Requirements Elicitation

In requirements engineering, requirements elicitation is the practice of collecting

the requirements of a system from users, customers and other stakeholders. The
practice is also sometimes referred to as requirements gathering.
The term elicitation is used in books and research to raise the fact that good
requirements cannot just be collected from the customer, as would be indicated by the
name requirements gathering. Requirements elicitation is non-trivial because you can
never be sure you get all requirements from the user and customer by just asking
them what the system should do. Requirements elicitation practices include
interviews, questionnaires, user observation, workshops, brainstorming, use cases,
role playing and prototyping.
Before requirements can be analyzed, modeled, or specified they must be gathered
through an elicitation process. Requirements elicitation is a part of the requirements
engineering process, usually followed by analysis and specification of the
requirements.
Commonly used elicitation processes are the stakeholder meetings or interviews. For
example, an important first meeting could be between software engineers and
customers where they discuss their perspective of the requirements.
Guidelines
In 1997, Sommerville and Sawyer suggested a set of guidelines for requirements
elicitation, to address concerns such as those identified by Christel and Kang:
1. Assess the business and technical feasibility for the proposed system
2. Identify the people who will help specify requirements and understand their
organizational bias
3. Define the technical environment (e.g., computing architecture, operating system,
telecommunications needs) into which the system or product will be placed
4. Identify "domain constraints" (i.e., characteristics of the business environment
specific to the application domain) that limit the functionality or performance of
the system or product to be built
5. Define one or more requirements elicitation methods (e.g., interviews, focus
groups, team meetings)
6. Solicit participation from many people so that requirements are defined from
different points of view; be sure to identify the rationale for each requirement that
is recorded
7. Identify ambiguous requirements as candidates for prototyping
8. Create usage scenarios or use cases to help customers/users better identify key
requirements
In 2004, Goldsmith suggested a "problem pyramid" of "six steps which must be
performed in sequence":
1. Identify the real problem, opportunity or challenge
2. Identify the current measure(s) which show that the problem is real
3. Identify the goal measure(s) to show the problem has been addressed and the
value of meeting it

4. Identify the "as-is" cause(s) of the problem, as it is the causes that must be
solved, not the problem directly
5. Define the business "whats" that must be delivered to meet the goal measure(s)
6. Specify a product design how to satisfy the real business requirements
However Goldsmith notes that identifying the real problem "is
exceedingly difficult".

Stakeholder Analysis (Understanding Stakeholders' Needs)

Stakeholder analysis in conflict resolution, project management, and business
administration, is the process of identifying the individuals or groups that are likely to
affect or be affected by a proposed action, and sorting them according to their impact
on the action and the impact the action will have on them. This information is used to
assess how the interests of those stakeholders should be addressed in a project plan,
policy, program, or other action. Stakeholder analysis is a key part of stakeholder
management.
Stakeholder analysis is a term that refers to the action of analyzing the attitudes of
stakeholders towards something (most frequently a project). It is frequently used during
the preparation phase of a project to assess the attitudes of the stakeholders regarding
the potential changes. Stakeholder analysis can be done once or on a regular basis to
track changes in stakeholder attitudes over time.
A stakeholder is any person or organization, who can be positively or negatively
impacted by, or cause an impact on the actions of a company, government, or
organization. Types of stakeholders are:
1. Primary stakeholders: are those ultimately affected, either positively or negatively
by an organization's actions.
2. Secondary stakeholders: are the intermediaries, that is, persons or
organizations who are indirectly affected by an organization's actions.
3. Key stakeholders: (who can also belong to the first two groups) have
significant influence upon or importance within an organization.
Therefore, stakeholder analysis has the goal of developing cooperation between the
stakeholder and the project team and, ultimately, assuring successful outcomes for the
project. Stakeholder analysis is performed when there is a need to clarify the
consequences of envisaged changes, or at the start of new projects and in connection
with organizational changes generally. It is important to identify all stakeholders for the
purpose of identifying their success criteria and turning these into quality goals. (Rodi et
al., 2012)
Methods of Stakeholder Mapping
The following list identifies some of the best known and most commonly used
methods for stakeholder mapping:
1. (Mitchell, Agle et al. 1997) proposed a classification of stakeholders based on
power to influence, the legitimacy of each stakeholders relationship with the
organization, and the urgency of the stakeholders claim on the organization. The
results of this classification may assess the fundamental question of "which
groups are stakeholders deserving or requiring managers attention, and which
are not?" This is salience - "the degree to which managers give priority to
competing stakeholder claims" (Mitchell, Agle et al., 1997:854)
2. (Fletcher, Guthrie et al. 2003) defined a process for mapping stakeholder
expectations based on value hierarchies and Key Performance Areas (KPA),

