Energy levels in Matter: The building units of matter, i.e.

, atoms and
mole ules a umulate energy, whi h they a quire as a result of intera tions with
the surrounding units. These interatomi /intermole ular intera tions an be of
various natures, su h as Ele trostati attra tion/repulsion, elasti or inelasti
ollisions, vibrations et . The states of energy ontent of the atoms are represented as Energy levels. An atom with high energy ontent is represented to be
in a higher energy level and vi e versa.
The population of an energy level is dened as the number of atoms in that
energy level per unit volume. It is dependent upon the probabilty of nding
an atom in the on erned energy level, whi h is given as per the Boltzmann
Distribution relationship:
P(Em ) exp(-Em /kT )
where P(Em ) is the probability of an atom being in mth energy level (m=1,2,3...)
with energy Em , k is the Boltzmann onstant and T is the absolute temperature.
Sin e probability is a de reasing fun tion of energy, there is more probability
of nding an atom in a lower energy level than in a higher level. Hen e, the
population of a level is also governed by the same relation.
Transitions between Energy levels: The atoms undergo energy level transitions by absorbing or emitting energy. An atom an absorb in oming energy
(in the form of radiation, i.e., photons) and move from a lower energy level to
a higher level, or, it an emit energy and jump from a higher level to a lower
level. The emission of energy an be radiative (as photons), or non-radiative
(as phonons).
Intera tion of atoms and photons: We onsider an atom in a two-level
system, with energies E1 and E2 (E1 < E2 ), whi h is intera ting with the in oming photon of frequen y 0 , where h0 = E2 - E1 . This system is pla ed in
a avity of volume V, in whi h, a number of ele tromagneti modes an exist.
The intera tion an happen in three ways.
Spontaneous Emission: If an atom is in the higher energy level E2 , it an
ome down to level E1 by losing its energy in the form of radiation. Hen e a
photon with energy E2 - E1 h is emitted and the energy of the on erned

mode in reases by that amount. This phenomenon is alled Spontaneous

Emission.

The probability density of spontaneous emission is dened as the Probability of

an emission happening in unit time, and is given by
psp =

c
V

()

where psp is the transition probability density (s1 ), c is the velo ity of
light and V is the avity volume. The quantity () is alled Transition ross
se tion. It is a property of the material and has the unit of area (cm2 ). It an
be onsidered as the ee tive intera tion area between photon and atom and it
gives information about the magnitude of intera tion of photons with dierent
frequen ies. It is dependent on frequen y and its prole is Lorentzian.
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The probability density gives information about the probability of an event

(emission) happening in an innitesimal time interval, and hen e the rate of
emission. The spontaneous emission lifetime is dened as the inverse of the
probability density, i.e., tsp = 1/psp .
Absorption: An atom in the lower energy level E1 an absorb an in oming
photon having energy hE2 - E1 and move to level E2 . This phenomenon

is alled absorption.

The probability density of absorption is dened by a similar law as in ase of

emission.If the on erned mode ontains n photons, probability density is n
times this value.
pab = n Vc ()
Stimulated Emission: An in oming photon an indu e an atom in the E2
level to emit an photon and ome down to level E1 . The photon thus

emitted is and exa t repli a of the in ident photon in terms of frequen y,

dire tion, polarisation and phase. The two photons are perfe tly oherent.
This phenomenon is alled Stimulated emission.

The probability density is dened similar to that of absorption.

pst = n Vc ()

We see that the probability densities for absorption and stimulated emission
are the same. Hen e,
pab =pst =Wi

Photon Flux density: The Photon ux density is dened as the number
of photons rossing a unit surfa e area in unit time. For a avity of volume V
(as mentioned above), photon ux density an be expressed as
=n Vc
Wi = ()

Laser Ampli ation: An in oming photon ux an ause both absorption

and stimulated emission between the energy levels. Both o ur with the same
probability density, and their rates depend upon the populations of the lower
level (N1 ) and the higher level (N2 ) per unit volume respe tively. Hen e, the
rate of absorption is N1 Wi and the rate of stimulated emission is N2 Wi .
For Laser ampli ation, the rate of stimulated emission should be higher than
that of absorption, N2 Wi >N1 Wi . There should exist a population inversion,
the ondition of higher population density being in the higher energy level.
N =N2 N1 being the population dieren e, the net rate of photon gain per
unit volume is given by N Wi .
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We onsider the avity to be ylindri al with volume V and unit ross se tional area, and the photon ux travelling in the avity along its length in
+z-dire tion. The photon ux density varies with the position (z) due to the
intera tions with atoms (absorption and stimulated emission). The hange in
photon ux density d over an innitesimal length dz of the avity is given by
d = N Wi dz

or d = N () (z)dz
d
dz = ()(z), where () = N ().

