1

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

1.1

Sequence of Real Numbers

Suppose for each positive integer n, we are given a real number an . Then, the list
of numbers,
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . . ,
is called a sequence, and this ordered list is usually written as
(a1 , a2 , . . . , . . .)

or

(an )

or {an }.

More precisely, we define a sequence as follows:

Definition 1.1 A sequence of real numbers is a function from the set N of natural
numbers to the set R of real numbers. If f : N R is a sequence, and if an = f (n)
for n N, then we write the sequence f as (an ) or (a1 , a2 , . . .).

NOTATION: Throughout the book, we shall use the notation R for the set of
all real numbers and the notation N for the set of all natural numbers, that is,
N = {1, 2, . . .}.
Remark 1.1 (a) It is to be born in mind that a sequence (a1 , a2 , . . . , . . .) is different
from the set {an : n N}. For instance, a number may be repeated in a sequence
(an ), but it need not be written repeatedly in the set {an : n N}. As an example,
(1, 1/2, 1, 1/3, . . . , 1, 1/n, . . .) is a sequence (an ) with a2n1 = 1 and a2n = 1/(n + 1)
for each n N, where as the set {an : n N} is same as the set {1/n : n N}.
(b) Instead of sequence of real numbers, we can also talk about a sequence of
elements from any nonempty set S, such as sequence of sets, sequence of functions
and so on. Thus, given a nonempty set S, a sequence in S is a function f : N S.
In this chapter, we shall consider only sequence of real numbers. In some of the
later chapters we shall consider sequences of functions as well.

Example 1.1 Look us consider a few examples of sequences: (i) (an ) with an = 1
for all n N a constant sequence with value 1 throughout.
(ii) (an ) with an = n for all n N.
(iii) (an ) with an = 1/n for all n N.
1

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

(iv) (an ) with an = n/(n + 1) for all n N.

(v) (an ) with an = (1)n for all n N the sequence takes values 1 and 1
alternately.

Question: Consider a sequence (a1 , a2 , . . .). Is (a2 , a3 , . . .) also a sequence? Why?

1.1.1

Convergence and divergence

A fundamental concept in mathematics is that of convergence. We consider convergence of sequences.

Consider the sequences listed in Example 1.1 and observe the way an vary as n
becomes larger and larger:
(i) an = 1: every term of the sequence is same.
(ii) an = n: the terms become larger and larger.
(iii) an = 1/n: the terms come closer to 0 as n becomes larger and larger.
(iv) an = n/(n + 1): the terms come closer to 1 as n becomes larger and larger.
(v) an = (1)n : the terms of the sequence oscillates with values 1 and 1, and
does not come closer to any number as n becomes larger and larger.
Now, we make precise the statement an comes closer to a number a as n
becomes larger and larger.
Definition 1.2 A sequence (an ) in R is said to converge to a real number a if for
every > 0, there exists positive integer N (in general depending on ) such that
|an a| <

n N,

and in that case (an ) is called a convergent sequence.

A sequence which does not converge is called a divergent sequence.

Remark 1.2 Note that, different can result in different N , i.e., the number N
may vary as varies. We shall illustrate this in Example 1.2.

Remark 1.3 We may observe that, for > 0,
|an a| < an (a , a + ).
Thus, (an ) converges to a R if and only if for every > 0, there exists positive
integer N
an (a , a + ) n N.
In other words, an a if and only if for every > 0, an belongs to the open interval
(a, a+) for all n after some finite stage, and this finite stage may vary according
as varies.

Sequence of Real Numbers

Thus, in order to show that certain sequence (an ) does not converge to a, it
is enough to find an > 0 such that infinitely may an s are outside the interval
(a , a + ).

A divergent sequence may have some specific properties such as the ones defined
below.
Definition 1.3 (i) If (an ) is such that for every M > 0, there exists N N such
that
an > M
n N,
then we say that (an ) diverges to +.
(ii) If (an ) is such that for every M > 0, there exists N N such that an < M
for all n N , then we say that (an ) diverges to .

Definition 1.4 If (an ) is such that an an+1 < 0 for every n N, that is an changes
sign alternately, then we say that (an ) is an alternating sequence .

An alternating sequence converge or diverge. For example, (Verify that) the
sequence ((1)n ) diverges, whereas ((1)n /n) converges to 0.
Exercise 1.1 Show that a sequence (an ) converges to a if and only if for every open
interval I containing a, there exists N N such that an I for all n N .
J
Before further discussion, let us observe an important property.
Theorem 1.1 If (an ) converges to a, then (an ) cannot converge to another number
b with b 6= a.
Proof. Suppose (an ) converges to a and b. Note that, for every n N,
|a b| = |(a an ) + (an b)| |a an | + |an b|.
Now, for > 0, there exists N1 , N2 N such that
|a an | < for all

n N1 ,

|b an | < n N2 .

Then we have
|a b| |a an | + |an b| < 2

n N := max{N1 , N2 }.

Since this is true for all > 0, it follows that b = a.

In view of Remark 1.3, we give an alternate proof of Theorem 1.1.
An alternate proof of Theorem 1.1. Suppose an a and an b as n , and
suppose that b 6= a. Now, for > 0, suppose N1 , N2 N be such that
an (a , a + ) n N1 ,

an (b , b + ) n N2 .

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

In particular,
an (a , a + ),

an (b , b + )

n N := max{N1 , N2 }.

If we had taken < |a b|/2, then (a , a + ) and (b , a0 + ) are disjoint

intervals, and for all n N , an belongs to both (a , a + ) and (b , a0 + ).
Thus we arrive at a contradiction.
In view of Theorem 1.1, we can define the concept of the limit of a convergent
sequence.
Definition 1.5 If (an ) converges to a, then a is called the limit of (an ).

NOTATION: If (an ) converges to a, then we write

lim an = a

or
an a as

or simply as an a.
Remark 1.4 In the proof of Theorem 1.1, we used an important property of real
numbers:
For a R, if 0 a < r for every r > 0, then a = 0.
This follows from the fact that, if a > 0, that is strictly positive, then taking r = a/2,
we would get a < a/2 which is not true. Similarly, it can be shown that
a, b R,

a<b+r

r > 0

a b.


In the examples that follow, and throughout the text, we shall use the
following important property of real numbers:
Archimedean Property :

Given any x R, there exists n N such that n > x.

Example 1.2 The sequences (1/n), ((1)n /n), (1 n1 ) are convergent with limit
0, 0, 1 respectively:
For the sake of illustrating how to use the definition to justify the above statement, let us provide the details of the proofs:
(i) Let an = 1/n for all n N, and let > 0 be given. We have to identify an
N N such that 1/n < for all n N . Note that
1
1
< n > .
n

Sequence of Real Numbers

By Archemdean property of R, there exists N > 1 . Hence, we have

|an 0| =

1
<
n

n N.

Hence, (1/n) converges to 0.

(ii) Next, let an = (1)n /n for all n N. Since |an | = 1/n for all n N, in this
case also, we see that, for N > 1/,
|an 0| <

n N.

Hence, ((1)n /n) converges to 0.

(iii) Now, let an = 1
taking N > 1/, we have

1
n

for all n N. Since, |an 1| = 1/n for all n N,

|an 1| <

n N.

Hence, (1 1/n) converges to 1.

Example 1.3 Every constant sequence is convergent to the constant term in the
sequence.
To see this, let an = a for all n N. Then, for every > 0, we have
|an a| = 0 <

n N := 1.

Thus, (an ) converges to a.

Example 1.4 For a given k N, let Let an = 1/n1/k for all n N. Then an 0
as n .
To see this, first let > 0 be given. Note that
1
n1/k

< n >

1
.
k

Hence, taking N > 1/k ,

1
n1/k

<

n N.

Thus, 1/n1/k 0.

Exercise 1.2 Corresponding to a sequence (an ) and k N, let (bn ) be defined by

bn = ak+n for all n N. Show that, for a R, an a if and only if bn a.
J
Definition 1.6 A sequence (an ) is said to be eventually constant if there exists
k N such that ak+n = ak for all n 1.

Exercise 1.3 Show that every eventually constant sequence converges.

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Exercise 1.4 Prove the following.

