected to kinematic excitation. This system accounts for
pressure changes that occur with changes in lung volume. Calculation of the model
parameters presents challenges discussed further by von Gierke and Brammer [2].
Another related model is von Gierkes multi-functional planar model of a
human body subjected to longitudinal excitation (impact, vibration) (1971). This
model has ve DOF [2]. The uniqueness of the model is that it describes joint
vertical vibration of separate body parts (abdominal, spinal, and pelvic systems)
and horizontal vibration of the lungs and trachea, as well as the chest wall
(thoracic) system. This model allows us to investigate a set of response

17.5

Models of the Human Body

Fig. 17.14 The model for

joint longitudinal vibration
of a spinal system and
transverse vibration of the
lungs. The model considers
a sitting and standing
subject. In both cases the
system is subjected to
vertical excitation, Gierke
and Brammer [2]

649

Head
Trachea

Lung
Spinal system
Chest wall
Abdomen
1

Excitation

Excitation

characteristics, such as pressure in the lungs, abdominal movement, and the

dynamic state of the thorax.
Currently, there are a large number of works devoted to the models of the human
subject under whole-body and local vibrations. These models take into account the
type of excitation, its direction, frequency range, position of the human, and posture
[2931]. Models of a particular part of the body and its corresponding response
are presented by Grifn (1978) [1], von Gierke and Brammer [2]. These include
anthropometric models of the hand, foot, nger, and a nger-hand-arm system.
The models take into account the mass of the body segment or system, elastic
properties of the muscles and joints, and their dimensions.
It should be noted that the system machinehuman operatorprocessed
medium is a complex nonlinear system with different types of feedback. Among
them are forced, tactile, visual, as well as auditory feedback which are not
accounted for in models. Parameters of feedback depends on different factors,
such as the physical and mental state of the operator, posture during work, physical
or mental fatigue, and other factors.
Particular attention has been given to problems associated with the response of
the occupants in vehicular collisions [5, 16, 32, 33]. Detailed analysis of models and
an extensive list of references is presented by Liang and Chiang [17]. The multifold
aspects of biomechanical modeling of the human body for computer simulations are
discussed by Lee [28]
It is obviously impossible to construct a universal model of the human body
capable of describing the diverse aspects that arise in the analysis of dynamic
excitation of a human. Therefore, the human body model should be constructed
depending on the conditions of the dynamic excitation and must meet the objectives

650

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

of the specic problem. A number of steps must be completed in the construction of

such models. The most important steps for low frequency excitation are:
1. Adopt a position for the human operator (sitting, standing, etc.), the posture
(standing with bent knees, sitting with sloping forward/backward, etc.), the
modes of transmission of the vibration (through the oor, a chair, hand tools),
and its direction.
2. In the case of whole-body vertical vibration, it is possible to consider a uniaxial
model. If excitation acts at the oor (chair) and occurs in the x-axis direction,
then under additional assumptions the two-axis model (motion in the xz-plane)
of the human body should be adopted.
3. Adopt the lumped masses, which model the specic human body parts (head,
hip, pelvis, etc.), and methods of their connections using passive elements. This
is a very important part of the problem; it depends on many factors, particularly
the purpose of the study, the width of the frequency band, and can be
implemented in different versions. The following propositions should be taken
into account:
(a) Suppose it is required to limit vibrations in the workplace according to
standards on permissible levels of vibration. In this case, we should use the
schemes, for which the model and the human body are identical in terms of
input impedance.
(b) Suppose it is required to limit vibrations of individual parts of the body
according to standards on permissible levels of vibration. This is especially
important when an operator has to manage different systems, to monitor
instrument readings, etc. In this case, we should use the schemes, for which
the model and the human body are identical in terms of the amplitudefrequency and phase-frequency characteristics. Corresponding schemes
can be found in [3].
(c) In the low-frequency range it should be preferred systems with a small
number DOF. Increasing the number of the lumped mass of a model leads
to more accurate approximation of the dynamic properties of the human
body over a wide frequency range. Generally, the order of the system can
be assigned according to the number of maxima of the amplitude-frequency
characteristics obtained experimentally.
To construct a mathematical model, we need to take into account the following:
(a) Adopt the generalized coordinates.
(b) Accept the character for dissipative and restoring forces in the tissue and in the joints.
(c) Indicate the contact points of the human body with supporting surfaces (oor,
chair, backrest, armrests, headrest, belts).
(d) Point up the limiting values for displacement of adopted joints.
(e) Derive the equations of motion using the methods of solid mechanics
(Lagranges equation, nite element method, etc.).
Determination of the parameters of the model is briey discussed in Sect. 17.5.2.
Even this partial description of the model of a human operator indicates the
extreme complexity of the modeling problem of a human under vibration.

17.5

Models of the Human Body

651

Fig. 17.15 Two-dimensional 11 segments occupant model (a) and generalized coordinates (b) [4]
Table 17.5 Generalized coordinates qi for occupant of aircraft seat in
a crash environment [4, vol. 1]
Segments
1. Lower torso
2. Upper torso
3. Head
4, 6. Right and left upper arm
5, 7. Right and left forearm
8, 10. Right and left thigh
9, 11. Right and left lower leg
Spine
Neck
Total

Generalized coordinates qi
x1, z1, 1
2
3
4
5
8
9
s
n
11

17.5.2 Dynamic 2D3D Models of the Sitting Human

Body at the Collision
Let us consider a model of an occupant in an aircraft seat in a crash environment.
Fundamental analysis of this problem was done by Bolukbasi and Laananen (1986,
1991). In accordance with their research [4, 16], we will present a short description
of a dynamic model of an occupant.

