Oracle 8i Tutorials

Definations In Oracle :
ATTRIBUTE(COLUMN):- IT REPRESENTS A PARTICULAR CHARACTERSTIC OF A
PARTICULAR ENTITY. E.Q. ROLLNO , NAME , AGE OF A STUDENT.
ENTITY (ROW) :- IT REPRESENTS A RECORD/AN INSTANCE OF A PARTICULAR
ENTITY.
CELL:- IT REPRESENTS VALUE/DATA ITEM OF AN ATTRIBUTE OF A RECORD.
ENTITY SET (TABLE):- IT IS A COLLECTION OF MULTIPLE
ENTITIES/RECORDS/INSTANCE/ROWS . IT IS A 2-D STRUCTURE WHICH IS
COMPOSED OF ROWS AND COLUMNS WHERE EACH COLUMN REPRESENTS A
PARTICULAR CHARACTERSTIC AND EACH ROW REPRESENTS A RECORD OF A
PARTICULAR ENTITY.
DATABASE:- IT IS A COLLECTION OF TABLES RELEATED TO PARTICUALAR
SUBJECT.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(DBMS):- IT IS A SOFTWARE(SYSTEM)
WHICH HELPS THE USER TO MANAGE THE DATABASE IN AN EFFICIENT MANNER.
IT ALLOWS THE USER TO SELECT , INSERT , UPDATE AND DELETE RECORDS IN
VARIOUS TABLES. IT PROVIDES VARIOUS TYPES OF COMMANDS TO PERFORM
VARIOUS TYPES OF OPERATIONS. IT ALSO ALLOWS USER TO CREATE VIEWS ,
PROCEDURES AND SO MANY OTHER THINGS SO THAT IT BECOMES QUITE EASY
FOR THE USER TO HANDLE THE DATABASE. IT IS BASICALLY OF THREE TYPES :RELATIONAL (RDMBS) HIERARCHIAL NETWORK
RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM(RDBMS):IT IS A TYPE OF DBMS IN THE CONECEPT OF RELATIONS IS USED . A RELATION
CAN BE IN BETWEEN ATTRIBUTES OF A SINGLE ENTITY OR A RELATION CAN BE
IN BETWEEN TWO OR MORE THAN ENTITIES BOUND BY A COMMON COLUMN.
ORACLE IS ALSO A RDBMS. OTHER EAXMPLES OF ORACLE ARE :- MS-ACCESS ,
SQL SERVER ETC.
SQL(STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE) :- IT IS A QUERY LANGUAGE WHICH
PROVIDES VARIOUS TYPES OF QUERIES TO PERFORM VARIOUS TASKS. THREE
TYPES OF SQL QUERIES ARE AS FOLLOWS :DDL (DATA DEFINATION LANGUAGE) :- THIS TYPE OF QUERY ALLOWS US TO
CREATE AND ALTER VARIOUS OBJECTS LIKE TABLES AND VIEWS. E.Q, CREATE
TABLE , CREATE VIEW , ALTER TABLE , ALTER VIEW ETC.
DML (DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE) :- THIS TYPE OF QUERY ALLOWS US TO
SELECT , INSERT , UPDATE AND DELETE DATA FROM VARIOUS TABLES.

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DCL (DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE) :- THIS TYPE OF QUERY ALLOWS TO ASSIGN

AND REVOKE PERMISSIONS FROM USER FOR VARIOUS OPERATIONS ON VARIOUS
OBJECTS LIKE TABLE AND VIEWS. E.Q, GRANT , REVOKE .
DATA TYPES IN ORACLE:1.VARCHAR2(SIZE)/VARCHAR(SIZE):- THIS DATA TYPE IS USED TO STORE
VARIABLE LENGTH ALPHANUMERIC DATA. NO OF CHARACTER CAN NOT
EXCEED THE SPECIFIED SIZE. IF WE ENTER LESS NO OF CHARACTERS THAN
SPECIFIED SIZE, SPACES ARE NOT APPENDED TO THE RIGHT OF STRING. ITS
VALUE IS FEEDED INSIDE SINGLE QUOTES.
2.CHAR(SIZE):- THIS DATA TYPE IS USED TO STORE FIXED LENGTH
ALPHANUMERIC DATA. NO OF CHARACTER CAN NOT EXCEED THE SPECIFIED
SIZE. IF WE ENTER LESS NO OF CHARACTERS THAN SPECIFIED SIZE, SPACES ARE
APPENDED TO THE RIGHT OF STRING. ITS VALUE IS FEEDED INSIDE SINGLE
QUOTES.
3.NUMBER(P,S):- THIS DATA TYPE ALLOWS US TO STORE NUMERIC VALUES.
PRECISION(P) ALLOWS TO SPECIFY MAXIMUM DIGITS WITHIN A NUMBER.
SCALE(S) ALLOWS TO SPECIFY DIGITS AFTER
3.2DECIMAL POINT. IF VALUE OF SCALE IS NOT MENTIONED , THEN ITS DEFAULT
VALUE IS 0. IF VALUE OF PRECISION IS NOT MENTIONED , THEN ITS DEFAULT
VALUE IS 38. MAXIMUM NUMBER OF DIGITS ALLOWED IN A NUMBER IS 38.
4.LONG:- THIS DATA TYPE ALLOWS US TO STORE VARIABLE LENGTH STRING
UPTO 2GB.
5.DATE:- THIS DATA TYPE ALLOWS US TO STORE DATE IN FORMAT DD-MON-YY.
ITS VALUE IS FEEDED INSIDE SINGLE QUOTES.
6.RAW:- THIS DATA TYPE IS USED TO STORE BINARY DATA SUCH AS IMAGES
UPTO 255 BYTES.
7.LONG RAW:- THIS DATA TYPE IS USED TO STORE BINARY DATA SUCH AS
IMAGES UPTO 2GB.
VARIOUS COMMONLY USED DDL COMMANDS USED IN ORACLE :1.CREATE TABLE :THIS COMMAND IS USED TO CREATE TABLE . BY USING THIS COMMAND , WE
SPECIFY NAME OF THE TABLE , NAME OF THE COLUMNS AND DATA TYPE OF THE
COLUMNS.
SYNTAX :- CREATE TABLE tablename ( columnname1 datatype , columnname2 datatype ,
. , columnname n datatype )
EXAMPLE :- CREATE TABLE student ( rollno number(3) , name varchar2(20) , age
number(3) , marks number(4,2) );

