Motion in 2- and 3-dimensions

Examples:
non-linear motion

CHAPTER 3

(circles, planetary orbits, etc.)

MOTION IN TWO & THREE DIMENSIONS

General properties of vectors
! the displacement vector
! position and velocity vectors
! acceleration vector
! equations of motion in 2 and 3-dimensions

flight of projectiles
(shells, golf balls, etc.)
Motion in 2- and 3-dimensions means we have to deal
with VECTORS ...

Projectile motion
! path of projectile
! time of flight
! range

HOORAY !!
What are you so happy about? What the heck is a
vector?

Basically there are two main types of physical

Examples of vectors:

quantities we have to deal with:

displacement
SCALARS

VECTORS

(The result of going E ! W is not the same as going

W ! E.)
force

Size

Size

Direction

Scalars have size (magnitude) only, e.g., time, and they

(The result of pushing something UP is not the same as

pushing it DOWN.)

can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided

velocity

according to the rules of simple math, i.e., (+, !, ", ).

acceleration

Other examples:

You cannot use the simple rules of math with vectors!

ordinary numbers
mass

Lets look more closely

distance (NOT displacement)

at some examples ...

speed (NOT velocity)

Vectors have the additional complication of direction to
take into account.

The displacement vector

Military
Trail

Party at Spanish River Park

Yall invited!
Follow the map ...
Military
Trail
D

Spanish River Blvd.

US1

A1A

Spanish River Blvd.

US1

A1A

Glades Rd.
Palmetto Park Rd.
A

Glades Rd.

Alternatively:
Palmetto Park Rd.
E

35!
N of E

Displacement
(Resultant)
7.3km

55!
E of N

4.2km

6.0km
A

Note that: AB + BC = 10.2km ! AC

" " "
but AB + BC = AC

Vector
equation

A
35!
N of E

! ! !
Note that: AD + DC = AC

Vector
equation

Military
Trail
D

US1

A1A

Spanish River Blvd.

All parallel vectors of the

same length are equivalent.

Glades Rd.
Palmetto Park Rd.
A

but these two are not

equivalent ...
WHY?

Note, yet another alternate route will give the same final
displacement!
F

ADDITION

!
C

! ! !
A+B=C

!
B

!
A
A

Vector
equation

SUBTRACTION

! ! ! !
AE + EF + FC = AC
Is the distance travelled the same as before?

!
B

!
A
!
D

!
!B

!
!
!
A + (! B) = D
! i.e.,
! !
A!B=D

Multiplying a vector by a scalar:

Working with vectors:

!
A

!
!
! !
C = 2A ! A + A

!
A

!
C

Draw them to scale, or

Use components and trigonometry
y

!
A
!
A
!
C

!
!
! ! ! !
C = 4A ! A + A + A + A
!
A

!
A

Ay

!
A

x
Ax

!
A vector ( A) multiplied by a scalar (n) is another vector
!
!
( C), parallel to A but with magnitude (size) n times as
large,

!
!
i.e., C = nA
!
!
and C = n A .
means
magnitude

In component form:
!
A = (A x ,A y ),
!
where A = A x2 + A y2 .
!
!
The components are: A x = A cos! and A y = A sin !,
Ay
where tan ! =
.
Ax

Adding vectors in component form:

! ! !
A+B=C
y

By

!
C

Ay
!

!
B

!
A
Ax

x
Bx

In component form:
!
!
A = (A x ,A y ) and B = (B x ,B y )
!
The resultant is C = (C x ,C y ),
!
where C = (A x + B x )2 + (A y + B y )2 .
Also C x = (A x + B x ) and C y = (A y + B y )
Cy
and tan ! =
.
Cx
(Similarly in 3-dimensions)

Question 1: A bear walks north-east for 12 m then walks

east for another 12 m. (a) Draw the displacement
graphically and find the resultant displacement. (b) If
the bear walks at 0.50 m/s, what is his average velocity?

! ! !
A+B=C !

!
!
Notice the distance walked by the bear, A + B = 24 m, is
!
greater than the displacement, C = 22.2 m.

