OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

TITLE I OBLIGATIONS
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1156. An obligation is a juridical necessity to give, to do, or not to do.
JURIDICAL NECESSITY juridical tie; connotes that in case of noncompliance, there will be legal sanctions.

An obligation is nothing more than the duty of a person (obligor) to satisfy a specific demandable claim of
another person (obligee) which, if breached, is enforceable in court.

A contract necessarily gives rise to an obligation but an obligation does not always need to have a contract.

KINDS OF OBLIGATION
A. From the viewpoint of sanction (a) CIVIL OBLIGATION that defined in Article 1156; an obligation, if not fulfilled when it becomes due and
demandable, may be enforced in court through action; based on law; the sanction is judicial due process
(b) NATURAL OBLIGATION defined in Article 1423; a special kind of obligation which cannot be enforced
in court but which authorizes the retention of the voluntary payment or performance made by the debtor;
based on equity and natural law. (i.e. when there is prescription of duty to pay, still, the obligor paid his
dues to the obligee the obligor cannot recover his payment even there is prescription) the sanction is
the law, but only conscience had originally motivated the payment.
(c) MORAL OBLIGATION the sanction is conscience or morality, or the law of the church. (Note: If a
Catholic promises to hear mass for 10 consecutive Sundays in order to receive P1,000, this obligation
becomes a civil one.)
B. From the viewpoint of subject matter (a) REAL OBLIGATION the obligation to give
(b) PERSONAL OBLIGATION the obligation to do or not to do (e.g. the duty to paint a house, or to refrain
from committing a nuisance)
C. From the affirmativeness and negativeness of the obligation (a) POSITIVE OR AFFIRMATIVE OBLIGATION the obligation to give or to do
(b) NEGATIVE OBLIGATION the obligation not to do (which naturally inludes not to give)
D. From the viewpoint of persons obliged - sanction (a) UNILATERAL where only one of the parties is bound (e.g. Plato owes Socrates P1,000. Plato must
pay Socrates.)
(b) BILATERAL where both parties are bound (e.g. In a contract of sale, the buyer is obliged to deliver)
- may be:
(b.1) reciprocal
(b.2) non-reciprocal where performance by one is non-dependent upon performance by the other
ELEMENTS OF OBLIGATION
a) ACTIVE SUBJECT (Creditor / Obligee) the person who is demanding the performance of the obligation;
b) PASSIVE SUBJECT (Debtor / Obligor) the one bound to perform the prestation or to fulfill the obligation or duty;
c) PRESTATION (to give, to do, or not to do) object; subject matter of the obligation; conduct required to be
observed by the debtor;
d) EFFICIENT CAUSE the JURIDICAL TIE which binds the parties to the obligation; source of the obligation.

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

PRESTATION (Object)
1. TO GIVE delivery of a thing to the creditor (in sale, deposit, pledge, donation);
2. TO DO covers all kinds of works or services (contract for professional services);
3. NOT TO DO consists of refraining from doing some acts (in following rules and regulations).
Requisites of Prestation / Object:
1) licit (if illicit, it is void)
2) possible (if impossible, it is void)
3) determinate or determinable (or else, void)
4) pecuniary value

INJURY wrongful act or omission which causes loss or harm to another

DAMAGE result of injury (loss, hurt, harm)

1157. Obligation arises from (1) law; (2) contracts; (3) quasi-contracts; (4) acts or omissions punished by law;
(5) quasi-delicts.
(1) LAW (Obligation ex lege) imposed by law itself; must be expressly or impliedly set forth and cannot be presumed
- [See Article 1158]
(2) CONTRACTS (Obligation ex contractu) arise from stipulations of the parties: meeting of the minds / formal
agreement
- must be complied with in good faith because it is the law between parties; neither party may unilaterally evade his
obligation in the contract, unless:
a) contract authorizes it
b) other party assents
Note:
Parties may freely enter into any stipulations, provided they are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order
or public policy
- [See Article 1159]
(3) QUASI-CONTRACTS (Obligation ex quasi-contractu) arise from lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts and which
are enforceable to the end that no one shall be unjustly enriched or benefited at the expense of another
- 2 kinds:
a. Negotiorum gestio - unauthorized management; This takes place when a person voluntarily takes charge of
anothers abandoned business or property without the owners authority
b. Solutio indebiti - undue payment; This takes place when something is received when there is no right to
demand it, and it was unduly delivered thru mistake
- [See Article 1160]
(4) DELICTS (Obligation ex maleficio or ex delicto) arise from civil liability which is the consequence of a criminal
offense
- Governing rules:
1. Pertinent provisions of the RPC and other penal laws subject to Art 2177 Civil Code
[Art 100, RPC Every person criminally liable for a felony is also civilly liable]
2. Chapter 2, Preliminary title, on Human Relations ( Civil Code )
3. Title 18 of Book IV of the Civil Code on damages
- [See Article 1161]

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

(5) QUASI-DELICTS / TORTS (Obligation ex quasi-delicto or ex quasi-maleficio) arise from damage caused to
another through an act or omission, there being no fault or negligence, but no contractual relation exists between the
parties
- [See Article 1162]
1158. Obligations from law are not presumed. Only those (1) expressly determined in this code or (2) in special
laws are demandable, and shall be regulated by the precepts of the law which establishes them; and as to what
has not been foreseen, by the provisions of this code.

Unless such obligations are EXPRESSLY provided by law, they are not demandable and enforceable, and
cannot be presumed to exist.
The Civil Code can be applicable suppletorily to obligations arising from laws other than the Civil Code itself.
Special laws refer to all other laws not contained in the Civil Code.

1159. Obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between the contracting parties and should be
complied with in good faith.
CONTRACT meeting of minds between two persons whereby one binds himself, with respect to the other, to give, to
do something or to render some service; governed primarily by the agreement of the contracting parties.
VALID CONTRACT it should not be against the law, contrary to morals, good customs, public order, and public policy.

In the eyes of law, a void contract does not exist and no obligation will arise from it.

OBLIGATIONS ARISING FROM CONTRACTS primarily governed by the stipulations, clauses, terms and conditions
of their agreements.

If a contracts prestation is unconscionable (unfair) or unreasonable, even if it does not violate morals, law, etc.,
it may not be enforced totally.

Interpretation of contract involves a question of law.

COMPLIANCE IN GOOD FAITH compliance or performance in accordance with the stipulations or terms of the
contract or agreement.
FALSIFICATION OF A VALID CONTRACT only the unauthorized insertions will be disregarded; the original terms and
stipulations should be considered valid and subsisting for the partied to fulfill.
1160. Obligations derived from quasi-contracts shall be subject to the provisions of chapter 1, title 17 of this
book.
QUASI-CONTRACT juridical relation resulting from lawful, voluntary and unilateral acts by virtue of which, both
parties become bound to each other, to the end that no one will be unjustly enriched or benefited at the expense of the
other. (See Article 2142)
(1) NEGOTIORUM GESTIO juridical relation which takes place when somebody voluntarily manages the
property affairs of another without the knowledge or consent of the latter; owner shall reimburse the
gestor for necessary and useful expenses incurred by the latter for the performance of his function as
gestor.
(2) SOLUTIO INDEBITI something is received when there is no right to demand it and it was unduly

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

delivered through mistake; obligation to return the thing arises on the part of the recipient. (e.g. If I let a
storekeeper change my P500 bill and by error he gives me P560, I have the duty to return the extra
P60)
1161. Civil obligations arising from criminal offenses shall be governed by the penal laws, subject to the
provisions of Article 2177, and of the pertinent provisions of Chapter 2, Preliminary in Human Relations, and of
Title 18 of this book, regulating damages.
Governing rules:
1. Pertinent provisions of the RPC and other penal laws subject to Art 2177 Civil Code
[Art 100, RPC Every person criminally liable for a felony is also civilly liable]
2. Chapter 2, Preliminary title, on Human Relations ( Civil Code )
3. Title 18 of Book IV of the Civil Code on damages

Every person criminally liable for a felony is also criminally liable (art. 100, RPC)

CRIMINAL LIABILITY INCLUDES:

(a) RESTITUTION restoration of property previously taken away; the thing itself shall be restored, even
though it be found in the possession of a third person who has acquired it by lawful means, saving to
the latter his action against the proper person who may be liable to him.
(b) REPARATION OF THE DAMAGE CAUSED court determines the amount of damage: price of a thing,
sentimental value, etc.
(c) INDEMNIFICATION FOR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES includes damages suffered by the family of
the injured party or by a third person by reason of the crime.
Effect of acquittal in criminal case:
a. when acquittal is due to reasonable doubt no civil liability
b. when acquittal is due to exempting circumstances there is civil liability
c. when there is preponderance of evidence there is civil liability
1162. Obligations derived from quasi-delicts shall be governed by the provisions of chapter 2, title 17 of this
book, and by special laws.
QUASI-DELICT (culpa aquiliana) an act or omission by a person which causes damage to another giving rise to an
obligation to pay for the damage done, there being fault or negligence but there is no pre-existing contractual relation
between parties. (See Article 2176)
REQUISITES:
a. omission
b. negligence
c. damage caused to the plaintiff
d. direct relation of omission, being the cause, and the damage, being the effect
e. no pre-existing contractual relations between parties
Fault or Negligence consists in the omission of that diligence which is required by the nature of the obligation and
corresponds with the circumstances of the person, time, and of the place.
BASIS

DELICTS

QUASI-DELICTS

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

1. INTENT
2. INTEREST
3. LIABILITY
4. PURPOSE
5.COMPROMISE
6. GUILT

Criminal / malicious
Affects PUBLIC interest
Criminal and civil liabilities
Purpose punishment
Cannot be compromised
Proved beyond reasonable doubt

Negligence
Affects PRIVATE interest
Civil liability
Indemnification
Can be compromised
Preponderance of evidence

CHAPTER 2
NATURE AND EFFECT OF OBLIGATIONS
1163. Every person obliged to give something is also obliged to take care of it with the proper diligence of a
good father of a family, unless the law or the stipulation of the parties requires another standard of care.

Speaks of an obligation to care of a DETERMINATE thing (that is one which is specific; a thing identified by its
individuality) which an obligor is supposed to deliver to another.
Reason: the obligor cannot take care of the whole class/genus

DUTIES OF DEBTOR:

Preserve or take care of the things due.

DILIGENCE OF A GOOD FATHER a good father does not abandon his family, he is always ready to
provide and protect his family; ordinary care which an average and reasonably prudent man would do.
- Defined in the negative in Article 1173
ANOTHER STANDARD OF CARE extraordinary diligence provided in the stipulation of parties.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED diligence depends on the nature of obligation and corresponds with the
circumstances of the person, time, and place.

** Debtor is not liable if his failure to deliver the thing is due to fortuitous events or force majeure without negligence
or fault in his part.

Deliver the fruits of a thing

Deliver the accessions/accessories
Deliver the thing itself
Answer for damages in case of non-fulfillment or breach

1164. The creditor has a right to the fruits of the thing from the time the obligation to deliver it arises. However,
he shall acquire no real right over it until the same has been delivered to him.
REAL RIGHT (jus in re) right pertaining to person over a specific thing, without a passive subject individually
determined against whom such right may be personally enforced.
a right enforceable against the whole world
PERSONAL RIGHT (jus ad rem) a right pertaining to a person to demand from another, as a definite passive subject,
the fulfillment of a prestation to give, to do or not to do.
a right enforceable only against a definite person or group of persons.

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Before the delivery, the creditor, in obligations to give, has merely a personal right against the debtor a right
to ask for delivery of the thing and the fruits thereof.
Once the thing and the fruits are delivered, then he acquires a real right over them.
Ownership is transferred by delivery which could be either actual or constructive. (Art. 1477)
The remedy of the buyer when there is no delivery despite demand is to file a complaint for SPECIFIC
PERFORMANCE AND DELIVERY because he is not yet the owner of the property before the delivery.

ACTUAL DELIVERY actual delivery of a thing from the hand of the grantor to the hand of the grantee (presonally),
or manifested by certain possessory acts executed by the grantee with the consent of the grantor (realty).
FRUITS:
1. NATURAL spontaneous products of the soil, the young and other products of animals;
2. INDUSTRIAL produced by lands of any cultivation or labor;
3. CIVIL those derived by virtue of juridical relation.
** SEE Article 1164 (retroactivity of the effects of conditional obligation to give once the condition has been fulfilled)
1165. When what is to be delivered is a determinate thing, the creditor may compel the debtor to make
delivery. If the thing is indeterminate or generic, he may ask that the obligation be complied with at the
expense of the debtor. If the obligor delays or has promised to deliver the same ting to two or more persons
who do not have the same interest, he shall be responsible for any fortuitous event until he has effected the
delivery.
*This provision applies to an obligation to give.
DETERMINATE THING
something which is susceptible of particular designation or specification;
obligation is extinguished if the thing is lost due to fortuitous events.
Article 1460: a thing is determinate when it is particularly designated and physically segregated from all others
of the same class.
INDETERMINATE THING
something that has reference only to a class or genus;
obligation to deliver is not so extinguished by fortuitous events.
REMEDIES FOR FAILURE OF DELIVERY (determinate thing)
1. Complaint for specific performance an action to compel the fulfillment of the obligation.
2. Complaint for rescission of the obligation action to rescind
3. Complaint for damages action to claim for compensation of damages suffered

As a general rule, no person shall be responsible for those events which could not be foreseen, or which,
though foreseen, are inevitable, except:
1. in cases expressly specified by the law
2. when it is stipulated by the parties
3. when the nature of the obligation requires assumption of risk
An indeterminate thing cannot be object of destruction by a fortuitous event because genus never perishes.

1166. The obligation to give a determinate thing includes that of delivering all its accessions and accessories,
even though they may not have been mentioned.

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ACCESSIONS fruits of the thing or additions to or improvements upon the principal

those which are naturally or artificially attached to the thing
ACCESSORIES things included with the principal for the latters embellishment, better use, or completion
When does right to fruits arise? from the time the obligation to deliver arises
Conditional from the moment the condition happens
With a term/period upon the expiration of the term/period
Simple from the perfection of the contract
1167. If a person obliged to do something fails to do it, the same shall be executed at his cost. This same rule
shall be observed if he does it in contravention of the tenor of the obligation it may be decreed that what has
been poorly done be undone.
* This provision applies to an obligation to do.
THREE SITUATIONS:
a) Debtors failure to perform an obligation
creditor may do the obligation, or by another, at the expense of the debtor;
recover damages
b) Performance was contrary to the terms agreed upon
order of the court to undo the same at the expense of the debtor
c) Performance in a poor manner
order of the court to undo the same at the expense of the debtor
1168. When the obligation consists in NOT DOING and the obligor does what has been forbidden him, it shall
also be undone at his expense.
* This provision applies to an obligation not to do.
1169. Those obliged to deliver or to do something incur in delay from the time the obligee judicially or
extrajudicially demands from them the fulfillment of their obligation.
However, the demand by the creditor shall not be necessary in order that delay may exists:

When the law or obligation so expressly declares;

When from the nature of the contract, time us the essence and motivating factor for its establishment;
When demand would be useless (prestation is impossible);
In reciprocal obligations, from the moment one of the parties fulfills his obligation;
When the debtor admits he is in default

ORDINARY DELAY mere failure to perform an obligation at the appointed time.

LEGAL DELAY (DEFAULT) tantamount to non-fulfillment of the obligation and arises after an extrajudicial or judicial
demand was made upon the debtor.
KINDS OF DEFAULT:
a) MORA SOLVENDI delay on the part of the debtor to fulfill his obligation;
REQUISITES:
1. failure of the obligor to perform obligation on the DATE agreed upon;

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

2. demand (judicial/extrajudicial) by the creditor;

3. failure to comply with such demand
EFFECTS:
1) debtor liable for damages and interests
2) debtor liable for the loss of a thing due to a fortuitous event
KINDS:
1) mora solvendi ex re default in real obligations (to give)
2) mora solvendi ex persona default in personal obligations (to do)
b) MORA ACCIPIENDI delay on the part of the creditor to accept the performance of the obligation;
Effects:
1. creditor liable for damages
2. creditor bears the risk of loss of the thing
3. debtor not liable for interest from the time of creditors delay
4. debtor release himself from the obligation
c) COMPENSATIO MORAE delay of the obligors in reciprocal obligation.
Effect: the default of one compensates the default of the other; their respective liabilities shall be offset
equitable.

Default / Delay in negative obligation is not possible. (In negative obligation, only fulfillment and violation are
possible)

1170. Those who in the performance of their obligations are guilty of fraud, negligence, or delay, and those who
in any manner contravene the tenor thereof, are liable for damages.
FRAUD (dolo) deliberate intentional evasion of the faithful fulfillment of an obligation;
NEGLIGENCE (culpa or fault) voluntary act or omission of diligence, there being no malice, which prevents the
normal fulfillment of an obligation;
DELAY (mora) default or tardiness in the performance of an obligation after it has been due and demandable;
CONTRAVENTION OF TERMS OF OBLIGATION (violation) violation of terms and conditions stipulated in the
obligation; this must not be due to a fortuitous event.
1171. Responsibility arising from fraud is demandable in all obligations. Any waiver of an action for future
fraud is void.

To allow such waiver will necessarily render the obligatory force of contracts illusory.
The law does not prohibit waiver of an action for damages based on fraud already committed.
Any deliberate deviation from the normal way of fulfilling the obligation may be a proper basis for claim for
damages against the guilty party.

INCIDENTAL FRAUD (applicable provisions are Arts. 1170 & 1344) committed in the performance of an obligation
already existing because of a contract; incidental fraud obliges the person employing it to pay damages.
CAUSAL FRAUD (Art. 1338) employed in the execution of contract in order to secure consent; remedy is annulment
because of vitiation of consent.

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1172. Responsibility arising from negligence in the performance of every kind of obligation is also
demandable, but such liability may be regulated by the courts, according to circumstances.
Courts discretion because:
(a) negligence depends upon the circumstances of a case good or bad faith of the obligor may be
considered as well as the conduct or misconduct of the obligee;
(b) it is not as serious as fraud.
Negligence lack of foresight or knowledge
Imprudence lack of skill or precaution
TEST OF NEGLIGENCE
Did the defendant, in doing the alleged negligent act, use the reasonable care and caution which an ordinary prudent
man would have used in the same situation?
TWO TYPES OF NEGLIGENCE:
Basis
DEFINITION
NATURE OF
NEGLIGENCE
GOOD FATHER OF THE
FAMILY DEFENSE
PRESUMPTION OF
NEGLIGENCE

1. Culpa Aquiliana
(Quasi-delict)
Negligence between parties not so
related by pre-existing contract
Direct, substantive and independent
Complete and proper defense
(parents, guardian, employers)
No presumption injured party
must prove negligence of the
defendant.

2. Culpa Contractual
(Breach of contract)
Negligence in the performance of contractual
obligation
Incidental to the performance of the
obligation.
Not complete and proper defense in the
selection of employees.
There is presumption defendant must
prove that there was no negligence in the
carrying out of the terms of the contract.

1173. The fault or negligence of the obligor consists in the omission of that diligence which is required by the
nature of the obligation and corresponds with the circumstances of the persons, of he time and of the place
If the law or contract does not state the diligence which is to be observed in the performance, that which is
expected if a good father of a family shall be required.
- This provision provides for a negative definition of proper diligence of a good father of a family
FRAUD distinguished from NEGLIGENCE
FRAUD
There is deliberate intention to cause damage.
Liability cannot be mitigated.
Waiver for future fraud is void.