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2.ALTER TABLE:- THIS COMMAND IS USED TO ALTER THE STRUCTURE OF A

TABLE. WE CAN ADD NEW COLUMNS BY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND.
SYNTAX :ALTER TABLE tablename ADD (columname1 datatype , columnname2 datatype ,..,
columnname n datatype)
EXAMPLE :ALTER TABLE student ADD (address varchar2(10))
WE CAN ALSO MODIFY COLUMNS DATA TYPES BY USING ALTER TABLE
COMMAND.
SYNTAX :ALTER TABLE tablename MODIFY (columname1 datatype , columnname2 datatype ,..,
columnnamen datatype)
EXAMPLE :ALTER TABLE student MODIFY (address varchar2(20))
LIMITATIONS OF ALTER TABLE COMMAND: TABLE NAME CAN NOT BE CHANGED.
COLUMN NAME CAN NOT BE CHANGED.
COLUMN CAN NOT BE DROPPED (DELETED).
SIZE OF COLUMN CAN NOT BE CHANGED IF TABLE DATA EXISTS .

VARIOUS COMMONLY USED DML COMMANDS USED IN ORACLE :1.INSERT :- THIS COMAMND IS USED TO INSERT DATA IN TABLES.
(A)VALUES ARE FEEDED IN THE SAME ORDER IN WHICH COLUMNS WERE
CREATED IN CREATE TABLE COMMAND.
SYNTAX :- INSERT INTO tablename VALUES(value1,value2,..,valuen);
EXAMPLE :- INSERT INTO student VALUES(1,'amit', 21 , 88);
(B) TO FEED VALUES IN LIMITED COLUMNS , WE MUST MENTION FIELD NAMES .
SYNTAX :- INSERT INTO student(columnname1,columnname2,. Columnnamen)
VALUES(value1, value2 , .. valuen)
EXAMPLE :i. INSERT INTO student(rollno,name) VALUES(3, 'raj')
ii. INSERT INTO student(rollno,age,marks) VALUES(5, 25,65)
(C) TO FEED VALUES IN ALL THE COLUMNS , THEN MENTIONING COLUMN
NAMES IS OPTIONAL.
EXAMPLE:i.INSERT INTO student(rollno,name,age,marks) VALUES(4, 'aryan',24,74)
ii. INSERT INTO student VALUES(4, 'aryan',24,74)

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2.UPDATE :- THIS COMMAND IS USED TO MODIFY TABLE RECORDS. WHERE

CLAUSE IS USED TO SPECIFY THE CRITERIA OF RECORDS TO BE UPDATED.
SYNTAX:- UPDATE tablename SET columnname1=value1, columnname2=value2,
columnnamen=valuen WHERE condition
EXAMPLE :i.UPDATE student SET name='sumit' WHERE rollno=5
ii.UPDATE student SET name='aman', age=28, marks=55 WHERE rollno=3
iii. UPDATE student SET age=age+2 WHERE rollno=1
IF WHERE CLAUSE IS NOT SPECIFIED , THEN ALL THE RECORDS ARE UPDATED.
SYNTAX:- UPDATE tablename SET columnname1=value1, columnname2=value2,
columnnamen=value n
EXAMPLE :i.UPDATE student SET age=age+2

3.DELETE :- THIS COMMAND IS USED TO DELETE TABLE RECORDS. WHERE

CLAUSE IS USED TO SPECIFY THE CRITERIA OF RECORDS TO BE DELETED.
SYNTAX:- DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition
EXAMPLE :- DELETE FROM student WHERE rollno=1
(A) IF WHERE CLAUSE IS NOT SPECIFIED , THEN ALL THE TABLE RECORDS ARE
DELETED
SYNTAX:- DELETE FROM tablename
EXAMPLE :- DELETE FROM student
SELECT :- THIS COMMAND IS USED TO SELECT DATA FROM TABLE .
SYNTAX:- SELECT columnname1,columnname2,.., columnnamen FROM tablename
EXAMPLE:- SELECT rollno,name,age FROM student * IS USED TO READ DATA OF
ALL THE COLUMNS.
SYNTAX :- SELECT * FROM tablename
EXAMPLE :- SELECT * FROM student
(B) WHERE CLAUSE IS USED TO SPECIFY THE CRITERIA OF RECORDS TO BE
SELECTED.
SYNTAX :- SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE criteria
EXAMPLE :- SELECT * FROM student WHERE rollno=1
IF WE DO NOT SPECIFY WHERE CLAUSE , THEN ALL THE RECORDS OF
TABLE ARE SELECTED.
ORDER BY CLAUSE IS USED TO SORT ALL THE RECORDS BY A PARTICUALR
FIELD.
BY DEFAULT ALL RECORDS ARE SORTED IN ASCENDING ORDER.
WE USE KEYWORD ASC TO SORT RECORDS IN ASCENDING ORDER AND
KEYWORD DESC TO SORT RECORDS IN DESCENDING ORDER.

