Unit – 4

Gear Generation & Non-Traditional

Machining Processes

Manufacturing of Gears
Basic purpose of Gears
Gears are widely used in various mechanisms and devices to transmit
power and motion positively (without slip) between parallel,
intersecting (axis) or non-intersecting non parallel shafts,
1 • without change in the direction of rotation
2 • with change in the direction of rotation
3 • without change of speed (of rotation)
4 • with change in speed at any desired ratio
Often some gearing system (rack – and – pinion) is also used to
transform rotary motion into linear motion and vice-versa
 Features of Spur gear
General Applications Of Gears
Gears of various type, size and material are widely used in several
machines and systems requiring positive and stepped drive. The major
applications are:
1 • Speed gear box, feed gear box and some other kinematic
units of machine tools
2 • Speed drives in textile, jute and similar machineries
3 • Gear boxes of automobiles
4 • Speed and / or feed drives of several metal forming machines
5 • Machineries for mining, tea processing etc.
 6 • Large and heavy duty gear boxes used in cement industries,
sugar industries, cranes, conveyors etc.
7 • Precision equipments, clocks and watches
8 • Industrial robots and toys.

Types Of Gears And Their Characteristics

Gears are broadly classified
1 (a) According to configuration
1 • External gear
2 • Internal gear

Configuration of external and internal gears

1
 2 (b) According to axes of transmission
1 • Spur gears – transmitting rotation between parallel shafts
1 o Straight toothed
2 o Helical toothed
3 ⎯ Single helical
4 ⎯ double helical (herringbone)

Compared to straight toothed gears, helical toothed gears run more

smoothly and can transmit larger torque. Double helical gears are of
large size and used for heavy torque transmission.
• Bevel gears – transmitting motion between intersecting shafts (axes)
1 o Straight toothed
2 o Helical toothed
3 ⎯ Spiral bevel gear
4 ⎯ Hypoid gear
Helical toothed bevel gears are used for smoother and larger torque
transmission.

• Gears transmitting motion and power between non-parallel non-

intersecting shafts
5 o Worm and worm wheel
6 o Spiral gears
7 o Skewed or hypoid bevel gears
Worm and worm wheel are generally used for speed reduction but are
irreversible i.e., rotation can be transmitted only from the worm to the
worm wheel unless the helix angle is tool large.
Spiral gears are used when torque or power to be transmitted is
insignificant

Gears transmitting power between non-parallel non intersecting shafts. (a)

worm and worm wheel, (b) hypoid gear and (c) spiral gears.
(C) According to pattern of motion
1 • Rotation to rotation : - wheel type gears
2 • Rotation to translation or vice versa – e.g. rack and pinion
0 o Straight toothed
1 o Helical toothed

Gearing systems transforming (a) rotation to rotation and

(b) rotation to translation
Production of Gear Teeth by Machining
1 The preformed blanks of approximate shape and irregular surface
are machined to desired dimensions and finish and then the teeth are
produced generally by machining
2 Full gears with teeth are made by different processes and then
finished by further machining and / or grinding
3 Accurate gears in finished form are directly produced by near –
net – shape process like rolling, plastic moulding, powder metallurgy
etc. requiring slight or no further finishing.

The most commonly practiced method is preforming the blank by

casting, forging etc. followed by pre-machining to prepare the gear
blank to desired dimensions and then production of the teeth by
machining and further finishing by grinding if necessary.
Gear teeth are produced by machining based on
1 Forming – where the profile of the teeth are obtained as the
2 replica of the form of the cutting tool (edge); e.g., milling,
3 broaching etc.
4 Generation – where the complicated tooth profile are provided
5 by much simpler form cutting tool (edges) through rolling type,
6 tool – work motions, e.g., hobbing, gear shaping etc.
1
Methods of production of gear teeth by machining on Forming
principle
Shaping, planing and slotting
Teeth of straight toothed spur gear can be produced in shaping
machine. Both productivity and product quality are very low in this
process which therefore, is used, if at all, for making one or few teeth
on one or two pieces of gears as and when required for repair and
maintenance purpose. In principle planning and slotting machines
work on the same principle. Planing machine is used, if required at all,
for making teeth of large gears whereas slotting, generally, for internal
gears

Gear teeth cutting in ordinary shaping machine.