3. (Cameron, Crawley et al. 2010) defined a process for ranking stakeholders

based on needs and the relative importance of stakeholders to others in the
network.
4. (Savage, Nix et al. 1991) offer a way to classify stakeholders according to
potential for threat and potential for cooperation.

5. (Turner, Kristoffer and Thurloway, 2002) have developed a process of

identification, assessment of awareness, support, influence leading to strategies
for communication and assessing stakeholder satisfaction, and who is aware or
ignorant and whether their attitude is supportive or opposing.

Mapping techniques include the following sub-set of results from a Web search of
analysis techniques being used by aid agencies, governments or consultant groups:
1. Influence-interest grid (Imperial College London)
2. Power-impact grid (Office of Government Commerce UK 2003)
3. Mendelow's Power-interest grid (Aubrey L. Mendelow, Kent State University, Ohio
1991)
Low
interest
Low
power
High
power

High
interest

4. Three-dimensional grouping of power, interest and attitude (Murray-Webster and

Simon 2005)
5. The Stakeholder Circle (Bourne 2007)
The first step in building any stakeholder map is to develop a categorized list of the
members of the stakeholder community. Once the list is reasonably complete it is then
possible to assign priorities in some way, and then to translate the highest priority
stakeholders into a table or a picture. The potential list of stakeholders for any project
will always exceed both the time available for analysis and the capability of the
mapping tool to sensibly display the results, the challenge is to focus on the right
stakeholders who are currently important and to use the tool to visualize this critical
sub-set of the total community.
The most common presentation styles use a matrix to represent two dimensions of
interest with frequently a third dimension shown by the color or size of the symbol
representing the individual stakeholders.
Some of the commonly used dimensions include:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Power (high, medium, low)

Support (positive, neutral, negative)
Influence (high or low)
Need (strong, medium, weak)

Other Forms of Stakeholder Analysis

A more recent form of Stakeholder Analysis can be seen in Triple Task Method. An
approach which seeks to blend three disciplines: psychoanalytic theory, systems
analysis and action research.
Benefits
Stakeholder analysis helps with the identification of the following:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Stakeholders' interests
Mechanisms to influence other stakeholders
Potential risks
Key people to be informed about the project during the execution phase

5. Negative stakeholders as well as their adverse effects on the project

Interview
An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked
by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a
standard part of journalism and media reporting, but are also employed in many other
situations, including qualitative research.
Interview as a Method for Qualitative Research
Interviewing, when considered as a method for conducting qualitative research, is a
technique used to understand the experiences of others.[1] Interviewing differs from
other methods of data collection in that it is often more exploratory in nature, and
allows for more flexibility. Interviewing stems from the desire to know more about the
people around us and to better understand how the people around us view the world we
live in: At the heart of interviewing research is an interest in other individuals stories
because they are of worth.
Technique
When choosing to interview as a method for conducting qualitative research, it is
important to be tactful and sensitive in your approach. Interviewer and researcher,
Irving Seidman, devotes an entire chapter of his book, Interviewing as Qualitative
Research, to the import of proper interviewing technique and interviewer etiquette.
Some of the fundamentals of his technique are summarized below:
1. Listening: According to Seidman, this is both the hardest as well as the most
important skill in interviewing. Furthermore, interviewers must be prepared to
listen on three different levels: they must listen to what the participant is actually
saying, they must listen to the inner voice or subtext of what the participant is
communicating, and they must also listen to the process and flow of the interview
so as to remain aware of how tired or bored the participant is as well as logistics
such as how much time has already passed and how many questions still remain.
The listening skills required in an interview require more focus and attention to
detail than what is typical in normal conversation. Therefore it is often helpful for
interviewers to take notes while the participant responds to questions or to taperecord the interviews themselves to as to be able to more accurately transcribe
them later.
2. Ask questions (to follow up and to clarify): While an interviewer generally enters
each interview with a predetermined, standardized set of questions, it is important
that they also ask follow-up questions throughout the process. Such questions
might encourage a participant to elaborate upon something poignant that theyve
shared and are important in acquiring a more comprehensive understanding of
the subject matter. Additionally, it is important that an interviewer ask clarifying
questions when they are confused. If the narrative, details, or chronology of a
participants responses become unclear, it is often appropriate for the interviewer
to ask them to re-explain these aspects of their story so as to keep their
transcriptions accurate.

