Photonics and its Related Devices

AbstractIn this study i presented the detail description

of photonics and its related devices. Photons can travel long
distances with little interaction which makes them excellent
tools for holding quantum information. A light-emitting
diode is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a pn
junction diode, which emits light when activated. A laser
diode, also known as an injection laser or diode laser,is a
semiconductor device that produces coherent radiation in the
visible or infrared spectrum when current passes through it.
A photovoltaic cell, often called a solar cell, converts

they found was that the energy in each quantum of light

depends on the frequency of the light. In particular, the energy
of a photon equals Planck's constant times the frequency of the
radiation. Mathematically, this is given by the equation E = hf.
Planck's constant is the fundamental constant of quantum
theory that determines the scale of the small-scale world.
Planck's constant = 6.63 * 10-34 joule-second (J-s). The total
energy in an electromagnetic wave is the sum of the energies
of each photon in the wave. The energy of a photon is so small
that we usually measure it in electronvolts (eV). One eV is the
potential energy of each electron in a 1-volt battery. One eV is
equal to 1.6 * 10-19 joules (J) . Therefore, we need to convert
Planck's constant to appropriate units, which are
electronvolts/hertz (eV/Hz). In eV/Hz, Planck's constant is
4.136 * 1015 eV/Hz.

the energy in light directly into electrical potential energy

using a physical process called the photovoltaic effect. Which
has a variety of applications like down lights , Outdoor street
and area lights , optical fiber communications , spectroscopy ,
industry,telecommunications & public dervices and for
agriculture purposes respectively.
Keywords photonics; light emitting diode; laser diode ;
photovoltaic cell.

I.

INTRODUCTION

A photon is the quantum of electromagnetic radiation. The

term quantum is the smallest elemental unit of a quantity, or
the smallest discrete amount of something. Thus, one quantum
of electromagnetic energy is called a photon . The concept of
photons and quanta comes from quantum mechanics and
quantum theory. Quantum mechanics is a mathematical model
that describes the behavior of particles on an atomic and
subatomic scale. It demonstrates that matter and energy are
quantized, or come in small discrete bundles, on the smallest
scales imaginable. A photon propagates at the speed of light.
A photon describes the particle properties of an
electromagnetic wave instead of the overall wave itself. In
other words, we can picture an electromagnetic wave as being
made up of individual particles called photons. Particle
properties are exhibited under conditions of emission or
absorption of light. The idea of quantum mechanics and
photons originated from scientists observations of
the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is where light
striking a metal surface causes electrons to be ejected from the
metal. Scientists were unable to explain this phenomenon, but
eventually the explanation came from quantum theory.What

Fig.1. photons as a wave and particle

II. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
Light emitting diode,is based on quantum theory.
According to this theory, when an electron comes down from
its higher energy level to lower energy level, it emits energy in
form of a photon. The energy of this photon is equal to the
energy gap between these two energy levels. When a pn
junction diode is forward biased, current flows through the
diode as shown in fig.2. Flow of current through the
semiconductor is caused by both flow of free electrons in
opposite direction of current and flow of holes in the direction
of current. Hence during flow of these charge carriers, there
will be recombination. Recombination mean electrons in
condition band jump down to the valence band. During this
jump electron will emit electromagnetic energy in form of
photons whose energy is equal to forbidden energy gap Eg.
Again according to quantum theory, energy of a photon is the
product of frequency of electromagnetic radiation and Planck
constant.

where h is Planck constant. Again velocity of

electromagnetic radiation is fixed and it is equal to the speed
of light i.e. c. The frequency of radiation f is related to
velocity of light as f = c / . Where is wavelength of the
electromagnetic radiation. Hence from equation (1)

So we have seen that wavelength of electromagnetic

radiation is inversely proportional to the forbidden energy gap.
In normal silicon, germanium semiconductor this forbidden
energy gaps between condition and valence band are such that
entire radiation of electromagnetic wave during recombination
is in the form of inferred radiation. The wavelengths of the
inferred are out of our visible range so we cannot see it.
Inferred electromagnetic radiation is nothing but heat. This is
because, silicon and germanium semiconductor are not direct
gap semiconductor rather these are indirect gap
semiconductor. In indirect gap semiconductor the maximum
energy level of valence band and minimum energy level of
conduction band do not occur at same momentum of electrons.
Hence during recombination of electrons and holes that is
migration of electrons from conduction band to valence band
the momentum of electrons would be changed.