Milling
Gear teeth can be produced by both disc and end mill type form
milling cutter
a) Production of gear teeth by form milling are characterized by:
1 • use of HSS form milling cutters
2 • use of ordinary milling machines
3 • low production rate for
0 ⎯ need of indexing after machining each tooth gap
1 ⎯ slow speed and feed
4 • low accuracy and surface finish
5 • inventory problem – due to need of a set of eight cutters for
each module – pressure angle combination.
6 • End mill type cutters are used for teeth of large gears

1
b) Production of gear teeth by machining on Generation principle
Generation method is characterized by automatic indexing and ability
of a single cutter to cover the entire range of number of teeth for a
given combination of module and pressure angle and hence provides
high productivity and economy.

By using rack type cutter

Rack type HSS cutter (having rake and clearance angles) reciprocates
to accomplish the machining (cutting) action
The favourable and essential applications of this method (and
machine) include :
1 • moderate size straight and helical toothed external spur gears
with high accuracy and finish
2 • cutting the teeth of double helical or herringbone gears with a
central recess (groove)
3 • cutting teeth of straight or helical fluted cluster gears
However this method needs, though automatic, few indexing
operations.

External gear teeth generation by rack type cutter

Gear shaping
In principle, gear shaping is similar to the rack type cutting process,
excepting that, the linear type rack cutter is replaced by a circular
cutter, where both the cutter and the blank rotate as a pair of spur
gears in addition to the reciprocation of the cutter.
Generation method is characterized by automatic indexing and ability
of a single cutter to cover the entire range of number of teeth for a
given combination of module and pressure angle and hence provides
high productivity and economy.
The gear type cutter is made of HSS and possesses proper rake and
clearance angles.
The additional advantages of gear shaping over rack type cutting are :
1 • separate indexing is not required at all
2 • straight or helical teeth of both external and internal spur gears
can be produced with high accuracy and finish
3 • Productivity is also higher.

Gear teeth generation by gear shaping (a) external and

(b) internal spur gear
Hobbing
The tool-work configuration and motions in hobbing contains the HSS
or carbide cutter having teeth like gear milling cutter and the gear
blank apparently interact like a pair of worm and worm wheel.
The hob (cutter) looks and behaves like a single or multiple start
worm.
Hobbing provides lesser accuracy and finish and is used only for
cutting straight or helical teeth (single) of external spur gears and
worm wheels.

Generation of external gear teeth by Hobbing :

(a) straight tooth (b) helical tooth and (c) worm wheel
 Finishing of Gear Teeth
For smooth running, good performance and long service life, the gears
need
1 • to be accurate in dimensions and forms
2 • to have high surface finish and
3 • to be hard and wear resistive at their tooth flanks
which are achieved by some gear teeth finishing work after near
accurate preforming and machining.
Gears produced to near-net-shape by die casting, powder metallurgy,
extrusion, blanking etc. need little finishing.
But machined and hardened gear teeth are essentially finished for
accuracy and surface finish.
Common methods of gear teeth finishing
Gear teeth, after preforming and machining, are finished generally by
the following methods;
1 a) for soft and unhardened gears
1 • gear shaving
2 • gear rolling or burnishing
3 b) for hard and hardened gears
4 • grinding
5 • lapping
6 c) for soft but precision gears
7 • shaving followed by surface hardening and then
lapping
Gear shaving
The teeth of straight or helical toothed external spur gears and worm
wheels of moderate size and made of soft materials like aluminium
alloy, brass, bronze, cast iron etc. and unhardened steels are mostly
finished by shaving process.
All those gear, rack or worm type shaving cutters are of hard steel or
HSS and their teeth are uniformly serrated to generate sharp cutting
edges.
While interacting with the gears, the cutting teeth of the shaving cutter
keep on smoothening the mating gear flanks by fine machining to high
accuracy and surface finish.
For such minute cutting action, the shaving teeth need an actual or
apparent movement relative to the mating teeth along their length.
 Gear shaving cutters of (a) spur gear type (b) rack
and (c) worm type