NEGLIGENCE
There is no deliberate intention to cause damage.
Liability may be mitigated.
Waiver for future negligence may be allowed in certain
cases:

DILIGENCE the attention and care required of a person in a given situation and is opposite of negligence.
NEGLIGENCE consists in the omission of that diligence which is required by the nature of the particular obligation
and corresponds with the circumstances of the persons, of the time, and of the place.

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

KINDS of DILIGENCE:
1. DILIGENCE OF A GOOD FATHER a good father does not abandon his family, he is always ready to
provide and protect his family; ordinary care which an average and reasonably prudent man would do.
2. Diligence required by the law governing the particular obligation
3. Diligence stipulated by the parties
1174. Except in cases expressly specified by the law, or when it is otherwise declared by stipulation, or when
the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk, no person shall be responsible for those events
which could not be foreseen, or which, though foreseen, were inevitable.
FORTUITOUS EVENT an occurrence or happening which could not be foreseen or even if foreseen, is inevitable;
absolutely independent of human intervention; act of God.
FORCE MAJEURE - an event caused by the legitimate or illegitimate acts of persons other than the obligor; there is
human intervention.
REQUISITES OF FORTUITOUS EVENT: [IU-IF]
1. Independent of the human will (or at least of the obligors)
2. Unforeseen or unavoidable
3. Of such character as to render it impossible for the obligor to comply with his obligation in a normal manner
4. Obligor free from any participation/aggravation of the injury to the obligee (no negligence or imprudence)
EXEPTIONS:
1. When it is expressly stipulated that he shall be liable even if non-performance of the obligation is due to
fortuitous events;
2. When the nature of the obligation requires the assumption of risk;
3. When the obligor is in delay;
4. When the obligor has promised the same thing to two or more persons who do not have the same interest;
5. When the possessor is in bad faith and the thing lost or deteriorated due to fortuitous event;
6. When the obligor contributed to the loss of the thing.
1175. Usurious transactions shall be governed by special laws.
* see Article 1413
USURY contracting for or receiving interest in excess of the amount allowed by law for the loan or use of money,
goods, etc.
USURY LAW makes the usurers criminally liable if the interest charged on loans are more that the limit prescribed by
law.
This law is repealed Circular No. 905 of the Central Bank has expressly removed the interest ceilings
prescribed by the USURY LAW.
1176. The receipt of the principal by the creditor without reservation with respect to the interest, shall give rise
to the presumption that said interest has been paid.
The receipt of a later installment of a debt without reservation as to prior installments, shall likewise raise the
presumption that such installments have been paid.

These are mere presumptions.

To be sure write the interest and the dates covered by such payment in the receipt.

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1177. The creditors, after having pursued the property in possession of the debtor to satisfy their claims, may
exercise all the rights and bring all the actions of the latter for the same purpose, save those which are
inherent in his person; they may also impugn the acts which the debtor may have done to defraud them.
REMEDIES AVAILABLE TO CREDITORS FOR THE SATISFACTION OF THEIR CLAIMS:
1. Exact fulfillment with right to damages
2. Exhaustion of the debtors properties still in his possession writ of attachment (before judgment) or writ of
execution (for final judgment not yet executed)
3. ACCION SUBROGATORIA an action where the creditor whose claims had not been fully satisfied, may go
after the debtors (3rd person) of the defendant debtor.
4. ACCION PAULIANA an action where the creditor files an action in court for the RESCISSION of acts or
contracts entered into by the debtor designed to defraud the former.
1178. Subject to the laws, all rights acquired in virtue of an obligation are transmissible, if there has been no
stipulation to the contrary.
EXCEPTIONS:
a) Those not transmissible by their nature like purely personal rights;
b) Those not transmissible by provision of law;
c) Those not transmissible by stipulation of parties.
CHAPTER 3
DIFFERENT KINDS OF OBLIGATIONS
Section 1 Pure and Conditional Obligations
1179. Every obligation whose performance does not depend upon a future or uncertain event, or upon a past
event unknown to the parties, is demandable at once.
Every obligation which contains a resolutory condition shall also be demandable, without prejudice to the
effects of the happening of the event.
PURE OBLIGATION an obligation which does not contain any condition or term upon which the fulfillment is made to
depend; immediately demandable by the creditors and the debtor cannot be excused from not complying with his
prestation.
CONDITIONAL OBLIGATION an obligation which depends upon a future or uncertain event, or upon a past event
unknown to the contracting parties.
an obligation subject to a condition.
a) Suspensive Obligation its fulfillment gives rise to an obligation; the demandability of the obligation or the
effectivity of the contract can take place only after the condition has been fulfilled.
b) Resolutory Obligation its happening extinguishes the obligation which is already existing;
1180. When the debtor binds himself to pay when his means permit him to do so, the obligation shall be
deemed to be one with a period, subject to the provisions of Article 1197.
PERIOD a future and certain event upon the arrival of which, the obligation subject to it either arises or is
extinguished.

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INDICATIONS OF A TERM OR PERIOD:

When the debtor binds himself to pay
when his means permit him to do so
little by little
as soon as possible
from time to time
as soon as I have the money
in partial payment
when in the position to pay
1181. In conditional obligations, the acquisition of rights, as well as the extinguishment or loss of those
already acquired, shall depend upon the happening of the event which constitutes the condition.
Suspensive Condition the acquisition of rights by the creditor depends upon the happening of the event which
constitutes the condition; if such condition does not take place, it would be as of the conditional obligation had never
existed.
(e.g. promise to give a car after graduating from law school as cum laude)
Resolutory Condition the rights and obligations already existing are under threat of extinction upon the happening or
fulfillment of such condition.
(e.g. donation by reason of marriage the celebration of marriage is a resolutory condition; if the marriage did not push
through, the donation may be revoked)
1182. When the fulfillment of the condition depends upon the sole will of the debtor, the conditional obligation
shall be void. If it depends upon chance or upon the will of a third person, the obligation shall take effect in
conformity with the provisions of this Code.

Applies only to suspensive conditions.

3 KINDS OF CONDITIONS UNDER THIS ARTICLE:

1. POTESTATIVE a suspensive condition which depends upon the will of one of the contracting parties
= if at the sole will of the debtor, it is void; if at the creditors, still valid. this is to prevent the
establishment of illusory obligations.
2. CASUAL the condition depends upon chance or the will of a third person;(e.g. cellphone warranty)
3. MIXED the condition depends partly upon the will of the parties and partly upon chance or the will of
a third person; (example ni Atty. De Chavez: passing the bar)
1183. Impossible conditions, those contrary to good customs or public policy and those prohibited by law shall
annul the obligation which depends upon them. If the obligation is divisible, that part thereof which is not
affected by the impossible or unlawful condition shall be valid.
The condition not to do an impossible thing shall be considered as not having been agreed upon.
POSSIBLE CONDITION if it is capable of realization or actualization according to nature, law, public policy or good
customs.
2 KINDS OF IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS:
1. Physically Impossible cannot exist or cannot be done in its nature;

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2. Legally Impossible contrary to law, good customs, or public policy.

Only the affected obligation is void, if the obligation is divisible, and the part thereof not affected by the impossible
condition is valid.
Only the condition is void if there is already a pre-existing obligation and it does not depend upon the fulfillment of the
condition which is impossible.
1184. The condition that some event happen at a determinate time shall extinguish the obligation as soon as
the time expires or if it has become indubitable that the event will not take place.
Positive condition refers to the fulfillment of an event or performance of an act
Negative condition refers to the non-fulfillment or non-performance of an act.
POSITIVE SUSPENSIVE CONDITION
The obligation is extinguished:
1. As soon as the TIME EXPIRES without the event taking place;
2. As soon as it has become certain that the EVENT WILL NOT TAKE PLACE although the time specified has not
yet expired.
1185. The condition that some event will not happen at a determinate time shall render the obligation effective
from the moment the time indicated has elapsed, or if it has become evident that the event cannot occur.
If no time has been fixed, the condition shall be deemed fulfilled at such time as may have probably been
contemplated, bearing in mind the nature of the obligation.
** This is a condition of non-happening of a future event.
The obligation shall become effective and binding:
a) From the moment the time indicated has elapsed without the event taking place;
b) From the moment it has become evident that the event cannot occur, although the time indicated has not yet
elapsed.
1184 -vs- 1185
1184
(POSITIVE SUSPENSIVE)
Jose obliges himself to give the pregnant woman Maria
P5000 if she would give birth on or before December 30.
a. Jose is LIABLE if Maria gives birth on or before
December 30.
b. Jose is NOT LIABLE if Maria gives birth after
December 30.
c. If Maria would have a miscarriage before December
30, the obligation is EXTINGUISHED.

1185
(NEGATIVE SUSPENSIVE)
Jose obliges himself to give the pregnant woman Maria
P5000 if she would NOT give birth on December 30.
a. Jose is NOT LIABLE if Maria gives birth on
December 30.
b. Jose is LIABLE if Maria DID NOT give birth on
December 30 if Maria gives birth BEFORE or AFTER
December 30.
c. If Maria would have a miscarriage before December
30, the obligation is deemed FULFILLED.

1186. The condition shall be deemed fulfilled when the obligor voluntarily prevents its fulfillment.
This provision speaks of the DOCTRINE OF CONSTRUCTIVE FULFILLMENT

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

Compare with Art. 1203

REQUISITES:
1. The condition is SUSPENSIVE;
2. The obligor ACTUALLY PREVENTS the fulfillment of the condition;
3. He acts VOLUNTARILY.

Malice or fraud is not required, as long as his purpose is to prevent the fulfillment of the condition.
No person shall profit by his own wrong.

1187. The effects of a conditional obligation to give, once the condition has been fulfilled, shall retroact to the
day of the constitution of the obligation. Nevertheless, when the obligation imposes reciprocal prestations
upon the parties, the fruits and interests during the pendency of the condition shall be deemed to have been
mutually compensated. If the obligation is unilateral, the debtor shall appropriate the fruits and interests
received, unless from the nature and circumstances of the obligation it should be inferred that the intention of
the person constituting the same was different.
In obligations to do and not to do, the courts shall determine, in each case, the retroactive effect of the
condition that has been complied with.

Applies only to fulfilled suspensive conditions.

Retroactive statute
The effects of the obligation is deemed to commence not from the fulfillment of the obligation but from the day
of its constitution (similar to the legitimation of a natural child)
When the obligation is unilateral, the debtor shall appropriate the fruits and interests received because he does
not receive any equivalent or valuable consideration from the obligee.

The article does not require the delivery of fruits or payment of interests accruing (accumulating) before the
fulfillment of the suspensive condition.

Obligations to do or not to do the retroactive effect shall be determined by the court using its sound discretion
without disregarding the intentions of the parties.

1188. The creditor may, before the fulfillment of the condition, bring the appropriate actions for the
preservation of his right.
The debtor may recover what during the same time he has paid by mistake in case of a suspensive condition.
Actions available to the creditor:
Action for prohibition restraining the alienation of the thing pending the happening of the suspensive condition;
Action to demand security if the debtor has become insolvent;
Action to set aside alienations made by the debtor in fraud of creditors;
Actions against adverse possessors to interrupt the running prescriptive period.
To have his rights annotated in the registry.
Rights of the DEBTOR entitled to recover what has been paid by mistake prior to the happening of the suspensive
condition.
1189. When the conditions have been imposed with the intention of suspending the efficacy of an obligation to
give, the following rules shall be observed in case of the improvement, loss or deterioration of the thing during

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

the pendency of the condition:

LOSS
(1) debtor without fault obligation is extinguished
(2) debtor with fault obligation to pay damages
DETERIORATION
(1) debtor without fault impairment is to be borne by the creditor
(2) debtor with fault creditor chooses: rescission of obligation, fulfillment, indemnity
IMPROVEMENT
(1) by nature or time improvement: inure to the benefit of the creditor
(2) at the expense of the debtor granted to the usufructuary
1190. When the conditions have for their purpose the extinguishment of an obligation to give, the parties, upon
the fulfillment of said conditions, shall return to each other what they have received.
In case of the loss, deterioration or improvement of the thing, the provisions which, with respect to the debtor,
are laid down in the preceding article shall be applied to the party who is bound to return.
As for the obligations to do and not to do, the provisions of the second paragraph of Article 1187 shall be
observed as regards the effect of the extinguishment of the obligation.

Refers to the fulfillment of a resolutory condition.

When the resolutory condition happened, the obligation is considered as if it did not exist.
The parties are bound to return or restore whatever they have received from each other reciprocal
restitution
Donation by reason of marriage if the marriage does not happen, such donation should be returned to the
donor.
Loss, deterioration and improvement governed by 1189.
In obligations to do and not to do, the courts shall determine, in each case, the retroactive effect of the
condition that has been complied with.

1191. The power to rescind obligations is implied in reciprocal ones, in case one of the obligors should not
comply with what is incumbent upon him.
The injured party may choose between the fulfillment and the rescission of the obligation, with the payment of
damages in either case. He may also seek rescission, even after he has chosen fulfillment, if the latter should
become impossible.
The court shall decree the rescission claimed, unless there be just cause authorizing the fixing of a period.
This is understood to be without prejudice to the rights of third persons who have acquired the thing, in
accordance with Articles 1385 and 1388 and the Mortgage Law.
* This remedy should be termed as resolution, not rescission (Paras).
* This provision is not applicable to contracts of partnership (governed by Arts. 1786 & 1788), and sales of real and
personal properties by installments (governed by Maceda and Recto laws)
RECIPROCAL each is a debtor and creditor of the other
RESCISSION resolution or cancellation of the contract
Applies only to reciprocal obligations where two parties are mutually debtor and creditor of each other in the
same transaction. The cause must be identical ad the obligations must arise simultaneously.

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

The party who can demand rescission should be the party who is ready, willing, and able to comply with his
own obligations while the other is not capable to perform his own.

REMEDIES:
1. Specific performance or fulfillment of obligation with damages;
2. Rescission of contract with damages.
Effect of rescission: the parties must surrender whatever they have received from the other, and the obligation to pay is
extinguished.
If there is an express stipulation of automatic rescission between parties such resolution shall take place only after
the creditor has notified the debtor of his choice of rescission subject to judicial scrutiny.
1192. In case both parties have committed a breach of the obligation, the liability of the first infractor shall be
equitably tempered by the courts. If it cannot be determined which of the parties first violated the contract, the
same shall be deemed extinguished, and each shall bear his own damages.
FIRST INFRACTOR KNOWN
The liability of the first infractor should be equitably reduced. equitably offset each others damages.
FIRST INFRACTOR CANNOT BE DETERMINED
The court shall declare the extinguishment of the obligation and each shall bear his own damages.
Section 2 Obligations with a Period
1193. Obligations for whose fulfillment a day certain has been fixed, shall be demandable only when that day
comes.
Obligations with a resolutory period take effect at once, but terminate upon arrival of the day certain.
A day certain is understood to be that which must necessarily come, although it may not be known when.
If the uncertainty consists in whether the day will come or not, the obligation is conditional, and it shall be
regulated by the rules of the preceding Section.
PERIOD / TERM consists in a space or length of time upon the arrival of which, the demandability or the
extinguishment of an obligation is determined; it may be definite (exact date or time is known) or indefinite (arrival of
date is unknown but sure to come).
- Future + Certain event
GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS:
a) EX DIE / SUSPENSIVE PERIOD from a day certain give rise to the obligation; suspensive effect.
b) IN DIEM / RESOLUTORY PERIOD arrival of a term certain terminated the obligation; resolutory effect.
Term length of time sure to come
Condition fact or event uncertain to come
Basis
1. TIME
2. FULFILLMENT

Period/Term
Always refers to FUTURE
Sure to happen at an exact date or
indefinite time but sure to come.

16

Condition
Can refer to past events unknown to
the parties
May or may not happen.

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

3. INFLUENCE

Merely fixes the time for the

demandability or performance of
obligation.

May cause the arising or cessation of

the obligation.

1194. In case of loss, deterioration or improvement of the thing before the arrival of the day certain, the rules in
Article 1189 shall be observed.
1195. Anything paid or delivered before the arrival of the period, the obligor being unaware of the period or
believing that the obligation has become due and demandable, may be recovered, with the fruits and interests.

If he was not aware of the period or he believes that the obligation has become due and demandable
he can recover what he paid or delivered including fruits and interests;
If he was aware and he paid voluntarily he cannot recover the delivery made; it is deemed a waiver of
the benefit of the term and the obligation is considered already matured.

The presumption is that the debtor knew that the debt was not yet due. He has the burden of proving that he
was unaware of the period.

1196. Whenever in an obligation a period is designated, it is presumed to have been established for the benefit
of both the creditor and the debtor, unless from the tenor of the same or other circumstances it should appear
that the period has been established in favor of one or of the other.

PRESUMPTION: Obligation with a period is for the benefit of both the creditor and debtor.
EXCEPTION: when it appears that the period is for the benefit of one or the other

The benefit of the term may be the subject of stipulation of the parties.
1. Term is for the benefit of the debtor alone he cannot be compelled to pay prematurely, but he can if
he desires to do so.
- Example: A obliges himself to pay B within 5 years. A cannot be compelled to pay prematurely, but he can pay anytime
within 5 years (A will benefit because he can pay anytime he wants as long as it is within 5 years; B will not benefit from
the interests if A decides to pay early).
2. Term is for the benefit of the creditor He may demand fulfillment even before the arrival of the term
but the debtor cannot require him to accept payment before the expiration of the stipulated period.
- Example: A borrows money from B and is obliged to make the payment on December 5. B may compel A to make the
payment before December 5, but A may not compel B to receive the payment before December 5 (B will benefit from
the interests that will accrue before December 5).

The creditor may have reasons other than the maturity of interest, thats why, unless the creditor consents, the
debtor has no right to accelerate the time of payment even if the premature tender includes an offer to pay the
principal and interest in full.

1197. If the obligation does not fix a period, but from its nature and the circumstances it can be inferred that a
period was intended, the courts may fix the duration thereof.
The courts shall also fix the duration of the period when it depends upon the will of the debtor.
In every case, the courts shall determine such period as may under the circumstances have been probably
contemplated by the parties. Once fixed by the courts, the period cannot be changed by them.

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

JUDICIAL PERIOD period designated by the court.

CONTRACTUAL PERIOD period fixed by the parties in their contract.
Court will fix a period:
1. When no period is mentioned, but it is inferable from the nature and circumstances of the obligation that a
period was intended by the parties.
2. When the period is dependent upon the will of the debtor.

If the obligation does not state and intend a period, the court is not authorized to fix a period.
The court must fix the duration of the period to prevent the possibility that the obligation may never be fulfilled
or to cure a defect in a contract whereby it is made to depend solely upon the will of one of the parties.