Fig.2. working principal of LED

III. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LASER DIODE
A laser diode is electrically a PIN diode. The active region
of the laser diode is in the intrinsic region, and the carriers
(electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from the N
and P regions respectively. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for
a laser diode is to recombine all carriers in the I region, and
produce light. Thus, laser diodes are fabricated using direct
bandgap semiconductors. The laser diode epitaxial structure is
grown using one of the crystal growth techniques, usually
starting from an N doped substrate, and growing the I doped
active layer, followed by the P doped cladding, and a contact
layer. The active layer most often consists of quantum wells,
which provide lower threshold current and higher efficiency .
Laser diodes form a subset of the larger classification of
semiconductor p-n junction diodes. Forward electrical bias
across the laser diode causes the two species of charge
carrier holes and electrons to be injected from opposite sides
of the p-n junction into the depletion region. Holes are injected

from the p-doped, and electrons from the n-doped,

semiconductor. (A depletion region, devoid of any charge
carriers, forms as a result of the difference in electrical
potential between n- and p-type semiconductors wherever they
are in physical contact.) Due to the use of charge injection in
powering most diode lasers, this class of lasers is sometimes
termed injection lasers or injection laser diode (ILD). As diode
lasers are semiconductor devices, they may also be classified
as semiconductor lasers. Either designation distinguishes
diode lasers from solid state lasers.
Another method of powering some diode lasers is the use
of optical pumping. Optically pumped semiconductor lasers
(OPSL) use a III-V semiconductor chip as the gain medium,
and another laser as the pump source. OPSL offer several
advantages over ILDs, particularly in wavelength selection
and lack of interference from internal electrode structures .
When an electron and a hole are present in the same region,
they may recombine or annihilate producing a spontaneous
emission i.e., the electron may re-occupy the energy state of
the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference
between the electron's original state and hole's state. In a
conventional semiconductor junction diode, the energy
released from the recombination of electrons and holes is
carried away as phonons, i.e., lattice vibrations, rather than as
photons.
Spontaneous
emission
below
the lasing
threshold produces similar properties to an LED. Spontaneous
emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one
among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is
oscillating.
A laser diode is electrically a PIN diode. The active region
of the laser diode is in the intrinsic region, and the carriers
(electrons and holes) are pumped into that region from the N
and P regions respectively. Unlike a regular diode, the goal for
a laser diode is to recombine all carriers in the I region, and
produce light.The laser diode epitaxial structure is grown
using one of the crystal growth techniques, usually starting
from an N doped substrate, and growing the I doped active
layer, followed by the P doped cladding, and a contact layer.
The active layer most often consists of quantum wells, which
provide lower threshold current and higher efficiency
Laser diodes form a subset of the larger classification of
semiconductor p-n junction diodes. Forward electrical bias
across the laser diode causes the two species of charge
carrier holes and electrons to be "injected" from opposite
sides of the p-n junction into the depletion region. Holes are
injected from the p-doped, and electrons from the n-doped,
semiconductor. A depletion region, devoid of any charge
carriers, forms as a result of the difference in electrical
potential between n- and p-type semiconductors wherever
they are in physical contact.) Due to the use of charge
injection in powering most diode lasers, this class of lasers is
sometimes termed "injection lasers or injection laser diode"
(ILD). As diode lasers are semiconductor devices, they may

