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Linear Algebra and Differential Equations The Vector Space R

This document discusses Cramer's rule for solving systems of linear equations and introduces vectors in R2. It defines vectors and their operations, and shows how vectors in R2 correspond to matrices. It discusses linear independence, basis vectors, changing between bases, and finding vector components in different bases. It also defines subspaces of R2 as being lines through the origin or the zero vector only.

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Roumen Guha
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© © All Rights Reserved
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62 views

Linear Algebra and Differential Equations The Vector Space R

This document discusses Cramer's rule for solving systems of linear equations and introduces vectors in R2. It defines vectors and their operations, and shows how vectors in R2 correspond to matrices. It discusses linear independence, basis vectors, changing between bases, and finding vector components in different bases. It also defines subspaces of R2 as being lines through the origin or the zero vector only.

Uploaded by

Roumen Guha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 19

Linear Algebra and Differential Equations

Lecture 9
The Vector Space R2

June 27, 2016

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


June 27,
R2 2016

1 / 19

Cramers rule
Before we consider R2 we need to examine one more way of solving linear
equations. We have seen how to solve
Ax = b

x = A1 b =

1
adj(A)b
det(A)

Using the expression for adj(A) in terms of the cofactors of A.

x1
b1 A11 + b2 A21 + b3 A31
1
x2 ==
b1 A12 + b2 A22 + b3 A32
det(A)
x3
b1 A13 + b2 A23 + b3 A33
We note that the the expressions on the right hand side of the equation
are expansions of determinants

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


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R2 2016

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Considering the components



b a
1 1 12
b2 a22
x1 =
det(A)
b3 a32

of the equation gives




a11 b1 a13
a13

1
a21 b2 a23
a23
x2 =
det(A)

a33
a31 b3 a33



a11 a12 b1


1
a21 a22 b2
x3 =

det(A)
a31 a32 b3
The solution to the system of equations is given dividing the determinant
of the matrix obtained from the original matrix by replacing the column
associated with the variable you are trying to find by the constant vector
by the determinant of the original matrix
This is known as Cramers rule.

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


June 27,
R2 2016

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An example
Solve the system
x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 5
3x1 + 4x2 + 5x3 = 3
x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 3
The determinant of the coefficient matrix is
det = 1(4(2) 5(4)) 3(3(2) 5(1)) + 1(3(4) 4(1)) = 7
then


5 3 1


1
x1 = 3 4 5
7
3 4 2


1 5 1
1
x2 = 3 3 5
7
1 3 2

x1 = 3

x2 = 2



1 3 5


1
x3 = 3 4 3
7
1 4 3

x3 = 4

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


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R2 2016

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R2
Before we proceed with the general theory of vector spaces, we will
examine vectors in the plane.

The usual definition of a vector AB is a directed line segment from point


A, the tail, to point B, the head. Two vectors are considered the same if
they can obtained from each other by translation. i.e. they have to be
parallel, the same length and must point in the same direction. Addition
of vectors is accomplishing by placing the hand to tail as shown below

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


June 27,
R2 2016

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Addition of vectors satisfies the properties


Commutivity
If two vectors are added it doesnt matter in which order they are placed
head to tail
a+b=b+a
(1)

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


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R2 2016

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Associativity
When adding three vectors it doesnt matter which pair you add first
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


June 27,
R2 2016

(2)

7 / 19

Idinverseentity and
If 0 represents the vector with zero length then
a+0=a

(3)

Inverse
If a represents the vector with the same length as a but has the opposite
direction
a + (a) = 0
(4)

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


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R2 2016

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Scalar multiplication

If we denote the length of a by kak and if is a real number then


kak = ||kak
a has the same direction as a if > 0 and the opposite direction if < 0.
Distributive laws
If and are real numbers then
(a + b) = a + b

(5)

( + )a = a + a

(6)

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The Vector Space


June 27,
R2 2016

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The isomorphism
If we introduce the usual cartesian coordinate system each vector can be
associated with the point in the plane where the head is when the tail is
placed at the origin.
The set of points in the plane is called R R or R2 , since the point is
prescribed by two real numbers.
If the vector us head is at the point (u1 , u2 ) then the vector can be
related to the 2 1 matrix


u1
u
u2
u1 and u2 are called the components of the vector.
This identification is called an isomorphism. The addition and scalar
multiplication of vectors are mirrored by the addition and scalar
multiplication of 2 1 matrices.
Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
27,R22016