1. Let b 0 such that b < for all > 0. Then b = 0.
2. Let an 0 for all n N such that an a. Then a 0.
J
The following theorem is very important for showing convergence of certain sequences using the convergence of some other sequences.
Theorem 1.2 Suppose an a, bn b as n . Then we have the following :
(i) an + bn a + b as n ,
(ii) For every real number c, can c a as n
(iii) If an bn for all n N, then a b.
(iv) (Sandwitch theorem) If an cn bn for all n N, and if a = b, then
cn a as n .
Proof. (i) Note that, for every n N,
|(an + bn ) (a + b)| = |(an a) + (bn b)|
|an a| + |bn b|.
Since an a and bn b, the above inequality suggests that we may take 1 = /2,
and consider N1 , N2 N such that
|an a| < 1

n N1

and |bn b| < 1

n N2

so that for all n N := max{N1 , N2 }, we have

|(an + bn ) (a + b)| |an a| + |bn b| < 21 = .
(ii) Note that
|can ca| = |c| |an a|

n N.

If c = 0, then (can ) is a constant sequence with every term 0. Hence it converges

to 0 so that can ca for c = 0. Next, suppose c 6= 0. Then, since an a, taking
1 = /|c|, there exists N N such that
|an a| < 1

n N.

Therefore, we have
|can ca| = |c| |an a| < |c|1 = n N.

Sequence of Real Numbers

(iii) Suppose an bn for all n N. Let N1 , N2 N be such that

|an a| < n N1

and |bn b| < n N2 .

Hence,
a < an < a + and b < bn < b + n N = max{N1 N2 }.
In particular,
a < an bn < b + n N.
Thus, we obtain a < b + 2. Since this is true for every > 0, we have a b.
(iv). Suppose an cn bn for all n N and a = b. We have to show that
cn a. Note that We observe hat
cn an bn an = (bn a) + (a an )

n N.

Hence,
|cn an | |bn a| + |a an |

n N.

Therefore, from the fact that an a and bn a, it follows that cn a.

Example 1.5 Let 0 < a < 1. We show that the sequence (an ) converges to 0:
Let us write a = 1/(1 + r), r > 0. Then we have
an = 1/(1 + r)n = 1/ (1 + nr + + rn ) < 1/(1 + nr).
Thus,
0 an < 1/(1 + nr) n N,
where 1/(1 + nr) 0 as n . Hence, by Theorem 1.2 (iv), we obtain an 0 as
n .

Using the result in the above example, we have the following:
Example 1.6 For 0 < r < 1, let
an = 1 + r + r2 + + rn .
Note that an an+1 for all n N and
an =

1 rn+1
.
1r

Since rn 0, by Theorem 1.2 (i)-(ii),

an

1
1r

as n .


Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Exercise 1.5 If an a and there exists b R such that an b for all n N, then
show that a b.
J
Exercise 1.6 If an a and a 6= 0, then show that there exists k N such that
an 6= 0 for all n k.
J
Exercise 1.7 Suppose (an ) and (bn ) are such that there exists k N satisfying
0 an bn for all n k. If bn 0, then prove that an 0.
J


1 1/n
, n N. Then
Exercise 1.8 Consider the sequence (an ) with an = 1 +
n
show that lim an = 1.
n

[Hint: Observe that 0 an (1 + 1/n) for all n N.]

1
Exercise 1.9 Consider the sequence (an ) with an = k , n N. Then show that
n
for any given k N, lim an = 0.
n

[Hint: Observe that 1 an 1/n for all n N.]

Remark 1.5 In Theorem 1.2 (c) and (d), instead of assuming the inequalities for
all n N, we can assume them to hold for all n n0 for some n0 N (Why?). 
Definition 1.7 A sequence (an ) is said to be
(i) bounded above if there exists a real number M such that an M for all
n N;
(ii) bounded below if there exists a real number M 0 such that an M 0 for all
n N.
A sequence which is bound above and bounded below is said to be a bounded
sequence.

We may observe that a sequence (an ) is bounded if and only if there exists M > 0
such that |an | M for all n N.
Example 1.7 We may observe that
(i) (an ) with an = (1)n is bounded above and bounded below.
(ii) (an ) with an = (1)n n is neither bounded above nor bounded below, and it
neither diverges to + nor to .
(iii) (an ) with an = n is bounded above, but not bounded below, and it diverges
to .
(iv) (an ) with an = n is bounded below, but not bounded above, and it diverges
to +.

Sequence of Real Numbers

9


Exercise 1.10 Prove the following.

1. If (an ) is not bounded above, then there exists a strictly increasing sequence
(kn ) of natural numbers such that akn + as n .
2. If (an ) is not bounded below, then there exists a strictly increasing sequence
(kn ) of natural numbers such that akn as n .
J
Theorem 1.3 Every convergent sequence is bounded. The converse is not true.
Proof. Suppose an a. Note that, for all n N,
|an | = |(an a) + a| |an a| + |a|.
So, let N N be such that |an a| 1 for all n N . Then we have
|an | |an a| + |a| 1 + |a|

n N.

Thus,
|an | max{1 + |a|, |a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |aN 1 |}

n N.

To see that the converse of the theorem is not true, consider the sequence ((1)n ),
which is bounded but not convergent.
The above theorem can be used to show that certain sequence is not convergent,
as in the following example.
Example 1.8 For n N, let
an = 1 +

1 1
1
+ + ... + .
2 3
n

Then (an ) diverges: To see this, observe that

a2n

1 1
1
+ + ... + n
2 
3
2 

1
1 1
1 1 1 1
= 1+ +
+
+
+ + +
+
2
3 4
5 6 7 8


1
1
... +
+ ... + n
n1
2
+1
2
n
1+ .
2
= 1+

Hence, (an ) is not a bounded sequence, so that it diverges.

Theorem 1.4 Suppose an a and bn b as n . Then we have the following.

10

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

(i) an bn ab as n .
(ii) If bn 6= 0 for all n N and b 6= 0, then 1/bn 1/b as n and an /bn a/b
as n
Proof. (i) Note that, for every n N,
|an bn ab| = |an (bn b) + (an a)b|
|an | |bn b| + |an a| |b|.
By Theorem 1.3, (an ) is bounded, say |an | M for all n N. Hence, we have
0 |an bn ab| M |bn b| + |b||an a|.
Since an a and bn b, by Theorem 1.2, we obtain an bn ab as n .
(ii) Suppose bn 6= 0 for all n N and b 6= 0. Note that, for every n N,


1

 1  = |bn b|
 bn
b
|bn | |b|
and
|bn | = |b + (bn b)| |b| |bn b|
Since bn b and b 6= 0, there exists N N be such that
|bn b| < |b|/2

n N.

Then,
|bn | = |b + (bn b)| |b| |b|/2 = |b|/2

n N.

Thus, we obtain


1

1
  |bn b| = 2 |bn b|
 bn
b  (|b|/2) |b|
|b|2

n N.

Hence, by Theorem 1.2, we obtain 1/bn 1/b as n . Now, using (i), we also
obtain an /bn a/b as n .
Exercise 1.11 If (an ) converges to a and a 6= 0, then show that there exists k N
such that |an | |a|/2 for all n k, and (1/an+k ) converges to 1/a.
J
Exercise 1.12 Let (an ) and (bn ) are such that 0 an bn for all n N. Prove
the following:
(i) bn 0 implies an 0.
(ii) an implies bn .

The following theorem shows how to show certain number is a limit of a give
sequence.

Sequence of Real Numbers

11

Theorem 1.5 Let (an ) be a sequence such that

|an+1 a| r|an a|

n N,

for some a R and for some r with 0 < r < 1. Then an a.

Proof. Suppose there exist a R and for some r with 0 < r < 1 such that
|an+1 a| r|an a|

n N.

|an+1 a| rn |a1 a|

n N.

Then we have
Since rn 0, by Theorem 1.2 (iv), an a.

1.1.2

Monotonic sequences

We can infer the convergence or divergence of a sequence in certain cases by observing the way the terms of the sequence varies.
Definition 1.8 Consider a sequence (an ).
(i) (an ) is said to be monotonically increasing if an an+1 for all n N.
(ii) (an ) is said to be monotonically decreasing if an an+1 for all n N.
If strict inequality occur in (i) and (ii), then we say that the sequence is strictly
increasing and strictly decreasing, respectively.
Also, a monotonically increasing (respectively, a monotonically decreasing) sequence is also called an increasing (respectively, a decreasing) sequence.