3. Be respectful of boundaries: Seidman explains this tactic as Explore, dont probe, It

is essential that while the participant is being interviewed they are being encouraged
to explore their experiences in a manner that is sensitive and respectful. They should
not be probed in such a way that makes them feel uncomfortable or like a
specimen in lab. If too much time is spent dwelling on minute details or if too many
follow-up questions are asked, it is possible that the participant will become
defensive or

unwilling to share. Thus, it is the interviewers job to strike a balance between

ambiguity and specificity in their question asking.
4. Be wary of leading questions: Leading questions are questions which suggest or
imply an answer. While they are often asked innocently they run the risk of altering
the validity of the responses obtained as they discourage participants from using
their own language to express their sentiments. Thus it is preferable that
interviewers ask open-ended questions instead. For example, instead of asking
Did the experience make you feel sad? - Which is leading in nature - it would be
better to ask How did the experience make you feel - as this suggests no
expectation.
5. Dont interrupt: Participants should feel comfortable and respected throughout
the entire interview - thus interviewers should avoid interrupting participants
whenever possible. While participants may digress in their responses and while
the interviewer may lose interest in what they are saying at one point or another
it is critical that they be tactful in their efforts to keep the participant on track and
to return to the subject matter in question.
6. Make the participant feel comfortable: Interviewing proposes an unusual dynamic
in that it often requires the participant to divulge personal or emotional
information in the presence of a complete stranger. Thus, many interviewers find
it helpful to ask the participant to address them as if they were
someone else, such as a close friend or family member. This is often an
effective method for tuning into the aforementioned inner voice of the
participant and breaking down the more presentational barriers of the guarded
outer voice which often prevails.
Types of Interviews
1. Informal, conversational interview: No predetermined questions are asked, in order
to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewees nature and
priorities; during the interview the interviewer goes with the flow.
2. General interview guide approach: Intended to ensure that the same general
areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more
focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.
3. Standardized, open-ended interview: The same open-ended questions are asked
to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more
easily analyzed and compared.
4. Closed, fixed-response interview: All interviewees are asked the same questions
and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This
format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other
prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are
often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The
questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are
cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone
surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.

However, such standardized answers may frustrate users. Questionnaires are also
sharply limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and
respond to them. Thus, for some demographic groups conducting a survey by
questionnaire may not be practical.
As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems relating to
question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion polls.

Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction

1. Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different
subpopulations of the population of interest.
2. Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.
3. Think of having an "open" answer category after a list of possible answers.
4. Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
5. Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
6. Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
7. Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational
levels
8. Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
9. Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you
like strawberries and potatoes?).
Questionnaire Administration Modes
Main modes of questionnaire administration are:
1. Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the
items orally.
2. Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on
paper.
3. Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the
computer.
4. Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items
is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those items, the
computer selects following items optimized for the candidates estimated ability
or trait.
Workshops
Requirements Elicitation Workshops are one of several techniques used to define and
develop requirements. Workshops are ideal when disparate stakeholder groups are
involved with the project. Sessions are led by a skilled facilitator and attended by
representatives and subject matter experts from each stakeholder group who meet to
discuss and agree on a set of project requirements.
1. Define Project Scope And Objectives
a. Identify and meet with sponsor, decision makers and customers to gain
insight into critical business needs, desired outcomes and constraints.
b. Identify pre-existing commitments that may impact project outcomes.
2. Analyze Potential Requirement Sources
a. Review legacy system documentation, data models, policies and
regulations.
b. Review historical data that may provide knowledge into the projects desired
state.
3. Identify And Engage Stakeholders
a. Identify and obtain commitment from stakeholders; seek managerial
approval as necessary.
b. Communicate goals, expected outcomes, time commitment and required

actions.
c. Identify and consider underlying concerns.
4. Prepare For Workshop Sessions
a. Preparation includes workshop agenda, sign-in
questionnaire and job-aids for capturing requirements.
b. Distribute relevant materials to group as read-ahead.
5. Conduct Workshop Sessions
a. Introduce requirements gathering technique.

sheet,

interview

b. Discuss objectives, scope, constraints and risks.

c. Use job-aids to capture information related to system, user roles, data, and
interfaces.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are made to
find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously
contributed by its member(s). The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in the
1953 book Applied Imagination. Osborn claimed that brainstorming was more effective
than individuals working alone in generating ideas, although more recent research has
questioned this conclusion. Today, the term is used as a catch all for all group ideation
sessions.
Types of Brainstorming
1. Nominal Group Technique
Main article: nominal group technique
Participants are asked to write their ideas anonymously. Then the facilitator collects the
ideas and the group votes on each idea. The vote can be as simple as a show of hands
in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation.
After distillation, the top ranked ideas may be sent back to the group or to subgroups for
further brainstorming. For example, one group may work on the color required in a
product. Another group may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to
the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that were previously
dropped may be brought forward again once the group has re-evaluated the ideas.
It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before attempting to
facilitate this technique. The group should be primed and encouraged to embrace the
process. Like all team efforts, it may take a few practice sessions to train the team in
the method before tackling the important ideas.
2. Group Passing Technique
Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of
paper to the next person, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody
gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will
have extensively elaborated on each idea.
The group may also create an "idea book" and post a distribution list or routing slip to
the front of the book. On the first page is a description of the problem. The first person
to receive the book lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person on
the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or add to the ideas of the
previous person. This continues until the distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up "read
out" meeting is then held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes
longer, but it allows individuals time to think deeply about the problem.
3. Team Idea Mapping Method
This method of brainstorming works by the method of association. It may improve

collaboration and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all attendees
participate and no ideas are rejected.
The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant brainstorms individually,
then all the ideas are merged onto one large idea map. During this consolidation
phase, participants may discover a common

understanding of the issues as they share the meanings behind their ideas. During this
sharing, new ideas may arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well.
Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and/or take action.
4. Electronic Brainstorming
This is a computerized version of the manual brainstorming technique typically
supported by an electronic meeting system (EMS) but simpler forms can also be done
via email and may be browser based, or use peer-to-peer software.
With an electronic meeting system, participants share a list of ideas over a network.
Ideas are entered independently. Contributions become immediately visible to all and are
typically anonymized to encourage openness and reduce personal prejudice. Modern
EMS also support asynchronous brainstorming sessions over extended periods of time as
well as typical follow-up activities in the creative problem solving process such as
categorization of ideas, elimination of duplicates, assessment and discussion of
prioritized or controversial ideas.
Proponents such as Gallupe et al. argue that electronic brainstorming eliminates many
of the problems of standard brainstorming, including production blocking (i.e. group
members must take turns to express their ideas) and evaluation apprehension (i.e.
fear of being judged by others). This positive effect increases with larger groups. A
perceived advantage of this format is that all ideas can be archived electronically in
their original form, and then retrieved later for further thought and discussion.
Electronic brainstorming also enables much larger groups to brainstorm on a topic
than would normally be productive in a traditional brainstorming session.
When exposed to others ideas, attention is focused by the group member on these ideas
and this attention has been proposed to cognitively stimulate the brainstormer
Therefore, the individual members of the brainstorming group perform better during the
session because people see everyone elses ideas on the computer screen (via chat
room or e-mail), explaining the positive effects of EBS. Additionally, during an EBS
session, participants have control over their activity and can attend to the ideas of
others while also creating their own, continually exposing participants to a flow of ideas.
EBS techniques have been shown to produce more ideas and help individuals focus their
attention on the ideas of others better than a brainwriting technique (participants write
individual written notes in silence and then subsequently communicate them with the
group) The production of more ideas has been linked to the fact that paying attention to
others ideas leads to non-redundancy, as one will try to avoid to replicate or repeat
another participants comment or idea.
The fact that individuals are not physically visible has also been shown to be an
important component to the superiority of EBS over other methods, such as
brainwriting. Due to the fact that participants are not typically in a room with the group,
social cues such as facial expression and verbal language are not available, and
therefore, attention is paid to the task at hand and the ideas rather than the people
involved.