652

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

Assume the response of the human operator is expected to be symmetrical with

respect to the xz plane. In this case a two-dimensional model of the occupant
should be adopted. The generalized coordinates of a system are coordinate of a
center mass of the individual segments, their angles of rotation in z plane, and
specic coordinates for spine and neck. A plane model of a human is shown in
Fig. 17.15a.
A structure consists of the following elements: 1, 2 Lower and upper torso;
3 Head; 4, 5, 8, 9 Right upper arm, forearm, thigh, and lower leg; 6, 7, 10, 11 Left
upper arm, forearm, thigh, and lower leg, as well as spine and neck elements,
respectively. Lower and upper torso have eccentricity e1 and e2 with respect to
spine, and head has eccentricity e3 with respect to neck.
In contrast to the 1D model, the spine and neck are subject to bending.
Corresponding curvilinear generalized coordinates are s and n. All generalized
coordinates qi (i 111) are shown in Fig. 17.15b and listed in Table 17.5.
A detailed description of the elements for a 3-D model of the occupant is
presented in [4, vol. 1, Appendix A].
The term occupant model involves the following elements:
1. Design diagram of the human operator itself: (a) segments of the human body,
initial position, and generalized coordinates, (b) the physico-mechanical properties of the hard and soft tissues, (c) choosing the joints, each allows only
specic character of the motion and has a limiting level.
2. Design diagram of a seat and restrictions system: a seat structure, its geometry
and cross-sectional parameters, the material properties, attachment conditions,
nodal coordinates, belt restrictions, and belt anchor points.
3. Shock excitation, point of application, and direction.
4. Forces may be divided into two groups. They are forces that arise in the elements
of the model, and external forces acting on the human. The joint resistance
forces are related to the rst group. In the simplest case the resistance of each
human joint consists of two factors. The rst factor describes a viscous damping
force with constant coefcient. The second factor takes into account the couple,
which simulates muscle tone. The contact forces are related to the second group.
These forces act on the occupant and are exerted by the cushions, oor, and
straps.
5. Injury criteria. The program in the reference articles considers the injury of the
following part of human body: head, thoracic, vertebra, leg.
The response of the human operator system is described by Lagranges equation
of a motion. The two-dimensional model shown in Fig. 17.15 has 11 DOF; for this
model all connections are modelled using hinge-type joints. Integration of differential equations of motion allowed us to obtain extensive results on the response of
human operator in a crash environment. These numerical data show the deformation of the body during impact, the distribution of external and internal forces acting
on the passenger, the parts of body the most susceptible to injury. These data are a
basic material for creating appropriate means of vibration protection. Among them

17.5

Models of the Human Body

653

are seat for prevention of spinal injury, seat belt for thoracic injury prevention,
helmets for prevention of a head injury.
The conguration of a three-dimensional model is the same as in Fig. 17.15. The
three-dimensional model has 29 DOF; for this model all connections (except knee,
elbow, and head-neck joints) possess three rotational DOF. To simulate the chair,
the nite element method combined with a program SOM-TA (Seat/Occupant
Model-Transport Aircraft) was used [4, vol. 2]. This program can accommodate
large plastic deformations and has the capacity for 75 nodes and 450 DOF.

17.5.3 Parameters of the Human Body Model

Once the structure of the model has been selected, it is necessary to determine its
parameters. They can be determined according to anthropometric data or on the
basis of the experimental frequency characteristics [3].
Consider the second approach. We introduce two vectors Ze (obtained from
experiment) and Zm (characterizes the dynamic properties of the human model).
Both vectors have the same dimension, corresponding entries have the same nature,
and they are generated at xed frequencies. Assume that the modulus |Ze(i)| and
phase e() of the mechanical impedance of the human body was found experimentally in terms of frequency. It is convenient to present these data in the tables or
plots. Assume that dynamical model will be constructed within the framework of
the linear theory of mechanical systems with lumped parameters. The input impedance of the model in operator form p d=dt is determined as [34].
Z m i

an pn an1 pn1    a0
:
gl pl gl1 pl1    g0

17:4

Here, an an mi ; ki ; bi , gl gl mi ; ki ; bi are coefcients which depend on the

different parameters of the model, i.e., inertial mi, elastic ki, and dissipative bi
parameters. The polynomial powers depend on the nature of the inputoutput of a
structure and number of DOF of the model; n and l are integer positive numbers,
and n  l. Assumption about a linearity of the model should be adopted with
caution, since the linear property contradicts the experimental data stressstrain
of separate segments of a human body and input impedance of a person.
The dimension of vectors Ze and Zm is accepted according to the required
accuracy of the model. Let the number of approximation points within the frequency axis be N. The unknown parameters of the model can be determined from
the formula, which takes into account deviations of the modulus and phase of the
input mechanical impedance:

654

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

m2

m1
k1

b1

k2

b2

Fig. 17.16 Design diagram of a system with two local maxima. Parameters of the oscillators are
unknown and should be determined according to experimental data for input impedance of the
human body

min K min
an , gl

N n
X
    
  
  o
Zm ij   Ze ij  2 m j  e j 2 :

17:5

j1

A criterion for determining parameters of the model for vectors Zm and m is that
the sum of the mean square deviations of the modulus and phase of the input
mechanical impedance must be minimized [35].
Equation (17.5) requires that the partial derivatives of K with respect to each
variable must be zero
K=ai 0,

i 0, . . . , n;

K=gi 0,

i 0, . . . , l:

17:6

These conditions lead to algebraic equations with respect to a0, . . ., an; g0, . . ., gl.
The last step of determining model parameters is that for accepted parameters
n and l of input impedance (17.4), we need to write ratios an an mi ; ki ; bi and
gl gl mi ; ki ; bi which serve to determine the parameters of the model mi, ki, bi.
Suppose that from an experiment we found that the modulus of input impedance
of the human contains two local maxima. This character of the input impedance has
a mechanical system, which consists of two independent linear oscillators m1  k1
b1 and m2  k2  b2 . These oscillators are mounted on the support plate, which is
subjected to kinematic vertical excitation (Fig. 17.16).
Therefore, the expression for the input impedance of a model we take in the
form [3]
Zm i 

a4 p4 a3 p3 a2 p2 a1 p a0
:
g4 p4 g3 p3 g2 p2 g1 p g0

17:7

The square modulus of input impedance for (17.7) is

2

jZm ij2

a 4 4  a 2 2 a 1  a 3 3

g 4 4  g 2 2 g 0 2 g 1  g 3 3 2

17:8

Similarly, the expression for the phase angle is a function of unknown parameters
ai, gi; this expression is too cumbersome and is not presented here. Note: in the case
of arbitrary n and l the expression for the modulus and phase angle can be found
using the standard package MATLAB.