Example 1.9
creasing.

(i) The sequence (an ) with an = n/(n + 1) is monotonically in-

(ii) The sequence (an ) with an = (n + 1)/n is monotonically decreasing.

(iii) The sequence (an ) with an = (1)n n/(n + 1) is neither monotonically increasing nor monotonically decreasing.

Exercise 1.13 Show that (n1/n )
n=3 is a monotonically decreasing sequence.

Note that a convergent sequence need not be monotonically increasing or monotonically decreasing. For example, the sequence ((1)n /n) is convergent, but it is
neither monotonically increasing nor monotonically decreasing. However, we have
the following theorem. It helps to show the convergence of many standard sequences
which once come across.

12

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Theorem 1.6 (i) Every sequence which is monotonically increasing and bounded
above is convergent.
(ii) Every sequence which is monotonically decreasing and bounded below is convergent.
We may observe that a sequence (an ) is monotonically increasing and bounded
above if and only if (an ) is monotonically decreasing and bounded below. Hence,
it is enough to prove only one of (i) and (ii) in Theorem 1.6. For that purpose, we
shall make use of some important properties of the set R of real numbers.
Definition 1.9 Let S be a subset of R. Then
(i) S is said to be bounded above if there exists b R such that x b for all
x S, and in that case b is called an upper bound of S;
(ii) S is said to be bounded below if there exists a R such that a x for all
x S, and in that case a is called a lower bound of S.

Definition 1.10 Let S be a subset of R.
(i) A number b0 R is called a least upper bound (lub) or supremum of
S R if b0 is an upper bound of S and for any upper bound b of S, b0 b.
(ii) A number a0 R is called a greatest lower bound (glb) or infimum of
S R if a0 is a lower bound of S and for any lower bound a of S, a a0 .

Thus, we have the following:
1. b0 R is supremum of S R if and only if b0 is an upper bound of S and if
< b0 , then is not an upper bound of S, i.e., there exists x S such that
< x.
2. a0 R is infimum of S R if and only if a0 is a lower bound of S and if
> a0 , then is not a lower bound of S, i.e., there exists x S such that
x < .
The above two statements can be rephrased as follows:
1. b0 R is supremum of S R if and only if b0 is an upper bound of S and for
every > 0, there exists x S such that b0 < x b0 .
2. a0 R is infimum of S R if and only if a0 is a lower bound of S and for
every > 0, there exists x S such that a0 x < a0 + .
Exercise 1.14 Prove the following:
(i) If supremum (respectively, infimum) of a set S R exists, then it is unique.

Sequence of Real Numbers

13

(ii) If b0 is the supremum of S, then there exists a sequence (xn ) in S which

converges to b0 .
(iii) If a0 is the infimum of S, then there exists a squence (xn ) in S which
converges to a0 .
J
Example 1.10 (i) If S is any of the intervals (0, 1), [0, 1), (0, 1], [0, 1], then 1 is the
supremum of S and 0 is the infimum of S.
(ii) If S = { n1 : n N}, then 1 is the supremum of S and 0 is the infimum of S.
(iii) For k N, if Sk = {n N : n k}, then k is the infimum of Sk , and Sk
has no supremum.
(iv) For k N, if Sk = {n Z : n k}, then k is the supremum of Sk , and Sk
has no infimum.

The above examples show the following:
1. If the supremum (respectively, infimium) of a set S exists, then it need not
belong to S.
2. If S is not bounded above, then S does not have supremum.
3. If S is not bounded below, then S does not have infimum.
However, we have the following properties for R:
1. Least upper bound property: If S R is bounded above, then S has a
least upper bound. We may write this least upper bound as lub(S) or sup(S).
2. Greatest lower bound property: If S R is bounded below, then S has
a greatest lower bound, and we write it as glb(S) or inf(S).
Now, we are in a position to prove Theorem 1.6.
Proof of Theorem 1.6. Suppose (an ) is a monotonically increasing sequence
of real numbers which is bounded above. Then the set S := {an : n N} is bounded
above. Hence, by the least upper bound property of R, S has a least upper bound,
say b. Now, let > 0 be given. Then, by the definition of the least upper bound,
there exists N N such that aN > b . Since an aN for every n N , we get
b < aN an b < b +

n N.

Thus we have proved that an b as n .

To see the last part, suppose that (bn ) is a monotonically decreasing sequence
which is bounded below. Then, it is seen that the sequence (an ) defined by an = bn

14

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

for all n N is monotonically increasing and bounded above. Hence, by the first
part of the theorem, an a for some a R. Then, bn b := a.
Example 1.11 We have proved that if 0 < a < 1, then an 0 as n (See
Example 1.5). This can also be seen by making use of Theorem 1.6, as follows: Let
xn = an . Then
xn+1 = an+1 = axn xn 0 n N.
Thus, (xn ) is monotonically decreasing and bounded below. Hence (xn ) converges
to some x R. Then xn+1 = axn ax. Therefore, x = ax. Hence, x = 0.

Example 1.12 For n N, let
an = 1 +

1
1
1
+
+ + 2.
22 32
n

Clearly, (an ) is monotonically increasing. Now, we show that it is bounded above,

so that by Theorem 1.6, it is convergent: We note that
a2n

1
1
1
+
+ + n 2
22 32
(2 )




1
1
1
1
1
= 1+
+
+ +
+
+ + n
,
22 32
(2n1 )2 (2n1 + 1)2
(2 1)2
= 1+

where
1
(2n1 )2

1
1
2n1
1
+

= n1 .
n1
2
n
2
n1
2
(2
+ 1)
(2 1)
(2
)
2

Hence,
a2n

1
1
1
+ 2 + + n 2
2
2
3
(2 )




1
1
1
1
1
1+
+
+ +
+
+ + n
22 32
(2n1 )2 (2n1 + 1)2
(2 1)2
1
1
1
1 + + 2 + + n1
2
 2 2
1
2 1 n
2
2.

= 1+
=

Sine an a2n for all n N, (an ) is monotonically increasing and bounded above. 
Example 1.13 Consider the sequences (an ) and (bn ) defined by
an = (1 + 1/n)n
and
bn = 1 +

n N

1
1
1
1
+ + + +
1! 2! 3!
n!

n N.

Sequence of Real Numbers

15

We show that both (an ) and (bn ) are monotonically increasing and bounded above.
Hence, by Theorem 1.6, they converge. Further, we shall show that they have the
same limit. Note that


1 n
an =
1+
n
n(n 1) . . . 2.1 1
1 n(n 1) 1
+ +
= 1 + n. +
2
n
n  2!  n

  n!  n
1
1
1
1
2
= 1+1+
1
+
1
1
+
2!
n
3!
n
n




1
1
n1
+
1
1
n!
n
n
an+1 .
Clearly,
bn bn+1

n N.

Also
1 n(n 1)
1 n(n 1) . . . 2.1
+ +
2
2!
n
n!
nn
1
1
1
1 + 1 + + + +
2! 3!
n!
bn
1
1
1
1 + 1 + + 2 + + n1
2 2
2
3.

an = 1 + 1 +

<

Thus, both (an ) and (bn ) are monotonically increasing bounded above.
Let a and b their limits. We show that a = b.
We have already observed that 2 an bn 3. Hence, taking limits, it follows
that a b. Notice that





1
1
1
1
2
an = 1 + 1 +
1
+
1
1
+
2!
n
3!
n
n




1
1
n1
... +
1
... 1
.
n!
n
n
Hence, for m, n with m n, we have





1
1
1
1
2
an 1 + 1 +
1
+
1
1
+
2!
n
3!
n
n

 

1
1
m1
+
1
... 1
.
m!
n
n
Taking limit as n , we get (cf. Theorem 1.2 (c))
1
1
1
1
+ + + +
= bm .
1! 2! 3!
m!
Now, taking limit as m , we get a b. Thus we have proved a = b.
a1+

16

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

NOTATION: The common limit in the above two examples is denoted by the
letter e.
Further examples are given in Subsection 1.1.4.