!
A
!
C

Ay
#

!
B

Ax

!
(a) In component form: A = (A x ,A y ).
Ax
! = cos45" !A x = 12 m " 0.707 = 8.49 m.
A
Ay
! = sin 45" !A y = 12 m " 0.707 = 8.49 m.
A
!
Similarly: B = (B x ,B y ) = (12 m,0) .
!
If C = (C x ,C y ), then
C x = A x + B x = 20.49 m
C y = A y + B y = 8.49 m.
$1 % C y (

$1 %

8.49 (
!# = tan ' * = tan '
* = 22.5" (N of E)
& 20.49 )
& Cx )
!
and C = C x2 + C y2 = 491.9 = 22.2 m.

!
displacement C
(b) Average velocity !
= .
total time
t
12 m
= 24.0 s,
0.5 m/s
12 m
and time for B # C is
= 24.0 s.
0.5 m/s

" time for A # B is

"t = 48.0 s.
22.2 m
"v av =
= 0.46 m/s.
48.0 s
As we will see below, velocity is a vector and so to be
precise, the average velocity is 0.46 m/s in a direction
22.5" N of E.

Often when we use vectors in component form, we will

use unit vectors:
j

!
r2

Ax
!
A

Ay

!
A y = A y j
x

!
A x = A x i

Use in vector addition ...

!
!
if A = A x , A y and B = B x ,B y ,
!
!
then A = A x i + A y j and B = B x i + B y j.
So:

! !
A B = ( A x B x )i + A y B y j + ( A z B z ) k

k
P2 (t 2 )

So i = j = k = 1.

They indicate
direction
only

unit vectors
i

Position and velocity vectors

in 3-dimensions

!
!r
!
r1

y
P1 (t1 )

A particle with position vector at any instant

!
r = xi + yj + zk
moves from P1(t1 ) to P2 (t 2 ). Then, if
! ! !
! r = r2 " r1 and !t = t 2 " t1
the average velocity vector is:
!
!r
!
v av = .
!t

!
The instantaneous velocity at any point r is:
!
!
$ ! r ' d r dx dy dz
!
v = Limit & ) = =
i+
j+ k
dt
dt
dt
!t#0 % !t ( dt
!
i.e., v = v x i + v y j + v z k

Acceleration vector
z

!
v2

k
P2 (t 2 )
!
r2

!
r = xi + yj + zk
x

!
!r
!
r1

P1 (t1 )

! !
!
!v = v 2 " v 1
y
j

!
# !r &
!
Since the velocity vector is v = Limit % ( , the velocity
!t"0 $ !t '
!
at any point r :
!
v = v i + v j + v k
x

!
is the tangent at the point r , i.e., parallel to the
instantaneous direction of motion at all points.
The instantaneous speed is magnitude of the
!
instantaneous velocity, v .

P2 (v 2 , t 2 )
!
v1

!
v1

P1 (v 1 , t1 )

!
v2

A particle with velocity vector at any instant

!
v = v i + v j + v k
x

moves from P1(v1 , t1 ) to P2 (v 2 , t 2 ). Then, if

! !
!
!v = v 2 " v1 and !t = t 2 " t1
the average acceleration vector is:
!
!v
!
a av =
.
!t
Thus, the instantaneous acceleration is:
!
!
$ !v ' dv dv x dv y dv z
!
a = Limit & ) =
=
i+
j+
k
dt
dt
dt
dt
!t#0 % !t (
!
i.e., a = a x i + a y j + a z k
!
!
a is parallel to ! v

Special case of circular motion

!
v2

!
v

P2 (t 2 )

!
r2
"

!
a

!
r1

!
!
r1 = r2 = r

!
v1
P1 (t1 )

! "
$ v1

!
!
v1 = v 2 = v

!
v2

!
!v
! !
!
!v = v 2 $ v 1
!
!v = 2v sin " 2

( )

Shown here are the position and velocity vector diagrams

!
v

!
a

!
!
Since a is parallel to !v , the direction of the acceleration
is towards the inside of a curve.
Note: on a curve or turn, there is always an
acceleration even though the magnitude of the velocity
(i.e., speed) may be constant.

of an object in uniform circular motion, i.e., motion at

constant speed (v) and constant radius (r). The average
acceleration from P1 to P2 is:
!
"
!v 2v sin 2
a av =
=
,
!t
!t

( )

where !t is the time to travel from P1 to P2. Now,

arc length P1P2 r"
!t =
= .
v
v

( )

2v 2 sin " 2
#a av =
.
r"

The instantaneous acceleration at the point P1 occurs when

!t " 0, i.e., as # " 0. Then
$ 2v 2 sin # '
$sin #
2v 2
2
2
&
)
a r = Limit #"0
=
Limit #"0 &
&
)
& #
r#
r
%
(
%

( )

( )') .