17.5

Models of the Human Body

655

For xed values of frequencies j, we note the corresponding values of the

experimental mechanical impedance |Ze(i)|2, then substitute the expression (17.8)
into (17.5) and construct relationships (17.6). Solving systems of system (17.6)
leads to values ai and gi (i 0,1, . . ., 4) at which the input impedance (17.7) of the
mechanical model gives the best (in the accepted sense) approximation of the
experimental impedance.
The next step of the search parameters of the mechanical model of a human body
is as follows: we need to derive the expression for the input impedance (17.7) and
write formulas for ai and gi in terms of mi, ki, bi parameters of the model. In
particular, for adopted mechanical model these relationships are [3]:
a1 k1 k2 m1 m2 ; a2 m1 m2 b1 k2 b2 k1 ;
a3 b1 b2 m1 m2 m1 m2 k1 k2 ; a4 m1 m2 b1 b2 ;
g0 k 1 k 2 ;

g1 b1 k2 b2 k1 ; g2 m1 k2 m2 k1 b1 b2 ;

17:9

g3 m1 b2 m2 b1 ; g4 m1 m2 :
The solution to this nonlinear algebraic system leads to the required parameters mi,
ki, bi of the model.
A similar procedure can be used if determining the parameters of the model is
performed on the basis of other complex response functions, such as the amplitudefrequency and phase-frequency response, transfer function.
It can be seen that determining the parameters of a human body and its response
is a very difcult and cumbersome problem. At present there are a number of
attempts to avoid the objective difculties on the different stages of dynamic
analysis of a human body. We briey mention some of them.
One modern approach is based on the concepts and ideas of the graph theory; see
for example Gupta et al. [36], Genkin [25]. The vibration protection structures can
be presented as a set of segments interconnected by hinges of different types.
Deriving differential equations and their solutions is performed by Wittenburgs
method; the book [37] describes in detail a formalism which substantially simplies
deriving the equation of motion. Specically, mechanical systems with ball-andsocket joints and other joints typical of a human body are considered.
Another modern approach (Nicol, 1996) is as follows: a vibration protection
system is considered an articial neural network [38]. This new approach has been
applied for determining spinal response of an occupant to vertical acceleration of
the seat.
The rst software tool for simulating the dynamics of a human dummy in car
accidents (passenger inside the car or pedestrian outside) was written by
Wittenburg in 1975 for Daimler-Benz AG. This package is known as MESA
VERDE MEchanism, SAtellite, VEhicle and Robot Dynamics Equations and
later was developed for dynamics simulations of general multibody systems,
particularly for modelling biomechanical systems (the human body), and is
presented by Wittenburg et al. [37] in book [39]. MESA VERDE generates a set

656

17

Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

of nonlinear differential equations for large motions and allows performing detailed
analysis of the dynamic state of a system.
The special interest is the modern approach of modeling a human body exclusively. Physical modeling of a human body is a complex, long-term, and too-costly
process; for detailed analysis of a person under vibration this process requires a
large number of parameters and characteristic functions. Difculties of modeling of
such systems increase sharply if some additional functional characteristics of a
person should be considered. This happens because even a slight change in the
model leads to a new dynamic system, which can be a nonlinear. Changing the
structure of the system and its parameters and then operatively observe the response
of a system is not possible. To bypass these disadvantages, a modern and efcient
methodology of computer animation [28] and supercomputer simulations [40]
should be used.
Computer animation of a comprehensive biomechanical model of the human
body was presented by Lee in 2008 [28]. The model of the human skeleton
comprises 75 bones (165 DOF, including the vertebrae and ribs) and more than
800 muscles. To simulate the biomechanics of the soft tissues, the 3D nite element
model with the appropriate characteristics is used; the total number of tetrahedral
nite elements is 354,000. This work contains a list of related biomechanical
models of different portions of the human body (individual muscles, soft tissue,
neck-head, torso, etc.) that were analyzed in 19922008. This work also discusses
the disadvantages of computer animation.
The essence of supercomputer simulation consists of combining two modern
software packages. They are SolidWorks and ANSYS Mechanical. The initial stage
of the supercomputer simulation of the biomechanical processes is to create a
graphic image of the real system. One version of the graphic image of the person
is shown in Fig. 17.13a. Such images are determined by the type of model (position
of human, restrictions, characteristics of excitation, etc.) and the purposes of study.
Then, based on the graphic image of the person, the dynamical 3D-model of the
human must be constructed; for this purpose SolidWorks may be used. In the next
stage a model of the human body is imported into the software package ANSYS
Mechanical. For describing the dynamic system of a person, the nite elements
method is applied. In this stage the different physical characteristics of the system
should be accepted. Among them are the geometrical parameters of a human body,
mechanical properties for soft, muscle, and compact bone tissue of different parts of
the body, the point of application and direction of external excitation and its
parameters. ANSYS Mechanical allows us to perform various types of analysis
related to the dynamic behavior of a human body. Among them are a modal analysis
(determination of eigenvalues and eigenfunctions), analysis of steady-state and
transient vibrations, as well as spectral analysis.
Combination of the packages SolidWorks and ANSYS Mechanical (or other
suitable packages) has the following advantages:
1. The possibility to construct more detailed dynamic models of the human body
subjected to vibrations.

References

657

2. Sharp reduction of computational work at the stage of deriving of the dynamic

equations and their solutions (especially in the case of nonlinear equations).
3. The possibility of operative changes of the human body model and its
parameters.
4. The possibility to perform manifold dynamic analysis of a human body, for
example, the distribution of forces, stress, displacements of the specied portions of the human body.
Computer simulation for analysis of the dynamic loading of the lumbar spine of
a human under cyclic excitation have been shown by Palatinskaya et al. [40].