1.1.3

Subsequences

Definition 1.11 A sequence (bn ) is called a subsequence of a sequence (an ) if

there is a strictly increasing sequence (kn ) of natural numbers such that bn = akn
for all n N.

Thus, subsequences of a real sequence (an ) are of the form (akn ), where (kn ) is
a strictly increasing sequence natural numbers.
For example, given a sequence (an ), the sequences (a2n ), (a2n+1 ), (an2 ), (a2n ) are
some of its subsequences. As concrete examples, (1/2n), and (1/(2n + 1)), (1/2n )
are subsequences of (1/n).
A sequence may not converge, but it can have convergent subsequences. For
example, we know that the sequence ((1)n ) diverges, but the subsequences (an )
and (bn ) defined by an = 1, bn = 1 for all n N are convergent subsequences of
((1)n ). Also, (an ) with

1,
n odd,
an =
1/n, n even,
is not a convergent sequence. But, its subsequences (a2n1 ) and (a2n ) converge to
1 and 0 respectively.
However, we have the following result.
Theorem 1.7 If a sequence (an ) converges to a, then all its subsequences converge
to the same limit a.
Proof. Suppose an a. Consider a subsequence (akn ) of (an ). Let > 0 be
given. Since an a, there exists N N such that
|an a| < n N.
In particular,
|an a| < n {kN , kN +1 , . . .}.
Thus,
|akn a| < n N.
Hence, akn a.
What about the converse of the above theorem? Obviously, if all subsequences
of a sequence (an ) converge to the same limit a, then (an ) also has to converge to
a, as (an ) is a subsequence of itself.

Sequence of Real Numbers

17

Suppose every subsequence of (an ) has at least one subsequence which converges
to a. Does the sequence (an ) converges to a? The answer is affirmative, as the
following theorem shows.
Exercise 1.15 If every subsequence of (an ) has at least one subsequence which
converges to x, then (an ) also converges to x.
J
We have seen in Theorem 1.3 that every convergent sequence is bounded, but a
bounded sequence need not be convergent.
Question: For every bounded sequence, can we have a convergent subsequence?
The answer is in affirmative:
Theorem 1.8 (Bolzano-Weirstrass theorem). Every bounded sequence of real
numbers has a convergent subsequence.
We shall relegate its proof to the appendix (See Section 1.3).

1.1.4

Further examples

Example 1.14 Let a sequence (an ) be defined as follows :

a1 = 1,

an+1 =

2an + 3
,
4

n = 1, 2, . . . .

We show that (an ) is monotonically increasing and bounded above.

Note that
an+1 =

an 3
2an + 3
=
+ an
4
2
4

3
an .
2

Thus it is enough to show that an 3/2 for all n N.

Clearly, a1 3/2. If an 3/2, then an+1 = an /2 + 3/4 < 3/4 + 3/4 = 3/2.
Thus, we have proved that an 3/2 for all n N. Hence, by Theorem 1.6, (an )
converges. Let its limit be a. Then taking limit on both sides of an+1 = 2an4+3 we
have
2a + 3
3
a=
i.e., 4a = 2a + 3 so that a = .
4
2
Another solution: Since a := 3/2 satisfies
a=

2a + 3
,
4

we obtain

2an + 3 2a + 3
1

= (an a).
4
4
2
Thus, by Theorem 1.5, an a = 3/2.
an+1 a =

18

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Example 1.15 Let a sequence (an ) be defined as follows :



1
2
a1 = 2, an+1 =
an +
, n = 1, 2, . . . .
2
an
It is seen that, if the sequence converges, then its limit would be

2.

Since a1 = 2, one may try to show that (an ) is monotonically decreasing and
bounded below.
Note that
an+1
Clearly a1

1
:=
2



2
an +
an
an

a2n 2,

i.e., an

2.

2. Now,



1
2
an+1 :=
an +
2
2
an

a2n 2 2an + 2 0,

i.e., if and only if (an 2)2 0. This is true for every n N. Thus, (an ) is monotonically decreasing and bounded below, so that by Theorem 1.6, (an ) converges.
Suppose it converges to a. Then we obtain the relation


1
2
a=
a+
,
2
a
so that 2a2 = a2 + 2, i.e., a2 = 2. Hence, a =

2.

Example 1.16 Let a sequence (an ) be defined as follows :

a1 = 1,

an+1 =

2 + an
,
1 + an

n = 1, 2, . . . .

Let us assume for a moment that (an ) converges to a R. Then we would get
a=
so that a =
an+1 a =

2+a
1+a

2. Now, we prove that (an ) actually converges to a :=

2. Note that

2 + an 2 + a
(2 + an )(1 + a) (1 + an )(2 + a)
a an

=
=
.
1 + an 1 + a
(1 + an )(1 + a)
(1 + an )(1 + a)

Note that an 1 for all n N and a 1. Hence, we obtain

|a an |
|an a|

(1 + an )(1 + a)
4

Therefore, by Theorem 1.5, an a = 2.

|an+1 a|

n N.


Sequence of Real Numbers

19

In the examples that follow, we shall be making use of Theorem 1.2 without
mentioning it explicitly.
Example 1.17 The sequence (n1/n ) converges and the limit is 1.
Note that n1/n = 1 + rn for some sequence (rn ) of positive reals. Then we have
n = (1 + rn )n

n(n 1) 2
rn ,
2

so that rn2 2/(n 1) for all n 2. Since 2/(n 1) 0, by Theorem 1.2(c), that
rn 0, and hence n1/n = 1 + rn 1.

Remark 1.6 In Example 1.17 for showing n1/n 1 we did not require the fact
that the limit is 1. But, if one is asked to show that n1/n 1, then we can give
another proof of the same by using only the definition, as follows:
Another proof without using Theorem 1.2. Let > 0 be given. To find n0 N such
that n1/n 1 < for all n n0 . Note that
n1/n 1 <

n1/n < 1 +

n < (1 + )n = 1 + n +

n(n 1) 2
+ . . . + n .
2

Hence
n1/n 1 < if n > 1 + 2/2 .
So, we may take any n0 N which satisfies n0 2(1 + /2 ).

Example 1.18 For any a > 0, (a1/n ) converges to 1.

If a > 1, then we can write a1/n = 1 + rn for some sequence (rn ) of positive reals.
Then we have
a = (1 + rn )n nrn so that rn a/n.
Since a/n 0, by Theorem 1.2(c), rn 0, and hence by Theorem 1.2(c), a1/n =
1 + rn 1.
In case 0 < a < 1, then 1/a > 1. Hence, by the first part, 1/a1/n = (1/a)1/n 1,
so that an 1.

Exercise 1.16 Give another proof for the result in Example 1.18 without using
Theorem 1.2.
J
Example 1.19 Let (an ) be a bounded sequence of non-negative real numbers. Then
(1 + an )1/n 1 as n :
This is seen as follows: Let M > 0 be such that 0 an M for all n N. Then,
1 (1 + an )1/n (1 + M )1/n

n N.

By Example 1.18, (1 + M )1/n 0. Hence the result follows by making use of part
(d) of Theorem 1.2.


20

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Example 1.20 As an application of some of the results discussed above, consider

the sequence (an ) with an = (1+1/n)1/n , n N. We already know that lim an = 1.
n
Now, another proof for the same:
Note that 1 an 21/n , and 21/n 1 as n .

Example 1.21 Consider the sequence (an ) with an = (1 + n)1/n . Then an 1 as

n . We give two proofs for this result.
(i) Observe that an = n1/n (1 + 1/n)1/n . We already know that n1/n 1, and
(1 + 1/n)1/n 1 as n .
(ii) Observe that n1/n (1 + n)1/n (2n)1/n = 21/n n1/n , where n1/n 1 and
1 as n .

an+1
Example 1.22 Suppose an > 0 for al n N such that lim
= ` < 1. We
n an
show that an 0.
an+1
Since lim
= ` < 1, there exists q such that ` < q < 1 and N N such
n an
an+1
that
q for all n N . Hence,
an
21/n

0 an q nN aN

n N.

Now, since q nN 0 as n , it follows that an 0 as n .