Court cannot fix the period:

1. If there is a period agreed upon by the parties and it has already lapsed or expired.
2. From the very moment the parties give their acceptance and consent to the period fixed by the court, it
becomes a law governing their contract.
1198. The debtor shall lose every right to make use of the period:
(1) When after the obligation has been contracted, he becomes insolvent, unless he gives a guaranty or
security for the debt;
(2) When he does not furnish to the creditor the guaranties or securities which he has promised;
(3) When by his own acts he has impaired said guaranties or securities after their establishment, and when
through a fortuitous event they disappear, unless he immediately gives new ones equally satisfactory;
(4) When the debtor violates any undertaking, in consideration of which the creditor agreed to the period;
(5) When the debtor attempts to abscond.
The period is disregarded and the obligation becomes pure and immediately demandable: [IGIVA]

[I] When debtor becomes insolvent;

The insolvency need not be judicially declared. It is sufficient that debtor could not pay his debts due to
lack of money or funds.
[G] When the debtor does not furnish guaranties or securities;
[I] When guaranties or securities given have been impaired or have disappeared;
If security was lost through debtors fault - impairment
If security was lost through fortuitous event - disappearance
[V] When debtor violates an undertaking;
If such undertaking is the reason for the creditor to agree with such period.
[A] When debtor attempts to abscond (escape).
Mere attempt to abscond is sufficient. It is an indication of bad faith.
Section 3 Alternative Obligations
1199. A person alternatively bound by different prestations shall completely perform one of them.
The creditor cannot be compelled to receive part of one and part of the other undertaking.
OBLIGATIONS WITH PLURAL PRESTATIONS:
1. CONJUNCTIVE/COMPOUND OBLIGATION - an obligation where the debtor has to perform ALL the several
prestations in the contract to extinguish the obligation.
2. ALTERNATIVE OBLIGATION an obligation where the debtor is required to fulfill ONLY ONE of the several

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

prestations to extinguish the obligation.

3. FACULTATIVE OBLIGATION an obligation where the debtor is bound to perform ONLY ONE prestation, with
a reserved right to choose another prestation as SUBSTITUTE for the principal.
1200. The right of choice belongs to the debtor, unless it has been expressly granted to the creditor.
The debtor shall have no right to choose those prestations which are impossible, unlawful or which could not
have been the object of the obligation.
Implied grant to the creditor is not allowed. If it does not appear on the agreement as to whom among them has the
right to choose, it is the debtor who can choose.
1201. The choice shall produce no effect except from the time it has been communicated.
The choice shall not produce any legal effect until it has been duly communicated to the other party.
It can be done in writing, verbally, impliedly, or any unequivocal means.
Once the choice has been communicated to the other party:
1. The obligation is now LIMITED only to the PRESTATION CHOSEN, with all the natural consequences flowing
therefrom;
2. The choice is IRREVOCABLE.

The performance of prestation without announcing the choice to the creditor is NOT BINDING.
The consent of the other party is NOT REQUIRED in making the choice that will in effect frustrate the clear
intention of the law and the nature of the alternative obligation.
If there is delay in the making of choice punish the one who is supposed to exercise the right of choice for the
delay he caused court may order the debtor to make a choice, or creditor to make the choice within certain
period, or court makes the choice.

1202. The debtor shall lose the right of choice when among the prestations whereby he is alternatively bound,
only one is practicable.

There being but one prestation available, this prestation becomes a simple obligation.

1203. If through the creditor's acts the debtor cannot make a choice according to the terms of the obligation,
the latter may rescind the contract with damages.
(1) If the debtor could not make a choice due to the creditors act of making the prestations impossible,
debtor may RESCIND the contract with damages - rescission takes place at the initiative of the debtor.
(2) If the debtor is being prevented to choose only a particular prestation, and there are others available,
he is free to choose from them, after notifying the creditor of his decision.
1204. The creditor shall have a right to indemnity for damages when, through the fault of the debtor, all the
things which are alternatively the object of the obligation have been lost, or the compliance of the obligation
has become impossible.
The indemnity shall be fixed taking as a basis the value of the last thing which disappeared, or that of the
service which last became impossible.
Damages other than the value of the last thing or service may also be awarded.
If the impossibility of all the objects of the alternative obligation is caused by the debtor, the creditor is entitled
to damages.
If such impossibility is caused by a fortuitous event, the obligation is extinguished and the debtor is released

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

from responsibility, unless the contrary is stipulated by the parties.

The creditor cannot claim for damages if the debtor can still perform the remaining prestations.
The damages that may be recovered is based on the last thing which disappeared or the service which became
impossible. This last one is converted into a simple obligation.

1205. When the choice has been expressly given to the creditor, the obligation shall cease to be alternative
from the day when the selection has been communicated to the debtor.
Until then the responsibility of the debtor shall be governed by the following rules:
A. only one thing lost fortuitous event creditor chooses from the remainder debtor delivers the choice to
creditor;
B. only one remains debtor delivers the same to the creditor;
C. only one thing lost fault of the debtor
1. creditor may choose any one of the remainders;
2. creditor may choose the price or value of the one which was lost;
3. may choose 1 or 2 plus damages
D. all things lost fault of the debtor creditor may choose the price of ANYONE of the things, with damages if
warranted.
The same rules shall be applied to obligations to do or not to do in case one, some or all of the prestations
should become impossible.

This article applies only when the right of choice has been expressly granted to the creditor.

1206. When only one prestation has been agreed upon, but the obligor may render another in substitution, the
obligation is called facultative.
The loss or deterioration of the thing intended as a substitute, through the negligence of the obligor, does not
render him liable. But once the substitution has been made, the obligor is liable for the loss of the substitute
on account of his delay, negligence or fraud.

If loss or deterioration happened before substitution is made, obligor is not liable; after substitution is
communicated, he is liable for loss (through delay, negligence or fraud)

Section 4 Joint and Solidary Obligations

1207. The concurrence of two or more creditors or of two or more debtors in one and the same obligation does
not imply that each one of the former has a right to demand, or that each one of the latter is bound to render,
entire compliance with the prestation. There is a solidary liability only when the obligation expressly so states,
or when the law or the nature of the obligation requires solidarity.
* In case of concurrence of two or more creditors or two or more debtors in one obligation, the presumption is that the
obligation is joint, and not solidary.
INDIVIDUAL OBLIGATION one debtor and one creditor
COLLECTIVE OBLIGATION two or more debtors and two or more creditors
1. JOINT entire obligation is to be paid or performed proportionately by the debtors;
2. SOLIDARY each one of the debtors are obliged to pay the entire obligation, each one of the creditors
has the right to demand from any of the debtors, the fulfillment of the entire obligation;

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

A. Passive Solidarity solidarity on the part of the DEBTORS

B. Active Solidarity solidarity on the part of the CREDITORS.
SOLIDARITY SHOULD BE EXPRESSED law, stipulation, nature of obligation.
When the obligation is ambiguous, it must be considered as joint obligation.

CONSEQUENCES OF SOLIDARITY:
1. Passive Solidarity full payment made by anyone of the solidary debtors extinguishes the obligation. The one
who paid can claim reimbursement from his co-debtors as regards their corresponding shares in the obligation.
A, B, & C are solidary debtors of D in the sum of P900.
D can demand payment of the entire obligation when it becomes due, from any one of the debtors or from all of them at
the same time.
If C paid the whole P900 to D, he may claim reimbursement from A and B.
2. Active Solidarity full payment to any of the creditors extinguishes the obligation. The creditor who received the
entire amount will be liable to pay the corresponding shares of his co-creditors in accordance with their internal
agreement.
Garfield owes the sum of P40,000 to Mickey, Minnie, Donald, and Pluto, who are solidary creditors. Garfield can pay
anyone of them. If Mickey received the P40,000, he is liable to pay the corresponding shares of his co-creditors.
MIXED SOLIDARITY
a. Solidary Debtors, Joint Creditors
P9,000.00 total debt
Debtors (Solidary)
Creditors (Joint)
Aida
pays P4,500.00 John
= P 4,500.00
Lorna
pays P4,500.00 Marsha
P 4,500.00
Fe

b. Joint Debtors, Solidary Creditors

P 9,000.00 total debt
Debtors (Joint)
Creditors (Solidary)
Aida
(P 3,000.00)
John (can claim from
debtors)
Lorna (P 3,000.00)
Marsha (-same-)
Fe
(P 3,000.00)

1208. If from the law, or the nature or the wording of the obligations to which the preceding article refers the
contrary does not appear, the credit or debt shall be presumed to be divided into as many shares as there are
creditors or debtors, the credits or debts being considered distinct from one another, subject to the Rules of
Court governing the multiplicity of suits.

This provision speaks of JOINT DIVISIBLE OBLIGATION.

When there is a concurrence of several creditors or of several debtors in one and in the same obligation, there
is a presumption that the obligation is joint.
Each of the creditors shall be entitled to demand only the payment of his proportionate share of the credit.
Each of the debtors may be compelled to pay only his proportionate share of the debt.
The credits or debts shall be considered distinct from one another.

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

CONSEQUENCES OF JOINT OBLIGATION:

1. Each debtor liable for a proportionate part of the entire debt;
Thales, Socrates, Plato, & Aristotle owe P100 to Bruce Lee
= 4 debtors and 1 creditor
Each of them owes Bruce Lee P25
Bruce Lee cannot collect the entire P100 from any one of them.
2. Each creditor entitled to a proportionate part of the credit;
Piggy owes P100 to Froggy and Fishy
= 1 debtor and 2 creditors
Froggy can only collect 50 from Piggy,
Same with Fishy
3. Demand made by one creditor upon one debtor produces the effects of default only as between them, but not
with respect to the others;
Bubbles demanded payment from Buttercup; Buttercup was in default. This does not mean that the others are in default
too because Bubbles did not demand from them.
4. The interruption of prescription caused by the demand made by one creditor upon one debtor will not benefit
the co-creditors;
Wittgenstein extended the period in which Tarski should have paid his debt to him. This does not mean that the same
extension applies to Tarski's debt to Davidson.
5. The insolvency of one debtor will not increase the liability of his co-debtors, nor will it allow a creditor to
demand anything from the co-creditors.
If Husserl and Merleau-Ponty are debtors of Sartre for P1,000,000.00 and Husserl becomes insolvent, the liability of
Merleau-Ponty will only be P500,000.00 representing his proportional share of in the whole obligation.
1209. If the division is impossible, the right of the creditors may be prejudiced only by their collective acts, and
the debt can be enforced only by proceeding against all the debtors. If one of the latter should be insolvent, the
others shall not be liable for his share.
JOINT INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATION an obligation where solidarity is not provided and the prestation or object is not
susceptible of division; its fulfillment requires the concurrence of all debtors, while doing each ones parts.
Batman and Robin jointly obliged themselves to deliver a brand new Toyota Fortuner worth P1,500,000.00 to
Superman. The object, a vehicle, is indivisible. They must deliver the thing jointly. In case of breach, the obligation is
converted into monetary obligation for indemnity for damages. Batman and Robin will be liable only for P 750,000.00
each.

The act of one is not binding (others must concur)

1210. The indivisibility of an obligation does not necessarily give rise to solidarity. Nor does solidarity of itself
imply indivisibility.

Solidarity is expressed in the stipulations of the party, law governing the obligation, or the nature of the
obligation.

INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATION an obligation where the prestation or object to be delivered cannot be performed by parts
without altering its essence or substance.
Basis

Indivisibility

Solidarity

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

1. Nature

Refers to the prestation of the contract

2. Number of
subjects / parties
3. Effect of
breach of
obligation

Does not require plurality of parties

Obligation is converted into monetary
obligation for indemnity for damages
each debtor is liable only for his part in
the indemnity.

Refers to the tie existing between

parties of the obligation (who is liable)
Requires plurality of parties
The liability, even if converted into
indemnity for damages, remains
solidary.

1211. Solidarity may exist although the creditors and the debtors may not be bound in the same manner and by
the same periods and conditions.

The solidarity of the debtors is not affected even if different terms and conditions are made applicable to them.
Enforcement of the terms and conditions may be made at different times. The obligations which have matured
can be enforced while those still undue will have to be awaited. Enforcement can be made against any one of
the solidary debtors although it can happen that a particular obligation chargeable to a particular debtor is not
yet due. He will be answerable for all the prestations which fall due although chargeable to the other codebtors.

Sad Face, Happy, and Fanny got a loan of P150 from Smiley. They signed a promissory note solidarily binding
themselves to pay Smiley under the following terms:
Sad Face will pay P50 with 3% on December 30, 2006
Happy will pay P50 with 4% on December 30, 2007
Fanny will pay P50 with 5% on December 30, 2008
On December 31, 2006, Smiley can collect his P50 with 3% from any one of the debtors, but not the whole P150
because it is not yet entirely due. The maturity of the other amounts should still be awaited. If maturity comes, Smiley
can collect from any of the debtors, because they are expressly solidary in liabilities, and not affected by the secondary
stipulations.
1212. Each one of the solidary creditors may do whatever may be useful to the others, but not anything which
may be prejudicial to the latter.

Every solidary creditor is benefited by the useful acts of any one of them.
If a solidary creditor performs an act which is not fair to his co-creditors, the act may have valid legal effects or
the obligation of the debtor due to them may be extinguished, but the performing creditor shall be liable to his
co-creditors.

Question: May solidary creditors perform an act that is beneficial to others?

1213. A solidary creditor cannot assign his rights without the consent of the others.
Assign transfer of right

The assignee does not become a solidary creditor, and any payment made upon him by the debtor does not
extinguish the obligation. He is considered a STRANGER, and his acts are not binding to the solidarity.

DOCTRINE OF MUTUAL AGENCY - In solidary obligations, the act of one is act of the others.
Exceptions to the doctrine:
1. Art. 1212 a creditor may not perform an act prejudicial to other creditors

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

2. Art. 1213 a creditor cannot transfer his right without consent

1214. The debtor may pay any one of the solidary creditors; but if any demand, judicial or extrajudicial, has
been made by one of them, payment should be made to him.
The debtor can pay any one of the solidary creditors. Such payment when accepted by any of the solidary
creditors will extinguish the obligation.
To avoid confusion on the payment of the obligation, the debtor is required to ay only to the demanding creditor
and that payment is sufficient to effect the extinguishment of the obligation.
In case two or more demands made by the other creditors, the first demand must be given priority.

1215. Novation, compensation, confusion or remission of the debt, made by any of the solidary creditors or
with any of the solidary debtors, shall extinguish the obligation, without prejudice to the provisions of Article
1219.
The creditor who may have executed any of these acts, as well as he who collects the debt, shall be liable to
the others for the share in the obligation corresponding to them.
NOVATION obligations are modified by:
1. Changing their object or principal conditions;
2. Substituting the person of the debtor; and
3. Subrogating (placing) a third person in the rights of the creditor. [Art. 1291]
COMPENSATION takes place when two persons, in their own right, become creditors and debtors of each other
the amount of one is covered by the amount of the other
Erap borrowed P100 from Fernando.
Fernando borrowed P75 from Erap.
Eraps obligation to Fernando is now P25 only, because the original obligation was offset by Fernandos supposed-tobe obligation to Erap.
CONFUSION takes place when the characters of creditor and debtor are merged in the same person.
Tito pays his debt to Vic with a check payable to cash.
Vic paid his debt to Joey with the same check.
Joey paid his debt to Tito, with the same check Tito issued to Vic.
Tito becomes paid by his own check. He becomes the debtor and the creditor of himself at the same time.
REMISSION the gratuitous abandonment by the creditor of his right; acceptance of the obligor is necessary.
These 4 modes of extinguishing obligations are acts prejudicial to the other solidary co-creditors because these
have the effect of extinguishing the debt or obligation which is due to all of them.
The only recourse of the co-creditors is to let the one who executed any of those acts be liable for the shares
corresponding to all his co-creditors (in their internal agreement).

1216. The creditor may proceed against any one of the solidary debtors or some or all of them simultaneously.
The demand made against one of them shall not be an obstacle to those which may subsequently be directed
against the others, so long as the debt has not been fully collected.

When there is passive solidarity, the creditor can proceed against:

Any of the solidary debtors;
Some of the solidary debtors;

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All of the solidary debtors, simultaneously.

Extrajudicial demands - first demand shall not prevent subsequent demands on the other co-debtors, if co-debtor first to
have been required to fulfill obligation did not act on it.
1217. Payment made by one of the solidary debtors extinguishes the obligation. If two or more solidary debtors
offer to pay, the creditor may choose which offer to accept.
He who made the payment may claim from his co-debtors only the share which corresponds to each, with the
interest for the payment already made. If the payment is made before the debt is due, no interest for the
intervening period may be demanded.
When one of the solidary debtors cannot, because of his insolvency, reimburse his share to the debtor paying
the obligation, such share shall be borne by all his co-debtors, in proportion to the debt of each.
Payment consists in the delivery of the thing or the rendition (rendering) of the service whish is the object of the
obligation.
Interest compensation for the use of borrowed money
Partial payment the solidary debtor who made the partial payment is entitles to be reimbursed only for such amount of
money which he had paid and which exceeds his own share in the obligation.
If one of the debtors is insolvent and could not pay his share in the obligation, all solidary debtors including the paying
debtor shall share proportionately in the settlement of the corresponding share of the insolvent debtor. [In short, his codebtors will save his ass.]
1218. Payment by a solidary debtor shall not entitle him to reimbursement from his co-debtors if such payment
is made after the obligation has prescribed or become illegal.
No reimbursement if:
1. Obligation PRESCRIBES
The creditor did not make any demand for more than 10 years.
2. Obligation becomes ILLEGAL
Law has been passed, making such prestation illegal.

1219. The remission made by the creditor of the share which affects one of the solidary debtors does not
release the latter from his responsibility towards the co-debtors, in case the debt had been totally paid by
anyone of them before the remission was effected.

Atty De Chavez: Ito ay provision sa tanga... (siyempre, 'pag nagbayad na, wala nang obligation, wala na ding
ire-remit...)

Any belated (delayed) remission by the creditor of the share of any of the debtor has no effect on the internal
relationship of the co-debtors.

Payment before remission: A, B, and C solidarily owe D P1,500.00. B paid the entire obligation. After which, D remitted
the share of C. B can collect P500.00 each from A and C even if the share of C in the obligation had been remitted.
Remission before payment: A, B, and C solidarily owe D P1,500.00. D remitted the share of C. Thereafter, B paid the

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entire obligation. B can collect P500.00 from A but not from C. However, B may ask D to give back P500, which is the
supposed-to-be share of C.

After the prior payment of the entire obligation, there is nothing to remit because the obligation had been
extinguished.

1220. The remission of the whole obligation, obtained by one of the solidary debtors, does not entitle him to
reimbursement from his co-debtors.

There is nothing to be reimbursed because he did not spend any money, the remission being a gratuitous act.

1221. If the thing has been lost or if the prestation has become impossible without the fault of the solidary
debtors, the obligation shall be extinguished.
If there was fault on the part of any one of them, all shall be responsible to the creditor, for the price and the
payment of damages and interest, without prejudice to their action against the guilty or negligent debtor.
If through a fortuitous event, the thing is lost or the performance has become impossible after one of the
solidary debtors has incurred in delay through the judicial or extrajudicial demand upon him by the creditor,
the provisions of the preceding paragraph shall apply.
Loss of the thing or impossibility of prestation
1. NO FAULT solidary debtors obligation is extinguished
2. FAULT of any one of them all are liable because of their mutual agency
3. FORTUITOUS EVENT delay on the part of the debtors all will be liable
If the thing due was not lost, but there is merely a delay, fraud or negligence on the part of one of the solidary
debtors, all (including the innocent) debtors will share in the payment of the PRINCIPAL prestation. The
damages and interest imposed will be borne by the guilty debtor.
Obligation to deliver is converted into an obligation to pay indemnity when there us loss or impossibility of
performance.