References
1. Grifn, M. J. (1990). Handbook of human vibration. London: Elsevier/Academic Press. Next
editions 1996, 2003, 2004.
2. Gierke, H. E., & Brammer, A. J. (1996). Effects of shock and vibration on humans. In
Handbook: Harris, C.M. (Editor in Chief), (1996). Shock and vibration (4th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Frolov, K. V. (Ed.). (1981). Protection against vibrations and shocks. vol.6. In Handbook:
Chelomey, V.N. (Editor in Chief)(1978-1981). Vibration in engineering. Vols. 16. Moscow:
Mashinostroenie.
4. Bolukbasi, A. O., & Laananen, D. H. (1986). Computer simulation of a transport aircraft seat
and occupant(s) in a crash environmental (Technical report, Vol. 1127pages, Vol. 2203
pages). US Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration.
5. Balandin, D. V., Bolotnik, N. N., & Pilkey, W. D. (2001). Optimal protection from impact,
shock and vibration. Amsterdam: Gordon and Breach Science.
6. Harris, C. M. (Editor in Chief). (1996). Shock and vibration handbook (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
7. Smith, S. D. (2002). Characterizing the effects of airborne vibration on human body vibration
response. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 73(2), 3645.
8. Wald, P. H., & Stave, G. M. (2001). Physical and biological hazards of the workplace.
New York: Wiley-Interscience.
9. Colwell, J. L. (1989). Human factors in the naval environment: A review of motion sickness
and biodynamic problems (Technical Memorandum 89/220). Dartmouth, Nova Scotia: Canadian National Defence.
10. Ellias, P., & Villot, M. (2012). Review of existing standards, regulations and guidelines, as
well as laboratory and eld studies concerning human exposure to vibration. RIVAS
(Railway-Induced Vibration Abatement Solutions) Project, 65 pages.
11. Andreeva-Galanina, E. Ts. (1973). Noise and noise sickness (pp. 748751). Washington, DC:
US National Aeronautics and Space Administrarion.
12. Bovenzi, M., & Hulshof, C. (2007). Vibration exposures VIBRISKS (FP5 Project No. QLK42002-02650, Final Technical Report). University of Trieste, Italy.
13. Guignard, J. C., & King, P. F. (1972). Aeromedical aspects of vibration and noise. London:
North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development Aerospace Medical Panel.
14. Jovey, R. D. (Ed.). (2002). Managing pain. The Canadian healthcare professionals reference.
Purdue Pharma.

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Human Operator Under Vibration and Shock

15. Magid, E. B., Coerman, R. R., & Ziegenruecker, G. H. (1960). Human tolerance to whole body
sinusoidal vibration: Short-time, one-minute and three-minute studies. Aerospace Medicine,
31, 915924.
16. Laananen, D. H. (1991). Computer simulation of a transport aircraft seat and occupant(s) in a
crash environmental (User manual, Final report, 240 pages). US Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration.
17. Liang, C.-C., & Chiang, C.-F. (2008). Modeling of a seated human body exposed to vertical
vibrations in various automotive postures. Industrial Health, 46, 125137.
18. Whiting, W. C., & Stuart, R. (2006). Dynatomy: Dynamic human anatomy (Vol. 10). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
19. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2012). Principles of anatomy and physiology (13th ed.).
New York: Wiley. 1344 pages.
20. Platzer, W. (2008). Color atlas and textbook of human anatomy (6th ed., Vol. 1). Stuttgart,
Germany: Thieme.
21. Herman, I. P. (2007). Physics of the human body. Biological and medical physics, biomedical
engineering. Berlin: Springer.
22. Yamada, H. (1973). Strength of biological materials. New York: McGraw Hill. 297p.
23. Hinz, B., Menzel, G., Bluthner, R., & Seidel, H. (2001). Transfer functions as a basis for the
verication of modelsVariability and restraints. Clinical Biomechanics, 16, S93S100.
24. Miwa, I. (1975). Mechanical impedance of human body in various postures. Industrial Health,
13, 5.
25. Genkin, M.D. (Ed.) (1981), Measuring and testing, vol. 5. In Handbook: Chelomey, V.N.
(Chief Editor) (19781981). Vibration in engineering, vols. 16. Moscow: Mashinostroenie.
26. Lewis, C. H., & Grifn, M. J. (1978). A review of the effects of vibration on visual acuity and
continuous manual control. Part II. Continuous manual control. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 56, 415457.
27. Fairley, T. E., & Grifn, M. J. (1989). The apparent mass of the seated human body: Vertical
vibration. Journal of Biomechanics, 22, 8194.
28. Lee, S. H. (2008). Biomechanical modeling and control of the human body for computer
animation. Los Angeles: University of California.
29. Payne, P. R., & Band, E. G. U. (1969) A four-degree-of-freedom lumped parameter model of
the seated human body. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, OH, AMRL-TR-66-157.
30. Stech, E. I., & Payne, P. R. (1971). Dynamic models of the human body. Aerospace Medical
Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, OH, AMRL-TR-70-35.
31. Muksian, R., & Nash, C. D. (1974). A model for the response of seated humans to sinusoidal
displacements of the seat. Journal of Biomechanics, 7, 209215.
32. Orne, D., & Liu, Y. K. (1971). A mathematical model of spinal response to impact. Journal of
Biomechanics, 4, 4971.
33. Prasad, P., & King, A. I. (1974). An experimentally validated dynamic model of the spine.
Journal of Applied Mechanics., 41, 546550.
34. Stikeleather, L. P., Hall, G. O., & Radke, A. O. (1972). Study of vehicle vibration spectra as
related to seating dynamics (Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Technical Paper 720001,
34p).
35. Eykhoff, P. (1974). System identication: Parameter and state estimation. New York: WileyInterscience.
36. Gupta, S. C., Bayless, J. W., & Peikari, B. (1972). Circuit analysis with computer application
to problem solving. Scranton, PA: Intext Educational.
37. Wittenburg, J., Wolz, U., & Schmidt A. (1990). MESA VERDEA general-purpose program
package for symbolical dynamics simulations of multibody systems. In book: Schiehlen, W.
(Ed.). (1990). Multibody systems handbook. Berlin: Springer. In Schiehlen (Ed.), Book
(pp. 341360).