Some web-based brainstorming techniques allow contributors to post their comments

anonymously through the use of avatars. This technique also allows users to log on over
an extended time period, typically one or two weeks, to allow participants some "soak
time" before posting their ideas and feedback. This technique has been used particularly
in the field of new product development, but can be applied in any number of areas
requiring collection and evaluation of ideas.

Some limitations of EBS include the fact that it can flood people with too many ideas
at one time that they have to attend to, and people may also compare their
performance to others by analyzing how many ideas each individual produces (social
matching).
5. Directed Brainstorming
Directed brainstorming is a variation of electronic brainstorming (described above). It
can be done manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when the
solution space (that is, the set of criteria for evaluating a good idea) is known prior to the
session. If known, those criteria can be used to constrain the Ideation process
intentionally.
In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of paper (or electronic
form) and told the brainstorming question. They are asked to produce one response and
stop, then all of the papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants.
The participants are asked to look at the idea they received and to create a new idea
that improves on that idea based on the initial criteria. The forms are then swapped
again and respondents are asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is
repeated for three or more rounds.
In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost triple the
productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming.
6. Guided Brainstorming
A guided brainstorming session is time set aside to brainstorm either individually or as
a collective group about a particular subject under the constraints of perspective and
time. This type of brainstorming removes all cause for conflict and constrains
conversations while stimulating critical and creative thinking in an engaging, balanced
environment. Innovative ideas consistently emerge.
Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for pre-defined period of time while
contributing their ideas to a central mind map drawn by a pre-appointed scribe. Having
examined a multi-perspective point of view, participants seemingly see the simple
solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is assigned individually.
Following a guided brainstorming session participants emerge with ideas ranked for
further brainstorming, research and questions remaining unanswered and a prioritized,
assigned, actionable list that leaves everyone with a clear understanding of what needs
to happen next and the ability to visualize the combined future focus and greater goals
of the group.
7. Individual Brainstorming
"Individual brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming in solitary. It typically includes
such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and drawing a mind
map, which is a visual note taking technique in which people diagram their thoughts.
Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to
be superior to traditional group brainstorming.
Research has shown individual brainstorming to be more effective in ideageneration than group brainstorming.

8. Question Brainstorming
This process involves brainstorming the questions, rather than trying to come up with
immediate answers and short term solutions. Theoretically, this technique should not
inhibit participation as there is no need to