DISCUSSION PROBLEM [3.1]:

)
(

$ sin * '
Put * = # 2 , then a r = Limit *"0 &
)
% 2* (

A ski-jumper flies off the edge of a cliff. What is the

direction of his acceleration at
A, B, X, Y ?

1 $ sin * ' 1
= Limit *"0 &
)= .
2% * ( 2
2v 2 1 v 2
+a r =
= .
r 2
r

!
Note that the direction of the acceleration is parallel to !v ,
i.e., it is radial. It is called the centripetal (i.e., centerdirected) acceleration.
Well return to this topic in chapter 5.

X
B

When t = 0:

!
r" = (x " ,y " ) = 10 i m = (10 m,0),
!
v " = (v "x , v "y ) = (0,0) m/s,

!
a = (a x ,a y ) = (6,4) m/s 2 = 6 i + 4 j m/s 2 .
! !
!
(a) From Ch 2: v = v " + at ! v = v " + at
! !
!
" v = v + at = (6 i + 4 j)t = 6ti + 4tj m/s.

"

Question 2: An object experiences a constant

!
acceleration of a = 6 i + 4 j m/s 2. At time t = 0, it is at
!
rest and its position vector is r = 10 i m. (a) Find the

velocity and position vectors at any time t. (b) Find the

equation describing the path of the particle in the xyplane and sketch the path.

1!
! ! !
r # r" = v " t + at 2
2

1!
! ! !
" r = r" + v " t + at 2
2

1
!
i.e., r = 10 i + (6 i + 4 j)t 2 = (10 + 3t 2 )i + 2t 2 j m.
2
!
(b) But r = (x, y) = xi + yj. "x = 10 + 3t 2 and y = 2t 2 .

( )

y
y
Hence t 2 = 2 , so x = 10 + 3 2 ,

( )

i.e., y = 2 3 x # 6.67
y(m)
10

Slope = 2 3
x(m)

0
#6.67 m

#5

10

20

This is a relative velocity problem.

C

45"

520 km
A

for an airport 520 km due north at point B. The airspeed

of the plane, i.e., relative to the air, is 240 km/h. There is
a steady wind blowing at 50 km/h from northwest to
southeast. (a) What is the proper heading to make the
trip from A to B? (b) How long does the journey take?

B
#

Question 3: A small plane departs from point A heading

!
v CB

B
!
v AC

%
(a) The resultant flight path (AB) is the result of the plane
%
setting out along AC but being redirected by a wind along
%
!
!
!
CB. Then rAB = rAC + rCB .
!
!
But v = d r dt .
!
!
!
! v AB = v AC + v CB = (0, v y )
... ... ... [1]
!
Now v AC = ( "240 km/h)(sin #)i + (240 km/h)(cos#)j
!
and
v CB = (50 km/h)(cos45)i " (50 km/h)(sin 45)j.
!
! v AB = (("240 km/h)sin # + (50 km/h) cos45)i
+ ((240 km/h) cos# " (50 km/h)sin 45)j.
!
But, from equation [1], the x-component of v AB is zero:
i.e., ("240 km/h)sin # + (50 km/h) cos45 = 0.
(50 km/h) cos45
!sin # =
$ # = 8.47" (W of N).
240 km/h

45"

B
!

j
520 km

!
(b) From before, v AB = 0, v y

Question 4: A skier starts from rest at A and slides down

the slope to B and then to C. If the track is frictionless,

(a) what is the skiers speed at B? (b) What is the skiers

speed at C? Assume the skier turns all the corners

= 0,[(240 km/h) cos! " (50 km/h)sin 45" ]

i.e., v y = (240 km/h) cos8.47" " (50 km/h)sin 45"

smoothly with no change in speed.

)
A

= 202 km/h.

!
# v AB = (0, 202 km/h ) ,

$ Effective velocity of plane.

So, the time to travel 520 km
520 km
520 km
$ !
=
= 2.57 h (2h 34min).
v AB
202 km/h

10 m

C
45!

30!

5m

A
C

10 m

45!

(a) For motion down the slope:

where, from Chapter 2,

v B2

30!

5m
A

= v ! + 2a1( AB ) ,

a1 = gsin 45! = 9.81 m/s2 ! 0.707 = 6.94 m/s2 .

Since triangle ABD is isosceles, AD = BD.

