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Lecture05 MIT PDF

The document discusses spectral measurements and analysis techniques. It covers three cases: 1) When the signal bandwidth exceeds the bandwidth of available amplifiers, it recommends using multiple receivers and antennas or splitting the frequencies before detection if the signal is large compared to detector noise. 2) When the bandwidth permits amplification, it recommends amplifying before detection or further frequency splitting. 3) When the bandwidth permits digital spectral analysis, it discusses computing the power spectral density directly from time domain samples or using 1-bit analog to digital conversion to permit more bandwidth per unit area of silicon. It also provides examples of passive multichannel filters using circuits, waveguides, prisms, and diffraction gratings. Finally,

Uploaded by

Boules Atef
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
55 views

Lecture05 MIT PDF

The document discusses spectral measurements and analysis techniques. It covers three cases: 1) When the signal bandwidth exceeds the bandwidth of available amplifiers, it recommends using multiple receivers and antennas or splitting the frequencies before detection if the signal is large compared to detector noise. 2) When the bandwidth permits amplification, it recommends amplifying before detection or further frequency splitting. 3) When the bandwidth permits digital spectral analysis, it discusses computing the power spectral density directly from time domain samples or using 1-bit analog to digital conversion to permit more bandwidth per unit area of silicon. It also provides examples of passive multichannel filters using circuits, waveguides, prisms, and diffraction gratings. Finally,

Uploaded by

Boules Atef
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Spectral Measurements

S(f)

Case A: Bandwidth exceeds that of


available amplifiers

TA(f)

f
channels
f1

1) Extreme bandwidth: use multiple


receivers and antennas

fN
f1
fN
f1
fN

2) If signal large compared to


detector noise, detect directly or
split frequencies and then detect
3) Use passive frequency splitters
before amplification or detection
Receivers-G1

Spectral Measurements
f1
fN

Case B: Bandwidth permits amplification


1) Amplify before either detection or
further frequency splitting

Case C: Bandwidth permits digital spectral analysis


1) If computer resources permit, compute
2

V( f ) N

(~ N log2 N multiplys per N - point transform :

Resolution f 2B N

average M spectra )

2) Or 1-bit (or n-bit) N ( ) N ( f )(N samples)


(Permits ~100 more B per cm2 silicon)
(Reference: Van Vleck and Middleton, Proc. IEEE, 54, (1966)
G2

Examples of Passive Multichannel Filters


1. Circuits
IN
Zo

f2

f1

fn

channel-dropping filters

2. Waveguides

Zo at f1

filters

/4
f

fN
f1

f2

RCVR

f3
RCVR

passive

f1 resonant
cavities at ff

virtual
short

G3

Examples of Passive Multichannel Filters


3. Prism

(f)

bound electron(s)
prism

red

f
blue

fo

4. Diffraction grating

5. Cascaded Dichroics
<f2

<f1

fn

plane wave
>f1

>f2

>fn-1(f1>f2>fn)
G4

Digital spectral analysis example: autocorrelation


(f)

()

[W Hz-1]

analog signals

Possible analog implementation:


BRF

BBRF

v(t)

delay line

fRF

f
LO
local oscillator

v ( ) is based on :
1) max lag = max = NT
2) sample lag, T sec
3) finite integration time >> max

fIF

NT = max

v (T ) v (2T ) v (NT )
G5

Resolution of autocorrelation analysis


W()

1) v ( ) = y ( ) W ( )
7 < M 7
7
7
v (f ) = v (f ) W (f )

-M

M = NT

0
W(f)

0
Thus
v(f) W(f)

v(f)

~1/2 M Hz
0

G6

Aliasing in autocorrelation spectrometers


i(t)

2) v ( ) =
7
v (f ) =

v ( )
7

i( t )
7

v ( f ) I( f )

I(f)

v (f )

B
-1/T 0

-1/T

1/T

1/T 2/T

f(Hz)

2/T

Aliasing is spectral overlap

v (f )
3) Finite averaging time adds noise to v ( ),
G7

Autocorrelation of hard-clipped signals

v(t)

()

delay line

A/D
x(t)

LO

1
hard clipping

vo(t)

c
o
u
n
t
e
r
v ( )

+1 if v(t) > 0
+1
A/D 1
0

-1
Receivers-I1

Analysis of 1-bit autocorrelation


+ 1 x 0
where x1, x 2 are JGRVZM
Let x (t1) x1, x (t 2 ) x 2, sgn x
-1 x < 0
x ( ) = E[sgn x1 sgn x 2 ] =

x12 2x1x 2 + x 22

2
1

2
1
dx dx
e
sgn x1 sgn x 2
1 2
12

(
)
2
1

( )

where ( ) x1x 2 v ( ), = t 2 t1

x ( ) = 2 [p(x1, x 2 )]dx1dx 2 2

= 4 p(x1, x 2 )dx1dx 2 1
0

p(x1, x2 )dx1dx 2

Note : 2 + 2 = 1

0
0

I2

Power spectrum for 1-bit signal


Change
variables

x2

x1 = r cos
x2 = r sin
dx1dx2 = rdr d

rd
r
dr

x1

( )

r
r2
1
e
x ( ) = 4 d d
12
2
2
0
0 2 1
2

= 4 d
0

(1 )