Hen e the photon ux density as fun tion of z is given as

(z) = (0) exp[()z]

Intensity I (z ) = h(z ) = I (0 ) exp[()z ]

The quantity () is known as the Gain oe ient of the medium.
Amplier Pumping: For Laser ampli ation, the ne essary ondition is
the existen e of population inversion, whi h means a positive value for N . As
per Boltzmann distribution, the population in the lower energy levels is more
than the higher ones. So, external energy is provided to pump the atoms in
the lower energy level to the higher level, thus reating a positive population
dieren e. This pro ess is know as Amplier pumping.
Rate equations: Here we analyse the rates at whi h the populations of the
energy levels involved in the laser phenomena vary in absen e and presen e of the
stimulating rediation. The population of an energy level de ays exponentially
with time, so we dene the average lifetime of an energy level as the time after
whi h the population of an energy level drops to 1/e of its original value. The
rate of population de ay is inversely proportional to the average lifetime of the
level.
N (t) = N0 et/
1
t/
=
rate of de ay = dN
dt = N0 e

Let us onsider a two-level system (energies E1 and E2 , E2 > E1 ) having

populations N1 and N2 and lifetimes 1 and 2 respe tively. We assume that
there are other energy levels higher than level-2 and lower than level-1, but laser
phenomenon o urs between levels 1 and 2 only.
In absen e of stimulating radiation:
The atoms in level 2 lose energy and de ay either to level-1 or to the levels lower than level 1. The orresponding lifetimes being 21 and 20 , 2 is a
ombination of the two lifetimes. In absen e of radiation, the transition 2 1
an o ur radiatively (spontaneous emission of photon), or non-radiatively (as
phonons). Hen e, 21 has both these omponents. Be ause the rate of de ay is
inversely proportional to the lifetimes, we have the following relationships:
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1
1
21 =21
+ 20
1
1
1
and 21
= sp
+ nr

To maintain a steady state population dieren e, atoms should be pumped

out of level 1 and into level 2. Let R1 and R2 be the orresponding pumping
rates (per unit volume per unit time). The overall rates of population de ay for
the two levels are given as
dN2
dt
dN1
dt

= R2

= R1 +

N2
2

N2
21

(level-2)
N1
1

(level-1)

At steady state, dN1 /dt =dN2 /dt = 0. The steady-state population N0 is

given as
N0 = R2 2 (1

1
21 )

+ R1 1

Sin e amplier gain oe ient depends on the population dieren e, it should
have a high positive value, whi h depends on the following onditions:
High pumping rates R1 and R2 . High R1 ensures a low population of
level-1 and high R2 ensures a high population of level-2, thereby reating

large population dieren e.

2 should be large, so that the population of level-2 does not de ay qui kly.
But sp should be short enough to ontribute to the radiation.
If R1 < (2 /21 )R2 , then 1 should be small.

The transition lifetime 20 is large ompared to 21 , and nr sp , so, 2

21 sp . Also, 1 sp . Hen e steady state population dieren e in absen e
of stimulating radiation an be approximated as

N0 R2 sp + R1 1

In presen e of stimulating radiation:

The in ident photon ux auses absorption and stimulated emissions between the two levels. The probability density of photon intera tion being Wi ,
the absorption and stimulated emission rates are N1 Wi and N2 Wi respe tively.
In luding these two omponents, the overall rate equations for the two levels
are as follows.
dN2
dt
dN1
dt

= R2

= R1 +

N2
2

N2
21

+ N1 Wi N2 Wi (level-2)
N1
1

N1 Wi + N2 Wi (level-1)

At steady state, dN1 /dt = dN2 /dt = 0. Solving for N = N2 N1 and

rearranging, we get
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N=

N0
1 + s Wi

where s = 2 + 1 (1 212 )
In the absen e of radiation (Wi = 0), we have N = N0 . As the intensity of
radiation (or photon ux density ) in reases, Wi in reases, and the population
dieren e drops. The quantity s is the saturation time onstant of the medium.
At Wi = 1/s , N = N0 /2. If the value of the radiation intensity is so low that
s Wi 1, we an have N N0 . This is the small signal approximation for
Laser phenomenon.