provide solutions. The answers to the questions form the framework for constructing
future action plans. Once the list of questions is set, it may be necessary to prioritize
them to reach to the best solution in an orderly way.
"Questorming" is another term for this mode of inquiry.
Software Prototyping
Software prototyping refers to the activity of creating prototypes of software
applications, i.e., incomplete versions of the software program being developed. It is
an activity that can occur in software development and is comparable to prototyping
as known from other fields, such as mechanical engineering or manufacturing.
A prototype typically simulates only a few aspects of, and may be completely different
from, the final product.
Prototyping has several benefits: The software designer and implementer can get
valuable feedback from the users early in the project. The client and the contractor can
compare if the software made matches the software specification, according to which
the software program is built. It also allows the software engineer some insight into the
accuracy of initial project estimates and whether the deadlines and milestones proposed
can be successfully met. The degree of completeness and the techniques used in the
prototyping have been in development and debate since its proposal in the early 1970s.
Steps Of The Prototyping Process
The process of prototyping involves the following steps
1. Identify basic requirements: Determine basic requirements including the input and
output information desired. Details, such as security, can typically be ignored.
2. Develop Initial Prototype: The initial prototype is developed that includes only
user interfaces. (See Horizontal Prototype, below)
3. Review: The customers, including end-users, examine the prototype and provide
feedback on additions or changes.
4. Revise and Enhance the Prototype: Using the feedback both the specifications
and the prototype can be improved. Negotiation about what is within the scope of
the contract/product may be necessary. If changes are introduced then a repeat
of steps #3 and #4 may be needed.
Types of Prototyping
Software prototyping has many variants. However, all the methods are in some way
based on two major types of prototyping: Throwaway Prototyping and Evolutionary
Prototyping.
1. Throwaway prototyping
Also called close-ended prototyping. Throwaway or Rapid Prototyping refers to the
creation of a model that will eventually be discarded rather than becoming part of the
final delivered software. After preliminary requirements gathering is accomplished, a
simple working model of the system is constructed to visually show the users what their
requirements may look like when they are implemented into a finished system.
Rapid Prototyping involved creating a working model of various parts of the system at a
very early stage, after a relatively short investigation. The method used in building it is

usually quite informal, the most important factor being the speed with which the model is
provided. The model then becomes the starting point from which users can re-examine their
expectations and clarify their requirements. When this has been achieved,

the prototype model is 'thrown away', and the system is formally developed
based on the identified requirements.
The most obvious reason for using Throwaway Prototyping is that it can be done quickly.
If the users can get quick feedback on their requirements, they may be able to refine
them early in the development of the software. Making changes early in the
development lifecycle is extremely cost effective since there is nothing at that point to
redo. If a project is changed after a considerable work has been done then small changes
could require large efforts to implement since software systems have many
dependencies. Speed is crucial in implementing a throwaway prototype, since with a
limited budget of time and money little can be expended on a prototype that will be
discarded.
Strength of Throwaway Prototyping is its ability to construct interfaces that the users
can test. The user interface is what the user sees as the system, and by seeing it in
front of them, it is much easier to grasp how the system will work.
it is asserted that revolutionary rapid prototyping is a more effective manner in
which to deal with user requirements-related issues, and therefore a greater
enhancement to software productivity overall. Requirements can be identified,
simulated, and tested far more quickly and cheaply when issues of evolvability,
maintainability, and software structure are ignored. This, in turn, leads to the accurate
specification of requirements and the subsequent construction of a valid and usable
system from the user's perspective via conventional software development models.
Prototypes can be classified according to the fidelity with which they resemble the
actual product in terms of appearance, interaction and timing. One method of creating a
low fidelity Throwaway Prototype is Paper Prototyping. The prototype is implemented
using paper and pencil, and thus mimics the function of the actual product, but does not
look at all like it. Another method to easily build high fidelity Throwaway Prototypes is to
use a GUI Builder and create a click dummy, a prototype that looks like the goal system,
but does not provide any functionality.
Not exactly the same as Throwaway Prototyping, but certainly in the same family, is the
usage of storyboards, animatics or drawings. These are non-functional implementations but
show how the system will look.

SUMMARY:-In this approach the prototype is constructed with the idea that it will be
discarded and the final system will be built from scratch. The steps in this approach
are:
Write preliminary requirements
Design the prototype
User experiences/uses the prototype, specifies new requirements
Repeat if necessary
Write the final requirements
Develop the real products
2. Evolutionary prototyping
Evolutionary Prototyping (also known as breadboard prototyping) is quite different from
Throwaway Prototyping. The main goal when using Evolutionary Prototyping is to build
a very robust prototype in a structured manner and constantly refine it. The reason for

this is that the Evolutionary prototype, when built, forms the heart of the new system,
and the improvements and further requirements will be built.
When developing a system using Evolutionary Prototyping, the system is continually
refined and rebuilt.