2 12

2(1 sin 2 )

1 sin 2

2
1 2

I3

Power spectrum for 1-bit signal

(1 )

2 12

= 4 d
0

2(1 sin 2 )

Let 2

(
1 )1 2
x ( ) = 4

1
1

d 1 = 4 + sin1 1
1 sin

2 2
0

( ) = sin ( )
v
x
2

Where x ( ) = (sgn v(t) )(sgn v(t - )) T


a

Note : has bias


if b not exact

p(a)

p(b)
0

b0

(see Burns & Yao, Radio Sci., 4(5) p. 431 (1969))

I4

Spectral response & sensitivity: autocorrelation receiver


( f )rms

Teff
f
1 ; 1 .6
B
f
channel bandwidth

Apodizing weighting functions:

(S. Weinreb empirical result,


MIT EE PhD thesis, 1963)
first
sidelobe

1.099

0.60 fs
N

-7 dB

0
raised cosine

0.87

fs N

-16 dB

0.69

uniform

1 N
fs =

;
N
#
taps
=

T M

1.13 fs N

-29 dB

blackman

Note trade between spectral resolution, sidelobes in (f) and Trms

I5

Spectral response & sensitivity: autocorrelation receiver


If N delay-line taps, how many spectral samples Ns?
Say uniform weighting of ():

W()

1
0

Then B = Ns f = Ns (1/2M) where spectral resolution f 1/2m


for orthogonal channels from boxcar W()
W(f)
1 2 M

W(f) for adjacent channel


f
Ns = 2MB = 2 NT B (T = 1 2B at nyquist rate ) = N(# taps )

In practice: raised cosine widens f by 1/0.6 1.7, so Ns N/1.7


I6

Receivers Gain and Noise Figure


Types of power
Delivered
Available
Exchangeable
v ( t ) Re Ve jt

Zg

Vg

+
V

Rg + j Xg

ZL

= Re {V} cos t + Im {V} sin t

{ }

R e VI ( PD )
Pdelivered
2
Pavailable max PD , i.e., if ZL = Zg
Receivers-K1

Delivered and Available Power

{ }

1
Pdelivered Re VI ( PD )
2
Pavailable max PD, i.e., if ZL = Z

PD

If : R e Z g > 0
Im Z g = 0

PA
- Re Zg
0

Re Zg

RL

PD

If : R e Z g < 0

Re Zg

RL
- Re Zg

Pexchangeab le PD
( finite - power option )
ZL = Z g

K2

Definition of Gain
1

Zg

Gpower (= Gp)

Gavailable (= GA)
Gtransducer (GT)
power

PD
PA
PD

PD

PA

PA

Note: GA, GE

1
1

ZL

Ginsertion (= GI)

PD

PD

with
amplifier
without

1 amplifier

Gexchangeable (=GE)

PE

PE

dont depend on ZL
do depend on Zg (via PE2)
K3

Definition: Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)


First define:

WH z1

N1
N2
S1
S2

=
=
=
=

exchangeable noise power spectrum @ Port 1


same, at 2
exchangeable signal power spectrum @ Port 1
same, at 2

( )

Recall GE = f Zg
Zg

F
ZL

Vg
G
1

Define SNR1 S1 N1 ; SNR 2 S2 N2


K4

Definition: Noise Figure F


SNR1 S1 N1

F
, where N1 kTo , To 290 K
SNR 2 S2 N2
[Ref. Proc. IRE, 57(7), p.52 (7/1957); Proc. IEEE, p.436 (3/1963)]

S2 = GES1 (see definition of GE)


N2 = GEN1 + N2T transducer noise
S1 N1
N2T
F =
= 1+
GS1 (GN1 + N2T )
N1G
N2T kTRG TR
F 1 =
=
N1G kToG To

(let G GE )
receiver noise temperature

excess noise figure

K5

Receiver Noise Example


TA

G, F 1

TA

G, F

noiseless
TR

TA

TR = (F 1) To

G, F 1

290K

Excess noise corresponds to


receiver noise temperature TR

N2T

Examples:
TR
TR
TR

TR
= 0K
F = 1+
= 1 (F = 0 dB)
To
= 290K F = 2
(F = 3 dB)
= 1500K F 6
(F ~= 7.5 dB)
K6

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