Rationalism in Architecture

Rationalism in Architecture
Introduction
Rationalism began as a 17th century ideology that led to the Enlightenment, a period in history
where reason was the primary instrument for justifying and understanding the hows and whys
of things and circumstances. The Enlightenment was a time where concrete evidence through
scientific research flourished and Rationalism influenced all field of endeavors and even simple
daily tasks.[1] In layman terms, to be rational is to be understandable, measurable or definite.
Using this as premise, Rationalism in architecture therefore pertains to accuracy in designing and
building the height, breadth or depth of a structure. Architectural Rationalism was a solid
evidence of the Enlightenment influence in the field of architecture. It continues to persist in the
modern world as an independent art movement though much of the modern Rationalist designs
have little resemblance to Enlightenment architecture.
Henceforth, this essay attempts to contextualize Rationalism by differentiating its two variants:
18th century Rationalism and the recent 20th century development. The similarities and
differences of their respective designs and, if possible, functions are noted to give us an idea on
how Rationalism has evolved as an architectural ideology. The essay also includes discussions
on sub-movements, their pioneers and their trademarks.

18th Century Rationalism

The Enlightenment Architectural Rationalism was focused on being symmetrical, having accurate
measurements of classic shapes, and functionality. It clearly reflected the spirit of the times
where science, mathematics and logic were at the peak of their influence.
Neoclassicism was a widespread movement under the Rationalist wing. It was established in
reaction to the flamboyant and seemingly excessive Baroque and Rococo styles. During the
neoclassicist boom, many artworks and structural designs of the classical Graeco-Roman era
were recalled together with the architectural works of Italian Andrea Palladio.[2] The movement
was named neoclassical, as opposed to pure classicism, as not every classical design was
applied therein. Neoclassicists only selected from the wide array of designs those feasible to
society. Neoclassicist designs were characterized as follows: symmetry, columns that functioned
as support, minimalistic design composed of basic geometric shapes, and an overlaid triangular
gable commonly known as pediment. The symmetry, functionality, and geometrical aspects of the
neoclassicist movement were defining characteristics of the Rationalist ideology.[3]

The Pediment[4] A Column[5]

Existing in the 16th century towards the culmination of the Renaissance period, Andrea Palladio
was the first known architect to revive and apply the classical designs of Graeco-Roman society
in many villas, palaces and basilicas. His architecture became an essential foundation of
Enlightenment Architecture. As a dedicated follower of Vitruvius and his timeless principle of
firmitas, utilitas, venustas, Palladio carefully ensured that his structural designs were durable,
useful, and attractive as stipulated by Vitruvius in his ten-volume masterpiece De Architectura.
Palladio was also particular about proportions and putting a purpose on every structural
component.[6] For instance, a portico or terrace must be utilized in such a way that the
surrounding scenery was seen in its full glory. He wanted geographical attributes of the estate to
match with the house's structural design. The palazzos, villas and basilicas he designed

displayed the intermingling values of beauty and the social environment and position of their
respective owners. An urban palazzo was different from a provincial palazzo; likewise, an
agricultural villa was different from a residential villa. Palladio designed structures according to
their context.[7]
Palladio had contributed several design innovations in public buildings and churches. Most
Palladian works were made of affordable materials, usually stucco, traditionally made with lime,
sand and water, to cover and bind bricks. His urban structures for prestigious Venetian owners
had high classical porticos with pediments that extended as far as the second floor and were
supported by giant colonnades. These porticos were raised above ground level and on the same
level as the rest of the ground floor. This raised floor called piano nobile, was reused in later
variations of neoclassical architecture. Palazzo Chiericati in the city of Vicenza was a fine
example of this urban structure.[8]

Palazzo Chiericati (1550-1557)[9]

Rural villas were rather different. Instead of the piano nobile, there was an elevated podium
bordered by lower service wings, connected with an elegant curving flight of stairs. The owner
maintained residence at the elevated portion. Villa Foscari (also La Malcontenta) was among the
mid-16th century designs of Palladio that employed this renowned building format.

Villa Foscari (1559)[10]

The 1570 publishing of Palladio's work Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (The Four Books of
Architecture), stretched his influence far beyond his home country Italy. Palladio's architectural
drawings and discussions contained in the book set the stage for neoclassicist expansion in the
key European countries of France, Britain, Ireland, Spain and Germany.[11] Even more
remarkable was his influence in colonial and post-colonial America, where his designs were
replicated in the houses of well-known families, state buildings and even the private abode of
Thomas Jefferson, the freedom President.[12] Along with Palladio's treatise, the unearthing and
discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Roman towns destroyed by volcanic eruption during the
classical period, was thought to inspire the interior designs of 18th century European houses and
edifices.[13]