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SYNTAX :I.SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY columnname

II. SELECT * FROM tablename ORDER BY columnname [ASC/DESC]
EXAMPLE :- I. SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY marks
III. SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY marks ASC
IV. SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY marks DESC
(C) WHERE AND ORDER BY CLAUSE CAN ALSO BE USED TOGETHER.
SYNTAX :- SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE criteria ORDER BY columnname
EXAMPLE :- SELECT * FROM student WHERE rollno>1 ORDER BY marks
DISTINCT CLAUSE IS USED TO READ ONLY DISTINCT VALUES.
SYNTAX :- SELECT DISTINCT columnname FROM tablename
EXAMPLE :- SELECT DISTINCT name FROM student

VARIOUS COMMONLY USED DCL COMMANDS USED IN ORACLE (SECURITY

MANAGEMENT IN ORACLE) :EXAMPLE(TO PERFORM DML OPERATIONS ON THE TABLE CREATED BY
ANOTHER USER):1.SELECT * FROM system.student
2.INSERT INTO system.student VALUES(9,'Z')
3.DELETE FROM system.student WHERE rollno>10
4.UPDATE system.student SET name='ankit' WHERE rollno=9
1.GRANT COMMAND:GRANT COMMAND HELPS US TO ALLOW ONE USER TO ACCESS OBJECTS OF
ANOTHER USER.
VARIOUS PRIVILEGES WHICH CAN BE GIVEN TO ANOTHER USER:SELECT , INSERT , UPDATE , DELETE , ALTER , INDEX
EXAMPLE(TO GRANT ONLY ONE PRIVILEGE TO ANOTHER USER):- GRANT
UPDATE ON student TO scott
EXAMPLE(TO GRANT MULTIPLE PRIVILEGES TO ANOTHER USER):GRANT SELECT , INSERT ON student TO scott
EXAMPLE(TO GRANT ALL PRIVILEGES TO ANOTHER USER):GRANT ALL ON student TO scott
EXAMPLE(TO GRANT PRIVILEGES TO ANOTHER USER AND ALSO ALLOWING HIM
TO GRANT SAME PRIVILEGES ON SAME OBJECT TO SOME OTHER USERS):GRANT ALL ON student TO scott WITH GRANT OPTION

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2.REVOKE COMMAND:REVOKE COMMAND HELPS US TO SNATCH PERMISSIONS FROM ONE USER TO

ACCESS OBJECTS OF ANOTHER USER.
EXAMPLE(TO REVOKE ONLY ONE PRIVILEGE FROM ANOTHER USER):REVOKE UPDATE ON student FROM scott
EXAMPLE(TO REVOKE MULTIPLE PRIVILEGES FROM ANOTHER USER):REVOKE SELECT , INSERT ON student FROM scott
EXAMPLE(TO REVOKE ALL PRIVILEGES FROM ANOTHER USER):REVOKE ALL ON student FROM scott
SOME COMMONLY USED COMMANDS:1.TO SEE THE LIST OF ALL THE TABLE , A USER HAS CREATED :SELECT * FROM TAB
2. TO SEE THE STRUCTURE OF A TABLE:DESCRIBE tablename
3.TO CHANGE THE NAME OF A TABLE:RENAME oldname TO newname
4.TO DELETE A TABLE :DROP TABLE tablename
5.TO PERFORM A MATHEMATICAL CALCULATION:SELECT 2*7 FROM DUAL
6.TO SEE CURRENT DATE:SELECT SYSDATE FROM DUAL
OPERATORS IN ORACLE:1.MATHEMATICAL OPERATORS:/ - DIVISION
* - MULTIPLICATION
+ - ADDITION
- - SUBSTRACTION
EXAMPLE:A.SELECT 2*6 FROM DUAL
B.SELECT AGE , AGE+2 FROM STUDENT
2. RELATIONAL OPERATORS :> - GREATER THAN
>= - GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO

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< - LESS THAN

<= - LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO
= - EQUAL TO
<> - NOT EQUAL TO
3.LOGICAL OPERATORS:AND:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE WHEN BOTH THE CONDITIONS SPECIFIED
WITH AND OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE. IF ANY ONE OF THE CONDITION
SPECIFIED EVALUATES TO FALSE , THEN AND OPERATOR RETURNS FALSE.
EXAPMLE:SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLLNO>2 AND ROLLNO<5 UPDATE STUDENT
SET AGE=AGE+2 WHERE ROLLNO>2 AND ROLLNO<5
OR:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE WHEN ANY ONE CONDITION OR BOTH THE
CONDITIONS SPECIFIED WITH OR OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE. IF BOTH THE
CONDITIONS SPECIFIED EVALUATE TO FALSE , THEN OR OPERATOR RETURNS
FALSE.
EXAPMLE:A.SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE ROLLNO=2 OR ROLLNO=5
B.UPDATE STUDENT SET AGE=AGE+2 WHERE ROLLNO=2 OR ROLLNO=5
NOT:- THIS OPERATOR NEGATES THE RESULT OF AN EXPRESSION.
EXAPMLE:A.SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE NOT(ROLLNO=2 OR ROLLNO=5)
B.UPDATE STUDENT SET AGE=AGE+2 WHERE NOT(ROLLNO=2 OR ROLLNO=5)
BETWEEN:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE IF A VALUE FALLS IN BETWEEN
MINIMUM VALUE AND MAXIMUM VALUE.
SYNTAX:SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname BETWEEN minvalue AND maxvalue
EXAMPLE:SELECT * FROM student WHERE rollno BETWEEN 2 AND 4
NOT BETWEEN:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE IF A VALUE DOES NOT FALL IN
BETWEEN MINIMUM VALUE AND MAXIMUM VALUE.
SYNTAX:SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname NOT BETWEEN minvalue AND maxvalue
EXAMPLE:SELECT * FROM student WHERE rollno NOT BETWEEN 2 AND 4
IN:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE IF A VALUE MATCHES TO ANY OF MULTIPLE
VALUES SPECIFIED WITH IN OPERATOR.
SYNTAX:SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname IN (value1, value2,., valuen)
EXAMPLE:SELECT * FROM student WHERE name IN ('aman','amit','sumit')

