Scribd
Upload
38 views

Series: N N N N

The document provides an overview of sequences and series. It defines key concepts such as convergent and divergent sequences, infinite series, and tests for determining convergence of series. Specific types of series covered include geometric series, power series, and Taylor series. Examples are provided to illustrate how to determine if a series converges or diverges using tests like the ratio test. The document also discusses differentiating, integrating, and approximating functions using their Taylor series representations.

Uploaded by

lzyabc597
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
38 views

Series: N N N N

The document provides an overview of sequences and series. It defines key concepts such as convergent and divergent sequences, infinite series, and tests for determining convergence of series. Specific types of series covered include geometric series, power series, and Taylor series. Examples are provided to illustrate how to determine if a series converges or diverges using tests like the ratio test. The document also discusses differentiating, integrating, and approximating functions using their Taylor series representations.

Uploaded by

lzyabc597
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 52

CH 4 Series

a
n =1

= lim
s
n n

Sequences
A sequence of real numbers

Limits of Sequences

Here L is a real number

Convergent or divergent
The limit of
If

If

, if it exists, is unique.
, we say that
is convergent,
&
converges to L.
doesnt exist, we say that
is divergent.

Here L is a real number


4

Although

but is NOT a real number

(v)

an

an 0

an 0

an 1

{an } = {1,0,1,0,1,...} D

The sequence
does not tend to
A FIXED VALUE

4.1 Infinite Series


4.1.1 Definition

Q 11+11+11+11+
Which of the following is true?
(i) (1 1) + (1 1) + (1 1) + (1 1) +
= 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + = 0.
(ii) 1 + (-1 + 1) + (-1 + 1) + (-1 + 1) +
= 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + = 1.
(iii) Because of (i) & (ii), the answer should
be .
[Grandi (1671-1742)]
7

What does

mean?

If
we say that
(i) the series
is convergent &
(ii) its sum is L; & write
If

is divergent, we say that the series

is divergent.
9

Answer to the Q
What is
1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + ?
The sequence of partial sums:
1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, ,
is divergent and so the series
11+11+11+11+
is divergent.
10

4.1.2 Geometric Series


Geometric series:

a ( 0) the 1st term, r the common ratio.

Q What are the values of r for which the


series is convergent ?
11

Formula of the nth partial sum

12

Discussion (4 cases)
(i) r = 1
Then
= na (or )
i.e., the series is divergent.
(ii) r = 1
Then
is
a, 0, a, 0, ,
(aa+aa+)
& the series is divergent.
13

Discussion
(iii)
Try r = 2, r = 3 consider seq r n
2n Divergent
{(3) n } =
{( 1) n 3n } =
{3,9, 27,81,...}
Divergent

(iv)

14

4.1.3 Convergence of geometric series

4.1.4 Example

1
=
6

8
=
3

1
1
(a = , r = )
9
3
1
(a = 4, r = )
2
15

4.1.5 Rules on Series

16

4.1.6 Ratio Test

converges if < 1

Then
the series

diverges
No conclusion can be drawn

if > 1
if = 1
17

4.1.7 Example

1 (1 + 1/ n)
=
2 (2 + 1/ n)

5
1+ n
2
= 3
5
2+ n
2
18

=1

Divergent
Proof omitted
see next slide

Convergent
Proof omitted
see next slide

for the case

=1

19

Another Important Series


p-series

1
n

diverges
converges

0p1
p>1

20

4.2 Power Series


an

f n (x)

4.2.1
is of the form

A power series is regarded as a function


of x where it converges
21

4.2.2 Example
Geometric Series
(a=1,r=x)

22

4.2.3 Power series about x = a


is of the form

a is called the centre of the power series.


23

4.2.4 Convergence of

c ( x a)

4.2.5 Radius of convergence (R)


(1) Converges only at a
a
R=0
(2) Converges in (a-h, a+h)
a
but diverges outside
R=h
[a-h, a+h] (the series may
converge at a-h or a+h)
(3) Converges at every x
R=

24

4.2.6 Example

The series converges if |x| < 1; diverges if |x| > 1.


Thus, R = 1.
25

for any x, the limit always 0, which is less than 1

Therefore, the series converges for any x.