The Ruins of Pompeii[14] Interior View of a

Herculaneum House[15]
In Europe, neoclassicist architecture developed at different paces. Some sources estimated that
the movement reached its peak in France with tienne-Louis Boulle and Claude Nicolas
Ledoux. The two architects followed principles of rationality into their Graeco-Roman inspired
designs. Boulle was known for fusing geometry with the standard classics. This original
neoclassical deviation might have been influenced by his work as an educator and philosopher at
cole Nationale des Ponts et Chausses. Like most neoclassicists, his designs were
minimalistic, devoid of ornamentation, bold enough to repeat certain structural components,
especially if they were functional (i.e. columns), and sought to emphasize the purpose of the
structure and its parts. Boulle also proposed a cenotaph, an approximately 500-foot sphere
rooted on a round foundation, for the English scientist Isaac Newton. This was not feasible to
build but as a professional engraving, the style gained prominence. Boulle's works were later
revived by 20th century Rationalists and more popularly by renowned Modernist architect, Aldo
Rossi. Contemporary architects found his designs unique and very inventive - although some
would consider them illusions of grandeur. The Htel Alexandre in Paris, known for its flanking
courtyard doors and Corinthian columns, was one of Boulle's surviving works.[16]
Cenotaph for Newton (1784)[17] Htel Alexandre (1763-66)[18]
Like his compatriot, Ledoux was very idealistic in his architecture, always wanting to build with a
purpose. For this he and Boulle were branded Utopians.[19] Ledoux designed many theatres,

hotels, residential homes, and buildings, supplied with rotundas, columns and domes from the
Graeco-Roman period. His known architectural innovation was the architectonic order, best
exhibited through his design on the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans. He was appointed Royal
Architect for the express purpose of building a structural design for efficiently extracting salt. The
Royal Saltworks became a significant example of 18th century Architectural Rationalism for its
extensive use of geometry and logical arrangement of shapes to facilitate the extraction and
transportation processes. Another design was drawn after the first was disapproved.[20]

Facade of the Royal Saltworks, France[21]

Aerial View of Ledoux' Second Design (1804)[22]
There were many other prominent figures under the neoclassical movement but few were as
Utopian as the works of Boulle and Ledoux. French writer-teacher-architect Jean-Nicolas-Louis
Durand influenced several German Rationalists by adding principles of economy and
convenience to the existing architectural Utopia.[23] The later renditions of neoclassicism in
Britain, America, and Spain disregarded the attachment to symmetry and geometry that Palladio
himself and the French neoclassicists were very particular. However, they did retain much of the
functionality aspect. For example, neo-Palladian British architects William Kent and Indigo Jones
invented the flanking wings to give more space in the house interior.[24] This concern for utilizing
space was still an archetype of 18th century Rationalism.

20th Century Rationalism

20th century Rationalist architecture was interchangeably called Neo-Rationalist. Although the
designs were different from 18th century rationalism, neo-Rationalists continued to practice
important principles of Rationalist Architecture. The simplistic form and ornamentation was still
retained; the functionality aspect became known as theme. In fact, as many historians claimed,
neo-Rationalism was an evolution of 18th century Enlightenment Architecture.[25] The need to
justify architectural works remained strong as it had then. The Enlightenment brought about the
Industrial Revolution around 18th-19th centuries. The effects lasted and were carried over to the
20th century, where industrialization became a fad. Economic advancement was no longer
associated with brick and wood but with new elements like steel, iron and glass. As
industrialization reached its peak in the 20th century, the growing importance of machinery led to
the development of an industrial architecture, composed of those new elements.[26]
Modernism was the dominant rationalist movement of the 1900s. It basically aimed to employ
new materials suited to the spirit of industrialization and free architects from the bondage of
styles, which curtailed individual touches. The works of early Modernists Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany and Frenchman Le Corbusier were mostly products of
socio-political revolutions. Following World War I, the German Modernist ventured into new
structures that meet social needs.[27] The Bauhaus design school resulted from this venture.
Bauhaus became identified as the International Style, adopted by many Modern structural
designs in various countries.[28] The following are famous examples of Bauhaus architecture:

The UN New York Base by Le Corbusier[29] The

Gropius Residence in Lincoln[30]
The International Style was characterized by rational principles of minimalism and functional
design and structure. Neoclassical pediments, columns and flanking wings were replaced by
rectangular shapes of concrete cement, steel, and other new elements. There were hardly traces
of particular cultures or social context and a neutral architecture that was universally applicable
prevailed.[31]

Modernists like Frank Lloyd Wright tried to balance nature and structural designs.[32] Later,
Postmodernist movements emerged to deconstruct the universality of Bauhaus and infuse local
identities into modern architecture so it can connect with people's sentiments.[33] Aldo Rossi,
Italian theorist-architect-designer-artist, was among the celebrated Postmodernists. His valuable
contribution to urban architecture was building contemporary structures without neglecting the
historical value of the city or site where it would be built. He stressed the social significance of
monuments and cemeteries and also advocated that structures be strong enough for succeeding
generations to witness.[34] San Cataldo Cemetery expanded by Rossi (1971)[35] Bonnefanten
Museum, Maastricht by Rossi (1990-1994)[36]