Since v B = 14.0 m/s,

v B2 = 2 ! 6.94 m/s 2 ! (14.14 m) = 196.3 ( m/s)2 ,

45!

30!

5m

v C2 = (14.0 m/s)2 + 2 !4.91 m/s 2 (10.0 m)

"AB = (10 m )2 + (10 m)2 = 14.14 m.

Since v ! = 0,

10 m

= 97.9 ( m/s)2 ,
i.e.,

v C = 97.9 ( m/s )2 = 9.89 m/s.

i.e., v B = 196.3 ( m/s )2 = 14.0 m/s.

This problem can be solved using the conservation of
(b) For motion up the slope: v C2 = v B2 + 2a 2 (BC ), where

a 2 = #gsin 30! = #9.81 m/s 2 ! 0.50 = #4.91 m/s 2 ,

and BC = CE

sin 30

= 5.0 m 0.5 = 10.0 m.

mechanical energy, which we will show in Chapter 7.

Analysis of projectile motion:

"
v

Projectile motion
vy

thrown objects (baseballs, arrows, shells)

bouncing balls

"
v

vx

vy = 0
vo

"
v

vy

vx

vy

v !x

!!
(x! , y ! )

"
v!
v !y

vx
x

We can consider the x-y components separately:

Important concept!!
The initial velocity components are:
v !x = v ! cos!! and v !y = v ! sin !!
Investigated first by Galileo.
Historically important for the military.

The acceleration components are:

a x = 0 and a y = "g
** We ignore air resistance/drag forces **

Assume no component of acceleration in the x-direction

(i.e., no air resistance/drag/added thrust), then:
* v x (t) ! constant = v !x .
But in the y-direction:

!t
"
v

vy

* v y (t) = v !y " gt .
The components of the displacement are:

!t
!t

vx

!t

* x(t) = x ! + v !x t

Equal vertical distances

!y traveled in the same
time interval !t .

!t

1
* y(t) = y ! + v !y t " gt 2 .
2

!t

(These two equations represent a parabola).

Flash photographs taken at equal intervals of time show
These four equations (*) are the equations of motion for

that these two objects fall at the same rate even though

a projectile (with no air resistance).

one has a horizontal velocity component.

NOTE: the equations of motion for the horizontal (x)

The x- and y-components of the motion can be treated

and vertical (y) components are separate! The only

quite separately ... they are connected only through

physical quantity that links them is ... time (t).

time.

BANG !!
Heres some really weird stuff !!

1 2
gt
2

BANG !!
1 2
gt
2

1 2
gt
2

Even though the squirrel jumps off the branch at the

instant you pull the trigger, you should still aim directly at
the target! You do not need to allow for the fall of the
target since all objects (bullet and squirrel) fall at the

If a rock is dropped from the same height as a rifle at the

same vertical rate under gravity ...

same time it is fired, no matter how powerful the rifle, in

the absence of air resistance, the bullet and rock will
fall the same distance in the same time ...
1
i.e., ... a distance gt 2 in t seconds,
2
so if the ground is flat, they will hit the ground at the
same time!

BANG !!

1 2
gt
2

... even if you fire upward

or downward!

If the take-off and landing are in the same horizontal

plane the horizontal range is:

"
v
v y j

R = v !x T
where T is the total flight time.

!
v xi

v sin "!
!R = (v ! cos"! ) # 2 !
g
Range

At every point on the path:

tan ! =

v !2 2sin "! cos"!

=
.
g
vy
vx

At maximum height: v y = v !y " gt = 0.

#v !y = v ! sin !! = gt .
So, the time to reach maximum height is
v sin !!
t= !
.
g
If the take-off and landing are in the same horizontal
plane, the total time of flight is:
v sin !!
T=2 !
.
g

v !2
i.e., R =
sin 2"! .
g
Maximum range $ when "! = 45! .
But sin 2" = 2sin " cos" and sin " = cos(90! % ")
!sin 2" = 2cos(90! % ") cos"
i.e., R(90! % ") = R(").
So ... R(30! ) = R(60! ), etc.
75!

60!
15!

30!

45!