"evolutionary prototyping acknowledges that we do not understand all the

requirements and builds only those that are well understood."
This technique allows the development team to add features, or make changes that
couldn't be conceived during the requirements and design phase.
For a system to be useful, it must evolve through use in its intended operational
environment. A product is never "done;" it is always maturing as the usage environment
changeswe often try to define a system using our most familiar frame of reference--where we are now. We make assumptions about the way business will be conducted
and the technology base on which the business will be implemented. A plan is enacted
to develop the capability, and, sooner or later, something resembling the envisioned
system is delivered.[9]
Evolutionary Prototypes have an advantage over Throwaway Prototypes in that they
are functional systems. Although they may not have all the features the users have
planned, they may be used on an interim basis until the final system is delivered.
"It is not unusual within a prototyping environment for the user to put an initial
prototype to practical use while waiting for a more developed versionThe user may
decide that a 'flawed' system is better than no system at all."
In Evolutionary Prototyping, developers can focus themselves to develop parts of
the system that they understand instead of working on developing a whole
system.
To minimize risk, the developer does not implement poorly understood features. The
partial system is sent to customer sites. As users work with the system, they detect
opportunities for new features and give requests for these features to developers.
Developers then take these enhancement requests along with their own and use sound
configuration-management practices to change the software-requirements specification,
update the design, recode and retest.[
3. Incremental prototyping
The final product is built as separate prototypes. At the end the separate prototypes are
merged in an overall design.
4. Extreme prototyping
Extreme Prototyping as a development process is used especially for developing web
applications. Basically, it breaks down web development into three phases, each one
based on the preceding one. The first phase is a static prototype that consists mainly of
HTML pages. In the second phase, the screens are programmed and fully functional
using a simulated services layer. In the third phase, the services are implemented. The
process is called Extreme Prototyping to draw attention to the second phase of the
process, where a fully functional UI is developed with very little regard to the services
other than their contract.
Documenting Stakeholders' Needs
This involves doing research to determine:
1. The key stakeholders associated with the project
2. The needs of the key stakeholders

At the conclusion of this process an agreement about the real requirements of the
project has to be reached.
Identification Of The Stakeholders

If all of the relevant stakeholders are not identified at the beginning, the success of the
project/phase can be placed in jeopardy.
You must identify who the project is being done for, who will be affected, what they
want or expect and their actual needs.
Care needs to be taken in this identification process. Someone who is initially
considered irrelevant to the project can suddenly become important to it. The quiet,
little person in the corner can often end up being the most important stakeholder!
Some Definitions:
1. The sponsor pays the bills or authorises the expenditure
2. The end-users use the product of the project
3. The champion paves the way and must be keep informed and interested
Prioritizing Stakeholders
You must determine the primary or key stakeholders for the project. They can be
interested in the outcomes of the project or, alternatively might cause problems along
the way.
Key decision makers will attract priority in having their needs and expectations met
and it is important to be aware of unstated agendas within this group.
Analyzing the Needs Of Stakeholders And Clients
The client's needs, and those of the key stakeholders, should be fully understood.
Sometimes stakeholders will have conflicting needs that must be resolved before the
project can proceed.
One of the purposes of the stakeholder analysis is to separate "needs" from "wants".
Ask the question "what will make this project successful for you".
Documentation:
Clear and accurate documentation is critical to the process.
It is important that the needs are documented in the terminology of the key stakeholders
so that no ambiguity can exist and a meaningful agreement can be achieved. In the
analysis, the client's needs should be reviewed, constraints should be identified, the
determined needs should be realistic, the findings should be documented and, most
importantly, approval from the key stakeholders should be obtained in writing.
The project manager must identify and resolve the needs of key stakeholders and
make sure that needs are managed throughout the project.
Often new stakeholders appear during the project. Keep an eye out for them.