Exercise 1.17 Suppose an > 0 for al n N such that lim

that (an ) diverges to (Hint: Use Exercise 1.12).

an+1
= ` > 1. Show
an
J

Example 1.23 Let 0 < a < 1. Then nan 0 as n .

To see this let an := nan for n N. Then we have
(n + 1)an+1
(n + 1)a
an+1
=
=
n
an
na
n
Hence, lim

n N.

an+1
= a < 1. Thus, the result follows from the last example.
an

Exercise 1.18 Obtain the result in Example 1.23 by using the arguments in Example 1.5.
J
2

Example 1.24 Let an = (n!)1/n , n N. Then an 1 as n . We give two

proofs for this.
(i) Note that, for every n N,
2

1 (n!)1/n (nn )1/n = n1/n .

2

Now, since n1/n 1, we have (n!)1/n 1.

Sequence of Real Numbers

21

(ii) By GM-AM inequality, for n N,

(n!)1/n = (1.2. . . . .n)1/n

1 + 2 + ... + n
n+1
=
n.
n
2

Thus, 1 (n!)1/n n1/n . Since n1/n 1 we have (n!)1/n 1.

What about the convergence of the sequence (an ) with an = (n!)1/n ?

Example 1.25 Let an = (n!)1/n , n N. We show that an 6 1. In fact, we show
that (an ) is unbounded.
Note that, for any k N, if n k, then
(n!)1/n (k!)1/n (k nk )1/n = (k!)1/n k 1k/n = k

 k! 1/n
kk

 1/n
k as n , we can conclude that (n!)1/n 6 1.
Since for any k N, k kk!k
The above observations also show that there exists n0 N such that
(n!)1/n

k
2

n max{n0 , k}.

Thus, the sequence is (n!)1/n is unbounded.

(k)

(k)

Remark 1.7 Suppose for each k N, an 0, bn 1 as n , and also

(n)
(n)
an 0, bn 1 as n . In view of Theorems 1.2 and 1.4, one may think that
(2)
(n)
a(1)
n + an + + an 0

as

and
(2)
(n)
b(1)
n bn bn 1

as

n .

Unfortunately, that is not the case. To see this consider

a(k)
n =
Then, for each k N,

k
,
n2

1/n
b(k)
n =k

k, n N.

a(k)
n 0,

b(k)
n 1

an(n) 0,

b(n)
n 1.

and also
But,
(2)
(n)
a(1)
n + an + + an =

1
2
n
n+1
1
+ 2 + + 2 =

2
n
n
n
2n
2

as

and from Example 1.25,

(2)
(n)
1/n 1/n
b(1)
2 n1/n = (n!)1/n 6 1
n bn bn = 1

as

n .


22

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

1.1.5

Cauchy sequence

M.T. Nair

Theorem 1.9 If a real sequence (an ) converges, then for every > 0, there exists
N N such that
|an am | < n, m N.
Proof. Suppose an a as n , and let > 0 be given. Then we know that
there exists N N such that |an a| < /2 for all n N . Hence, we have
|an am | |an a| + |a am | < n, m N.
This completes the proof.
Definition 1.12 A a sequence (an ) is said to be a Cauchy sequence if for every
> 0, there exists N N such that
|an am | < n, m N.

Theorem 1.9 show that every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence. In
particular, if (an ) is not a Cauchy sequence, then (an ) does not converge to any
a R. Thus, Theorem 1.9 may help us to show that certain sequence is not
convergent.
Example 1.26 Let sn = 1 + 21 + . . . + n1 for n N. We have already shown that
the sequence (sn ) is not convergent by proving that it is not a bounded sequence.
Now, we show this fact by observing that it is not a Cauchy sequence. Indeed, for
every n N,
1
1
1
1
s2n sn =
+
+ +
.
n+1 n+2
2n
2
Thus, (sn ) is not a Cauchy sequence.

A question naturally arises is whether every Cauchy sequence is a convergent
sequence. The answer is in affirmative.
Theorem 1.10 Every Cauchy sequence of real numbers converges.
Proof. Let (an ) be a Cauchy sequence. First we show that (an ) is a bounded
sequence: Since (an ) is a Cauchy sequence, taking = 1, there exists N N such
that
|an am | < 1 n, m N.
In particular,
|an aN | < 1

n N.

Hence,
|an | |(an aN ) + aN | |an aN + |aN | 1 + |aN |

n N.

Sequence of Real Numbers

23

Therefore, assuming N > 1,

|an | max{a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |aN 1 |, 1 + |aN |}..
Thus, we have proved that (an ) is a bounded sequence. Hence, by Bolzano-Weierstrass
theorem (Theorem 1.8), (an ) has a convergent subsequence (ank ). Let a = lim ank .
k

Now, let > 0 be given. Since (an ) is a Cauchy sequence and since akn a, there
exist positive integers N, N2 such that
|akn a| < /2

n N1 ,

and
|an akn | < /2 n N2 .
Therefore, for n N3 := max{N1 , N2 }, we have
|an a| kan akn | + |akn a| < /2 + /2 = .
This completes the proof.
Exercise 1.19 If (an ) has a convergent subsequence with limit a, then the sequence
(an ) itself will converge to a.
J
Remark 1.8 For an alternate proof of Theorem 1.10, without using BolzanoWeierstrass theorem, see Section 1.3.

In view of Theorem 1.9 and Theorem 1.10, the condition for a sequence to be a
Cauchy sequence is usually called a Cauchy criterion. indexCauchy!criterion
Next theorem specifies a sufficient condition for a sequence to be a Cauchy
sequence.
Theorem 1.11 Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers. Suppose there exists a
positive real number r < 1 such that
|an+2 an+1 | r|an+1 an |

n N.

Then (an ) is a Cauchy sequence.

Proof. We observe that
|an+2 an+1 | rn |a2 a1 |

n N.

Hence, for n > m > 1,

|an am | |an an1 | + . . . + |am+1 am |
(rn2 + . . . + m1 )|a2 a1 |
rm1

|a2 a1 |.
1r
Since rm1 0 as m , given > 0, there exists N N such that |an am | <
for all n, m N .

24

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Exercise 1.20 Given a, b R and 0 < < 1, let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers
defined by a1 = a, a2 = b and
an+1 = (1 + )an an1

n N, n 2.

Show that (an ) is a Cauchy sequence and its limit is (b + a)/(1 ).

Exercise 1.21 Suppose f is a function defined on an interval J. If there exists

0 < < 1 such that
|f (x) f (y)| |x y|

x, y J,

then for any a J, show that the sequence (an ) defined by

a1 = f (a),

an+1 := f (an ) n N,

is a Cauchy sequence. Show also that the limit of the sequence (an ) is independent
of the choice of a.
J

1.2

Series of Real Numbers

Definition 1.13 A series of real numbers is an expression of the form

a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . ,
or more compactly as

n=1 an ,

where (an ) is a sequence of real numbers.

The number an is called the n-th term of the series and the sequence sn :=
P
is called the n-th partial sum of the series
n=1 an .

n
X

ai

i=1

1.2.1

Convergence and divergence of series

P
Definition 1.14 A series
n=1 an is said to converge (to s R) if the sequence
{sn } of partial sums of the series converge (to s R).
P
P
If
n=1 an converges to s, then we write
n=1 an = s.
A series which does not converge is called a divergent series.

A necessary condition
P
Theorem 1.12 If
n=1 an converges, then an 0 as n . Converse does not
hold.

Series of Real Numbers

Proof. Clearly, if sn is the n-th partial sum of the convergent series
then
an = sn sn1 0 as n .

25

n=1 an ,

does not hold it is enough to observe that the series

PTo see that the converse
1
a
with
a
=
for
all
n
N diverges whereas an 0.
n
n
n=1
n
The proof of the following corollary is immediate from the above theorem.
Corollary 1.13 Suppose (an ) P
is a sequence of positive terms such that an+1 > an
for all n N. Then the series
n=1 an diverges.
P
n
The above theorem and corollary shows, for example, that the series
n=1 n+1
diverges.
P
1
Example 1.27 P
We have seen that the sequence (sn ) with sn = nk=1 k!
converges.