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38. Nicol, J. J. (1996). Modeling the dynamic response of the human spine to mechanical shock
and vibration using an articial neural network. Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada: Simon
Fraser University.
39. Schiehlen, W. (Ed.). (1990). Multibody systems handbook. Berlin: Springer.
40. Palatinskaya, I. P., Dolganina, N. Yu., & Poptsova, T. Yu. (2013). Supercomputer simulation
of the dynamic loads of the lumbar spine. Journal of Ufa State Aviation Technical University,
17(4), 57.

Appendix A: Complex Numbers

Cartesian (Algebraic) Form The complex number z is written as

z x iy;
where i2 1; x and y are real and imaginary part of z [13].
Complex number z x iy on the complex plane Re zIm z is shown by the
point M (Fig. A.1).
Complex number z 0 if and only if x y 0.
Let z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 .
Numbers z1 z2 if and only if x1 x2 , y1 y2 .

A.1

Complex Conjugate Numbers

Two complex numbers, z and z are complex conjugates if z x iy and z x  iy.

The sum of conjugate numbers z z 2x.
Trigonometric Form (Vector Interpretation) Complex number z x iy may
be treated as vector OM.
p
Modulus of the complex number is jzj jx iyj r x2 y2 > 0.
Argument of the complex number is argz arctany=x ; for the principal
argument argz the additional condition is  < argz < .
Argument of the complex conjugate number is argz argz.
Since x Re z r cos , y Im z r sin , then
z r cos i sin :
For complex conjugate number jzj jzj, argz argz.

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2

661

662

Appendix A: Complex Numbers

Fig. A.1

Imz
M
z = x + iy

r
j
Rez

z = x - iy

-y

Polar Form The Euler formula ei cos  i sin transforms the trigonometric form of the complex number into the polar form
z r cos i sin r ei :

A.2

Algebraic Procedures

Addition and subtraction

z1  z2 x1 iy1  x2 iy2 x1  x2 iy1  y2 :
Multiplication
z1  z2 x1 x2  y1 y2 ix1 y2 x2 y1
Division

jz1  z2 j jz1 j  jz2 j,

argz1  z2 argz1 argz2

z1 x1 iy1 z1 z2 x1 x2 y1 y2 ix2 y1  x1 y2

z2 x2 iy2 jz2 j2
x22 y22
 
 
z1  j z1 j
z1
 
z  jz j , arg z argz1  argz2
2
2
2

z2 6 0

1
z
x  iy
2 2
z j zj
x y2
Multiplication and division in the trigonometric form
z1 z2 r 1 cos 1 i sin 1  r 2 cos 2 i sin 2 r 1 r 2 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2 ,
z1
r1
r 1 cos 1 i sin 1  r 2 cos 2 i sin 2 cos 1  2 i sin 1  2 :
z2
r2

Multiplication and division of the complex numbers in the polar form

Appendix A: Complex Numbers

663

z1 z2 r 1 r 2 cos 1 2 i sin 1 2  r 1 r 2 ei1 2 ,

z1 r 1
r1
cos 1  2 i sin 1  2  ei1 2 :
z2 r 2
r2
Power of a complex number (De Moivre formula)
zn r cos i sin n r n cos n i sin n n 0,  1,  2, . . .,
z2 x iy2 x2  y2 i 2xy,
z3 x3  3xy2 i 3x2 y  y3 ,
z4 x4  6x2 y2 y4 i 4x3 y  4xy3 :
Roots of a complex number (inverse De Moivre formula)


p p
p
p
2k
2k
n
z n r  n ei n jzj cos
i sin
, k 0, 1, 2, . . . , n  1,
n
n
p

p
p p p

:
z x iy r  ei r cos i sin
2
2
p
The principle root for z :  < < . The other root has the opposite sign.
Logarithm of a complex number


logx iy log rei logr i:
Inequalities
jjz1 j  jz2 jj  jz1 z2 j  jz1 j jz2 j:

Appendix B: Laplace Transform

Denition One-dimensional Laplace transform of a function f(t) of the real

variable t is F( p) [1, 4, 5]
p
Fp Lff tg f tept dt
0

where p is a complex quantity, f(t) is called the original function and F( p) is called
the image function; L{f(t)} means the Laplace transform over function f(t).
Table B.1 Operations for the Laplace transforms [1, 4, 5]
Properties
Linearity, superposition
Scale change

Original function f(t)

af 1 t  bf 2 t
f(t)

Translation in the time domain

Translation in the p domain
Differentiation of the original
function
Second differentiation of the
original function
Integration of the original
function

f t  H t  > 0
eat f t
f0 (t)

Image function
Fp Lff tg
aF1 p  bF2 p
1 p
F

p
e Fp
Fp a
pFp  f 0

f00 (t)

p2 Fp  pf 0  f 0

Differentiation of the image

function

tf t

Differentiation with respect to

parameter
Convolution theorem (Borel
theorem)

df t;
d
t
f 1 t  f 2 dt
0
t
f 1 f 2 t  dt

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

10

f tdt

1
p Fp

dFp
dp
dFp;
d
F1( p)F2( p)

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2

665

sin t

p
a2 2

sin t , tan 1
a

cos t

1
sin t

1
1  e t

eat  ebt
ba
aeat  bebt
ab

tn1
n  1!
Exponential decay et

Unit step at t
H t 
Rectangular pulse Ht  Ht 

Original function xt 0  t
Unit impulse at t
t 

p a

p a
p

i2

i2

p a2  2
i2
p a2 2

q
et
24. p sin 1  2 t
1  2

23. h

22. h

21. h

Image function X( p)
1
13.
pp2 2
p
14.
p2 2 2
p2  2
15.
p2 2 2
1
16.
p a2 2
pa
17.
p a2 2
1
18. 2
p  2
p
19. 2
p  2
pa
20. h
i2
p a2 2

t  0-unit Dirac delta function at t 0, H t  0-unit Heaviside function at t 0

p sin cos
12.
p2 2

pa
11. 2
p 2

p
p2 2

1
p2 2

10.