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NOT IN:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE IF A VALUE DOES NOT MATCH TO ANY
OF MULTIPLE VALUES SPECIFIED WITH NOT IN OPERATOR.
SYNTAX:SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname NOT IN (value1, value2,., valuen)
EXAMPLE:SELECT * FROM student WHERE name NOT IN ('aman', 'amit', 'sumit')
LIKE:- THIS OPERATOR RETURNS TRUE IF A VALUE MATCHES TO A SPECIFIED
PATTERN OF A STRING. WILDCARDS USED WITH LIKE OPERAOTOR ARE :% - IT DENOTES TO ZERO OR MORE CHARACTERS.
_ - IT DENOTES TO ONE CHARACTER.
SYNTAX:SELECT * FROM tablename WHERE columnname LIKE pattern
EXAMPLE:1.SELECT * FROM student WHERE name LIKE 'a%'
2.SELECT * FROM student WHERE name LIKE 'a%n'
3.SELECT * FROM student WHERE name LIKE 'a___'
ORACLE IN-BUILT FUNCTIONS:ORACLE INBUILT FUNCTIONS SERVE THE PURPOSE OF MANIPULATING DATA
AND RETURN A VALUE. ORACLE INBUILT FUNCTIONS ARE OF TWO TYPES:1.AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS/GROUP FUNCTIONS:THESE TYPE OF FUNCTIONS ACT ON A SET OF VALUES AND RETURN A SINGLE
VALUE. SOME OF THE EXAMPLES OF AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS ARE AS
FOLLOWS:NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:A.SUM:- THIS FUNCTION FINDS THE SUM OF A SET OF VALUES
EXAMPLE:- SELECT SUM(marks) FROM student
B.COUNT:- THIS FUNCTION COUNTS A SET OF VALUES
EXAMPLE:- SELECT COUNT(marks) FROM student
C.AVG:- THIS FUNCTION FINDS THE AVERAGE OF A SET OF VALUES
EXAMPLE:- SELECT AVG(marks) FROM student
D.MAX:- THIS FUNCTION FINDS THE MAXIMUM VALUE FROM A SET OF VALUES
EXAMPLE:- SELECT MAX(marks) FROM student
E.MIN:- THIS FUNCTION FINDS THE MINIMUM VALUE FROM A SET OF VALUES
EXAMPLE:- SELECT MIN(marks) FROM student

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Note:- MULTIPLE FUNCTIONS CAN BE USED IN A SINGLE QUERY.

EXAMPLE :SELECT SUM(marks) AS SUM_MARKS, COUNT(marks) "COUNT", AVG(marks)
,MAX(marks) , MIN(marks) FROM student
2.SCALAR FUNCTIONS/SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS:THESE TYPE OF FUNCTIONS ACT ON A SINGLE VALUE AND RETURN A SINGLE
VALUE. SOME OF THE EXAMPLES OF SCALAR FUNCTIONS ARE AS FOLLOWS:NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:A. POWER:- THIS FUNCTION IS USED TO FIND THE POWER OF A NUMBER.
EXAMPLE :i. SELECT POWER(5,3) FROM DUAL
ii. SELECT POWER(rollno,2) FROM student
B. ABS:- THIS FUNCTION ALWAYS RETURN A POSITIVE VALUE.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT age , ABS(age) FROM student
C. ROUND:- THIS FUNCTION ROUNDS OFF A NUMBER UPTO SPECIFIED DECIMAL
POINTS.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT ROUND(53.56182,2) FROM DUAL
ii. SELECT ROUND(marks,2) FROM student
D.SQRT:- THIS FUNCTION FINDS SQUARE ROOT OF A NUMBER.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT SQRT(64) FROM DUAL
ii.SELECT SQRT(marks) FROM student
3.STRING FUNCTIONS:A.LOWER:- THIS FUNCTION CONVERTS ALL THE CHARACTERS OF A STRING TO
LOWER CASE.
EXAMPLE:SELECT NAME, LOWER(name) FROM student
B.UPPER:- THIS FUNCTION CONVERTS ALL THE CHARACTERS OF A STRING TO
UPPER CASE.
EXAMPLE:SELECT NAME, UPPER(name) FROM student
C.INITCAP:- THIS FUNCTION CONVERTS FIRST CHARACTER OF STRING TO
UPPERCASE AND THE REMAINING CHARACTERS OF A STRING TO LOWERCASE.
EXAMPLE:SELECT NAME, INITCAP(name) FROM student

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D.LENGTH:- THIS FUNCTION RETURNS TOTAL NO OF CHARACTERS IN A STRING

EXAMPLE:SELECT NAME, LENGTH(name) FROM student
E.LTRIM:- THIS REMOVES A PARTICULAR CHARACTER FROM THE LEFT PART OF
A STRING. IF THE CHARACTER TO BE REMOVED IS NOT SPECIFIED , THEN BY
DEFAULT , IT REMOVES SPACES.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT NAME , LTRIM(NAME , 'a') FROM student
ii.SELECT LTRIM('aaaaabcdeaa' , 'a') FROM dual
iii.SELECT LTRIM(' ABC ') FROM DUAL
F.RTRIM:- THIS REMOVES A PARTICULAR CHARACTER FROM THE RIGHT PART OF
A STRING. IF THE CHARACTER TO BE REMOVED IS NOT SPECIFIED , THEN BY
DEFAULT , IT REMOVES SPACES.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT name , RTRIM(name , 'a') FROM student
ii.SELECT RTRIM('aaaaabcdeaa' , 'a') FROM dual
iii.SELECT RTRIM(' abc ') FROM DUAL
G. LPAD:- THIS FUNCTION PADS THE STRING IN THE LEFT PART WITH A
CHARACTER SO THAT LENGTH OF STRING BECOMES EQUAL TO SPECIFIED NO OF
ALPHABETS. BY DEFAULT, STRING IS PADDED WITH SPACES.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT LPAD('abcdef',10,'*') FROM DUAL
ii.SELECT LPAD('abcdef',10) FROM DUAL
iii. SELECT LPAD(name,10,'-') FROM student
H. RPAD:- THIS FUNCTION PADS THE STRING IN RIGHT PART WITH A CHARACTER
SO THAT LENGTH OF STRING BECOMES EQUAL TO SPECIFIED NO OF ALPHABETS.
BY DEFAULT, STRING IS PADDED WITH SPACES.
EXAMPLE:i.SELECT RPAD('abcdef',10,'*') FROM DUAL
ii.SELECT RPAD('abcdef',10) FROM DUAL
iii. SELECT RPAD(name,10,'-') FROM student
I.SUBSTR:- THIS FUNCTION RETURNS A PART OF STRING(SUBSTRING). WE ALSO
MENTION STARTING POSITION OF SUBSTRING AND LENGTH OF SUBSTRING.
EXAMPLE:SELECT name,SUBSTR(name,2,3) FROM student

CONSTRAINTS IN ORACLE :- :
CONSTRAINTS ARE LIMITATIONS OR VALIDATION RULES APPLIED ON VARIOUS
COLUMNS.