1222. A solidary debtor may, in actions filed by the creditor, avail himself of all defenses which are derived from
the nature of the obligation and of those which are personal to him, or pertain to his own share. With respect to
those which personally belong to the others, he may avail himself thereof only as regards that part of the debt
for which the latter are responsible.
DEFENSES OF A SOLIDARY DEBTOR:
1. Defense arising from the nature of the obligation such as payment, prescription, remission, statute of frauds,
presence of vices of consent, etc.
2. Defenses which are personal to him or which pertains to his own share alone such as minority, insanity and
others purely personal to him.
3. Defenses personal to the other solidary creditors but only as regards that part of the debt for which the other
creditors are liable.
Section 5 Divisible and Indivisible Obligations
1223. The divisibility or indivisibility of the things that are the object of obligations in which there is only one
debtor and only one creditor does not alter or modify the provisions of Chapter 2 of this Title.
DIVISIBILITY refers to the susceptibility of an obligation to be performed partially.

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Obligation to deliver 100 sacks of rice or a particular type

INDIVISIBILITY refers to the non-susceptibility of an obligation to partial performance.
Obligation to deliver a particular computer set

If a thing could be divided into parts and as divided, its value is impaired disproportionately, that thing is INDIVISIBLE.
1224. A joint indivisible obligation gives rise to indemnity for damages from the time anyone of the debtors
does not comply with his undertaking. The debtors who may have been ready to fulfill their promises shall not
contribute to the indemnity beyond the corresponding portion of the price of the thing or of the value of the
service in which the obligation consists.
* Relate this provision to Articles 1165, 1208 and 1209.
JOINT INDIVISIBLE OBLIGATION the object is indivisible but the liability of the parties is joint.

The unfulfilled undertaking (duty) is converted into a monetary obligation which is not divisible.
The guilty debtor is liable for damages.

1225. For the purposes of the preceding articles, obligations to give definite things and those which are not
susceptible of partial performance shall be deemed to be indivisible.
When the obligation has for its object the execution of a certain number of days of work, the accomplishment
of work by metrical units, or analogous things which by their nature are susceptible of partial performance, it
shall be divisible.
However, even though the object or service may be physically divisible, an obligation is indivisible if so
provided by law or intended by the parties.
In obligations not to do, divisibility or indivisibility shall be determined by the character of the prestation in
each particular case.
The following are considered INDIVISIBLE obligations:
1. Obligation to give definite things
2. Obligations which are not susceptible of partial performance
3. Even though the object or service may be physically divisible, it is indivisible if:
a. the law so provides
b. when the parties intended it to be indivisible
The following obligations are deemed DIVISIBLE:
1. When the object of the obligation is the execution of a certain number of days of work
2. When the object of the obligation is the accomplishment of work measured in units
3. When the object of the obligation is susceptible of partial compliance
4. When the object of the obligation is such that the debtor is required to pay in installments
If the contract is divisible, and a part of it is illegal, the illegal part is void, and the rest shall be valid and
enforceable.
If the contract is indivisible, and a part of it is illegal, the entire contract is void.
Partial performance of an indivisible obligation is tantamount to non-performance.

Section 6 Obligations with a Penal Clause

1226. In obligations with a penal clause, the penalty shall substitute the indemnity for damages and the
payment of interests in case of noncompliance, if there is no stipulation to the contrary. Nevertheless,

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damages shall be paid if the obligor refuses to pay the penalty or is guilty of fraud in the fulfillment of the
obligation.
The penalty may be enforced only when it is demandable in accordance with the provisions of this Code.
* An obligation with a penal clause may be defined as one to which an accessory undertaking is attached for the
purpose of insuring its performance by virtue of which the obligor is bound to pay a stipulated indemnity or perform a
stipulated prestation in case of breach.

Purposes:
1. Funcion coercitiva o de garantia to insure the performance of the obligation
2. Funcion liquidatoria to liquidate the amount of damages to be awarded to the injured party in case of
breach of the principal obligation; and
3. Funcion estrictamente penal in certain exceptional cases, to punish the obligor in case of breach of
the principal obligation.

This is an accessory obligation attached to the principal obligation, which imposes an additional liability in case
of breach of the principal obligation.
It pushes the debtor to perform his obligation faithfully and without delay within the period agreed upon, or
else, he suffers a fixed civil penalty without need of proving the damages of the other party.

The penalty imposable is a substitute for the indemnity for:

a. damages
b. payment of interest in case of breach of obligation
-unless the contrary is stipulated!
EXCEPTIONS additional damages may be recovered from the following acts:
If the debtor refuses to pay the penalty
If the debtor is guilty of fraud in the fulfillment of the obligation
If there is express stipulation that the other damages or interests are demandable to the penalty in the
penal clause
1227. The debtor cannot exempt himself from the performance of the obligation by paying the penalty, save in
the case where this right has been expressly reserved for him. Neither can the creditor demand the fulfillment
of the obligation and the satisfaction of the penalty at the same time, unless this right has been clearly granted
him. However, if after the creditor has decided to require the fulfillment of the obligation, the performance
thereof should become impossible without his fault, the penalty may be enforced.
A debtor cannot evade from payment of his principal obligation by choosing to pay the penalty stipulated,
except when the debtor is EXPRESSLY granted with the right to substitute the penalty for the principal
obligation. an obligation with penalty clause cannot be turned to facultative obligation unless expressly
stipulated in the contract.
The creditor cannot demand the stipulated fulfillment of the principal obligation and the penalty at the same
time, except
a. when the creditor was clearly given the right to enforce both the principal obligation and penalty;
b. when the creditor has demanded fulfillment of the obligation but cannot be fulfilled due to the
1. debtors fault creditor may demand for penalty
2. creditors fault he cannot claim the penalty
3. fortuitous event principal obligation and penalty are extinguished

1228. Proof of actual damages suffered by the creditor is not necessary in order that the penalty may be

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demanded.

As long as the agreement or contract is breached.

The mere non-fulfillment of the principal obligation entitles the creditor to the penalty stipulated.
The purpose of the penalty clause is precisely to avoid proving damages.

1229. The judge shall equitably reduce the penalty when the principal obligation has been partly or irregularly
complied with by the debtor. Even if there has been no performance, the penalty may also be reduced by the
courts if it is iniquitous or unconscionable.
JUDICIAL REDUCTION OF PENALTY
Principal obligation partly complied with by the debtor (but not in indivisible obligation, because it is
tantamount to non-compliance)
Principal obligation complied not in accordance with the tenor of the agreement (refers to irregular
performance)
Penalty iniquitous or unconscionable

Judges power to reduce penalties are limited to private contracts.

INIQUITOUS OR UNCONSCIONABLE when it is revolting to the conscience or common sense; grossly

disproportionate to the damages suffered.
PENALTY NOT ENFORCEABLE:
1. Impossible performance of principal obligation due to fortuitous events
2. Creditor prevented the debtor from fulfilling the obligation
3. Penalty is contrary to good morals or good customs
4. Both parties are guilty of breach of contract
5. Breach of contract by the creditor
6. None of the parties committed any willful or culpable violation of the agreement
1230. The nullity of the penal clause does not carry with it that of the principal obligation.
The nullity of the principal obligation carries with it that of the penal clause.
Because the penal clause is only an accessory to the principal obligation, it cannot exist alone.
If the penal clause is void, the principal obligation remains enforceable.
The nullity of penal clause does not mean the nullity of the principal.
For example:
In case of non-payment of P10,000, P1,000 per day as penalty shall be imposed. It is a void contract but it is not an
excuse that you don't have to pay the principal which is P10,000.
CHAPTER 4
EXTINHGUISHMENT OF OBLIGATIONS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1231. Obligations are extinguished:
1. by payment or performance
2. by loss of the thing due
3. by condonation or remission

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4. by confusion or merger of the rights of creditor and debtor

5. by compensation
6. by novation
Other causes of extinguishment of obligations, such as annulment, rescission, fulfillment of a resolutory
condition, and prescription, are governed elsewhere in this Code.
1232. Payment means not only the delivery of money but also the performance, in any other manner of an
obligation.
Payment means not only delivery of money but also the performance.

It is the fulfillment of the prestation due that extinguishes the obligation by the realization of the purposes for
which it was constituted
It is a juridical act which is voluntary, licit and made with the intent to extinguish an obligation
Requisites:
1. person who pays
2. the person to whom payment is made
3. the thing to be paid
4. the manner, time and place of payment etc
The paying as well as the one receiving should have the requisite capacity
Kinds:
1. normal when the debtor voluntarily performs the prestation stipulated
2. abnormal when he is forced by means of a judicial proceeding either to comply with prestation or to pay
indemnity
1233. A debt shall not be understood to have been paid unless the thing or service in which the oligatoin
consists has been completely delivered or rendered, as the case may be.
States 2 requisites of payment:
a.) identity of prestation - the very thing or service due must be delivered or released
b.) integrity prestation must be fulfilled completely
Time of payment the payment or performance must be on the date stipulated (may be made even
on Sundays or on any holiday, although some, like the Negotiable Instruments Law, states that payment in
such case may be made on the next succeeding business day)
The burden of proving that the obligation has been extinguished by payment devolves upon the debtor who
offers such a defense to the claim of the plaintiff creditor
The issuance of a receipt is a consequence of usage and good faith which must be observed (although our
Code has no provision on this) and the refusal of the creditor to issue a receipt without just cause is a ground
for consignation under Art 1256 ( if a receipt has been issued by payee, the testimony alone of payer would be
insufficient to prove alleged payments)
1234. If the obligation has been substantially performed in good faith, the obligor may recover as though there
had been a strict and complete fulfillment, less damages suffered by the obligee.
In order that there may be substantial performance of an obligation, there must have been an attempt in good
faith to perform, without any willful or intentional departure therefrom
The non-performance of a material part of a contract will prevent the performance from amounting to a
substantial compliance
A party who knowingly and willfully fails to perform his contract in any respect, or omits to perform a material
part of it cannot be permitted under the protection of this rule to compel the other party to perform; and the
trend of the more recent decisions is to hold that the percentage of omitted or irregular performance may in and

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of itself be sufficient to show that there has not been a substantial performance
The party who has substantially performed may enforce specific performance of the obligation of the other
party or may recover damages for their breach upon an allegation of performance, without proof of complete
fulfillment.
The other party, on the other hand, may by an independent action before he is sued, or by a counterclaim after
commencement of a suit against him, recover from the first party the damages which he has sustained by the
latters failure to completely fulfill his obligation

1235 When the oblige accepts the performance, knowing its incompleteness or irregularity, and without
expressing any protest or objection, the obligation is deemed fully complied with
A person entering into a contract has a right to insist on its performance in all particulars, according to its
meaning and spirit. But if he chooses to waive any of the terms introduced for his own benefit, he may do so.
But he is not obliged to accept anything else in place of that which he has contracted for and if he does not
waive this right, the other party cannot recover against him without performing all the stipulations on is part
To constitute a waiver, there must be an intentional relinquishment of a known right. A waiver will not result from
a mere failure to assert a claim for defective performance/payment. There must have been acceptance of the
defective performance with actual knowledge if the incompleteness or defect, under circumstances that would
indicate an intention to consider the performance as complete and renounce any claim arising from the defect
A creditor cannot object because of defects in performance resulting from his own acts or directions
1236. The creditor is not bound to accept payment or performance by a third person who has no interest in the
fulfillment of the obligation, unless there is a stipulation to the contrary. Whoever pays for another may
demand from the debtor what he has paid, except that if he paid without the knowledge or against the will of
the debtor, he can recover only insofar as the payment has been beneficial to the debtor
Reason for this article: whenever a third person pays there is a modification of the prestation that is due.
Generally, the 3rd person who paid anothers debt is entitled to recover the full amount he paid. The law,
however limits his recovery to the amount by which the debtor has been benefited, if the debtor has no
knowledge of, or has expressed his opposition to such payment
If the debt has been remitted, paid compensated or prescribed, a payment by a third person would constitute a
payment of what is not due; his remedy would be against the person who received the payment under such
conditions and not against the debtor who did not benefit from the payment
payment against debtors will even if payment of the third party is against the will of the debtor, upon payment
by the third party, the obligation between the debtor and creditor is already extinguished
1237. Whoever pays on behalf of the debtor without the knowledge or against the will of the latter, cannot
compel the creditor to subrogate him in his rights, such as those arising from a mortgage, guaranty or penalty
This article gives to the third person who paid only a simple personal action for reimbursement, without the
securities, guaranties and other rights recognized in the creditor, which are extinguished by the payment
1238. Payment made by a third person who does not intend to be reimbursed by the debtor is deemed to be a
donation, which requires the debtors consent/ but the payment is in any case valid as to the creditor who has
accepted it
ART 1239. In obligations to give, payment made by one who does not have the free disposal of the thing due
and capacity to alienate it shall not be valied, without prejudice to the provisions of article 1427 under the Title
on Natural Obligations
consignation will not be proper here. In case the creditor accepts the payment, the payment will not be valid
except in the case provided in article 1427
1240. Payment shall be made to the person in whose favor the obligation has been constituted, or his

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successor in interest, or any person authorized to receive it

the authority of a person to receive payment for the creditor may be
a.) legal conferred by law (e.g.,guardian of the incapacitated, administrator of the estate of the deceased)
b.) conventional when the authority has been given by the creditor himself (e.g., agent who is appointed to collect
from the debtor
payment made by the debtor to a wrong party does not extinguish the obligation as to the creditor (void), if
there is no fault or negligence which can be imputed to the latter (even when the debtor acted in utmost good
faith, or through error induced by the fraud of the 3rd person). It does not prejudice the creditor and the accrual
of interest is not suspended by it
1241. Payment to a person who is incapacitated to administer his property shall be valid if he has kept the
thing delivered, or insofar as the payment has been beneficial to him. Payment made to a third person shall
also be valid insofar as it has redounded to the benefit of the creditor. Such benefit to the creditor need not be
proved in the following cases:
(1) If after the payment, the third person acquires the creditor's rights;
(2) If the creditor ratifies the payment to the third person;
(3) If by the creditor's conduct, the debtor has been led to believe that the third person had authority to receive
the payment. (1163a)
payment shall be considered as having benefited the incapacitated person if he made an intelligent and
reasonable use thereof, for purposes necessary or useful to him, such as that which his legal representative
would have or could have done under similar circumstances, even if at the time of the complaint the effect of
such use no longer exists (e.g., taxes on creditors property, money to extinguish a mortgage on creditors
property)
the debtor is not released from liability by a payment to one who is not the creditor nor one authorized to
receive the payment, even if the debtor believed in good faith that he is the creditor, except to the extent that
the payment inured to the benefit of the creditor
in addition to those mentioned above, payment to a third person releases the debtor:
a.) when, without notice of the assignment of credit, he pays to the original creditor
b.) when in good faith he pays to one in possession of the credit
even when the creditor receives no benefit from the payment to a third person, he cannot demand payment
anew, if the mistake of the debtor was due to the fault of the creditor
1242. Payment made in good faith to any person in possession of the credit shall release the debtor. (1164)
the person in possession of the credit is neither the creditor nor one authorized by him to receive payment, but
appears under the circumstances of the case, to be the creditor. He appears to be the owner of the credit,
although in reality, he may not be the owner (e.g., an heir who enters upon the hereditary estate and collects
the credits thereof, but who is later deprived of the inheritance because of incapacity to succeed)
it is necessary not only that the possession of the credit be legal, but also that the payment be in good faith
1243. Payment made to the creditor by the debtor after the latter has been judicially ordered to retain the debt
shall not be valid. (1165)
the payment to the creditor after the credit has been attached or garnished is void as to the party who obtained
the attachment or garnishment, to the extent of the amount of the judgment in his favor.
The debtor upon whom garnishment order is served can always deposit the money in court by way of
consignation and thus relieve himself from further liability
1244. The debtor of a thing cannot compel the creditor to receive a different one, although the latter may be of
the same value as, or more valuable than that which is due. In obligations to do or not to do, an act or
forbearance cannot be substituted by another act or forbearance against the obligee's will. (1166a)

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Upon agreement of consent of the creditor, the debtor may deliver a different thing or perform a different
prestation in lieu of that stipulated. In this case there may be dation in payment or novation
The defects of the thing delivered may be waived by the creditor, if he expressly so declares or if, with
knowledge thereof, he accepts the thing without protest or disposes of it or consumes it

1245. Dation in payment, whereby property is alienated to the creditor in satisfaction of a debt in money, shall
be governed by the law of sales. (n)
This is the delivery and transmission of ownership of a thing by the debtor to the creditor as an accepted
equivalent of the performance of the obligation.
The property given may consist not only of a thing but also of a real right (such as a usufruct)
Considered as a novation by change of the object
Where the debt is money, the law on sale shall govern; in this case, the act is deemed to be a sale with the
amount of the obligation to the extent that it is extinguished being considered as price
Difference between Dation and Cession (see Art. 1255)
1246. When the obligation consists in the delivery of an indeterminate or generic thing, whose quality and
circumstances have not been stated, the creditor cannot demand a thing of superior quality. Neither can the
debtor deliver a thing of inferior quality. The purpose of the obligation and other circumstances shall be taken
into consideration. (1167a)
If there is disagreement between the debtor and the creditor as to the quality of the thing delivered, the court
should decide whether it complies with the obligation, taking into consideration the purpose and other
circumstances of the obligation
Both the creditor and the debtor may waive the benefit of this article
see Art. 1244
1247. Unless it is otherwise stipulated, the extrajudicial expenses required by the payment shall be for the
account of the debtor. With regard to judicial costs, the Rules of Court shall govern. (1168a)
This is because the payment is the debtors duty and it inures to his benefit in that he is discharged from the
burden of the obligation
1248. Unless there is an express stipulation to that effect, the creditor cannot be compelled partially to receive
the prestations in which the obligation consists. Neither may the debtor be required to make partial payments.
However, when the debt is in part liquidated and in part unliquidated, the creditor may demand and the
debtor may effect the payment of the former without waiting for the liquidation of the latter. (1169a)
The creditor who refuses to accept partial prestations does not incur delay except when there is abuse of right
or if good faith requires acceptance
This article does not apply to obligations where there are several subjects or where the various parties are
bound under different terms and conditions
1249. The payment of debts in money shall be made in the currency stipulated, and if it is not possible to
deliver such currency, then in the currency which is legal tender in the Philippines.
The delivery of promissory notes payable to order, or bills of exchange or other mercantile documents shall
produce the effect of payment only when they have been cashed, or when through the fault of the creditor they
have been impaired.
In the meantime, the action derived from the original obligation shall be held in the abeyance. (1170)
LEGAL TENDER - means such currency which in a given jurisdiction can be used for the payment of debts,
public and private, and which cannot be refused by the creditor
- That which a debtor may compel a creditor to accept in payment of debt.
so long as the notes were legal tender at the time they were paid or delivered, the person accepting them must

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suffer the loss if thereafter they became valueless

the provisions of the present article have been modified by RA No. 529 which states that payments of all
monetary obligations should now be made in currency which is legal tender in the Phils. A stipulation providing
payment in a foreign currency is null and void but it does not invalidate the entire contract, and R.A. 4100.
A check, whether a managers check or an ordinary check is not legal tender and an offer of the check in
payment of debt is not a valid tender of payment

1250. In case an extraordinary inflation or deflation of the currency stipulated should supervene, the value of
the currency at the time of the establishment of the obligation shall be the basis of payment, unless there is an
agreement to the contrary. (n)
Applies only where a contract or agreement is involved. It does not apply where the obligation to pay arises
from law, independent of contracts
Extraordinary inflation of deflation may be said to be that which is unusual or beyond the common fluctuations
in the value of the currency, which parties could not have reasonably foreseen or which was manifestly beyond
their contemplation at the time when the obligation was constituted
1251. Payment shall be made in the place designated in the obligation. There being no express stipulation and
if the undertaking is to deliver a determinate thing, the payment shall be made wherever the thing might be at
the moment the obligation was constituted. In any other case the place of payment shall be the domicile of the
debtor.
If the debtor changes his domicile in bad faith or after he has incurred in delay, the additional expenses shall be
borne by him. These provisions are without prejudice to venue under the Rules of Court.(1171a)
Since the law fixes the place of payment at the domicile of the debtor, it is the duty of the creditor to go there
and receive payment; he should bear the expenses in this case because the debtor cannot be made to
shoulder the expenses which the creditor incurs in performing a duty imposed by law and which is for his
benefit.
But if the debtor changes his domicile in bad faith or after he has incurred in delay, then the additional
expenses shall be borne by him
When the debtor has been required to remit money to the creditor, the latter bears the risks and the expenses
of the transmission. In cases however where the debtor chooses this means of payment, he bears the risk of
loss.
SUBSECTION 1
APPLICATION OF PAYMENTS
1252. He who has various debts of the same kind in favor of one and the same creditor, may declare at the time
of making the payment, to which of them the same must be applied. Unless the parties so stipulate, or when
the application of payment is made by the party for whose benefit the term has been constituted, application
shall not be made as to debts which are not yet due.
If the debtor accepts from the creditor a receipt in which an application of the payment is made, the former
cannot complain of the same, unless there is a cause for invalidating the contract. (1172a)
Requisites:
1. 1 debtor and 1 creditor only
2. 2 or more debts of the same kind
3. all debts must be due
4. amount paid by the debtor must not be sufficient to cover the total amount of all the debts
It is necessary that the obligations must all be due. Exceptions: (1) whe there is a stipulation to the contrary;
and (2) the application of payment is made by the party for whose benefit the term or period has been
constituted (relate to Art. 1196).