Thus, R = .
26

(unless x = 0)
The series diverges for any x except x = 0.
Thus, R = 0.
27

4.2.7 Differentiation and Integration of Power Series

Let
where h is the radius of convergence.
Then for a h < x < a + h,

28

Examples , see Lecture Notes

Integration of Power Series


f=
( x)

c ( x a)
n =0

, ah< x<a+h

For a h < x < a + h,

1
= 1 x + x 2 x 3 + ,
1+ x

dx
1+ x

29

4.3 Taylor & Maclaurin Series


From previous slides

Can a function f be expressed as

If yes, what is the relation between f(x)


&
?
30

4.3.1 Definition of Taylor Series


Let f be a function s.t. the derivatives of all
orders exist for all x in an open interval
containing a.

31

4.3.2 Example

Let f(x) = . Then f(x) = f"(x) = =


& f(0) = f(0) = f"(0) = = 1.
Thus, the Taylor series of
at x = 0 is

Note The Taylor series of f at 0 is called the


Maclaurin series of f .
32

Taylor (1685 1731)

Maclaurin (1698 1746)

33

4.3.3-4.3.6

Example

f(x) = sin x.

The Maclaurin series of sin x is

34

Maclaurin series

1
= 1 x + x 2 x 3 + ,
1+ x
1
1 + x2

= 1 x 2 + x 4 x6 +

x3 x5
=x + ...
3! 5!

< x <

x2 x4
=
+ ...
1
2! 4!

< x <
35

An application
(This integral arises in the study of light diffraction.)

36

Taylor series of

at x = 2

q
1 p ( x + 2)

?
37

at x = 2

Taylor series of
1
1
=
2 x + 1 2( x + 2) 3

q
1 p ( x + 2)

1
1
=
3 1 2 ( x + 2)
3

1 2

+
(
2)
x

3
3

n =0

2n
n
=

+
(
2)
x

n+1
n =0 3

2
3
( x + 2) < 1 x + 2 <
3
2

3
R=
2

38

4.3.7 Taylor Polynomials


The nth order Taylor polynomial of f at a:

n f (k ) (a)
k
( x a)

k!
k =0

It gives a good polynomial approximation of


order n.
39

4.3.8 Example
The Taylor polynomials of
1, 2 and 3 :

at x = 0 of order

40

4.3.9 Application
You are at the top of a lighthouse, height H above
sea level. How far out to sea can you see ?
To find: R
R= radius of
the Earth

2 RH
41

4.3.10 Taylors Theorem


Let Pn ( x) be the nth order Taylor poly of

f ( x) at x = a
Then

=
f ( x) Pn ( x) + Rn ( x)

f
where=
R ( x)
n

( n +1)

(c )
( x a ) n +1
(n + 1)!

for some c between a and x


Rn ( x) called remainder of order n or error term
42

4.3.11 Example
Let f ( x) = e

Error term for the approximation of f(x)


by
at x=0 is
ec
Rn ( x) =
x n +1
(n + 1)!

(*)

for some c between 0 and x

We can use (*) to estimate the error


43

2
3
4
5
x
x
x
x
e x =+
1 x + + + + + R5 ( x)
2! 3! 4! 5!

1 1 1 1
e =1 + 1 + + + + + R5 (1)
2! 3! 4! 5!
ec 6
R5 (1)
(1) where 0 < c < 1
=
6!
ec 6 3
0 <=
R5 (1)
(1) < 4.166 103 < 0.005
6!
6!
1 1 1 1
If we use 1 + + + + to esimate e
2! 3! 4! 5!

then the error is less than 0.005


END

44

Appendix
Another way

45

The Maclaurin series of arc tan x


1
1 + x2

= 1 x 2 + x 4 x6 +

1
1
tan x = =
dt
2
0 1+ t
x


n 2n
(1) t dt
0
n =0

46

Let

&

47

48

Final Exam (08/09, Sem 1)

49

50

More Examples

51

Harmonic series
1
1 1
1 1 1 1
=1 + ( ) + ( + ) + ( + + + ) + ...
2
3 4
5 6 7 8
1
1
1
> 1 + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ...
2
2
2

Divergent !
52

You might also like