Conclusion
18th and 20th century Architectural Rationalists are linked by the ancient principles of utilitas,
firmitas, venustas. Their respective movements were generally non-ornamental and useful in
structure, design and theme. In the area of symmetry, the use of geometrical shapes, and
projecting cultural and individual sentiments, the two Rationalist regimes differ. 18th century
Rationalists were unified in advocating truth and beauty in architecture while neo-Rationalists
had individual contradictions.[37] Nevertheless, both strands justified Architecture's major roles in
society and in people's lives.
[1] Hackett Lewis. (1992) The age if enlightenment, History World International at http://historyworld.org/age_of_enlightenment.htm
[2] Steve Fallon & Nicola Williams. (2008) Paris: city guide, United Kingdom, Lonely Planet
Publications, p. 48.
[4] University of Pittsburgh at http://www.pitt.edu/~medart/menuglossary/pediment.htm
[5] Old House Web at http://www.oldhouseweb.com/architecture-and-design/greek-revival-18201850.shtml
[6] Bernd Evers, Christof Thoenes & Kunstbibliothek. (2003) Architectural theory: from the
renaissance to the present, Germany, TASCHEN pp. 6-7.
[7] Sam Smiles& Stephanie Moser. (2005) Envisioning the past: archaeology and the image,
Maine, Blackwell Publishing pp. 98-114.
[8] Douglas Lewis, Andrea Palladio & International Exhibitions Foundation. (1981) The drawings
of Andrea Palladio, Texas, The Foundation, pp. 158-163.
[9] Essential Architecture at http://www.essential-architecture.com/STYLE/STY-E14.htm
[11] Caroline Clifton-Mogg. (1991) The neoclassical source book, New York, Rizzoli, pp. 88-175.
[12] David Watkin. (2005) A history of western architecture, London, Laurence King pp. 114-513.
[13] H. Keethe Beebe. (1975) Domestic Architecture and the New Testament, The Biblical
Archaeologists, volume 38, number 3/4, pp. 89-104.
[14] Virtual Tourist at http://cache.virtualtourist.com/1898061-Pompeii-Pompeii.jpg
[16] Helen Rosenau. (1976) Boulle & visionary architecture, New York, Harmony Books pp. 127.
[19] Barry Bergdoll. (2000) European architecture, 1750-1890, New York, Oxford University
Press p. 97.
[20] Elizabeth Basye Gilmore Holt. (1966) From the classicists to the impressionists: art and
architecture in the nineteenth century, Connecticut, Yale University Press pp. 227-311.
[21] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization at
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/203

[23] Joy Monice Malnar & Frank Vodvarka. (2004) Sensor design, Minneapolis, The University of
Minnesota Press p. 8.
[24] Inigo Jones, William Kent. (1727) The designs of Inigo Jones: consisting of plans and
elevations for publick, England, W. Kent pp. 1-73.
[25] Christopher Crouch. (2000) Modernism in Art Design and Architecture, New York, St.
Martin's Press pp. 1-10.
[26] Industrial architecture, Encyclopdia Britannica Online at
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286910/industrial-architecture
[27] Richard J. Evans. (2003) The coming of the third reich, New York, The Penguin Press, pp.
122-123.
[28] Henry Russell Hitchcock & Philip Johnson. (1997)The International Style, New York, W. W.
Norton & Company, pp. 1-5.
[29] International Style at http://architecture.about.com/od/20thcenturytrends/ig/ModernArchitecture/International-Style.htm
[30] The Digital Archive of American Architecture at
http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/gropius.html
[31] Hazel Conway & Rowan Roenisch. (1994) Understanding architecture: an introduction to
architecture and architectural history, London, Routledge pp. 22-24.
[32] Kathleen Karlsen. Saving Civilization Through Architecture - Rationalism and the
International Style, at http://ezinearticles.com/?Saving-Civilization-Through-Architecture--Rationalism-and-the-International-Style&id=888138
[33] Hazel Conway & Rowan Roenisch. (1994) Understanding architecture: an introduction to
architecture and architectural history, London, Routledge pp. 22.
[34] Terry Kirk. (2005) The architecture of modern Italy, volume 2: visions of utopia 1900-present,
New York, Princeton University Press pp. 208-214.
[35] Cornell University Blog at http://blogs.cornell.edu/tim/2008/09/21/cities-sites/
[36] Brian Rose at http://www.brianrose.com/portfolio/bonnefanten/bonnefan.htm
[37] Sarah Williams Goldhagen. Ultraviolet: Alvar Aalto's embodied Rationalism, Harvard
Design Magazine at http://www.sarahwilliamsgoldhagen.com/articles/Ultraviolet.pdf

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