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It is also necessary that all the debts be for the same kind, generally of a monetary character. This includes
obligations which were not originally of a monetary character, but at the time of application of payment, had
been converted into an obligation to pay damages by reason of breach or nonperformance.
If the debtor makes a proper application of payment but the creditor refuses to accept it because he wants to
apply it to another debt, such creditor will incur in delay
RIGHT OF DEBTOR TO MAKE APPLICATION. If at the time of payment, the debtor does not exercise his right
to apply it to any of his debts, the application shall be understood as provided by law, unless the creditor makes
the application and his decision is accepted by the debtor. This application of payment can be made by the
creditor only in the receipt issued at the time of payment (although the application made by creditor may be
contested by the debtor if the latters assent to such application was vitiated by such causes as mistake,
violence, intimidation, fraud, etc)
The debtor and the creditor by agreement, can validly change the application of payment already made without
prejudice to the rights of third persons acquired before such agreement

1253. If the debt produces interest, payment of the principal shall not be deemed to have been made until the
interests have been covered. (1173)
Interest paid first before principal
Applies both to compensatory interest (that stipulated as earnings of the amount due under the obligation) and
to interest due because of delay or mora on the part of the debtor
SC held that this provision applies only in the absence of a verbal or written agreement to the contrary ( merely
directory, not mandatory)
1254. When the payment cannot be applied in accordance with the preceding rules, or if application can not be
inferred from other circumstances, the debt which is most onerous to the debtor, among those due, shall be
deemed to have been satisfied. If the debts due are of the same nature and burden, the payment shall be
applied to all of them proportionately. (1174a)
As to which of 2 debts is more onerous is fundamentally a question of fact, which courts must determine on the
basis of the circumstances of each case
Debts are not of the same burden (1st par.) Rules:
1. Oldest are more onerous than new ones
2. One bearing interest more onerous than one that does not
3. secured debt more onerous than unsecured one
4. principal debt more onerous than guaranty
5. solidary debtor more onerous than sole debtor
6. share in a solidary obligation more onerous to a solidary debtor
7. liquidated debt more onerous than unliquidated
Debts are of the same burden (2nd par.) the payment shall be applied to all of them pro rata or proportionately.
Example: debtor owes his creditor several debts, all of them due, to wit: (1) unsecured debt, (2) a debt secured
with mortgage of the debtor's property, (3) a debt with interest, (4) a debt in which the debtor is solidarily liable
with another. Partial payment was made by the debtor, without specification as to which the payment should be
applied.
The most onerous is (4), followed by (2), then (3), then (1). Consequently, payment shall be made in that
order.
SUBSECTION 2
PAYMENT BY CESSION
1255. The debtor may cede or assign his property to his creditors in payment of his debts. This cession, unless

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there is stipulation to the contrary, shall only release the debtor from responsibility for the net proceeds of the
thing assigned. The agreements which, on the effect of the cession, are made between the debtor and his
creditors shall be governed by special laws. (1175a)
Cession is a special form of payment whereby the debtor abandons or assigns all of his property for the benefit
of his creditors so that the latter may obtain payment of their credits from the proceeds of the property.
Requisites:
1. plurality of debts
2. partial or relative insolvency of the debtor
3. acceptance of cession by the creditors
Kinds of Cession:
1. Contractual (Art. 1255)
2. Judicial (Insolvency Law)
Must be initiated by debtors
Requires two or more creditors, debtors insolvent, cession accepted by creditors
Such assignment does not have the effect of making the creditors the owners of the property of the debtor
unless there is an agreement to that effect

Difference between Dation and Cession

DATION

CESSION

may be 1 creditor

many creditors

does not require insolvency

requires partial or relative insolvency

delivery of a thing

delivery of all the property

transfer of ownership of the property

no transfer of ownership (only of possession and

administration)

a novation
payment extinguishes obligation (to the extent of the effect is merely to release debtor from the net
the value of the thing delivered)
proceeds of the property; hence, partial
extinguishment of obligation.
SUBSECTION 3
TENDER OF PAYMENT AND CONSIGNATION
1256. If the creditor to whom tender of payment has been made refuses without just cause to accept it, the
debtor shall be released from responsibility by the consignation of the thing or sum due.
Consignation alone shall produce the same effect in the following cases:
(1) When the creditor is absent or unknown, or does not appear at the place of payment;
(2) When he is incapacitated to receive the payment at the time it is due;
(3) When, without just cause, he refuses to give a receipt;
(4) When two or more persons claim the same right to collect;
(5) When the title of the obligation has been lost. (1176a)
Tender of payment : manifestation made by the debtor to the creditor of his desire to comply with his
obligation; The act of the debtor of offering to the creditor the thing or amount due
Consignation : Deposit of the object or the amount due with the proper court after refusal or inability of the
creditor to accept the tender of payment
Tender of payment by certified check is valid; a mere check would also be valid for tender of payment if the

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creditor makes no prompt objection, but this does not estop the latter from later demanding payment in cash
When a tender of payment is made in such a form that the creditor could have immediately realized payment if
he had accepted the tender, followed by a prompt attempt of the debtor to deposit the means of payment in
court by way of consignation, the accrual of interest on the obligation will be suspended from the date of such
tender. But when the tender of payment is not accompanied by the means of payment, and the debtor did not
take any immediate step to make a consignation, then the interest is not suspended from the time of such
tender.
GENERAL REQUISITES OF VALID CONSIGNATION vs SPECIAL REQUISITES
General Req : relative to payment (Arts. 1232 - 1251)
Special Req : very nature of consignation (Arts. 1256 1258)

Special Requisites of consignation: [DLN-DN]

1. [D] There was a debt due
2. [L] The consignation of the obligation was made because of some legal cause provided in the present article
3. [N] That previous notice of the consignation has been given to persons interested in the performance of the
obligation
4. [D] The amount or thing due was placed at the disposal of the court
5. [N] After the consignation had been made the persons interested had been notified thereof

If the reason for consignation is the unjust refusal of the creditor to accept payment, it must be shown:
1. That there was previous tender of payment, without which the consignation is ineffective
2. That the tender of payment was of the very thing due, or in case of money obligations that legal tender
currency was offered
3. That the tender of payment was unconditional and
4. That the creditor refused to accept payment without just cause

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Exception to requirement for tender of payment: [AIR-TT]

[A] When creditor is absent or unknown or does not appear at place of payment
[I] When he is incapacitated to receive payment
[R] When he refuses to give receipt, without just cause
[T] When two or more persons claim same right to collect
[T] When title of the obligation has been lost

The 1st and 2nd Special Requisites of Consignation are embodied in Article 1256.
As to the 2nd requisite ([L] legal cause) the following musst be present:
(a) the tender of payment must have been made prior to the consignation
(b) that it must have been unconditional [e.g. where the debtor tendered a check for P3,250 to the creditor as
payment of a debt conditioned upon the signing by the latter of a motion to dismiss a complaint for legal
separation, such tender of payment is invalid.]
(c) that the creditor must have refused to accept the payment without just cause [it is not necessary for the court
where the thing or the amount is deposited to determine whether the refusal of the creditor to accept the same
was with or without just cause. The question will be resolved anyway in a subsequent proceeding. Hence, the
mere refusal of the creditor to accept the tender of payment will be sufficient (Manresa)]

1257. In order that the consignation of the thing due may release the obligor, it must first be announced to the
persons interested in the fulfillment of the obligation.
The consignation shall be ineffectual if it is not made strictly in consonance with the provisions which regulate
payment. (1177)
The lack of notice does not invalidate the consignation but simply makes the debtor liable for the expenses

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The tender of payment and the notice of consignation sent to the creditor may be made in the same act. In
case of absent or unknown creditors, the notice may be made by publication

1st paragraph of this article pertains to the 3rd Special Requisite of Consignation ([N] Previous Notice)
- Tender of Payment vs Previous Notice : the former is a friendly and private act manifested only to the creditor;
the latter is manifested also to other persons interested in the fulfillment of the obligation.
2nd paragraph of this article pertains to the General Requisites of Consignation (Arts. 1232-1251), which must
be complied with

1258. Consignation shall be made by depositing the things due at the disposal of judicial authority, before
whom the tender of payment shall be proved, in a proper case, and the announcement of the consignation in
other cases.
The consignation having been made, the interested parties shall also be notified thereof. (1178)
1st paragraph hereof - 4th Special Requisite of Consignation ([D] Disposal of the Court)
- this is complied with if the debtor depostis the thing or amount with the Clerk of Court
2nd paragraph hereof - 5th Special Requisite of Consignation ([N] Subsequent Notice)
- this is to enable the creditor to withdraw the goods or money deposited.
1259. The expenses of consignation, when properly made, shall be charged against the creditor. (1179)
The consignation is properly made when:
1.) after the thing has been deposited in court, the creditor accepts the consignation without objection and without any
reservation of his right to contest it because of failure to comply with any of the requisites for consignation; and
2.) when the creditor objects to the consignation but the court, after proper hearing, declares that the consignation
has been validly made
*in these cases, the creditor bears the expenses of the consignation
1260. Once the consignation has been duly made, the debtor may ask the judge to order the cancellation of the
obligation. Before the creditor has accepted the consignation, or before a judicial declaration that the
consignation has been properly made, the debtor may withdraw the thing or the sum deposited, allowing the
obligation to remain in force. (1180)
Consignation has a retroactive effect and the payment is deemed to have been made at the time of the deposit
of the thing in court or when it was placed at the disposal of the judicial authority
The effects of consignation are: 1.) the debtor is released in the same manner as if he had performed the
obligation at the time of the consignation because this produces the same effect as a valid payment, 2.) the
accrual of interest on the obligation is suspended from the moment of consignation, 3.) the deteriorations or
loss of the thing or amount consigned occurring without fault of the debtor must be borne by the creditor,
because the risks of the thing are transferred to the creditor from the moment of deposit 4.) any increment or
increase in value of the thing after the consignation inures to the benefit of the creditor.
When the amount consigned does not cover the entire obligation, the creditor may accept it, reserving his right
to the balance. If no reservations are made, the acceptance by the creditor of the amount consigned may be
regarded as a waiver of further claims under the contract
1261. If, the consignation having been made, the creditor should authorize the debtor to withdraw the same, he
shall lose every preference which he may have over the thing. The co-debtors, guarantors and sureties shall be
released. (1181a)
When the consignation has already been made and the creditor has accepted it or it has been judicially
declared as proper, the debtor cannot withdraw the thing or amount deposited unless the creditor consents
thereto. If the creditor authorizes the debtor to withdraw the same, there is a revival of the obligation, which has

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already been extinguished by the consignation, and the relationship of debtor and creditor is restored to the
condition in which it was before the consignation. But third persons, solidary co-debtors, guarantors and
sureties who are benefited by the consignation are not prejudiced by the revival of the obligation between the
debtor and the creditor
SECTION 2
LOSS OF THE THING DUE
1262. An obligation which consists in the delivery of a determinate thing shall be extinguished if it should be
lost or destroyed without the fault of the debtor, and before he has incurred in delay.
When by law or stipulation, the obligor is liable even for fortuitous events, the loss of the thing does not
extinguish the obligation and he shall be responsible for damages. The same rule applies when the nature of
the obligation requires the assumption of risk.
1263: In an obligation to deliver a generic thing, the loss or destruction of anything of the same kind does not
extinguish the obligation. (n)
1264. The courts shall determine whether, under the circumstances, the partial loss of the object of the
obligation is so important as to extinguish the obligation. (n)
1265. Whenever the thing is lost in the possession of the debtor, it shall be presumed that the loss was due to
his fault, unless there is proof to the contrary, and without prejudice to the provisions of article 1165. This
presumption does not apply in case of earthquake, flood, storm, or other natural calamity. (1183a)
3rd paragraph of Art. 1165: whe the obligor delays, or has promised to deliver the same thing to two or more
persons who do not have the same interest, he shall be liable for any fortuitious event until he has effected the
delivery
Hence, in cases where Art. 1165, par. 3 is applicable, even if the debtor can prove that the loss of the thing in
his possession was not through his fault or that it was through a fortuitous event, he shall still be liable to the
creditor for damages.

1266. The debtor in obligations to do shall also be released when the prestation becomes legally or physically
impossible without the fault of the obligor. (1184a)
LEGAL IMPOSSIBILITY : may either be 1. direct (when the law prohibits the performance or execution of the work agreed upon, i.e. when it is immoral or
dangerous)
2. indirect (the law imposes duties of a superior character upon the obligor which are incompatible with the work
agreed upon, although the latter may be perfectly licit, as where the obligor is drafted for military service or for a
civil function)
PHYSICAL IMPOSSIBILTY : examples death of the debtor; when there is an accident...
1267. When the service has become so difficult as to be manifestly beyond the contemplation of the parties,
the obligor may also be released therefrom, in whole or in part. (n)
DOCTRINE OF UNFORESEEN EVENT / DOCTRINE OF RELATIVE IMPOSSIBILITY
(rebus sic stantibus)
It refers to obligation "to do" (personal obligation)
Parties are presumed to have the risk

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It does not apply to aleatory contracts (insurance contract)

Excludes highly speculative business (stock exchange)
Monatory obligations are also excluded (governed by 1357)
Requisites:
1.
event or change in the circumstances could have been foreseen of the time of the execution contract
2.
it makes the performance of the contract extremely difficult but not impossible
3.
the event must not be due to the act of any of the parties
4.
the contract is for a future prestation. If the contract is of immediate fulfillment, the gross inequality of the
reciprocal prestations may be involve desion or want of cause.
1268. When the debt of a thing certain and determinate proceeds from a criminal offense, the debtor shall not
be exempted from the payment of its price, whatever may be the cause for the loss, unless the thing having
been offered by him to the person who should receive it, the latter refused without justification to accept it.
(1185)
1269. The obligation having been extinguished by the loss of the thing, the creditor shall have all the rights of
action which the debtor may have against third persons by reason of the loss. (1186)
1270. Condonation or remission is essentially gratuitous, and requires the acceptance by the obligor. It may be
made expressly or impliedly.
One and the other kind shall be subject to the rules which govern inofficious donations. Express condonation
shall, furthermore, comply with the forms of donation. (1187)
1271. The delivery of a private document evidencing a credit, made voluntarily by the creditor to the debtor,
implies the renunciation of the action which the former had against the latter.
If in order to nullify this waiver it should be claimed to be inofficious, the debtor and his heirs may uphold it by
proving that the delivery of the document was made in virtue of payment of the debt. (1188)
1272. Whenever the private document in which the debt appears is found in the possession of the debtor, it
shall be presumed that the creditor delivered it voluntarily, unless the contrary is proved. (1189)
1273. The renunciation of the principal debt shall extinguish the accessory obligations; but the waiver of the
latter shall leave the former in force. (1190)
1274. It is presumed that the accessory obligation of pledge has been remitted when the thing pledged, after its
delivery to the creditor, is found in the possession of the debtor, or of a third person who owns the thing.
(1191a)
* Aticles 1271 1274: examples of implied remission
SECTION 4
CONFUSION OR MERGER OF RIGHTS
1275. The obligation is extinguished from the time the characters of creditor and debtor are merged in the
same person. (1192a)
Merger or confusion is the meeting in one person of the qualities of creator and debtor with respect to the same
obligation. It erases the plurality of subjects of the obligation. Further, the purposes for which the obligation may
have been created are considered as fully realized by the merger of the qualities of debtor and creditor in the
same person.

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Requisites of merger or confusion are:

(1) It must take place between the creditor and the principal debtor,
(2) the very same obligation must be involved, for if the debtor acquires rights from the creditor, but not the
particular obligation in question in question there will be no merger,
(3) the confusion must be total or as regards the entire obligation.
The effect of merger is to extinguish the obligation.

1276. Merger which takes place in the person of the principal debtor or creditor benefits the guarantors.
Confusion which takes place in the person of any of the latter does not extinguish the obligation. (1193)
The extinguishment of the principal obligation through confusion releases the guarantors because the
obligation of the latter is merely accessory. When the merger takes place in the person of a guarantor, the
obligation is not extinguished.
1277. Confusion does not extinguish a joint obligation except as regards the share corresponding to the
creditor or debtor in whom the two characters concur. (1194)
SECTION 5
COMPENSATION
1278. Compensation shall take place when two persons, in their own right, are creditors and debtors of each
other. (1195)
Compensation is a mode of extinguishing to the concurrent amount, the obligations of those persons who in
their own right are reciprocally debtors and creditors of each other. It is the offsetting of two obligations which
are reciprocally extinguished if they are of equal value. Or extinguished to the concurrent amount if of different
values.
Kinds of Compensation:
As to their effects
compensation may be total (when the two obligations are of the same amount); or
partial (when the amounts are not equal).
As to origin
1. it may be legal;
2. facultative;
3. conventional;
4. or judicial.
It is legal when it takes place by operation of law because all requisites are present.
It is facultative when it can be claimed by one of the parties, who, however, has the right to object to it,
such as when one of the obligations has a period for the benefit of one party alone and who renounces
that period so as to make the obligation due.
It is conventional when the parties agree to compensate their mutual obligations even if some requisite
is lacking.
It is judicial when decreed by the court in a case where there is a counterclaim.
Compensation vs. Payment: In compensation, there can be partial extinguishment of the obligation; in payment, the
performance must be completer, unless waived by the creditor. Payment involves delivery of action, while
compensation (legal compensation) takes place by operation of law without simultaneous delivery.
Compensation vs. Merger: In compensation, there are at least two persons who stand as principal creditors and
debtor of each other, in merger, there is only one person involved in whom the characters of creditor and debtor are
merged. In merger, there is only one obligation, while in compensation, there are two obligations involved.