Alternative derivation of range:

When x = R 2 , i.e., at mid-range, dy dx = 0.
y

x
R

Earlier we derived the equation of the trajectory:

g
2
y = x tan !! "
2x .
2(v ! cos!! )
#

dy
g
= tan !! "
x,
dx
( v ! cos!! )2

so tan !! "
#R =

$ R'
& ) = 0.
( v ! cos!! )2 % 2 (
g

2v !2 tan !! cos2 ! !
g

v2
= ! sin 2!! .
g

Question 5: A pitcher throws a fastball at 140 km/h

towards home plate, which is 18.4 m away. Neglecting
air resistance, how far does the ball drop because of the
effect of gravity by the time it reaches home plate?

(y ! y! )

y!

y
18.4m

x!

Take up as the positive direction, then:

( x ! x ! ) = 18.4 m : v !x = 140 km/h : a x = 0

( y ! y ! ) = ? : v !y = 0 : a y = !9.81 m/s2 .

Question 6: A cannonball is fired from the top of a

Convert 140 km/h " m/s ...

140 # 1000
=
= 38.9 m/s (~87 mi/h)
60 # 60

tower 40 m tall with an initial speed of 42.2 m/s at angle

The time of flight:

the tower when it strikes the ground?

x ! x ! 18.4 m
t=
=
= 0.473 s.
v !x
38.9 m/s
1
$ ( y ! y ! ) = v !y t + a y t 2
2
=

1
# !9.81 m/s2 # ( 0.473 s )2
2
= !1.10 m.

of 30! above the horizontal. (a) How long is the

cannonball in the air? (b) How far is it from the base of

( x! , y! ) 30!
40 m
R

Question 7: During the Roman invasion of Britain, a

v ! = 42.2 m/s : !! = 30! : (x ! , y ! ) = (0, 40 m) : a x = 0

a y = "9.81 m/s2 .

group of Roman soldiers (at A) locate a British camp on

v !y = v ! sin 30! = 21.1 m/s

1
(a) ( y " y ! ) = v !y t + a y t 2 , where t is time of flight.
2
1
i.e., (0 " 40 m) = (21.1 m/s ) # t + # "9.81 m/s 2 # t 2 .
2

distance of R = 500 m away. If the maximum angle of

v !x = v ! cos30! = 36.5 m/s

$4.91t 2 " 21.1t " 40 = 0 (quadratic equation)

21.1 ("21.1)2 " 4 # 4.91 # ("40)
t=
2 # 4.91
$t = +5.72s or t = "1.42s s ??

(b) Range R = v !x t = ( 36.5 m/s )(5.72 s) = 209 m.

the top of a hill (at B). Using a catapult, the Romans

want to lob a rock from A onto the British camp a
elevation of the catapult is !! = 60! , and the height of
the hill is 16 m, (a) what initial speed of the rock is
required? (b) What is the flight time? (c) With what
speed does the rock strike the camp? (d) What is the
maximum height (h) achieved by the rock?
B

v!
A 60

h
500 m

16 m

v!
!
A 60

16 m

R
500 m 1000 m
(a) R = v !x t, i.e., t =
=
=
.
v !x 0.50v !
v!
1
Also, ( y ! y ! ) = v !y t ! gt 2 ,
2
" 1000 %
i.e., 16 m = (0.866v ! )$
' ! 4.91 m/s2
# v! &

" 1000 % 2
$
'
# v! &

4.91( 106
= 866 !
.
v !2
4.91 (106
)v ! =
= 5776.5 ( m/s)2
850
2

i.e.,

v ! = 76.0 m/s.

1000 m 1000 m
(b) From above t =
=
= 13.16 s
v!
76.0 m/s

!
A 60

v !y = v ! sin 60! = 0.866v ! ,

( x ! , y ! ) = (0,0) , y = 16 m.

500 m

v!

v !x = v ! cos60! = 0.50v ! ,

vx

(c)

500m

The rock strikes the camp at B, with

vy

16m

speed v = v x2 + v y2 .

"
v = v x, v y

Now

v y2 = v !y2 ! 2g( y ! y ! )

= (0.866 " 76.0 m/s )2 ! 2 9.81 m/s2 (16 m ! 0)

= 4017.8 ( m/s)2 i.e., #v y = !63.4 m/s.
#v = v x2 + v y2 = v !x2 + v y2
= (0.5 " 76.0 m/s)2 + ( !63.4 m/s )2
= 73.9 m/s.
(d) Let the maximum height be h, where v y = 0.
#v !y2 ! 2g( h ! y ! ) = 0, i.e., v !y2 = 2gh ,
#h =

v !y2
2g

(0.866 " 76.0 m/s)2

2 " 9.81 m/s2

= 220.8 m.