also be classified as semiconductor lasers. Either designation

distinguishes diode lasers from solid-state lasers.
Another method of powering some diode lasers is the use
of optical pumping. Optically pumped semiconductor lasers
(OPSL) use a III-V semiconductor chip as the gain medium,
and another laser as the pump source. OPSL offer several
advantages over ILDs, particularly in wavelength selection
and lack of interference from internal electrode structures.
When an electron and a hole are present in the same
region, they may recombine or annihilate producing
a spontaneous emission i.e., the electron may re-occupy the
energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal
to the difference between the electron's original state and
hole's state. In a conventional semiconductor junction diode,
the energy released from the recombination of electrons and
holes is carried away as phonons, i.e., lattice vibrations, rather
than as photons. Spontaneous emission below the lasing
threshold produces similar properties to an LED. Spontaneous
emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one
among several sources of inefficiency once the laser is
oscillating.
IV. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF PHOTOVOLTAICS
Solar cell or Photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that
converts the energy of light directly into electricity by
the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell,
defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as
current, voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light.
Solar cells are the building blocks of photovoltaic modules,
otherwise known as solar panels.
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating
electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the
sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to
photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of
energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric
current. The photovoltaic effect was first observed
by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839 .Solar cell or
Photovoltaic cell is an electrical device that converts the
energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic
effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics, such as current, voltage, or
resistance, vary when exposed to light. Solar cells are the
building blocks of photovoltaic modules, otherwise known
as solar panels.
Photovoltaics are best known as a method for generating
electric power by using solar cells to convert energy from the
sun into a flow of electrons. The photovoltaic effect refers to
photons of light exciting electrons into a higher state of
energy, allowing them to act as charge carriers for an electric
current.The photovoltaic effect was first observed
by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839
Solar cells produce direct current electricity from sun light
which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a

battery. The first practical application of photovoltaics was to

power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the
majority of photovoltaic modules are used for grid connected
power generation. In this case an inverter is required to
convert the DC to AC. There is a smaller market for off-grid
power for remote dwellings, boats, recreational vehicles,
electric cars, roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing,
and cathodic protection of pipelines.
Photovoltaic power generation employs solar
panels composed of a number of solar cells containing a
photovoltaicmaterial.Materials
presently
used
for
photovoltaics include monocrystalline silicon, polycrystalline
silicon, amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper
indium gallium selenide/sulfide. Copper solar cables connect
modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields.
Because of the growing demand for renewable energy sources,
the manufacturing of solar cells and photovoltaic arrays has
advanced considerably in recent years. Solar photovoltaics
power generation has long been seen as a clean
energy technology which draws upon the planets most
plentiful and widely distributed renewable energy source the
sun. The technology is inherently elegant in that the direct
conversion of sunlight to electricity occurs without any
moving parts or environmental emissions during operation. It
is well proven, as photovoltaic systems have now been used
for fifty years in specialised applications, and grid-connected
systems have been in use for over twenty years. Cells require
protection from the environment and are usually packaged
tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required
than a single cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected
together to form photovoltaic modules, or solar panels. A
single module is enough to power an emergency telephone,
but for a house or a power plant the modules must be arranged
in multiples as arrays. Photovoltaic power capacity is
measured as maximum power output under standardized test
conditions (STC) in Wp (watts peak). The actual power output
at a particular point in time may be less than or greater than
this standardized, or rated, value, depending on geographical
location, time of day, weather conditions, and other
factors. Solar photovoltaic array capacity factors are typically
under 25%, which is lower than many other industrial sources
of electricity

V. CONCLUSION
when current passes through it. A photovoltaic cell converts
Photons can travel long distances with little interaction

the energy in light directly into electrical potential energy using a

which makes them excellent tools for holding quantum

physical process called the photovoltaic effect. Which has a

information.An LED is a two-lead semiconductor light source.

applications spectroscopy ,industry,telecommunications &

It is a pn junction diode, which emits light when

public dervices and for agriculture purposes respectively.

activated.A laser

diode

also

known

as

an

injection laser or diode laser,is a semiconductor device that

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