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NOT NULL:- BY APPLYING THIS CONSTRAINT ON A COLUMN, USER CAN NOT

ENTER NULL VALUES WITHIN A COLUMN. IF A USER TRIES TO ENTER NULL
VALUE IN THAT COLUMN , ORACLE DISPLAYS ERROR MESSAGE.
EXAMPLE(to apply NOT NULL constraint on a column):CREATE TABLE student1 (rollno NUMBER(4) NOT NULL , name VARCHAR2(20))
CHECK:- BY APPLYING THIS CONSTRAINT ON A COLUMN , WE CAN LIMIT THE
RANGE OF VALUES OR WE CAN LIMIT THE DOMAIN OF A COLUMN.
EXAPMLE(to apply CHECK constraint at COLUMN LEVEL):CREATE TABLE student2 ( rollno NUMBER(3) CHECK (rollno BETWEEN 1 AND 50) , city
VARCHAR2(20) CHECK ( city IN ('sirsa' , 'hisar' , 'rohtak')))
EXAPMLE(to apply CHECK constraint at TABLE LEVEL):CREATE TABLE student3 ( rollno NUMBER(3), city VARCHAR2(20) ,
CHECK (rollno BETWEEN 1 AND 50) , CHECK ( city IN ('sirsa' , 'hisar' , 'rohtak')))
SPECIFYING DEFAULT VALUES OF A COLUMN:EXAMPLE:CREATE TABLE student9 (rollno NUMBER(3) , city VARCHAR2(20) DEFAULT 'sirsa');
UNIQUE CONSTRAINT:BY APPLYING THIS CONSTRAINT ON A COLUMN , USER CAN NOT ENTER
DUPLICATE VALUES IN A COLUMN. ONLY UNIQUE VALUES ARE ALLOWED. IF A
USER TRIES TO ENTER DUPLICATE VALUES IN THAT COLUMN , ORACLE
DISPLAYS ERROR MESSAGE.
EXAMPLE(to apply UNIQUE CONSTRAINT at COLUMN LEVEL):CREATE TABLE student4 ( rollno NUMBER(3) UNIQUE , city VARCHAR2(20) )
PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT:EXAMPLE(TO ADD PRIMARY KEY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND):ALTER TABLE student7 ADD PRIMARY KEY(rollno)
EXAMPLE(TO DELETE PRIMARY KEY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND):ALTER TABLE student7 DROP PRIMARY KEY
EXAMPLE( TO CREATE PRIMARY KEY USING CREATE TABLE COMMAND AND
GIVING PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT A NAME):CREATE TABLE student8 (rollno NUMBER(3) CONSTRAINT student8 PRIMARY KEY ,
name VARCHAR2(20))
EXAMPLE( TO CREATE PRIMARY KEY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND AND
GIVING PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINT A NAME):ALTER TABLE student7 ADD CONSTRAINT pk_student7 PRIMARY KEY(rollno)
EXAMPLE(TO DELETE PRIMARY KEY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND
BY SPECIFYING ITS CONSTRAINT NAME):ALTER TABLE student8 DROP CONSTRAINT pk_student8

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FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT:A FOREIGN KEY IS A COLUMN WHOSE VALUES ARE DERIVED FROM PRIMARY
KEY OR UNIQUE KEY OF OTHER TABLE. THE TABLE IN WHICH PRIMARY KEY IS
DEFINED IS KNOWN AS PRIMARY TABLE OR MASTER TABLE OR PARENT TABLE.
THE TABLE IN WHICH FOREIGN KEY IS DEFINED IS KNOWN AS FOREIGN TABLE
OR DETAIL TABLE OR CHILD TABLE.
SOME OF THE FEATURES OF PRIMARY KEY/FOREIGN KEY RELATIONSHIP:1.PRIMARY KEY CAN NOT ACCEPT DUPLICATE VALUES WHEREAS FOREIGN KEY
CAN ACCEPT.
2. PRIMARY KEY CAN NOT ACCEPT NULL VALUES WHEREAS FOREIGN KEY CAN
ACCEPT.
3. VALUES ENTERED IN FOREIGN KEY OF DETAIL TABLE MUST BE PRESENT IN
PRIMARY KEY OF PRIMARY TABLE OTHERWISE WHENEVER USER TRIES TO
PERFORM INSERT OR UPDATE OPERATION , ORACLE DISPLAYS ERROR.
4.TO PERFORM UPDATE OR DELETE OPERATIONS ON PRIMARY KEY OF MASTER
TABLE , CORROSPONDING VALUES MUST NOT BE PRESENT IN FOREIGN KEY OF
FOREIGN TABLE, OTHERWISE ORACLE DISPLAY ERROR .
5.IN REFERENCES CLAUSE , WE NEED TO MENTION ONLY NAME OF THE PARENT
TABLE. PRIMARY KEY OF PRIMARY TABLE IS AUTOMATICALLY ATTACHED TO
FOREIGN KEY OF FOREIGN TABLE.
6.IF ON DELETE CASCADE OPTION HAS BEEN SET , THEN DELETE OPERATION IN
MATSER TABLE WILL TRIGGER DELETE OPERATION IN CHILD TABLE.
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE FOREIGN KEY BY REFERRING PRIMARY TABLE):CREATE TABLE fees7 (rollno NUMBER(3) REFERENCES student7, fees NUMBER(6,2))
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE FOREIGN KEY BY REFERRING PRIMARY TABLE , ALSO
SPECIFY FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT NAME):CREATE TABLE fees7 (rollno NUMBER(3) CONSTRAINT fk_fees7 REFERENCES
student7, fees NUMBER(6,2))
EXAMPLE(TO DELETE FOREIGN KEY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND BY
SPECIFYING FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT NAME):ALTER TABLE fees7 DROP CONSTRAINT fk_fees7
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE FOREIGN KEY USING ALTER TABLE COMMAND BY
REFERRING PRIMARY TABLE , ALSO SPECIFY FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT
NAME):ALTER TABLE fees7 ADD FOREIGN KEY(rollno) REFERENCES student7
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE FOREIGN KEY BY REFERRING PRIMARY TABLE , ALSO
SETTING ON DELETE CASCADE OPTION):CREATE TABLE fees7 (rollno NUMBER(3) CONSTRAINT fk_fees7 REFERENCES student7
ON DELETE CASCADE, fees NUMBER(6,2))