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1279. In order that compensation may be proper, it is necessary:

(1) That each one of the obligors be bound principally, and that he be at the same time a principal creditor of
the other;
(2) That both debts consist in a sum of money, or if the things due are consumable, they be of the same kind,
and also of the same quality if the latter has been stated;
(3) That the two debts be due;
(4) That they be liquidated and demandable;
(5) That over neither of them there be any retention or controversy, commenced by third persons and
communicated in due time to the debtor. (1196)
For compensation to take place, the parties must be mutually debtors and creditors (1) in their own right, and
(2) as principals. Where there is no relationship of mutual creditors and debtors, there can be no compensation.
Because the 1st requirement that the parties be mutually debtors and creditors in their own right, there can be
no compensation when one party is occupying a representative capacity, such as a guardian or an
administrator. The 2nd requirement is that the parties should be mutually debtors and creditors as principals.
This means that there can be no compensation when one party is a principal creditor in one obligation but is
only a surety or guarantor in the other.
The things due in both obligations must be fungible, or things which can be substituted for each other.
Both debts must be due to permit compensation.
Demandable means that the debts are enforceable in court, there being no apparent defenses inherent in
them. The obligations must be civil obligations, including those that are purely natural. An obligation is not
demandable, therefore, and not subject to compensation, in the following cases: (1) when there is a period
which has not yet arrived, including the cases when one party is in a state of suspension of payments; (2) when
there is a suspensive condition that has not yet happened; (3) when the obligation cannot be sued upon, as in
natural obligation.
A debt is liquidated when its existence and amount is determined. Compensation can only take place between
certain and liquidated debts.
* The five requisites of a legal compensation are enumerated in the Article. All requisites must be present before
compensation can be effectual.
1. That each of the obligators be bound principally and that he be at the same time a principal creditor of the
other. The parties must be mutual creditor and debtor of each other and their relationship is a principal one,
that is, they are principal debtor and creditor of each other.
2. That both debts consist in such a sum of money, or if the things due are consumable, they be of the same
kind, and also of the same quality if the latter has been stated. >>When the debts consist of money, there is
not much of a problem when it comes to compensation to the concurrent amount. It is a matter of
mathematical computation. When the debt consist of things, it is necessary that the things are consumable
which must be understood as fungible and therefore susceptible of substitution. More than that they must
be of the same kind. If the quality has been states, the things must be of the same quality.
3. That the two debts are due. >> A debt is due when its period of performance has arrived. If it is a subject
to a condition, the condition must have already been fulfilled. However, in voluntary compensation, the
parties may agree upon the compensation of debts which are not yet due.
4. That they be liquidated and demandable. >> A debt is considered liquidated when its amount is clearly
fixed. Of if it is not yet specially fixed, a simple mathematical computation will determine its amount or
value. It is unliquidated when the amount is not fixed because it is still subject to a dispute or to certain
condition. It is not enough that the debts be liquidated. It is also essential that the same be demandable. A
debt is demandable if it is not yet barred by prescription and it is not illegal or invalid.
5. That over neither of them there be any retention or controversy, commenced by third persons and
communicated in due time to the debtor. >> A debt of a thing cannot be a subject of compensation if the
same had been subject of a garnishment of which the debtor was timely notified. When a credit or property
had been properly garnished of attached, it cannot be disposed of without the approval of the court.

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1280. Notwithstanding the provisions of the preceding article, the guarantor may set up compensation as
regards what the creditor may owe the principal debtor. (1197)
The liability of the guarantor is only subsidiary; it is accessory to the principal obligation of the debtor. If the
principal debtor has a credit against the creditor, which can be compensated, it would mean the extinguishment
of the guaranteed debt, either totally or partially. This extinguishment benefits the guarantor, for he can be held
liable only to the same extent as the debtor.
Exception to the Rule On Compensation: Right of Guarantor to Invoke Compensation Against Creditor. The general
rule is that for compensation to operate, the parties must be related reciprocally as principal creditors and debtors of
each other. Under the present Article, the guarantor is allowed to set up compensation against the creditor.
1281. Compensation may be total or partial. When the two debts are of the same amount, there is a total
compensation. (n)
Total Compensationdebts are of the same amount.
Partial CompensationDebts are not of the same amount; operative only up to the concurrent amount.
1282. The parties may agree upon the compensation of debts which are not yet due. (n)
Voluntary compensation is not limited to obligations which are not yet due. The parties may compensate by
agreement any obligations, in which the objective requisites provided for legal compensation are not present. It
is necessary, however, that the parties should have the capacity to dispose of the credits which they
compensate, because the extinguishment of the obligations in this case arises from their wills and not from law.
1283. If one of the parties to a suit over an obligation has a claim for damages against the other, the former
may set it off by proving his right to said damages and the amount thereof. (n)
Art. 1284. When one or both debts are rescissible or voidable, they may be compensated against each other
before they are judicially rescinded or avoided. (n)
Although a rescissible or voidable debt can be compensated before it is rescinded or annulled, the moment it is
rescinded or annulled, the decree of rescission or annulment is retroactive, and the compensation must be
considered as cancelled. Recission of annulment requires mutual restitution; the party whose obligation is
annulled or rescinded can thus recover to the extent that his credit was extinguished by the compensation,
because to that extent he is deemed to have made a payment.
1285. The debtor who has consented to the assignment of rights made by a creditor in favor of a third person,
cannot set up against the assignee the compensation which would pertain to him against the assignor, unless
the assignor was notified by the debtor at the time he gave his consent, that he reserved his right to the
compensation.
If the creditor communicated the cession to him but the debtor did not consent thereto, the latter may set up
the compensation of debts previous to the cession, but not of subsequent ones.
If the assignment is made without the knowledge of the debtor, he may set up the compensation of all credits
prior to the same and also later ones until he had knowledge of the assignment. (1198a)
Assignment after Compensation:
When compensation has already taken place before the assignment, inasmuch as it takes place ipso jure,
there has already been an extinguishment of one of the other of the obligations. A subsequent assignment of
an extinguished obligation cannot produce any effect against the debtor. The only exception to this rule is when
the debtor consents to the assignment of the credit; his consent constitutes a waiver of the compensation,
unless at the time he gives consent, he informs the assignor that he reserved his right to the compensation.
Assignment before compensation.
The assignment may be made before compensation has taken place, either because at the time of assignment

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one of the debts is not yet due or liquidated, or because of some other cause which impedes the
compensation. As far as the debtor is concerned, the assignment does not take effect except from the time he
is notified thereof. If the notice of assignment is simultaneous to the transfer, he can set up compensation of
debts prior to the assignment. If notice was given to him before the assignment, this takes effect at the time of
the assignment; therefore the same rule applies. If he consents to the assignment, he waives compensation
even of debts already due, unless he makes a reservation.
But if the debtor was notified of the assignment, but he did not consent, and the credit assigned to a third
person matures after that which pertains to the debtor, the latter may set up compensation when the assignee
attempts to enforce the assigned credit, provided that the credit of the debtor became due before the
assignment. But it f the assigned credit matures earlier than that of the debtor, the assignee may immediately
enforce it, and the debtor cannot set up compensation, because the credit is not yet due.
If the debtor did not have knowledge of the assignment, he may set up by way of compensation all credits
maturing before he is notified thereof. Hence, if the assignment is concealed, and the assignor still contracts
new obligation in favor of the debtor, such obligation maturing before the latter learns of the assignment will still
be allowable by way of compensation. The assignee in such case would have a personal action against the
assignor.

1286. Compensation takes place by operation of law, even though the debts may be payable at different places,
but there shall be an indemnity for expenses of exchange or transportation to the place of payment. (1199a)
This article applies to legal compensation and not to voluntary compensation.
1287. Compensation shall not be proper when one of the debts arises from a depositum or from the obligations
of a depositary or of a bailee in commodatum.
Neither can compensation be set up against a creditor who has a claim for support due by gratuitous title,
without prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 2 of Article 301. (1200a)
E. The prohibition of compensation when one of the debts arises from a depositum (a contract by virtue of which a
person [depositary] receives personal property belonging to another [depositor], with the obligation of safely
keeping it and returning the same) or commodatum (a gratuitous contract by virtue of which one of the parties
delivers to the other a non-consumable personal property so that the latter may use it for a certain time and
return it) is based on justice. A deposit of commodatum is given on the basis of confidence in the depositary of
the borrower. It is therefore, a matter of morality, the depositary or borrower performs his obligation.
With respect to future support, to allow its extinguishment by compensation would defeat its exemption from
attachment and execution. , and may expose the recipient to misery and starvation. Common humanity and
public policy forbid this consequence. Support under this provision should be understood, not only referring to
legal support, to include all rights which have for their purpose the subsistence of the debtor, such as pensions
and gratuities.
1288. Neither shall there be compensation if one of the debts consists in civil liability arising from a penal
offense. (n)
If one of the debts consists in civil liability arising from a penal offense, compensation would be improper and
inadvisable because the satisfaction of such obligation is imperative.
The person who has the civil liability arising from crime is the only party who cannot set up the compensation;
but the offended party entitled to the indemnity can set up his claim in compensation of his debt.
Art. 1289. If a person should have against him several debts which are susceptible of compensation, the rules
on the application of payments shall apply to the order of the compensation. (1201)
It can happen that a debtor may have several debts to a creditor. And vice versa. Under these circumstances,
Articles 1252 to 1254 shall apply.
1290. When all the requisites mentioned in Article 1279 are present, compensation takes effect by operation of
law, and extinguishes both debts to the concurrent amount, even though the creditors and debtors are not

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aware of the compensation.

Legal compensation takes place from the moment that the requisites of the articles 1278 and 1270 co-exist; its
effects arise on the very day which all its requisites concur.
Voluntary of conventional compensation takes effect upon the agreement of the parties.
Facultative compensation takes place when the creditor declares his option to set it up.
Judicial compensation takes place upon final judgment.
Effects of Compensation:
(1) Both debts are extinguished to the concurrent amount;
(2) interests stop accruing on the extinguished obligation of the part extinguished;
(3) the period of prescription stops with respect to the obligation or part extinguished;
(4) all accessory obligations of the principal obligation which has been extinguished are also extinguished.
Renunciation of Compensation. Compensation can be renounces, either at the time an obligation is contracted
or afterwards. Compensation rests upon a potestative right, and a unilateral decision of the debtor would be
sufficient renunciation. Compensation can be renounced expressly of impliedly.
No Compensation. Even when all the requisites for compensation occur, the compensation may not take place
in the following cases: (1) When there is renunciation of the effects of compensation by a party; and (2) when
the law prohibits compensation.
(Unless otherwise indicated, commentaries are sourced from the Civil Code book IV by Tolentino).
SECTION 6
NOVATION
HOW OBLIGATIONS ARE MODIFIED
1291. Obligations may be modified by:
(1) Changing their object or principal condition
(2) Substituting the person of the debtor
(3) Subrogating a third person in the rights of a creditor
Novation is the extinguishment of an obligation by a substitution or change of the obligation by a subsequent
one which extinguishes or modifies the first either by:
1. changing the object or principal conditions
2. by substituting the person of the debtor
3. subrogating a third person in the rights of the creditor
Novation is a juridical act of dual function. At the time it extinguishes an obligation it creates a new one in lieu of
the old
Classification of Novation
as to nature
1. Subjective or personal either passive or active. Passive if there is substitution of the debtor.
Active if a third person is subrogated in the rights of the creditor.
2. Objective or real substitution of the object with another or changing the principal conditions
3. Mixed Combination of subjective and objective
as to form
Express parties declare that the old obligation is substituted by the new
Implied an incompatibility exists between the old and the new obligation that cannot stand together
as to effect
1. Partial when there is only a modification or change in some principal conditions of the obligation
2. Total when the old obligation is completely extinguished
Requisites of Novation:
1. A previous valid obligation

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2. Agreement of all parties

3. Extinguishment of the old contract may be express of implied
4. Validity of the new one
TITLE II.
CONTRACTS
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1305. A contract is a meeting of the minds between two persons whereby one binds himself, with respect
to the other to give something or to render some service.
* relate to Art. 1159 of CC
CONTRACT - a juridical convention manifested in legal form, by virtue of which one or more persons bind themselves
in favor of another or others, or reciprocally, to the fulfillment of a prestation to give, to do or not to do.
* Other Terms:
Perfect promise distinguished from a contract, in that the latter establishes and determines the obligations arising
therefrom; while the former tends only to assure and pave the way for the celebration of a contract in the future.
Imperfect Promise mere unaccepted offer
Pact a special part of the contract, sometimes incidental and separable for the principal agreement
Stipulation similar to a pact; when the contract is an instrument, it refers to the essential and dispositive part, as
distinguished from the exposition of the facts and antecedents upon which it is based.
* Number of Parties:
The Code states two persons; what is meant actually is two parties. For a contract to exist, there must be two
parties. A party can be one or more persons.
* Husband & Wife: Husbands and wives cannot sell to each other as a protection of the conjugal partnership. They can
however enter into a contract of agency.
* Auto-contracts:
It means one person contracts himself. As a general rule, it is accepted in our law. The existence of a contract does not
depend on the number of persons but on the number of parties. There is no general prohibition against auto-contracts;
hence, it should be held valid.
* Contracts of Adhesion:
Contracts prepared by another, containing provisions that he desires, and asks the other party to agree to them if he
wants to enter into a contract.
- Example: transportation tickets. It is valid contract according to Tolentino because the other party can
reject it entirely.
* Characteristics of Contracts:

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3 elements:
1. Essential elements without which there is no contract; they are:
a) consent
b) subject matter; and
c) cause
2. Natural elements exist as part of the contract even if the parties do not provide for them, because the law, as
suppletory to the contract, creates them
3. Accidental elements those which are agreed by the parties and which cannot exist without stipulated
* Stages of a Contract:
3 stages:
1. Preparation, Generation or Policitacion period of negotiation and bargaining, ending at the moment of agreement of
the parties
2. Perfection or Birth of the contract the moment when the parties come to agree on the terms of the contract
3. Consummation or Death the fulfillment or performance of the terms agreed upon in any contract
1306. The contracting parties may establish such stipulations, clauses, terms & conditions as they may deem
convenient, provided they are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order, or public policy.
* This article embodies the Principle of Autonomy of Contracts
* Freedom to contract:
Any person has the liberty to enter into a contract so long as they are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public
order or public policy. The legislature, under the constitution, is prohibited from enacting laws to prescribe the terms of a
legal contract.
* Validity of Stipulations:
Any and all stipulations not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy is valid
* Contrary to law:
Freedom of contract is restricted by law for the good of the public. It is fundamental postulate that however broad the
freedom of the contracting parties may be, it does not go so far as to countenance disrespect for or failure to observe a
legal prescription. The Statute takes precedence.
- Examples:
A promissory note which represents a gambling debt is unenforceable in the hands of the assignee.
Stipulations to pay usurious interests are void.
A contract between to public service companies to divide the territory is void because it impairs the control of
the Public Service Commission.
Agreement to declare valid a law or ordinance is void.
* Contrary to Morals:
Morals mean those generally accepted principles of morality which have received some kind of social and practical
confirmation.
- Examples:
a promise to marry or nor to marry, to secure legal separation, or to adopt a child
a promise to change citizenship, profession, religion or domicile
a promise not to hold public office or which limits the performance of official duties
a promise to enter a particular political party or separate from it
contracts which limit in an excessive manner the personal or economic freedom of a person
to make an act dependent on money or some pecuniary value, when it is of such a nature that it should not
depend thereon; payment to kill another.

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* Contrary to Public Order:

Public order means the public weal or public policy. It represents the public, social, and legal interest in private law that
which is permanent and essential in institutions, which, even if favoring some individual to whom the right pertains,
cannot be left to his own will. A contract is said to be against public order if the court finds that the contract as to the
consideration or the thing to be done, contravenes some established interest of society, or is inconsistent with sound
policy and good morals, or tends clearly to undermine the security of individual rights.
- Examples:
Common carrier cannot stipulate for exemption for liability unless such exemption is justifiable and reasonable
and the contract is freely and fairly made.
Payment to intermediaries in securing import licenses or quota allocations.
Contract of scholarship stipulating that the student must remain in the same school and that he waives his right
to transfer to another school without refunding the school
Art. 1307. Innominate contracts shall be regulated by the stipulations of the parties, by the provisions of Titles I
& II of this Book, by the rules governing the most analogous nominate contracts, and by the customs of the
place.
INNOMINATE CONTRACTS those which lack individuality and are not regulated by special provisions of law.
* Innominate Contracts:
do ut des (I give that you may give) An agreement in which A will give one thing to B, so that B will give another thing
to A.
do ut facias (I give that you may do) An agreement under which A will give something to B, so that B may do
something for A.
facio ut facias (I do that you may do) An agreement under which A does something for B, so that B may render some
other service for A.
facio ut des (I do that you may give) An agreement under which A does something for B, so that B may give
something to A.
* Analogous contracts:
Innominate contracts, in the absence of stipulations and specific provisions of law on the matter, are to be governed by
rules applicable to the most analogous contracts.
Art. 1308. The contract must bind both contracting parties; its validity or compliance cannot be left to the will
of one of them.
* Principle of Mutuality of Contract:
The binding effect of contract on both parties is based on the principles:
- that obligations arising from contracts have the force of law between the contracting parties
- that there must be mutuality between the parties based on their essential equality, to which is
repugnant to have one party bound by the contract leaving the other free therefrom.
A contract containing a condition which makes its fulfillment dependent exclusively upon the uncontrolled will of one of
the contracting parties is void.
* Unilateral Cancellation:
Just as nobody can be forced to enter into a contract, in the same manner once a contract is entered into, no party can
renounce it unilaterally or without the consent of the other.
Nobody is allowed to enter into a contract, and while the contract is in effect, leaves, denounces or disavows the
contract to the prejudice of the other.

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* When Stipulated:
However, when the contract so stipulates that one may terminate the contract upon a reasonable period is valid.
Judicial action for the rescission of the contract is no longer necessary when the contract so stipulates that it may be
revoked and cancelled for the violation of any of its terms and conditions. This right of rescission may be waived.
Art. 1309. The determination of the performance may be left to a third person, whose decision shall not be
binding until it has been made known to both contracting parties.
* Exception to Art. 1308 (Mutuality of Contract)
A third person may be called upon to decide whether or not performance has been done for the fulfillment of
the contract. Such decision becomes binding when the contracting parties have been informed of it.
Art. 1310. The determination shall be obligatory if it is evidently inequitable. In such case, the courts shall
decide what is equitable under the circumstances.
* Exception to Art. 1308 (Mutuality of Contract)
However, when the decision cannot be arrived due to inequity, the courts shall decide what is equitable for the parties
involved.
Art 1311. Contracts take effect only between the parties, their assigns and heirs, except in case where the
rights and obligations arising from the contracts are not transmissible by their nature, or by stipulation or by
provision of law. The heir is not liable beyond the value of the property he received from the decedent.
If a contract should contain some stipulation in favor of a third person, he may demand its fulfillment
provided he communicated his acceptance to the obligor before its revocation. A mere incidental benefit or
interest of a person is not sufficient. The contracting parties must have clearly and deliberately conferred a
favor upon a third person.

1st paragraph of this article embodies the Principle of Relativity of Contract

Four exceptional instances where a contract may produce effect on third persons (stipulation pour autrui): Art.
1311, par.2 1314

* Parties bound by contract:

Generally, only the parties that agreed on the contracts are bound by the contract. Transmission is possible to the heirs
or assignees if so stipulated and in certain contracts.
* Third persons not bound:
It is a general rule that third parties are not bound by the acts of another.
A contract cannot be binding upon and cannot be enforced against one who is not a party to it, even if he has
knowledge of such contract and has acted with knowledge thereof.
* Enforcement of contract:
Only a party to the contract can maintain an action to enforce the obligations arising under said contract.
* Contracts bind heirs:
Rights and obligations under a contract are transmissible to heirs. Heirs are not third persons because there is privity of
interest between them and their predecessor.