1
Thus,P
the series n=1 n! converges.
we have seen that the sequence (n ) with
P Also,
1
n = nk=1 k1 diverges. Hence,
diverges.

n=1 n
P
Example 1.28 Consider the geometric series n=1 aq n1 , where a, q R. Note
that sn = a + aq + . . . + aq n1 for n N. Clearly, if a = 0, then sn = 0 for all n N.
Hence, assume that a 6= 0. Then we have
(
na
if q = 1,
sn =
a(1q n )
if q 6= 1.
1q
Thus, if q = 1, then (sn ) is not bounded; hence not convergent. If q = 1, then we
have

a
if n odd,
sn =
0
if n even.
Thus, (sn ) diverges for q = 1 as well. Now, assume that |q| =
6 1. In this case, we
have




sn a  = |a| |q|n .

1 q  |1 q|
This shows that, if |q| < 1, then (sn ) converges to
not bounded, hence diverges.

a
1q ,

and if |q| > 1, then (sn ) is



Theorem 1.14 For each k N, the series

an converges

n=1

Proof. Let k N. Let sn =

ak+n converges.

n=1

Pn

i=1 ai

and s0n =

Pn

i=1 bk+i .

Then we have

sn (a1 + + ak ) = s0n (an+1 + + an+k ).

26

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Note that if either sn s or s0n s0 for some s, s0 , then

(an+1 + + an+k ) 0.
Therefore the observations
s0n = sn (a1 + + ak ) + (an+1 + + an+k )
and
sn = s0n (an+1 + + an+k ) + (a1 + + ak )
imply the result.

From the above theorem the following result can be easily deduced.
Theorem 1.15 Suppose (anP
) and (bn ) are sequences such that
Pfor some k N,
a
converges
if
and
only
if
an = bn for all n k. Then
n=1 bn converges.
n=1 n
P
P
From the above theorem it follows that if
n=1 bn is obtained from
n=1 an by
omitting or adding a finite number of terms, then

an

converges

n=1

bn

converges.

n=1

P
P
Theorem 1.16 P
Suppose
n=1 bn converges to . Let
n=1 an converges to s and

, R. Then n=1 ( an + bn ) converges to s + .

(1)

(2)

th
Proof.
P Let sn , sn and sn be the n partial sums of the series
and n=1 ( an + bn ) respectively. Then we obtain

sn =

n
X

( ak + bk ) =

k=1

n
X

ak +

k=1

(1)

n
X

n=1 an ,

(2)
bk = s(1)
n + sn

n=1 bn

n N.

k=1

(2)

(1)

(2)

Since sn s and sn , we obtain sn = sn + sn s + .

Exercise 1.22 For proving Theorem 1.16, suppose we use the argument

( an + bn ) =

n=1

What is wrong with it?

X
n=1

an +

bn = s + .

n=1

Series of Real Numbers

1.2.2

27

Some tests for convergence

Theorem 1.17 (Comparison test) Let 0 an bn for all n N. Then,

bn

converges

n=1

Equivalently,

an

converges.

bn

diverges.

n=1

an

diverges

n=1

X
n=1

P
Proof.
Suppose
s
and

be
the
n-th
partial
sums
of
the
series
n
n
n=1 an and
P
n=1 bn respectively. By the assumption, we get 0 sn n for all n N, and
both (sn ) and (n ) are monotonically increasing.
(i) Since (n ) converges, it is bounded. Let M > 0 be such that n M for all
n N. Then we have sn M for all n N. Since (sn ) are monotonically increasing,
it follows that (sn ) converges.
(ii) Proof of this part follows from (i) (How?).
Corollary 1.18 Suppose (an ) and (bn ) are sequences of positive terms.
(i) Suppose ` := limn
(a) If ` > 0, then
(b) If ` = 0, then
(ii) Suppose lim

an
bn

exists. Then we have the following:

n=1 bn
P
n=1 bn

P
converges
n=1 an converges.
P
converges n=1 an converges.

P
P
an
= . Then
n=1 bn converges.
n=1 an converges
bn

Proof. (i) Suppose limn

an
bn

= `.

(a) Let ` > 0. Then for any 0 < < ` there exists n N such that
0`<

an
< ` + n N.
bn

Thus, (` )bn < an < (` + )bn for all n N . Hence, the result follows by comparison test.
(b) Suppose ` = 0. Then for > 0, there exists n N such that < abnn <
for all n N . In particular, an < bn for all n N . Hence, we get the result by
using comparison test.
(ii) By assumption, there exists N N such that
result follows by comparison test.

an
bn

1 for all n N . Hence the

28

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Example 1.29 (i) We have seen that the sequence (sn ) with sn =
verges. Here is another proof for the same fact: Note that

Pn

1
k=1 k!

con-

1
1
n1
n!
2

Since

1
n=1 2n1

n N.
P
converges, by comparison test,
n=1

1
n!

also converges.

P
1
Example 1.30 (i) Since 1n n1 for all n N, and since the series
n=1 n diP 1
verges, it follows from comparison test that the series n=1 n also diverges. More
generally, let p 1. Since
1
1

n N,
np
n
by comparison test,

X
1
diverges for p 1.
np
n=1

(ii) We have already seen that the sequence (sn ) with sn =

Since
1
1
2 for p 2,
p
n
n
by comparison test the series

X
1
np

Pn

1
k=1 n2

converges.

convrges for p 2.

n=1

Convergence of

1
n=1 np

for any p > 1 is dealt in the next example.

P
1
(iii) Consider the series
n=1 np for p > 1. To discuss this general case, consider
the function
f (x) := 1/xp , x 1.
Then, for each k N, we have
k1xk
Hence,

kp

k1

dx
.
xp

Z n
n Z k
n
X
X
dx
dx
n1p 1
1
1

=
=

.
p
p
p
k
1p
p1
1 x
k1 x
k=2

Thus,

1
1
p
p
k
x

k=2

n
X
1
1
sn :=

+ 1.
p
k
p1
k=1

Hence, (sn ) is monotonically increasing and bounded above. Therefore, (sn ) converges.
A more general result on convergence of series in terms of integrals will be proved
in Chapter 3.


Series of Real Numbers

29

Theorem 1.19 (DAlemberts ratio test) Suppose (an ) is a sequence of positive

an+1
terms such that lim
= ` exists. Then we have the following:
n an
P
(i) If ` < 1, then the series
n=1 an converges.
P
(ii) If ` > 1, then the series n=1 an diverges.
Proof. (i) Suppose ` < q < 1. Then there exists N N such that
an+1
<q
an

n N.

Thus,
an+1 < q an < q 2 an1 < . . . < q nN +1 aN

n N.

In other words,
aN +n < q n aN ,

Since

n N.
P
n
n=1 an also converges.
n=1 q converges, by comparison test,

(ii) Let 1 < p < `. Then there exists N N such that

an+1
> p > 1 n N
an
so that
aN +n > aN

n N.

From this it follows that (an ) does not converge to 0. Hence

n=1 an

diverges.

Theorem 1.20 (Cauchys root test) Suppose (an ) is a sequence of positive terms
such that lim an 1/n = ` exists. Then we have the following:
n

(i) If ` < 1, then the series

converges.

(ii) If ` > 1, then the series

diverges.

n=1 an
n=1 an

Proof. (i) Suppose ` < q < 1. Then there exists N N such that
an 1/n < q

n N.
P n
n
Hence,
P an < q for all n N . Since the n=1 q converges, by comparison test,
n=1 an also converges.
(ii) Let 1 < p < `. Then there exists N N such that
an 1/n > p > 1

n N.

Hence, an > 1 for all n N . Thus, (an ) does not converge to 0. Hence,
diverges.

n=1 an

30

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Remark 1.9 (i) We remark that both dAlemberts test and Cauchy test are silent
for the case ` = 1. But, for such case, we may be able to infer the convergence or
divergence by some other means.
(ii) In the proofs for the case of ` > 1 in Theorems 1.19 and 1.20 the divergence
of the series is asserted by showing that (an ) does not converge to 0. This conclusion
can also arrived at by using comparison test as well (How?).

Example 1.31 For every x R, the series

|x|n
n=1 n!

converges:

Clearly the series converges for x = 0. For x 6= 0, let an =

|x|
an+1
=
an
n+1

|x|n
n! .