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GROUPING:GROUPING ALLOWS US TO GROUP RECORDS BASED ON DISTINCT VALUES OF A

PARTICULAR COLUMN. HAVING CLAUSE ALLOWS US TO FILTER SUMMARY OF
GROUPS. CONDITION IN HAVING CLAUSE SHOULD BE BASED ON EITHER
AGREEGATE FUNCTIONS OR ON THE COLUMN BY WHICH GROUPS HAVE BEEN
CRETAED.
EXAMPLE(TO PERFORM GROUPING AND USING AN AGREEGATE FUNCTION):SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM EMP GROUP BY deptno
EXAMPLE(TO PERFORM GROUPING AND USING MULTIPLE AGREEGATE
FUNCTION):SELECT deptno,SUM(sal),COUNT(sal), AVG(sal), MAX(sal),MIN(sal) FROM EMP GROUP
BY deptno
EXAMPLE(TO PERFORM GROUPING AND USING AN AGREEGATE FUNCTION AND
TO PERFORM FILTERING OF GROUPS BASED ON SAME AGREEGATE FUNCTION IN
HAVING CLAUSE):SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM EMP GROUP BY deptno HAVING SUM(sal)>9000
EXAMPLE(TO PERFORM GROUPING AND USING AN AGREEGATE FUNCTION AND
TO PERFORM FILTERING OF GROUPS BASED ON DIFFERENT AGREEGATE
FUNCTION IN HAVING CLAUSE):SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM EMP GROUP BY deptno HAVING COUNT(sal)<6
EXAMPLE(TO PERFORM GROUPING AND USING AN AGREEGATE FUNCTION AND
TO PERFORM FILTERING OF GROUPS BASED ON THE COLUMN BY WHICH
GROUPING HAS BEEN PERFORMED IN HAVING CLAUSE):SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) FROM EMP GROUP BY deptno HAVING deptno=20
SUBQUERIES:A SUBQUERY IS A SQL QUERY WHICH IS PLACED INSIDE ANOTHER SQL QUERY.
THE STATEMENT CONTAINING A SUB QUERY IS KNOWN AS PARENT
STATEMENT.PARENT QUERY.
EXAMPLE:SELECT * FROM student7 WHERE rollno IN (SELECT rollno FROM fees7)

UNION/INTERSECT/MINUS CLAUSE:UNION:BY USING UNION CLAUSE . MULTIPLE QUERIES ARE PUT TOGETHER AND THEIR
OUTPUT IS COMBINED.
OUTPUT OF UNION CLAUSE = RECORDS ONLY IN QUERY 1 + RECORDS IN ONLY
QUERY 2 + A SINGLE SET OF RECORDS WHICH IS COMMON IN BOTH THE
QUERIES.
EXAMPLE:SELECT rollno FROM student6 UNION SELECT rollno FROM student7

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INTERSECT:BY USING INTERSECT CLAUSE . MULTIPLE QUERIES ARE PUT TOGETHER AND
THEIR OUTPUT IS COMBINED.
OUTPUT OF INTERSECT CLAUSE = A SINGLE SET OF RECORDS WHICH IS COMMON
IN BOTH THE QUERIES.
EXAMPLE:SELECT rollno FROM student6 INTERSECT SELECT rollno FROM student7
MINUS:BY USING UNION CLAUSE . MULTIPLE QUERIES ARE PUT TOGETHER AND THEIR
OUTPUT IS COMBINED.
OUTPUT OF MINUS CLAUSE = RECORDS IN QUERY 1 - RECORDS IN QUERY 2
(ONLY THOSE RECORDS ARE DISPLAYED FROM QUERY 1 WHICH ARE NOT
PRESENT IN QUERY 2)
EXAMPLE:SELECT rollno FROM student6 MINUS SELECT rollno FROM student7
JOINS:JOINS ARE USED TO COMBINE THE DATA OF TWO OR MORE THAN TWO TABLES.
JOINS PROVIDE A GREAT FLEXIBILITY TO THE USER TO SEE THE RECORDS OF
MULTIPLE TABLES RELATED TO EACH OTHER. WITH THE HELP OF JOINS ,
SUMMARY FROM VARIOUS TABLES CAN EASILY BE OBTAINED. JOINS ARE OF
MULTIPLE TYPES:

INNER JOIN:- INNER JOINS ARE USED TO COMBINE THE DATA OF TWO OR
MORE THAN TWO TABLES IN WHICH ONLY THOSE RECORDS OF BOTH THE
TABLES ARE DISPLAYED WHICH SATISFY A SPECIFIED CONDITION.
EXAMPLE:SELECT student.rollno,name, fees.rollno,fees FROM student INNER JOIN fees ON
student.rollno=fees.rollno

LEFT OUTER JOIN:- LEFT OUTER JOINS ARE USED TO COMBINE THE DATA
OF TWO OR MORE THAN TWO TABLES IN WHICH ALL THE RECORDS OF
LEFT TABLE ARE DISPLAYED AND ONLY THOSE RECORDS OF RIGHT TABLE
ARE DISPLAYED WHICH SATISFY A SPECIFIED CONDITION.
EXAMPLE:SELECT student.rollno,name, fees.rollno,fees FROM student LEFT OUTER JOIN fees
ON student.rollno=fees.rollno

RIGHT OUTER JOIN:- RIGHT OUTER JOINS ARE USED TO COMBINE THE
DATA OF TWO OR MORE THAN TWO TABLES IN WHICH ALL THE RECORDS
OF RIGHT TABLE ARE DISPLAYED AND ONLY THOSE RECORDS OF LEFT
TABLE ARE DISPLAYED WHICH SATISFY A SPECIFIED CONDITION.
EXAMPLE:SELECT student.rollno,name, fees.rollno,fees FROM student RIGHT OUTER JOIN fees
ON student.rollno=fees.rollno