9.

4.

1
, n 1, 2, 3, . . .
pn
1
5.
p
1
6.
pp
1
, a 6 b
7.
p a p b
p
, a 6 b
8.
p a p b

Image function X( p)
1. ep
1 if 0
ep
2.
p
1  ep
3.
p

Table B.2 Laplace-transform pairs [1, 35]

1
p2 2p 2


1 at 
e
a sin t  at cos t 2 t sin t
23

1 at
e sin t  t cos t
23

teat cos t

t at
e sin t
2

cosh t

1
sinht

eat cos t

1 at
e sin t

Original function xt 0  t
1
1  cos t
2
t
sin t
2
t cos t

666
Appendix B: Laplace Transform

References

667

References
1. Abramowitz, M., & Stegun, I. A. (Eds.). (1970). Handbook of mathematical functions
with formulas, graphs and mathematical tables. National Bureau of Standards, Applied
Mathematics Series, 55, 9th Printing.
2. Brown, J. W., & Churchill, R. V. (2009). Complex variables and applicationsSolutions
manual (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Korn, G. A., & Korn, T. M. (1968). Mathematical handbook (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
Book; Dover Publication, 2000.
4. DAzzo, J. J., & Houpis, C. H. (1995). Linear control systems. Analysis and design (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
5. Shearer, J. L., Murphy, A. T., & Richardson, H. H. (1971). Introduction to system dynamics.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Index

A
Absorber(s)
autoparametric, 207, 238, 240
centrifugal, 222225
dynamic, 69, 82, 125, 126, 207219, 250,
254, 278279, 319, 320, 322,
463465, 478
Frahms, 207
gyroscopic, 228234
impact, 207, 234240
Pringles, 222, 226228
roller, 219222
Schlicks, 232234
Accessibility, 347350, 380
Accompanies vibration, 154
Analogies
forcecurrent, 40, 41
forcevoltage, 40, 41, 96
Andreeva-Galanina classication, 629
Anti-resonance, 275
Apparent mass, 429, 431, 644, 647
Approximation
Chebyshev, 299
of energy, 326
Panovko, 325
Argand diagram, 1920, 33, 62, 183

B
Babakovs paradox, 203
Balancing rotor, 612
Beat phenomena, 37, 42, 266, 557
Bernoulli-Euler
beam, 245, 247
equation, 411

Biots model, 549

Birkhoff-Khinchine theorem, 573
Block diagram
elementary blocks, 434
transformations, 448, 450
Bode diagram, 148151, 441447, 454
Borels theorem, 488
Brunes function, 9496
BubnovGalerkin method, 282
Bushaws problem, 369

C
Carnot theorem, 525
Cauchys normal form, 388, 389
Cauchys residual theorem, 535
Cauers method, 94, 95, 100, 101
Characteristic equation, 33, 299, 350354, 438
Classication of vibration disease, 629
Closed-loop system, 443
Collar scheme, 200
Combined motion, 544, 545
Complex
amplitude method, 3, 9, 1521
modulus of elasticity, 170, 198
numbers, 15, 42, 77, 143, 170, 179, 472,
533, 642
resistance method, 191
Compliance, 63, 64, 119, 120, 128, 142, 180,
184, 429432, 472, 480
Composite beam, 195
Controllability, 347, 350, 380, 381, 427
Convolution integral, 151, 156, 496, 555,
556, 579
Coplanar terminal network, 53

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

I.A. Karnovsky, E. Lebed, Theory of Vibration Protection,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28020-2

669

670
Coriolis theorem, 223, 226, 227, 281, 521
Corner frequency, 150, 151, 446
Correlation function, 571, 572, 575577, 581,
582, 584, 587
Coulomb friction, 27, 171, 178, 190, 207, 213,
290, 303, 316
Cox shock theory, 522

D
DAlemberts principle, 606
Damping
aerodynamic, 167, 200202
coating, 194, 195
structural, 167, 182, 191, 196, 201, 202,
592, 599
Decade, 149, 151, 446, 447
Decibels (dB), 136, 148
Degrees of freedom
nite number, 8489, 266, 280, 333, 392,
398, 520
innity number, 653
non integer number, 653
Delta (Dirac) function, 143, 162, 235, 251, 254,
258, 400, 420, 486, 496, 505, 506, 508,
577579
De Moivre formula, 663
Dispersion, 566568, 571, 580, 582, 583, 587,
588, 591
Dissipative energy parameters
absorption energy coefcient, 174
damping factor, 172, 175
logarithmic decrement, 173, 174
loss coefcient, 174, 175
quality factor, 174, 175
Drogichina and Metlinas classication, 629
Dry friction, 5, 27, 167, 171, 185, 186, 190,
209, 217, 219, 293, 311313, 323
Dual circuits, 3741
Dufng characteristic, 291, 299, 307, 325
Duhamel integral, 151159, 496, 521, 534,
537540, 542, 550, 555, 556
Dynamic
coefcient, 8, 21, 23, 34, 61, 67, 91, 130,
136, 153, 181, 182, 184, 212217, 219,
234, 237, 315, 316, 503, 522, 525, 526,
539543
cork effect, 262
mass, 429, 432, 642
models of the human body, 642, 656
reactions, 605, 608, 609, 612, 614621
stiffness, 45, 142, 179, 429, 431, 432, 472,
552, 553, 639, 642, 643