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Art 1312. In contracts creating real rights, third persons who come into possession of the object of the
contract are bound thereby, subject to the provisions of the Mortgage Law and the Land Registration laws.
* Real Rights in Property
A real right directly affects property subject to it; hence, whoever is in possession of such property must respect that
real right.
Art 1313. Creditors are protected in cases of contracts intended to defraud them.
* Contracts in Fraud of Creditors
When a debtor enters into a contract in fraud of his creditors, such as when he alienated property gratuitously without
leaving enough for his creditors (article 1387), the creditor may ask for its rescission.
* see Arts. 1177 and 1380
Art 1314. Any third person who induces another to violate his contract shall be liable for damages to the other
contracting party.
* Interference of Third Persons:
If a third person induced a party to violate his side of the contract, the other party may sue the third person for
damages.
Requisites:
1. the existence of a valid contract
2. knowledge by the third person of the existence of a contract
3. interference by the third person in the contractual relation without legal justification
Jurisprudential doctrine:
*Manila Railroad Co. vs. Compaia Transatlantica
The process must be accomplished by distinguishing clearly between the right of action arising from the improper
interference with the contract by a stranger thereto, considered as an independent act generative of civil liability, and
the right of action ex contractu against a party to the contract resulting form the breach thereof.
Art 1315. Contracts are perfected by mere consent, and from that moment the parties are bound not only to the
fulfillment of what has been expressly stipulated but also to all the consequences which, according to their
nature, may be in keeping with good faith, usage and law.
* embodies the Principle of Consensuality:
Art 1316. Real contracts, such as deposit, pledge or commodatum, are not perfected until the delivery of the
object of the obligation.
* Exception to Art. 1315 or Principle of Consensuality
* Perfection of real contracts:
Real contract is not perfect by mere consent. The delivery of the thing is required.
Delivery is demanded, neither arbitrary nor formalistic.
Art 1317. No one may contract in the name of another without being authorized by the latter, or unless he has
by law a right to represent him.

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A contract entered into in the name of another by one who has no authority or legal representation, or who
has acted beyond his powers, shall be unenforceable, unless it is ratified, expressly or impliedly, by the person
on whose behalf it has been executed, before it is revoked by the other contracting party.
* Ratification necessary:
A contract entered into in behalf of another who has not authorized it is not valid or binding on him unless he ratifies the
transaction. When ratified, he is estopped to question the legality of the transaction.
Kinds of ratification:
1. express
2. implied
CHAPTER 2
ESSENTIAL REQUISITES OF CONTRACTS
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Art. 1318. There is no contract unless the following requisites concur:
(1) Consent of the contracting parties;
(2) Object certain which is the subject matter of the contract;
(3) Cause of the obligation which is established. (1261)
[COC]
SECTION 1
CONSENT
Art. 1319. Consent is manifested by the meeting of the offer and the acceptance upon the thing and the cause
which are to constitute the contract. The offer must be certain and the acceptance absolute. A qualified
acceptance constitutes a counter-offer.
Acceptance made by letter or telegram does not bind the offerer except from the time it came to his
knowledge. The contract, in such a case, is presumed to have been entered into in the place where the offer
was made. (1262a)

CONSENT (as applied to contracts) : concurrence of the wills of the contracting parties with respect to the
object and the cause which shall constitute the contract
Requisites:
1. consent must be manifested by the concurrence of the offer and the acceptance (Arts. 1319-1326);
2. contracting parties must possess the necessary legal capacity (Arts. 1327-1329); and
3. consent must be intelligent, free, spontaneous and real (Arts. 1330-1346)

*Forms: Consent may either be express or implied. There is also a presumptive consent, which is the basis of quasicontracts.
*Manifestation: Consent is manifested by the concurrence of offer and acceptance with respect to the object and the
cause of the contract. Once there is such a manifestation, the period or stage of negotiation is terminated. If
consensual, the contract is perfected.

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*A unilateral proposition must be definite (distinguished from mere communications), complete (stating the essential
and non-essential conditions desired by the offeror), and intentional (serious) when accepted by another party for such
proposition to form a valid contract. However, a unilateral promise is not recognized by our Code as having obligatory
force. To be so, there must be an acceptance that shall convert it into a contract.
*Mental reservationwhen a party makes a declaration but secretly does not desire the effects of such declaration. The
mental reservation of the offeror, unknown to the other, cannot affect the validity of the offer.
Art. 1320. An acceptance may be express or implied. (n)
Implied acceptance may arise from acts or facts which reveal the intent to accept, such as the consumption of the
things sent to the offeree, or the fact of immediately carrying out of the contract offered.
Art. 1321. The person making the offer may fix the time, place, and manner of acceptance, all of which must be
complied with. (n)
The offer with a period lapses upon the termination of the period. Thus the acceptance, to become effective, must be
known to the offeror before the period lapses.
Art. 1322. An offer made through an agent is accepted from the time acceptance is communicated to him. (n)
An intermediary who has no power to bind either the offeror or the offeree is not an agent; his situation is similar to that
of a letter carrier.
Art. 1323. An offer becomes ineffective upon the death, civil interdiction, insanity, or insolvency of either party
before acceptance is conveyed. (n)
Art. 1324. When the offerer has allowed the offeree a certain period to accept, the offer may be withdrawn at
any time before acceptance by communicating such withdrawal, except when the option is founded upon a
consideration, as something paid or promised. (n)
It is not the moment of sending but the time of receipt of the revocation or acceptance which is controlling.
The delay in transmission is at the risk of the sender, because he is the one who selects the time and the manner of
making the transmission.
Contract of Option: This is a preparatory contract in which one party grants to the other, for a fixed period and under
specified conditions, the power to decide whether or not to enter into a principal contract. It must be supported by an
independent consideration, and the grant must be exclusive.
Art. 1325. Unless it appears otherwise, business advertisements of things for sale are not definite offers, but
mere invitations to make an offer. (n)
Art. 1326. Advertisements for bidders are simply invitations to make proposals, and the advertiser is not bound
to accept the highest or lowest bidder, unless the contrary appears. (n)
Art. 1327. The following cannot give consent to a contract:
(1) Unemancipated minors;
(2) Insane or demented persons, and deaf-mutes who do not know how to write. (1263a)
* see Art. 38
* Unemancipated minors cannot enter into valid contracts, and contracts entered into by them are not binding upon
them, unless upon reaching majority they ratify the same.

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* Insane persons: It is not necessary that there be a previous of declaration of mental incapacity in order that a contract
entered into by a mentally defective person may be annulled; it is enough that the insanity existed at the time the
contract was made.
* Being deaf-mute is not by itself alone a disqualification for giving consent. The law refers to the deaf-mute who does
not know how to write.
Art. 1328. Contracts entered into during a lucid interval are valid. Contracts agreed to in a state of drunkenness
or during a hypnotic spell are voidable. (n)
*The use of intoxicants does not necessarily mean a complete loss of understanding. The same may be said of drugs.
But a person, under the influence of superabundance of alcoholic drinks or excessive use of drugs, may have no
capacity to contract.
*In hypnotism and somnambulism, the utter want of understanding is a common element.
Art. 1329. The incapacity declared in Article 1327 is subject to the modifications determined by law, and is
understood to be without prejudice to special disqualifications established in the laws. (1264)
* The Rules of Court provide a list of incompetents who need guardianship: persons suffering from the penalty of civil
interdiction, hospitalized lepers, prodigals, deaf and dumb who are unable to write and read, those of unsound mind
(even though they have lucid intervals), and persons not being of unsound mind but by reason of age, disease, weak
mind, and other similar causes cannot, without outside aid, take care of themselves and manage their property
becoming an easy prey for deceit and exploitation.
* The incapacity to give consent (Arts. 1327 & 1328) to contracts renders the contract merely voidable, while special
disqualification (Art. 1329) makes it void.
Art. 1330. A contract where consent is given through mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence, or fraud
is voidable. (1265a)
Art. 1331. In order that mistake may invalidate consent, it should refer to the substance of the thing which is
the object of the contract, or to those conditions which have principally moved one or both parties to enter into
the contract.
Mistake as to the identity or qualifications of one of the parties will vitiate consent only when such identity or
qualifications have been the principal cause of the contract.
A simple mistake of account shall give rise to its correction. (1266a)
* Ignorance and error are 2 different states of mind. Ignorance means the complete absence of any notion about a
particular matter, while error or mistake means a wrong or false notion about such matter.
* Annulment of contract on the ground of error is limited to cases in which it may reasonably be said that without such
error the consent would not have been given.
* An error as to the person will invalidate consent when the consideration of the person has been the principal cause of
the same.
* Mistake as to qualifications, even when there is no error as to person, is a cause vitiating consent, if such
qualifications have been the principal cause of the contract.
* A mistake as to the motive of a party does not affect the contract; to give it such effect would destroy the stability of
contractual relations. When the motive has, however, been expressed and was a condition of the consent given,
annulment is properbecause an accidental element is, by the will of the parties, converted into a substantial element.
Art. 1332. When one of the parties is unable to read, or if the contract is in a language not understood by him,
and mistake or fraud is alleged, the person enforcing the contract must show that the terms thereof have been
fully explained to the former. (n)

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Art. 1333. There is no mistake if the party alleging it knew the doubt, contingency or risk affecting the object of
the contract. (n)
To invalidate consent, the error must be excusable. It must be a real error and not one that could have been avoided by
the party alleging it. The error must arise from facts unknown to him. A mistake that is caused by manifest negligence
cannot invalidate a juridical act.
Art. 1334. Mutual error as to the legal effect of an agreement when the real purpose of the parties is frustrated,
may vitiate consent. (n)
*Three requisites under this article: 1) the error must be as to the legal effect of an agreement; 2) it must be mutual; and
3) the real purpose of the parties is frustrated.
* The legal effects include the rights and obligations of the parties, not as stipulated in the contract, but as provided by
the law. The mistake as to these effects, therefore, means an error as to what the law provides should spring as
consequences from the contract in question.
* An error as to the nature or character is always essential, and makes the act juridically inexistent.
Art. 1335. There is violence when in order to wrest consent, serious or irresistible force is employed.
There is intimidation when one of the contracting parties is compelled by a reasonable and well-grounded fear
of an imminent and grave evil upon his person or property, or upon the person or property of his spouse,
descendants or ascendants, to give his consent.
To determine the degree of intimidation, the age, sex and condition of the person shall be borne in mind.
A threat to enforce one's claim through competent authority, if the claim is just or legal, does not vitiate
consent. (1267a)
*Duress is that degree of constraint or danger either actually inflicted (violent) or threatened and impending
(intimidation), sufficient to overcome the mind and will of a person of ordinary firmness.
* Violence refers to physical force or compulsion, while intimidation refers to moral force or compulsion.
*Requisites of violence:
1) That the physical force employed must be irresistible or of such degree that the victim has no other course, under
the circumstances, but to submit; and
2) that such force is the determining cause in giving the consent to the contract.
* Requisites of intimidation:
1) that the intimidation must be the determining cause of the contract, or must have caused the consent to be given;
2) that the threatened act be unjust or unlawful;
3) that the threat be real and serious, there being an evident disproportion between the evil and the resistance which all
men can offer; and
4) that it produces a reasonable and well-grounded fear from the fact that the person from whom it comes has the
necessary means or ability to inflict the threatened injury.
Art. 1336. Violence or intimidation shall annul the obligation, although it may have been employed by a third
person who did not take part in the contract. (1268)
Art. 1337. There is undue influence when a person takes improper advantage of his power over the will of
another, depriving the latter of a reasonable freedom of choice. The following circumstances shall be
considered: the confidential, family, spiritual and other relations between the parties, or the fact that the
person alleged to have been unduly influenced was suffering from mental weakness, or was ignorant or in
financial distress. (n)
* In intimidation, there must be an unlawful or unjust act which is threatened and which causes consent to be given,

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while in undue influence there need not be an unjust or unlawful act. In both cases, there is moral coercion.
*Moral coercion may be effected through threats, expressed or implied, or through harassing tactics.
*Undue influence is any means employed upon a party which, under the circumstances, he could not well resist, and
which controlled his volition and induced him to give his consent to the contractwhich otherwise he would not have
entered into.
Art. 1338. There is fraud when, through insidious words or machinations of one of the contracting parties, the
other is induced to enter into a contract which, without them, he would not have agreed to. (1269)
*Fraud is every kind of deception, whether in the form of insidious machinations, manipulations, concealments, or
misrepresentations, for the purpose of leading another party into error and thus executing a particular act.
* Fraud produces qualified error; it induces in the other party an inexact notion of facts. The will of another is maliciously
misled by means of false appearance of reality.
*Insidious words or machinations include false promises; exaggeration of hopes or benefits; abuse of confidence; and
fictitious names, qualifications, or authority.
* Kinds of fraud:
1) dolo causante (Art. 1338) which determines or is the essential cause of the consent; fraud in the perfection of
contract
2) dolo incidente (Arts. 1344 & 1170) which does not have such a decisive influence and by itself cannot cause the
giving of consent, but refers only to some particular or accident of the obligation.
*Dolo causante can be a ground for annulment; dolo incident cannot be a ground for annulment.
*The result of fraud is error on the part of the victim.
*Requisites of fraud:
1) it must have been employed by one contracting party upon the other;
2) it must have induced the other party to enter into the contract;
3) it must have been serious;
4) and it must have resulted in damage or injury to the party seeking annulment.
Art. 1339. Failure to disclose facts, when there is a duty to reveal them, as when the parties are bound by
confidential relations, constitutes fraud. (n)
*Silence or concealment, by itself, does not constitute fraud, unless there is a special duty to disclose certain facts, or
unless according to good faith and the usages of commerce, the communication should be made.
*Thus, the innocent non-disclosure of a fact does not affect the formation of the contract or operate to discharge the
parties from their agreement.
Art. 1340. The usual exaggerations in trade, when the other party had an opportunity to know the facts, are not
in themselves fraudulent. (n)
*Tolerated fraud includes minimizing the defects of the thing, exaggeration of its good qualities, and giving it qualities
that it does not have. This is lawful misrepresentation known as dolus bonus. This is also called lawful astuteness.
*These misrepresentations are usually encountered in fairs, markets, and almost all commercial transactions. They do
not give rise to an action for damages, either because of their insignificance or because the stupidity of the victim is the
real cause of his loss.

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*The thinking is that where the means of knowledge are at hand and equally available to both parties, one will not be
heard to say that he has been deceived.
Art. 1341. A mere expression of an opinion does not signify fraud, unless made by an expert and the other
party has relied on the former's special knowledge. (n)
An opinion of an expert is like a statement of fact, and if false, may be considered a fraud giving rise to annulment.
Art. 1342. Misrepresentation by a third person does not vitiate consent, unless such misrepresentation has
created substantial mistake and the same is mutual. (n)
*The general rule is that the fraud employed by a third person upon one of the parties does not vitiate consent and
cause the nullity of a contract.
*Exception: If one of the parties is in collusion with the third person, or knows of the fraud by the third person, and he is
benefited thereby, he may be considered as an accomplice to the fraud, and the contract becomes voidable.
Art. 1343. Misrepresentation made in good faith is not fraudulent but may constitute error. (n)
Art. 1344. In order that fraud may make a contract voidable, it should be serious and should not have been
employed by both contracting parties.
Incidental fraud only obliges the person employing it to pay damages. (1270)
*Fraud is serious when it is sufficient to impress, or to lead an ordinarily prudent person into error; that which cannot
deceive a prudent person cannot be a ground for nullity.
*Besides being serious, the fraud must be the determining cause of the contract. It must be dolo causante.
*When both parties use fraud reciprocally, neither one has an action against the other; the fraud of one compensates
that of the other. Neither party can ask for the annulment of the contract.
Art. 1345. Simulation of a contract may be absolute or relative. The former takes place when the parties do not
intend to be bound at all; the latter, when the parties conceal their true agreement. (n)
* Simulation is the declaration of a fictitious will, deliberately made by agreement of the parties, in order to produce, for
the purposes of deception, the appearance of a juridical act which does not exist or is different from that which was
really executed.
Art. 1346. An absolutely simulated or fictitious contract is void. A relative simulation, when it does not
prejudice a third person and is not intended for any purpose contrary to law, morals, good customs, public
order or public policy binds the parties to their real agreement. (n)
*In absolute simulation, there is color of a contract, without any substance thereof, the parties not having any intention
to be bound.
*In relative simulation, the parties have an agreement which they conceal under the guise of another contract. Example:
a deed of sale executed to conceal donation.
SECTION 2. - Object of Contracts

The object of a contract is its subject matter. It is the thing, right, or service which is the subject-matter of the
obligation arising from the contract.

Requisites: [CILID]
1) [C] within the commerce of man;
2) [I] not intransmissible
3) [L] must be licit, or not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public policy, or public order;
3) [I]not an impossible thing or service; and
4) [D] it must be determinate as to its kind.