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FULL OUTER JOIN:- FULL OUTER JOINS ARE USED TO COMBINE THE DATA
OF TWO OR MORE THAN TWO TABLES IN WHICH ALL THE RECORDS OF
BOTH TABLES ARE DISPLAYED
EXAMPLE:SELECT student.rollno,name, fees.rollno,fees FROM student FULL OUTER JOIN fees
ON student.rollno=fees.rollno

SELF JOIN:- IN CASE OF JOINS , MULTIPLE INSTANCE OF SAME TABLE ARE

OPENED IN MEMORY WITH DIFFERENT ALIAS. AND THEN A JOIN
OPERATION IS PERFORMED BETWEEN THOSE TWO INSTANCE OF SAME
TABLE BY USING THEIR ALIAS. SO , WHEN A TABLE IS JOINED TO ITSELF IS
KNOWN AS SELF JOIN.
EXAMPLE:(TO DISPLAY DETAILS OF THOSE EMPLOYEES WHICH HAVE A MANAGER)
1. SELECT emp_1.empno,emp_1.name,emp_1.mngrno,emp_2.name manager FROM
employee emp_1,employee emp_2 WHERE emp_1.mngrno=emp_2.empno
2. SELECT emp_1.empno,emp_1.name,emp_1.mngrno,emp_2.name manager FROM
employee emp_1 INNER JOIN employee emp_2 ON emp_1.mngrno=emp_2.empno (TO
DISPLAY DETAILS OF THOSE EMPLOYEES WHICH HAVE A MANAGER OR
NOT)
3. SELECT emp_1.empno,emp_1.name,emp_1.mngrno,emp_2.name manager
FROM employee emp_1 LEFT OUTER JOIN employee emp_2 ON
emp_1.mngrno=emp_2.empno

VIEWS:

VIEWS ARE BASED ON A TABLE. THEY PROVIDE THE USER FLEXIBILITY TO

HAVE A LIMITES ACCESS ON TABLE.
IT CAN BE USED TO PREVENT USERS TO ACCESS ALL COLUMNS OF DATA.
VIEWS CAN BE USED TO OBTAIN SUMMARY FROM VARIOUS TABLE BY
USING CLAUSES LIKE UNION , GROUP BY ETC.
VIEWS CAN BE CREATED ON SINGLE TABLE OR MULTIPLE TABLES. VIEWS
ITSELF HAVE NO DATA.
THEY OBTAIN DATA FROM TABLES AT RUN TIME ON WHICH THEY ARE
BASED.
VIEWS WHICH CAN BE USED TO MODIFY THE RECORDS OF BASE TABLE
ARE KNOWN AS UPDATAEABLE VIEWS.
VIEWS WHICH CAN NOT BE USED TO MODIFY THE RECORDS OF BASE
TABLE ARE KNOWN AS READONLY VIEWS.
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE A VIEW BASED ON A SINGLE TABLE (INCLUDING
PRIMARY KEY)):CREATE VIEW v1 AS SELECT empno,ename , sal FROM emp
IN THIS CASE , ALL INSERT , UPDATE AND DELETE OPERATIONS CAN BE
PERFORMED ON EMP TABLE WITH THE HELP OF VIEW V1.

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EXAMPLE(TO CREATE A VIEW BASED ON A SINGLE TABLE (EXCLUDING

PRIMARY KEY)):CREATE VIEW v2 AS SELECT ename , sal FROM emp
IN THIS CASE , UPDATE AND DELETE OPERATIONS CAN BE PERFORMED ON
EMP TABLE WITH THE HELP OF VIEW V1 BUT INSERT OPERATION CAN NOT
BE PERFORMED BECAUSE VIEW DOES NOT INCLUDE PRIMARY KEY
EMPNO OF TABLE EMP.
EXAMPLES(TO CREATE A READ ONLY VIEW BASED ON A SINGLE TABLE
USING AGREEGATE FUNCTION OR VARIOUS CLAUSES LIKE UNION,
INTERSECT ETC.):1.CREATE VIEW v3 AS SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) SUM_SAL FROM EMP GROUP
BY deptno
2.CREATE VIEW v4 AS SELECT SUM(sal) SUM_SAL, COUNT(sal)
COUNT_SAL,AVG(sal) AVG_SAL, MAX(sal) MAX_SAL,MIN(sal) MIN_SAL
FROM emp
3.CREATE VIEW v5 AS SELECT rollno FROM student6 UNION SELECT rollno
FROM student7
IN THESE CASES IN WHICH AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS OR CLAUSES LIKE
UNION , INTERSECT , MINUS , GROUP BY , DISTINCT ARE BEING USED.
THESE TYPES OF VIEWS ARE READ ONLY. WE CAN NOT PERFORM INSERT ,
UPDATE OR DELETE OPERATION ON THESE VIEWS.
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE A VIEW BASED ON MULTIPLE TABLES AND THOSE
TABLE DO NOT HAVE PRIMARY KEY-FOREIGN KEY RELATIONSHIP):CREATE VIEW v6 AS SELECT student.rollno "s_rollno",name, fees.rollno
"f_rollno",fees FROM student INNER JOIN fees ON student.rollno=fees.rollno
IF A VIEW IS BASED ON MULTIPLE TABLES AND THOSE TABLES DO NOT
HAVE PRIMARY KEY-FOREIGN KEY RELATIONSHIP , THEN WE CAN NOT
PERFORM INSERT , UPDATE OR DELETE OPERATION ON CREATED VIEW.
IF A VIEW IS BASED ON MULTIPLE TABLES AND THOSE TABLES HAVE
PRIMARY KEY-FOREIGN KEY RELATIONSHIP THEN:1.INSERT OPERATION IS NOT ALLOWED ON VIEW.
2.DELETE OPERATION PERFORMED ON VIEW AFFECT ONLY CHILD TABLE
RECORDS
3.UPDATE OPERATION PERFORMED ON VIEW AFFECT ONLY CHILD TABLE
RECORDS. IF TRY TO UPDATE COLUMNS OF PRIMARY TABLE IN UPDATE
COMMAND, THEN ORACLE DISPLAYS ERROR MESSAGE.
EXAMPLE(TO DELETE A VIEW):DROP VIEW v1;

INDEXES:

AN INDEX IS AN ORDERED LIST OF CONTENTS OF A COLUMN OR GROUP OF

COLUMNS OF A TABLE.
INDEXING INVOLVES FORMATION OF AN INDEX TABLE INDEPENDENT OF
THE BASE TABLE ON WHICH INDEX HAS BEEN CREATED.