10 / 19

Adding vectors and scalar multiplication


Vectors can be added by adding the corresponding matrices

 
 

u1
v1
u1 + v1
u+v
+
=
u2
v2
u2 + v2
Multiplying a vector by a scalar is accomplished by multiplying each
component by the scalar

 

u1
u1
u
=
u2
u2
because this scheme works we say the set of vectors in the plane is
isomorphic to R2 .
Other examples of vector spaces that are isomorphic to R2 are the
complex numbers C and R1 (t) ,the set of linear function of a variable t.
Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
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11 / 19

Linear Independent Vectors


Two vectors, u and v, are linearly independent if there there are no non
trivial solutions to
u + v = 0
Writing this out in component form



 
 

  
u1
v1
u1 + v1
u1 v1

+
=
=
=
u2
v2
u2 + v2
u2 v2

0
As we have seen this has only trivial solutions if the inverse matrix exists


u1 v1


u2 v2 = u1 v2 u2 v1 6= 0
If the vectors are not linearly independent they are linearly dependent. In
the plane this implies the vectors are proportional and


u1 v1


u2 v2 = u1 v2 u2 v1 = 0
Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
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Basis vectors for R2


A basis for R2 is a pair of vectors b1 , b2 so that every vector in R2 can be
expressed as a unique linear combination of the basis vectors.
w = 1 b1 + 2 b2
The standard basis for R2 is

e1 =

1
0


e2 =

0
1

Any vector can be expressed as a linear combination


 
 
 
x
1
0
=x
+y
y
0
1
and it is clear that this combination is unique.
Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
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In fact any pair of linearly independent vectors will work as a basis. If b1


and b2 are linearly independent then
1 b1 + 2 b2 = 0
if


b1 =

b11
b21

1 = 2 = 0


b2 =

b12
b22

the equation above in component form is




  
b11 b21
1
0
=
b12 b22
2
0
If this has only the trivial solution then the inverse of the matrix exists and
b11 b22 b12 b21 6= 0

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune


Space
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Express a arbitrary vector in both the standard basis and {b1 , b2 }


v = v1 e1 + v2 e2
= 1 b1 + 2 b2
In component form this is

 


v1
b11 b21
1
=
v2
b12 b22
2
Since b1 , b2 are linearly independent, the matrix is invertible and


1
2


=

b11 b21
b12 b22

1 

v1
v2

since we have a unique solution {b1 , b2 } is a basis. The matrix is called


the change of basis matrix {b1 , b2 } {e1 , e2 }. The change from
standard to the basis is its inverse.
Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
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An example
For


b1 =

5
2


b2 =

6
3

(a) Show the two vectors form a basis


(b) Find the components in this basis for the vector


3
u=
6
(a)

5 6

2 3



=3

so it is a basis
Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
27,R22016

16 / 19

(b)


1
2

3
6


=

5 6
2 3



1
2




1
3 6
3
=
6
3 2 5


15
=
12

Checking our solution



15

5
2


+ 12

6
3


=

3
6

as it should be.

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune


Space
27,R22016

17 / 19

Subspaces
A subspace of a vector space is a subset of the vector space which is also a
vector space. Since it inherits all the vector properties from R2 the only
thing that can go wrong is yjat linear combinations are no longer in the
subspace.
For example the subspace x > 0 isnt a subspace of R2 since if v is in the
subspace, v isnt
Straight lines that dont contain the origin are also not subspaces if
y = mx + b then vectors in the subset have the form




u1
v1
u=
v=
mu1 + b
mv1 + b

u+v =

u1 + v1
m(u1 + v1 ) + 2b

and clearly u + v is not in the subset.


Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune
Space
27,R22016

18 / 19

The subspaces of R2 are lines through the origin : y = mx






u1
v1
u=
v=
mu1
mv1

au + bv =

au1 + bv1
m(au1 + bv1 )

and cearly au = bv is in the subspaces.


and the trivial subspace consisting of only the zero vector.
If it isnt the subset cannot be a subspace. A simple test for whether a
subset is a subspace is to check if the zero vector is a member of the set.
If it isnt the subset cannot be a subspace.

Linear Algebra and Differential EquationsLecture 9The VectorJune


Space
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