Then we have

n N.

an+1
= 0. Hence, by dAlemberts test, the series converges.
an
P
xn
We shall see soon that the series

n=1 n! converges for any x R.
n


n
P
n
n
converges:
Taking
a
=
, we
Example 1.32 The series
n
n=1 2n+1
2n + 1
have
1
n
an 1/n =
< 1.
2n + 1
2
Hence, by Cauchys root test, the series converges.
Note that lim

The convergence of the above series can also be proved using comparison test,
since

n 
n
n
1
1
an =
=
n.
2n + 1
2 + 1/n
2

P
1
1
Example 1.33 Consider the series n=1 n(n+1)
. Taking an = n(n+1)
, we have
lim

an+1
= 1 = lim an 1/n .
n
an

Hence, we are not in a position to apply ratio test and root test. However, the n-th
partial sum sn is given by

n
n 
X
X
1
1
1
1
sn =
=

=1
.
k(k + 1)
k k+1
n+1
k=1

k=1

Thus, the series converges to 1.

Example 1.34 We have already seen

P that 1the series
also be seen by comparing it with
n=1 n(n+1) , since
1
1

(n + 1)2
n(n + 1)

1
n=1 n2

converges. This can

n N.


Series of Real Numbers

1.2.3

31

Alternating series

P
n+1 u , where (u ) is a sequence of
Definition 1.15 A series of the form
n
n
n=1 (1)
positive terms, is called an alternating series.

Theorem 1.21 (Leibnizs theorem) Suppose (un ) is a sequence of positive terms
such that
. Then the alternating
n+1 for all n N and un 0 as
Pun un+1
Pn

series n=1 (1)

un converges. Further, if s = n=1 (1)n+1 un , then
|s sn | un+1

n N.

Proof. Let sn be the n-th partial sum of the alternating series

We observe that
s2n+1 = s2n + u2n+1 n N.

n+1 u .
n
n=1 (1)

Since un 0 as n , it is enough to show that (s2n ) converges (Why?). Note

that
s2n = (u1 ) u2 + (u3 u4 ) + . . . + (u2n1 u2n )
= u1 (u2 u3 ) . . . (u2n2 u2n1 ) u2n
for all n N. Since ui ui+1 0 for each i N, we see from the above two
equalities that (s2n ) is monotonically increasing and bounded above. Therefore
(s2n ) converges. In fact, if s2n s, then we have s2n+1 = s2n + u2n+1 s, and
hence sn s as n .
We have shown that {s2n } is a monotonically increasing sequence. Similarly,
it can be shown that {s2n1 } is a monotonically decreasing sequence. Hence, we
obtain
s2n1 = s2n + u2n s + u2n ,
s s2n+1 = s2n + u2n+1 .
Thus,
s2n1 s u2n ,

s s2n u2n+1 .

Consequently,
|s sn | un+1

n N.

This completes the proof.

P
(1)n+1
Example 1.35 By Theorem 1.21, the series
converges. Likewise, the
n=1
n
P (1)n+1
P (1)n+1
series n=1 2n1 and n=1 2n also converge. It is known as early as in 15-th
P
(1)n+1
century to Indian Mathematicians1 that that

n=1 2n1 = /4.
P
(1)n+1
appear in the work of a Kerala mathematician Madhava did around
The series
n=1 2n1
1425 which wa presented later in the year around 1550 by another Kerala mathematician Nilakantha.
The discovery of the above series is normally attributed to Leibniz and James Gregory after nearly
300 years of its discovery.
1

32

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Remark 1.10 The relation |s sn | un+1 in Theorem 1.21 shows the rate of
convergence of the partial sums to the sum of the series. In particular, for a given
k N, if n is large enough such that un < 1/10k , then first k decimal places of sn
and s are the same.


1.2.4

Absolute convergence

Definition
P 1.16 1. A series
n=1 |an | converges.

n=1 an

is said to be absolutely convergent, if

P
2. A series
n=1 an is said to be conditionally convergent, if it converges,
but not absolutely.

Theorem 1.22 Every absolutely convergent series is convergent. The converse does
not hold.
P
Proof. Suppose
convergent
series. Let sn and n be
n=1 an is an absolutely
P
P
the n-th partial sums of the series n=1 an and n=1 |an | respectively. Then, for
n > m, we have
n
n
 X

X


|sn sm | = 
an 
|an | = |n m |.
j=m+1

j=m+1

Since, {n } converges, it is a Cauchy sequence. Hence, form the above relation it

follows that {sn } is also a Cauchy sequence. Therefore, by the Cauchy criterion, it
converges.
P
n+1 /n. By
To see that the converse does not hold, consider the series
n=1 (1)
Theorem 1.21, it is convergent. But it does not converge absolutely.
P
Another proof without using Cauchy criterion. Suppose
an absolutely
n=1 an isP

convergent
series.
Let
s
and

be
the
n-th
partial
sums
of
the
series
n
n
n=1 an and
P
|a
|
respectively.
Then
we
have
n=1 n
sn + n = 2pn ,
where pn is the sum of all positive terms from {a1 , . . . , an }. Since {n } converges,
it is bounded, and since pn n for all n N, the sequence {pn } is also bounded.
Moreover, {pn } is monotonically increasing. Hence {pn } converge as well. Thus,
both {n }, {pn } converge. Now, since sn = 2pn n for all n N, the sequence
{sn } also converges.

Series of Real Numbers

33

Example 1.36 We observe the following:

P
(1)n+1
(i) The series
is conditionally convergent.
n=1
n
P
(1)n+1
(ii) The series
is absolutely convergent.
n=1
n2
P
(1)n+1
is absolutely convergent.
(iii) The series
n=1
n!
P
sin(n)
(iv) For any R, the series
is absolutely convergent.
n=1
n2

Here are two more results whose proofs are based on some advanced topics in
analysis
P
Theorem 1.23 Suppose
n=1 an is an absolutely convergent
P series and (bn ) is a
sequence obtainedPby rearranging
the
terms
of
(a
).
Then
n
n=1 bn is also absolutely
P
convergent, and
a
=
b
.
n=1 n
n=1 n
P
Theorem 1.24 Suppose
n=1 an is a conditionally convergent series. The for
every R, there exists a P
sequence (bn ) whose terms are obtained by rearranging
the terms of (an ) such that
n=1 bn = .
To illustrate the last theorem consider an example.

X
(1)n+1

Example 1.37 Consider the conditionally convergent series

n=1

. Consider

the following rearrangement of this series:

1
Thus, if an =

1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1
+ + +

+ .
2 4 3 6 8
2k 1 4k 2 4k

(1)n+1
n

for all n N, the rearranged series is

b3n2 =

1
,
2n 1

b3n1 =

1
,
4n 2

n=1 bn ,

b3n =

for n N. Let sn and n be the n-th partial sums of the series

respectively. Then we see that

where

1
4n

n=1 an

and

n=1 bn

1 1 1 1 1
1
1
1
3n = 1 + + +

 2 4 3 6 8
 2n 1 4n 2 4n

1 1
1 1 1
1
1
1
=
1
+

+ +

2 4
3 6 8
2n 1 4n 2 4n

 



1 1
1 1
1
1
=

+ +

2 4
6 8
4n 2 4n

 



1
1
1 1
1
1
=
1
+

+ +

2
2
3 4
2n 1 2n
1
=
s2n .
2

34

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

Also, we have
3n+1 = 3n +

1
,
2n + 1

3n+2 = 3n +

1
1

.
2n + 1 4n + 2

We know that {sn } converge. Let limn sn = s. Since, an 0 as n , it then

follows that
s
s
s
lim 3n = ,
lim 3n+1 = ,
lim 3n+2 = .
n
n
n
2
2
2
Hence, we can infer that n s/2 as n .