Index
E
Eigenfunction, 157, 159, 162, 192, 194, 201,
245, 250, 656
Eigenvalue, 162, 250, 337, 350, 357, 656
Eigenvector, 87, 89
Elementary dynamic blocks, 434441
Energy balance method, 522
Equal vibration perception curves, 630, 631
Estimated vibration dose value, 635, 638
Euler formula
Excitation
force (dynamic), 410, 13, 23, 34, 4953,
60, 62, 63, 71, 105, 145, 152155,
157, 162, 208, 210, 214, 221, 261,
304, 418, 422, 429, 458, 460, 464,
468, 469, 471, 496, 504, 505, 545,
642, 644
kinematic, 5, 6, 1013, 20, 26, 32, 34, 35,
42, 50, 53, 60, 64, 66, 67, 71, 145, 146,
152, 155156, 207, 208, 212, 214, 245,
254, 316, 485, 503, 504, 507, 520, 521,
529, 544548, 555, 568, 591, 596, 597,
600, 625, 647, 648
Expected vibration dose values, 638

F
Feedback, 279, 341, 377, 412, 443445, 448,
450, 452, 457459, 462, 464,
472478, 649
Floating impact absorber, 234, 237, 238
Forced vibration, 6
Fosters method, 101
Fourier integral, 529
conjugate functions, 530
Frahm vibration absorber, 209
Free vibration of
beam, 130, 191, 194200
oscillator, 478
Frequency domain, 148, 428, 536, 537, 548,
557, 575
Frequency spectrum, 12, 527, 575, 576, 628
Friction
dry, 3, 5, 27, 167, 171, 185, 190, 209, 217,
219, 289, 293
hysteretic, 179, 191
internal, 167, 191, 302, 316, 318,
591, 595
viscous, 172, 179, 181, 190, 213, 218, 226,
234, 293, 303, 312
Frobeniuss formula, 365
Fundamental matrix, 133, 334337, 359, 365,
371, 389, 390

Index

671

G
Galloping, 200202
GoodmanKlumpp problem, 186
Green function, 141, 152, 164, 496, 534, 535
Gyroscope
absorber, 228, 229
effect, 231, 232
elementary theory, 229, 231
regular precession, 230, 231

Impulse of
acceleration, 521, 546, 548
force, 400, 525, 543
Impulsive transient function, 143, 151, 506,
536, 537, 554, 579
Inertance (susceptibility), 429
International and National Standards, 628
Invariancy principle, 266270, 278
Iorishs isolator, 26, 27

H
Hamiltonian, 355358, 363, 366, 367
Hand-transmitted vibration, 629, 632
Harmonic balance method, 218
Harmonic linearization method, 289, 295, 297,
300, 303
Haxton and Barrs absorber, 209, 239, 240
Heaviside expansion method, 485
Hertz shock theory, 527
Human body
mechanical properties, 656
frequency characteristics, 642645
parameters of the model, 653, 655
Human body vibration
local, 624
models, 646, 652, 656
parameters, 639, 640, 646, 647, 653
whole-body, 624626, 629, 632, 634,
635, 649
Human computer simulation, 649, 656
Human conditions
functional, 635
physiological, 629, 635
Hysteretic damping, 176, 179, 181184

J
Jump phenomenon, 307
Joints of the human body, 640, 641, 646, 648,
649, 655

I
Impact form, 529
Impact theory of
Cox, 522
Hertz, 527
Newton, 523, 527
Saint-Venant, 527
Sears, 527
Shtaerman, 527
Timoshenko., 527
Impedance
input (driving-point), 77, 78, 81, 82, 89, 94,
9698, 102, 103, 116, 126, 134, 431,
642, 643, 650, 653, 654
transfer, 45, 7683, 94, 95, 429, 642

K
Karman vortex, 201
Kirchoffs laws, 40
Klotters unstability area, 307
Kreins moments problem
classic procedure, 420
denition, 385
modied procedure, 415419
Krylov-Bogoljubov method, 295
KrylovDuncan functions, 247251, 256, 259
Krylovs partial integral, 248

L
Laplace transform
denition of, 485486
properties of, 501
tables of, 486
Leblancs absorber, 355
Lee computer animation, 646, 656
Linear stationary system, 142, 554
l-moment problem, 386392, 398
Log-frequency characteristic, 149

M
Material models
Kargin-Slonimsky, 170
Maxwell, 38, 168170, 350
Prandtl, 170
standard linear, 170
VoigtKelvin, 169, 170, 177
Mathematical
expectation, 565, 566, 568, 569, 580, 584
programming, 420423

672
Mechanical impedance
input (driving-point), 116, 454, 643, 653
transfer, 142, 642, 644
Mechanical terminal networks (MTN)
M2TN, 37, 49, 50, 5254, 60, 65,
67, 69, 71, 75, 76, 80, 81, 94,
96100, 102105, 107, 110, 122,
130, 430
M4TN, 110116, 118130, 133, 135, 137
M8TN, 75, 130134
MEchanism, SAtellite, VEhicle and Robot
Dynamics Equations (MESA
VERDE), 655
Method
Bubnov-Galerkin, 282
Cauer, 94, 95, 100, 101
Foster, 94, 96, 101
Fourier, 246, 534
Frobenius, 365
Heaviside, 491501
Krylov-Duncan, 245250
mechanical impedance, 38, 42, 60, 66, 76,
322324, 523, 555
separation of variable, 246
Sorokin, 191
Minimum
isochrones, 377380
time problem, 33, 40, 357, 369380, 477
Mises truss, 29, 35
Mobility, 4348, 55, 57, 58, 65, 71, 7583,
9395, 98103, 116, 132, 142, 432,
626, 642
Modeling of human body
computer animation, 646, 656
computer simulation, 656
Moivre formula
Moment relationships, 387, 391, 403, 409
Motion
absolute (resultant), 6, 10, 11, 13, 32,
521, 545
combined (complex), 544
relative, 10, 220, 226, 466, 544, 634
transport, 10, 221, 226
MTN. See Mechanical terminal networks
(MTN)