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 AN INDEX TABLE HAS TWO COLUMNS:1.FIRST COLUMN WILL HOLD STORED DATA IN SORTED ORDER OF THE COLUMN
OF BASE TABLE ON WHICH INDEX IS CREATED.
2.SECOND COLUMN INDENTIFIES THE LOCATION OF RECORD IN ORACLE
DATABASE. THIS ADDRESS FIELD IS CALLED ROWID. INDEXING IS AN STRATEGY
TO SEARCH AND SORT RECORDS IN THE TABLE FASTLY. IT IS A TECHNIQUE TO
IMPROOVE THE SPEED. WITHOUT INDEXING, SEQUENTOTAL SEARCH OPERATION
IS PERFORMED ON TABLE WHICH DEGRADES THE PERFORMANCE OF
SYSTEM.
TOO MANY INDEXES ON A TABLE:- EACH TIME , A RECORD IS INSERTED IN A
TABLE, ORACLE ENGINE INSERTS A RECORD BOTH IN DATA FILES AND INDEX
TABLES. IN INDEX TABLE , RECORDS ARE MAINTAINED IN ASCENDING ORDER. IF
TOO MANY INDEXES ARE CREATED ON A TABLE , IT WILL TAKE LONGER TO
INSERT A RECORD IN A TABLE. ALTHOUGH INDEXES ENHANCE THE
PERFORMANCE OF SELECT COMMAND , IT DEGRADES THE PERFORMANCE OF
INSERT COMMAND. SO A PROPER BALANCE BETWEEN THESE TWO NEED TO
BE MAINTAINED.
CATEGORIES OF INDEX BASED ON UNIQUENESS OF INDEXED COLUMN:1.DUPLICATE INDEXES:- DUPLICATE INDEXES ALLOW DUPLICATE VALUES FOR
INDEXED COLUMN.
EXAMPLE:CREATE INDEX idx_rn_fees ON fees(rollno);
2.UNIQUE INDEXES:- UNIQUE INDEXES ALLOW ONLY UNIQUE VALUES FOR
INDEXED COLUMN.
EXAMPLE:CREATE UNIQUE INDEX idx_rn_fees ON fees(rollno);
CATEGORIES OF INDEX BASED ON NO OF COLUMNS IN AN INDEX:1.SIMPLE INDEX:- AN INDEX CREATED ON SINGLE COLUMN IS SIMPLE INDEX.
EXAMPLE:CREATE INDEX idx_rn_fees ON fees(rollno);
2.COMPOSITE INDEX:- AN INDEX CREATED ON MULTIPLE COLUMNS IS
COMPOSITE INDEX.
EXAMPLE:CREATE INDEX idx_rn_fees ON fees(class,rollno);
EXAMPLE(TO DELETE AN INDEX):DROP INDEX idx_rn_fees

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SEQUENCES:

SEQUENCE IS AN OBJECT THAT CAN GENERATE NUMERIC VALUES.

SEQUENCES ARE USED WHILE INSERTING DATA IN A COLUMN OF TABLE.
IT AUTOMATICALLY INCREMENTS A VALUES IN A COLUMN. IT ALSO
PROVIDES THE OPTION TO INSERT ONLY UNIQUE VALUES.
BY USING SEQUENCES , WE CAN ALSO MENTION MINIMUM VALUE AND
MAXIMUM VALUE ENTERED INSIDE A COLUMN.
SYNTAX:CREATE SEQUENCE seq_name
[ INCREMENT BY value START WITH value MINVALUE value / NOMINVALUE
MAXVALUE value / NOMAXVALUE CYCLE/NOCYCLE CACHE value
/NOCACHE]

DESCRIPTION:INCREMENT BY:- IT SPECIFIES THE INTERVAL BETWEEN TWO SEQUENCE

NUMBERS.
MINVALUE:- IT SPECIFIES MINIMUM SEQUENCE NUMBER. IF WE DONT WANT TO
SPECIFY ANY MINIMUM VALUE THEN , NOMINVALUE CLAUSE IS USED.
MAXVALUE:- IT SPECIFIES MAXIMUM SEQUENCE NUMBER. IF WE DONT WANT
TO SPECIFY ANY MAXIMUM VALUE THEN , NOMAXVALUE CLAUSE IS USED.
CYCLE / NOCYCLE:- IT SPECIFIES WHETHER SEQUENCE NUMBERS ARE
REPEATED AFTER MAXIMUM VALUE IS ENTERED.
CACHE:- IT SPECIFIES HOW MANY SEQUENCE NUMBERS ARE PREALLOCATED IN
MEMORY FOR FASTER ACCESS. IT WE DO NOT WANT TO PRE-ALLOCATE ANY
SEQUENCE NUMBER , THEN NOCACHE CLAUSE IS USED.
EXAMPLE(TO CREATE A SEQUENCE):CREATE SEQUENCE seq_rn INCREMENT BY 1 START WITH 8 MINVALUE
1 MAXVALUE 10 CYCLE CACHE 2
EXAMPLE(TO INSERT A VALUE IN A TABLE USING SEQUENCE):INSERT INTO student VALUES(seq_rn.NEXTVAL , 'a')
EXAMPLE(TO ALTER A SEQUENCE):ALTER SEQUENCE seq_rn INCREMENT BY 2 MINVALUE 1 MAXVALUE
EXAMPLE(TO DROP A SEQUENCE):DROP SEQUENCE seq_rn

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