1.3

Appendix

Proof of Theorem 1.8 (Bolzano-Weirstrass theorem).

sequence in R. For each k N, consider the set

Let (an ) be a bounded

Ek := {an : n k},
and let bk := sup Ek , k N. Clearly, b1 b2 . . ..
We consider the following two mutually exclusive cases:
(i) For every k N, bk Ek
(ii) There exists k N such that bk 6 Ek .
In case (i), (bk ) is a bounded monotonically decreasing subsequence of (an ), and
hence, by Theorem 1.6(ii), (bk ) converges.
Now, suppose that case (ii) holds, and let k N such that bk 6 Ek . Then for
every n k, there exists n0 > n such that an0 > an . Take n1 = k and n2 = n0 . Then
we have n1 < n2 and an1 < an2 . Again, since n2 Ek , there exists n3 > n2 such that
an2 < an3 . Continuing this way, we obtain a monotonically increasing subsequence
(anj )
j=1 of (an ). Again, since (an ) is bounded, by Theorem ??by Theorem 1.6(ii)),
(anj )
j=1 converges.
An alternate proof for Theorem 1.10. Let (xn ) be Cauchy sequence, and
> 0 be given. Then there exists n N such that |xn xm | < for all n, m n .
In particular, |xn xn | < for all n n . Hence, for any 1 , 2 > 0,
xn1 1 < xn < xn2 + 2

n max{n1 , n2 }.

()

From this, we see that the set {xn : > 0} is bounded above, and
x := sup{xn : > 0}
satisfies
xn < x < xn +
2

n n .

From the book: Mathematical Analysis: a straight forward approach by K.G. Binmore.

()

Additional exercises

35

From () and (), we obtain

|xn x| <

n n .

This completes the proof.

Remark 1.11 We may observe that the proof of Theorem 1.8 can be slightly modified so that we, in fact, have the following: Every sequence in R has a monotonic
subsequence.

Exercise 1.23 Prove the statement in italics in Remark 1.11.

1.4
1.4.1

Additional exercises
Sequences

1. Let (an ) be a sequence of real numbers which converges to a, i.e., an a as

n . Prove:
(a) |an a| 0

and |an | |a| as

n .

(b) If |a| > 0, then there exists k N such that |an | > |a|/2 for all n k.

2. Suppose an a and an 0 for all n N. Show that a 0 and an a.

3. In each of the following, establish the convergence or divergence of the sequence
(an ), where an is:
(i)

n
n+1

(ii)

(1)n n
n+1

(iii)

2n
,
3n2 + 1

(iv)

2n2 + 3
.
3n2 + 1

4. Suppose (an ) is a real sequence such that an 0 as n . Show the

following:
(a) The sequence (a2n ) converges to 0.
(b) If an > 0 for all n, then the sequence (1/an ) diverges to infinity.
5. Let (an ) be a sequence defined recursively by an+2 = an+1 + an , n N, with
a1 = a2 = 1. Show that (an ) diverges to .

6. For n N, let an = n + 1 n. Show that (an ) and ( nan ) are convergent

sequences. Find their limits.
P
1
7. For n N, let xn = nk=1 n+k
. Show that (xn ) is convergent.
8. Prove the following:
(a) If (an ) is increasing and unbounded, then an + as n .
(b) If (an ) is decreasing and unbounded, then an as n .

36

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

9. Suppose (an ) is an increasing sequence. Prove the following.

(a) If (an ) has a bounded subsequence, then (an ) is convergent.
(b) If (an ) does not diverge to +, then (an ) has a subsequence which is
bounded above.
(c) If (an ) is divergent, then an +.
10. Let a1 = 1 and an+1 =
find its limit.

2 + an for all n N. Show that (an ) converges. Also,

11. Let a1 = 1 and an+1 = 41 (2an + 3) for all n N. Show that (an ) is monotonically increasing and bounded above. Find its limit.
12. Let a1 = 1 and an+1 =
its limit.

an
for all n N. Show that (an ) converges. Find
1 + an

13. Suppose (an ) is a sequence such that the subsequences (a2n1 ) and (a2n ) converge to the same limit, say a. Show that (an ) also converges to a.
14. Let (an ) be a monotonically increasing sequence such that (a3n ) is bounded.
Is (an ) convergent? Why?
15. Let (an ) be defined by
a1 = 1,

an+1 =

2an + 3
,
4

n = 1, 2, . . . .

Show that (an ) is monotonically increasing and bounded above. Also, find its
limit.
{Hint: Observe: an+1 an an 23 , and show that that an 3/2 for all
n N.}
16. Let (an ) be defined by
a1 = 2,

an+1

1
=
2

2
an +
an


,

n = 1, 2, . . . .

Show that (an ) is monotonically decreasing and bounded below. Also, find its
limit.


{Hint: Observe: an+1 := 21 an + a2n an a2n 2 and show that

an 2 n N. }
17. Give an example in support of the statement:
If (an ) is a sequence such that an+1 an 0 as n , then (an )
need not converge.

Additional exercises
18. Let a > 0 and
xn =

an an
,
an + an

37

n N.

For what values of a the sequence (xn ) is (i) convergent? (ii) divergent?
19. For 0 < a < b, let
an = (an + bn )1/n ,
Show that (an ) converges to b.
{Hint: Note that (an + bn )1/n = b(1 +

n N.

a n 1/n
) .}
b

20. For 0 < a < b, let

an+1 = (an bn )1/2

and bn+1 =

an + bn
,
2

nN

with a1 = a, b1 = b. Show that (an ) and (bn ) converge to the same limit.
{Hint: First observe that an an+1 bn+1 bn for all n N.}
21. Let a1 = 1/2 and b = 1, and for n N, let
an+1 = (an bn )1/2 ,

bn+1 =

2an bn
.
an + bn

Show that (an ) and (bn ) converge to the same limit.

{Hint: First observe that bn bn+1 an+1 an for all n N.}
22. Let un =

log n
n log(log n)

for n N. Show that (un ) is monotonically decreasing

and converges to 0. {Hint: Observe:

1.4.2

1
n

log n
n log(log n)

1
log(log n) .}

Series

1. Prove that

X
n=1

3n 2
= 1.
n(n + 1)(n + 2)

(Hint: Use partial fractions )

2. Test the following series for convergence:
(a)

(b)

X
(n!)2
,
(2n)!

n=1

n=1

(1)(n1)

X
(n!)2 n
5 ,
(2n)!

n=1

X


1
n+1 n
n

n=1

1
,
(n + 1) n
n=1

1
2
3
n
(c) + 2 + 3 + + n +
2 2
2
2
1
1
1
1
(d) + + + +
+
10
20
30
10n

X
1
n!

n=1

38

Sequence and Series of Real Numbers

M.T. Nair

1
1
1
1
(e)
+
+
+ +
+
3
3
3
3
n+6
7
8
9
1 2
3
n
+ + 2
+
(f) + +
2 5 10
n +1
 
p


p
X
X
1
(g)
n4 + 1 n4 1 ,
tan
n
(h)
(i)

(j)

n=1

n=1

1
,
(a + n)p (b + n)p

n=1
p
X
3

n=1

n3

+1n ,

n=1

(n + 6)1/3 ,

n=1

(l)

(1)n+1

2n!
,
n!

1
n(n + 1)
n=1
 2

X
1 n
1+
n

n=1

(1)n1

n=1

n+1

(log n)n ,

n=1



X
nx n
,
(k)
1+n
n=1

a, b, p, q > 0

(1)n1
p
n(n + 1)(n + 2)
n=1

n
,
n+1

n ,

X
(2)n
n=1

n=1

n2

3. Find the sum of the series:

1
1
1
+
+ +
+
1.2.3 2.3.4
n.(n + 1).(n + 2)
4. Is the Leibniz Theorem applicable to the series:

1
1
1
1
1
1

+ +

+
n1
n+1
21
2+1
31
3+1

Does the above series converge? Justify your answer.

5. Find out whether the following series converge absolutely or conditionally:
1
1
1
1
1
+

+
+ + (1)n+1
+
32 52 72 92
(2n 1)2
1
1
1
1
1

+ + (1)n
+
(b)
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4 ln 5
ln n

X
X
X
(1)n+1
(1)n+1 n
(1)n
(c)
,
,
(2n 1)2
3n1
n(log n)2
(a) 1

(d)

n=1

X
n=1

(1)n log n
n log log n

n=1

n=1

(1)n+1

n=1

1
n

(f )

(1)n+1

n=1

1
n2n

6. Let (an ) be a sequence

Pof non-negative numbers
Pand (akn ) be a subsequence
(an ). Show that, if n=1 an converges, then n=1 akn also converges. Is the
converse true? Why?