N
Newton shock theory, 525
Nonlinearity characteristics
dry friction, 27, 218, 289, 293, 301
Dufngs, 289, 300, 303, 305, 307
internal friction, 302, 316319
piecewise-linear, 291

Index
power, 300301
relay, 300, 301, 478
Nonlinear moment problems, 413415
Normality, 347350, 380

O
Octave, 149, 447, 625
Off-axis effects, 644
Operator functions
apparent mass, 429, 431, 644
dynamic stiffness, 429, 431, 432
impedance, 429
mobility, 429
receptance (exibility), 427
susceptibility (inertance), 429, 432
transfer, 429
transmissibility, 432, 644

P
Palatinskaya computer simulation, 659
Passive elements, 3, 5, 26, 3840, 4351, 53,
56, 58, 66, 71, 75, 8283, 9496, 98, 99,
101, 105, 107, 111, 116, 122, 126128,
322, 323, 428, 431, 479
Performance criterion, 333, 339, 340, 370
Petrovs two-channel principle, 277, 278
Phenomenon
dynamic cork, 262
singing ame, 266
Pontryagin maximum principle, 357
Pringles absorber, 222, 226228
Probability
density, 563, 565, 569, 570
distribution, 563, 568
Properties of control system
accessibility, 347, 348
controllability, 347, 348, 350
normality, 350
observability
stability, 350, 461

Q
Quality factor, 174
Quality functional, 367
Quasi-zero stiffness, 28, 35

R
Random vibration
correlation function, 569572, 574
denitions of, 562

Index
ergodic process, 561, 573
expected value, 565567
stationary process, 572, 573, 575
Raynauds disease, 630
Reactance, 61
Receptance (exibility), 180, 181, 429
Reciprocity theorem, 59
Resals theorem, 230
Resistance, 27, 4345, 48, 61, 120, 167, 171,
176, 192, 194, 289, 354, 466, 578,
641, 652
Reynolds number, 201
Rijke pipe (singing ame), 266
Rule
Vereshchagin, 87, 115
Vidler, 194
Zhukovsky, 232

S
Saint-Venant wave theory, 527
Schlicks gyroscopic vibration absorber, 232
Sears shock theory, 527
Secular term, 237
Separation variable method, 246
Shchipanov-Luzin principle, 266, 279
Shock theory, 519, 523, 524, 527
Shoe damper, 202
Shtaerman theory, 527
Signal
input (excitation), 136, 150, 433, 435, 437,
443, 448, 458, 536, 537, 555
output (response), 142, 435, 437, 438, 442,
443, 448, 458, 461, 468, 478, 536, 554,
555, 557
Singing ame effect, 266
Skeleton curve, 304306, 309, 310, 318
Slider crank mechanism, 612622
Sorokin-Panovko formula, 191
Spectral
density, 528532, 549, 550, 553, 561, 565,
574577, 580582, 589594, 598, 599
function, 528533, 597
theory, 556
Stability criterion
algebraic, 350
frequency, 350
Hurwitz, 350
Mikhailov, 350
Nyquist, 350
Routh, 350
Standardizing function
beam of, 130, 132, 134, 250, 254, 413
denition, 159165, 398, 399, 405

673
string of, 398
Stationary random process, 570582
Stiffness negative, 31, 465466
Stockbridge damper, 202
Stress function, 420
Strouhals number, 201
Supercomputer simulation, 656
Superposition integral, 37, 151
Superposition principle, 59, 60, 76, 114, 151,
257, 294, 450, 461, 553
Support motion, 644
Susceptibility (inertance), 429

T
Theorem
Birkhoff-Khinchine, 573
Borel, 488
Carnot, 525
Coriolis, 223, 226, 227, 281, 521
Resal, 230
Time domain, 439, 487, 520, 537, 548
Time relaxation, 176
Timoshenko shock theory, 215, 304, 527
Transfer function
complex form, 143, 144, 150, 446
log magnitude, 148150, 444, 446, 447
operator form, 142, 144146, 150
poles, 142, 147
zeroes, 142, 143
Transient function, 434, 436439, 506, 554
Transmissibility ratio, 129
Transmission factor, 434
Truncated moments problem, 388, 398

U
Unbalance
couple (moment), 610, 611
dynamic, 610, 611
quasi-static, 611
residual, 612
static (force), 609, 611
Unit step function, 146, 434, 486, 488,
510, 578

V
Vereshchagins rule, 115
Vibration
accompanies, 154
forced, 154, 155, 179182, 196, 199, 200,
224, 289, 295, 304, 309, 346, 521, 545,
546, 551, 561, 578, 627, 642

674
Vibration (cont.)
free, 28, 33, 8489, 105, 106, 108, 110, 152,
154, 157, 162, 191, 192, 194, 198200,
245, 247, 249, 292, 294296, 299, 304,
305, 336, 360, 385, 387, 395, 401, 416,
438, 465, 500, 508, 520522, 539, 541,
543, 578, 584
nonlinear, 289, 294295, 303, 304, 307,
319322, 328
parametric, 508, 513
steady-state, 7, 37, 144, 184, 190, 250, 254,
258, 304, 307, 431, 470, 485, 541,
555, 556
transient, 471, 485513, 519, 561, 583, 584,
588, 656
Vibration-absorbing layered structures, 195, 196
Vibrational diseases, 629
Vibration dose value, 635639
Vibration protection
absorbing vibration, 193, 200
active, 333, 347, 357, 368, 386392, 394,
398410, 419, 461, 468, 469, 471473,
478, 501, 633

Index
damping vibration, 167, 168, 178, 200, 202,
307311, 549
isolation of, 335, 66, 67, 69, 71, 82, 92,
93, 465
parametric, 265285, 485513
passive, 3, 4, 35, 274, 423, 476
Vidlers rule, 194
Viscous friction, 172, 179, 181, 190,
213, 214, 218, 226, 234, 293,
303, 312

W
Weightings curves, 635
White nger, 630, 632
White noise, 573, 576
Wiener-Khintchine relationships, 575
Wiens graph, 89

Z
Zhukovskys rule, 232