56

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

Art. 1347. All things which are not outside the commerce of men, including future things, may be the object of
a contract. All rights which are not intransmissible may also be the object of contracts.
No contract may be entered into upon future inheritance except in cases expressly authorized by law.
All services which are not contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy may likewise be
the object of a contract. (1271a)
* Things which are outside the commerce of man:
Services which imply an absolute submission by those who render them, sacrificing their liberty, their
independence or beliefs, or disregarding in any manner the equality and dignity of persons, such as perpetual
servitude or slavery;
Personal rights, such as marital authority, the status and capacity of a person, and honorary titles and
distinctions;
Public offices, inherent attributes of the public authority, and political rights of individuals, such as the right of
suffrage;
Property, while they pertain to the public dominion, such as the roads, plazas, squares, and rivers;
Sacred things, common things, like the air and the sea, and res nullius, as long as they have not been
appropriated.
Even future things can be the object of contracts, as long as they have the possibility or potentiality of coming
into existence.
The law, however, generally does not allow contracts on future inheritance. A contract entered into by a
fideicommissary heir with respect to his eventual rights would be valid provided that the testator has already
died. The right of a fideicommissary heir comes from the testator and not from the fiduciary.
Art. 1348. Impossible things or services cannot be the object of contracts. (1272)
*Things are impossible when they are not susceptible of existing, or they are outside the commerce of man. Personal
acts or services impossible when they beyond the ordinary strength or power of man.
*The impossibility must be actual and contemporaneous with the making of the contract, and not subsequent thereto.
*The impossibility is absolute or objective when nobody can perform it; it is relative or subjective when due to the
special conditions or qualifications of the debtor it cannot be performed.
*The absolute or objective impossibility nullifies the contract; the relative or subjective does not.
Art. 1349. The object of every contract must be determinate as to its kind. The fact that the quantity is not
determinate shall not be an obstacle to the existence of the contract, provided it is possible to determine the
same, without the need of a new contract between the parties. (1273)
*The thing must have definite limits, not uncertain or arbitrary.
*The quantity of the of the object may be indeterminate, so long as the right of the creditor is not rendered illusory.
SECTION 3. - Cause of Contracts
*The cause of the contract is the why of the contract, the immediate and most proximate purpose of the contract, the
essential reason which impels the contracting parties to enter into it and which explains and justifies the creation of the
obligation through such contract.
*The cause as to each party is the undertaking or prestation to be performed by the other. The object of the contract is
the subject matter thereof (e.g., the land which is sold in a sales contract). Consideration, meanwhile, is the reason,
motive, or inducement by which a man is moved to bind himself by an agreement.
*Requisites:
1) it must exist;

57

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

2) it must be true; and

3) it must be licit.
Art. 1350. In onerous contracts the cause is understood to be, for each contracting party, the prestation or
promise of a thing or service by the other; in remuneratory ones, the service or benefit which is remunerated;
and in contracts of pure beneficence, the mere liberality of the benefactor. (1274)
* In onerous contracts, the cause need not be adequate or an exact equivalent in point of actual value, especially in
dealing with objects which have a rapidly fluctuating price. There are equal considerations.
* A remuneratory contract is one where a party gives something to another because of some service or benefit given or
rendered by the latter to the former, where such service or benefit was not due as a legal obligation. The consideration
of one is greater than the others.
*A gratuitous contract is essentially an agreement to give donations. The generosity or liberality of the benefactor is the
cause of the contract. There is nothing to equate.
Art. 1351. The particular motives of the parties in entering into a contract are different from the cause thereof.
(n)
* Cause is the objective, intrinsic, and juridical reason for the existence of the contract itself, while motive is the
psychological, individual, or personal purpose of a party to the contract.
* As a general principle, the motives of a party do not affect the validity or existence of a contract. Exceptions: When
motive predetermines the purpose of the contract, such as:
*When the motive of a debtor in alienating property is to defraud his creditors, the alienation is rescissible;
* When the motive of a person in giving his consent is to avoid a threatened injury, as in the case of
intimidation, the contract is voidable; and
*When the motive of a person induced him to act on the basis of fraud or misrepresentation by the other party,
the contract is voidable.
Art. 1352. Contracts without cause, or with unlawful cause, produce no effect whatever. The cause is unlawful
if it is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy. (1275a)
Art. 1353. The statement of a false cause in contracts shall render them void, if it should not be proved that
they were founded upon another cause which is true and lawful. (1276)
Where the cause stated in the contract is false, the latter may nevertheless be sustained by proof of another licit cause.
Art. 1354. Although the cause is not stated in the contract, it is presumed that it exists and is lawful, unless the
debtor proves the contrary. (1277)
Unless the contrary is proved, a contract is presumed to have a good and sufficient consideration. This presumption
applies when no cause is stated in the contract.
Art. 1355. Except in cases specified by law, lesion or inadequacy of cause shall not invalidate a contract,
unless there has been fraud, mistake or undue influence. (n)
* In case of lesion or inadequacy of cause, the general rule is that the contract is not subject to annulment.
* In cases provided by law, however, such as those mentioned in Art 1381, the lesion is a ground for rescission of the
contract.
* Gross inadequacy naturally suggests fraud and is evidence thereof, so that it may be sufficient to show it when taken
in connection with other circumstances.
DEFECTIVE CONTRACTS:
RESCISSIBLE
Valid and enforceable until

VOIDABLE
Valid and enforceable until

UNENFORCEABLE
Validable transaction;

58

VOID & INEXISTENT

Does not and cannot

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

rescinded;
there is a sort of extrinsic
defect consisting of
economic damage or lesion
Causes:
injury or damage to one of
the parties or to third
persons
[GAFLAI Arts. 1381
1382]

annulled;
The defect is more or less
intrinsic

Cannot be enforce unless

ratified

produce legal effect

Causes: (Art. 1390)

- legal incapacity of one
party; or
- vitiation of consent

Causes: (Art. 1403)

- contract is entered into in
excess or without authority
- non-compliance with
Stature of Frauds
Legal incapacity of both

Cured by prescription
Need not be ratified
Can be assailed by the
injured or damaged party or
injured or damaged third
person
Assailed directly only

Cured by prescription
Can be ratified
Can be assailed by a
contracting party (Art. 1397)

Not cured by prescription

Can be ratified
Can be assailed by a
contracting party (Art. 1408)

Assailed directly or
collaterally
Outline of provisions:
1390: voidable contracts
may be annullable even if
there is no damage to
parties;
types of voidable contracts;
binding character unless
annulled;
susceptibility to ratification
1391: prescriptive period
1392-1397: ratification
1398-1402: Mutual
restitution
1398: mutual restitution
1399: exception to mutual
restitution defect is the
incapacity of one
1400: loss of the thing
through fault/fraud of
party obliged to return the
thing but has no right to
institute proceeding, he
shall return the fruits and
the value of the thing
1401: loss of the thing
through fault/fraud of the
person who may institute
the proceeding (action for
annulment is
extinguished)
1402: one does not

Assailed directly or
collaterally
Outline of provisions:
1403: types of
unenforceable contracts
1405: ratification of
contracts infringing statute
of frauds
1407: express or implied
ratification by the parent or
guardian of one (when both
are incapacitated) same
effect as if only one is
incapacitated;
Ratification by parent or
guardian of both contract
is validated from inception
1408: cannot be assailed
by third persons.

Causes:
(void) illicit, prohibited or
declared by law as void
(inexistent) lacks one or all
of the requisites of a
contract
[CS-DOICE Art. 1409]
Not cured by prescription
Cannot be ratified
Can be assailed by a
contracting party or a third
person whose interest is
affected (Art. 1421)
Assailed directly or
collaterally
1409: types of void or
inexistent contracts
1410: imprescriptibility
1411: contracts that are
both illegal and criminal
both parties have no action
against each other and
shall be prosecuted
1412: contracts that are
illegal but do not constitute
criminal offense
1413-1419: exceptions to in
pari delicto rule

Outline of provisions:
1380: Nature of rescissible
contract
1381-1382: types of
rescissible contract
1383: subsidiary character
1384: extent of rescission
1385: mutual restitution; no
rescission when the thing is
legally possessed by a third
person
1386: no rescission in case
of 1381 (1) and (2) when
the contract is approved by
court
1387: preseumption
(existence of fraud);
alienation by gratuitous title;
alienation by onerous title
1388: acquisition in bad
faith (of things alienated in
fraud of creditors)
1389: prescriptive period

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

restore the other cannot

be compelled to comply

RESCISSIBLE CONTRACTS
Art. 1380. Contracts validly agreed upon may be rescinded in the cases established by law. (1290)
Art. 1381. The following contracts are rescissible:
(1) Those which are entered into by guardians whenever the wards whom they represent suffer lesion by more
than one-fourth of the value of the things which are the object thereof;
(2) Those agreed upon in representation of absentees, if the latter suffer the lesion stated in the preceding
number;
(3) Those undertaken in fraud of creditors when the latter cannot in any other manner collect the claims due
them;
(4) Those which refer to things under litigation if they have been entered into by the defendant without the
knowledge and approval of the litigants or of competent judicial authority;
(5) All other contracts specially declared by law to be subject to rescission. (1291a)
Art. 1382. Payments made in a state of insolvency for obligations to whose fulfillment the debtor could not be
compelled at the time they were effected, are also rescissible. (1292)
Art. 1383. The action for rescission is subsidiary; it cannot be instituted except when the party suffering
damage has no other legal means to obtain reparation for the same. (1294)
Art. 1384. Rescission shall be only to the extent necessary to cover the damages caused. (n)
Art. 1385. Rescission creates the obligation to return the things which were the object of the contract, together
with their fruits, and the price with its interest; consequently, it can be carried out only when he who demands
rescission can return whatever he may be obliged to restore.
Neither shall rescission take place when the things which are the object of the contract are legally in the
possession of third persons who did not act in bad faith.
In this case, indemnity for damages may be demanded from the person causing the loss. (1295)
Art. 1386. Rescission referred to in Nos. 1 and 2 of Article 1381 shall not take place with respect to contracts
approved by the courts. (1296a)
Art. 1387. All contracts by virtue of which the debtor alienates property by gratuitous title are presumed to
have been entered into in fraud of creditors, when the donor did not reserve sufficient property to pay all debts
contracted before the donation.
Alienations by onerous title are also presumed fraudulent when made by persons against whom some
judgment has been issued. The decision or attachment need not refer to the property alienated, and need not
have been obtained by the party seeking the rescission.
In addition to these presumptions, the design to defraud creditors may be proved in any other manner
recognized by the law of evidence. (1297a)
Art. 1388. Whoever acquires in bad faith the things alienated in fraud of creditors, shall indemnify the latter for
damages suffered by them on account of the alienation, whenever, due to any cause, it should be impossible
for him to return them.

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

If there are two or more alienations, the first acquirer shall be liable first, and so on successively. (1298a)
Art. 1389. The action to claim rescission must be commenced within four years.
For persons under guardianship and for absentees, the period of four years shall not begin until the
termination of the former's incapacity, or until the domicile of the latter is known. (1299)
Voidable Contracts
Voidable Contracts
* Contracts that are voidable or annullable:
1. When either party is incapable of giving consent to a contract
2. When consent is vitiated by mistake, violence, intimidation, undue influence, fraud
*Binding, unless annulled by a proper court action
*Ratifiable (Art. 1390)
*Prescription for action of annulment: 4 years to begin:
when vice is due to intimidation, violence or undue influence from the time defect of consent ceases
mistake or fraud from the time of discovery
entered into by minors or those incapable of giving consent the moment guardianship ceases (Art. 1391)
*Ratification
extinguishes action for annulment (Art. 1392)
may be express or tacit (Art. 1393)
tacit ratification the execution of an act which necessarily implies an intention to waive his right by the party, who,
knowing of the reason which renders the contract voidable, has a right to invoke annulment.
-may be effected by the guardian of the incapacitated person (Art. 1394)
- does not require the conformity of the person who does not have a right to bring an action for
annulment (Art. 1395)
-cleanses the contract from all its defects from the moment it was constituted (Art. 1396)
*Annulment
- Who may institute (Art. 1397)
- By all who are obliged principally or subsidiarily
Exceptions:
*Persons capable cannot allege the incapacity of those with whom they contracted
*Persons who exerted violence, undue influence, who employed fraud or caused mistake action for annulment
cannot be based on these flaws
*Gives rise to the responsibility of restoring to each other things subject matter of the contract, with fruits, price with its
interest, except in cases provided by law (Art. 1398)
Service value thereof will serve as the basis for damages
*Incapacitated persons not obliged to make restitutions except insofar as he has been benefited by the thing or price
received by him (Art. 1399)
*If objects cannot be returned because these were lost through his fault, he shall return the fruits received and the value
of the thing at the time of the loss, with interests from the same date (Art. 1400)
*As long as one of the contracting parties does not restore what in virtue of the annulment decree he is bound to return,
the other cannot be compelled to comply with what is incumbent upon him. (Art. 1402)

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OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

*Extinguishment of action (Art. 1401)

if object is lost through the fault or fraud of person who has the right to institute the proceedings
if action based on incapacity of any one of contracting parties, loss of thing shall not be an obstacle to
the success of action, unless loss or fraud took place through the plaintiffs fault
UNENFORCEABLE CONTRACTS
Art. 1403. The following contracts are unenforceable, unless they are ratified:
(1) Those entered into in the name of another person by one who has been given no authority or legal
representation, or who has acted beyond his powers;
(2) Those that do not comply with the Statute of Frauds as set forth in this number. In the following cases an
agreement hereafter made shall be unenforceable by action, unless the same, or some note or memorandum,
thereof, be in writing, and subscribed by the party charged, or by his agent; evidence, therefore, of the
agreement cannot be received without the writing, or a secondary evidence of its contents:
(a) An agreement that by its terms is not to be performed within a year from the making thereof;
(b) A special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another;
(c) An agreement made in consideration of marriage, other than a mutual promise to marry;
(d) An agreement for the sale of goods, chattels or things in action, at a price not less than five hundred pesos,
unless the buyer accept and receive part of such goods and chattels, or the evidences, or some of them, of
such things in action or pay at the time some part of the purchase money; but when a sale is made by auction
and entry is made by the auctioneer in his sales book, at the time of the sale, of the amount and kind of
property sold, terms of sale, price, names of the purchasers and person on whose account the sale is made, it
is a sufficient memorandum;
(e) An agreement of the leasing for a longer period than one year, or for the sale of real property or of an
interest therein;
(f) A representation as to the credit of a third person.
(3) Those where both parties are incapable of giving consent to a contract.
*Unenforceable contracts cannot be enforced unless it is first ratified in the manner provided by law. An unenforceable
contract does not produce any effect unless it is ratified. Unenforceable contracts cannot be sued upon unless ratified
(Paras, 2003).
*There are 3 kinds of unenforceable contracts:
a) unauthorized contracts;
b) those that fail to comply with the Statute of Frauds;
c) those where both parties are incapable of giving consent to a contract.
UNAUTHORIZED CONTRACTS
When a person enters into a contract for and in the name of the another, without authority to do so, the contract does
not bind the latter, unless he ratifies the same. The agent, who has entered into the contract in the name of the
purported principal, but without authority from him, is liable to third persons upon the contract; it must have been the
intention of the parties to bind someone, and, as the principal was not bound, the agent should be. Ex: Without my
authority, my brother sold my car, in my name to X. The contract is unauthorized and cannot affect me unless I ratify the
same expressly or implicitly, as by accepting the proceeds of the sale. (Paras)
Mere lapse of time, no matter how long, is not the ratification required by law of an unenforceable contract (Tipton v.
Velasco, 6 Phil 67, as cited in Paras).
STATUTE OF FRAUDS
Meaning: descriptive of statutes which require certain classes of contracts to be in writing.

62

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

Purpose: to prevent fraud and perjury in the enforcement of obligations depending for their evidence upon the
unassisted memory of witnesses by requiring certain enumerated contracts and transactions to be evidenced by a
writing signed by the party to be charged.
Application: This statute does not deprive the parties the right to contract with respect to matters therein involved, but
merely regulates the formalities of the contract necessary to render it unenforceable. The statute of frauds, however,
simply provides for the manner in which contracts under it shall be proved. It does not attempt to make such contracts
invalid if not executed in writing but only makes ineffective the action for specific performance. The statute of frauds is
not applicable to contracts which are either totally or partially performed, on the theory that there is a wide field for the
commission of frauds in executory contracts which can only be prevented by requiring them to be in writing, a fact
which is reduced to a minimum in executed contracts because the intention of the parties becomes apparent by their
execution, and execution concludes, in most cases, the rights of the parties.
A note or memorandum is evidence of the agreement, and is used to show the intention of the parties. No particular
form of language or instrument is necessary to constitute a memorandum or note as a writing under the Statute of
Frauds.
*General Rules of Application (mainly Paras):
Applies only to executory contracts. But it is not enough for a party to allege partial performance in order to render the
Statute inapplicable; such partial performance must be duly proved, by either documentary or oral evidence; Cannot
apply if the action is neither for damages because of the violation of an agreement nor for the specific performance of
said agreeement;
*Exclusive, i.e. it applies only to the agreements or contracts enumerated herein;
*Defense of the Statute may be waived;
*Personal defense, i.e. a contract infringing it cannot be assailed by third persons;
*contracts infringing the Statute are not void; they are merely unenforceable;
*The Statute of Frauds is a rule of exclusion, i.e. oral evidence might be relevant to the agreements enumerated therein
and might therefore be admissible were it not for the fact that the law or the statute excludes oral evidence;
*The Statute does not determine the credibility or weight of evidence. It merely concerns itself with the admissibility
thereof;
*The Statute does not apply if it is claimed that the contract does not express the true agreement of the parties. As long
as true or real agreement is not covered by the Statute, it is provable by oral evidence.
INCAPACITATED PARTIES
Ratification by one party converts the contract into a voidable contract- voidable at the option of the party who has not
ratified.
Art. 1404. Unauthorized contracts are governed by Article 1317 and the principles of agency in Title X of this
Book.
*Art. 1317. No one may contract in the name of another without being authorized by the latter, or unless he has by law
a right to represent him.
*A contract entered into in the name of another by one who has no authority or legal representation, or who has acted
beyond his powers, shall be unenforceable, unless it is ratified, expressly or impliedly, by the person on whose behalf it
has been executed, before it is revoked by the other contracting party. (1259a)
*Requisites for a Person to contract in the name of another: a) he must be duly authorized (expressly or impliedly) or b)
he must have by law a right to represent him (like the guardian, or the administrator) or c) the contract must be
subsequently ratified (expressly or impliedly, by word or by deed). (Paras).
Art. 1405. Contracts infringing the Statute of Frauds, referred to in No. 2 of Article 1403, are ratified by the
failure to object to the presentation of oral evidence to prove the same, or by the acceptance of benefit under
them.
*Two ways of ratification of contracts infringing the Statute are:
a) failure to object to the presentation of oral evidence;

63

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

b) acceptance of benefits under them, since the Statute does not apply to contracts which are partially executed. Cross
examination of the witnesses testifying orally on the contract amounts to a waiver or to a failure to object.
Art. 1406. When a contract is enforceable under the Statute of Frauds, and a public document is necessary for
its registration in the Registry of Deeds, the parties may avail themselves of the right under Article 1357.
*Art. 1357. If the law requires a document or other special form, as in the acts and contracts enumerated in the
following article, the contracting parties may compel each other to observe that form, once the contract has been
perfected. This right may be exercised simultaneously with the action upon the contract. (1279a)
*The right of one party to have the other execute the public document needed for convenience in registration, is given
only when the contract is both valid and enforceable. (Paras)
Art. 1407. In a contract where both parties are incapable of giving consent, express or implied ratification by
the parent, or guardian, as the case may be, of one of the contracting parties shall give the contract the same
effect as if only one of them were incapacitated.
If ratification is made by the parents or guardians, as the case may be, of both contracting parties, the contract
shall be validated from the inception.
Art. 1408. Unenforceable contracts cannot be assailed by third persons.
*The defense of the Statute is personal to the party to the agreement. Thus, it cannot be set up by strangers to the
agreement.
*Just as strangers cannot attack the validity of voidable contracts, so also can they not attack a contract because of its
unenforceability. Indeed the Statute of Frauds cannot be set up as a defense by strangers to the transaction. (Ayson v.
CA, 97 Phil. 965).
VOID OR INEXISTENT CONTRACTS
What contracts are void or inexistent?
The following contracts are void or inexistent from the beginning:
1. Those whose cause, object or purpose is contrary to law, morals, good customs, public order or public policy;
2. Those which are absolutely simulated or fictitious;
3. Those whose cause or object did not exist at the time of the transaction;
4. Those whose object is outside the commerce of men;
5. Those which contemplate an impossible service;
6. Those where the intention of the parties relative to the principal object cannot be ascertained;
7. Those expressly prohibited or declared void by law. (a-g, Art 1409, NCC).
8. Those which are the direct results of previous illegal contracts (Art 1422, NCC).
III. NATURAL OBLIGATIONS
Definition
Natural obligations are those based on equity and natural law, which are not enforceable by means of court action, but
which, after voluntary fulfillment by the obligor, authorize the retention by the oblige of what has been delivered or
rendered by reason thereof. In other words, they refer to those obligations without sanction, susceptible of voluntary
performance, but not through compulsion by legal means.
Natural Obligation vs Civil Obligation
Natural Obligations
Basis
Equity and natural law
Enforceability
Not enforceable by court action
3. vs Moral Obligations
Natural Obligations

64

Civil Obligations
Positive law
Enforceable by court action
Moral Obligations

OBLIGATIONS AND CONTRACTS

Existence of juridical tie

Effect of fulfillment

There exists a juridical tie between the No juridical tie whatsoever.

parties not enforceable by court action.
Voluntary fulfillment produces legal Voluntary fulfillment does not produce
effects which the courts recognize and legal effects which the courts
protect.
recognize and protect.

Articles 1424 1430: Examples of Natural Obligations

65