Cutting teeth of gear shaving (a) cutter and its (b) action
Gear rolling or burnishing
In this method the machined gear is rolled under pressure with three
hardened master gears of high accuracy and finish.
The minute irregularities of the machined gear teeth are smeared off
by cold plastic flow, which also helps in improving the surface
integrity of the desired teeth.

Gear teeth grinding

Grinding is a very accurate method and is, though relatively
expensive, more widely used for finishing teeth of different type and
size of gears of hard material or hardened surfaces.
The properly formed and dressed wheel finishes the gear teeth flanks
by fine machining or abrading action of the fine abrasives.
Like gear milling, gear grinding is also done on two principles
1 Forming
2 Generation, which is more productive and accurate
Gear teeth grinding on forming principle
This is very similar to machining gear teeth by a single disc type form
milling cutter where the grinding wheel is dressed to the form that is
exactly required on the gear.
Need of indexing makes the process slow and less accurate.
The wheel or dressing has to be changed with change in module,
pressure angle and even number of teeth.
Form grinding may be used for finishing straight or single helical spur
gears, straight toothed bevel gears as well as worm and worm wheels.

Gear teeth finishing by form grinding

Gear teeth grinding on generation principle

The simplest and most widely used method is very similar to spur gear
teeth generation by one or multi-toothed rack cutter.
The single or multi-ribbed rotating grinding wheel is reciprocated
along the gear teeth as shown.
Other tool – work motions remain same as in gear teeth generation by
rack type cutter
For finishing large gear teeth a pair of thin dish type grinding wheels
are used.
 Gear teeth grinding on generation principle.
Gear teeth finishing by lapping
The lapping process only corrects minute deviations from the desired
gear tooth profiles.
The gear to be finished after machining and heat treatment and even
after grinding is run in mesh with a gear shaped lapping tool or
another mating gear of cast iron.
An abrasive lapping compound is used in between them. The gear
tooth contact substantially improves by such lapping.
Electric Discharge Machine (EDM):
Introduction:
EDM is an electro-thermal machining process, where electrical energy
is used to generate electrical spark and material removal mainly occurs
due to thermal energy of the spark
Used to machine difficult-to-machine materials and high strength,
temperature resistant alloys
Used to machine difficult geometries in small batches
Process:
Thermoelectric process: Heat energy of a spark is used to remove
material from the w/p
w/p & tool made of electrically conductive materials
Spark is produced between two electrodes & its location is determined
by the narrowest gap between them.
Duration of each spark is very short
Entire cycle time is usually few micro-seconds
Frequency of sparking may be as high as thousands of sparks per
second
Area over which a spark is effective is very small
Temperature of the area under the spark is very high
Spark energy is capable of partly melting and partly vaporizing
material from localized area on both the electrodes
Material is removed in the form of craters, spread over the entire
surface of the work piece
Cavity produced in the work piece is the replica of the tool.
To have machined cavity as replica of the tool, tool wear should be
zero
To minimize tool wear, operating parameters and polarity should be
selected carefully
Particles eroded from the electrodes are known as debris
Debris: mixture of irregular shaped particles (resulting from
resolidification from the molten state) and hollow spherical particles
(resulting from vapour condensation)
Amount of material eroded from the tool surface is much smaller than
w/p surface
Very small gap between the two electrodes is to be maintained to have
the spark to occur
Tool is driven by the servo system which continuously move towards
the work piece
Principle of metal removal:
During machining, pulsed DC of 80 – 100 V at approximately 5 kHz
is passed thru the electrodes
Results in an intense electrical field at the location where surface
irregularity provides the narrowest gap
Negatively charged particles (electrons) break loose from the cathode
surface and move towards the anode surface under the influences of
electric field forces
During this movement, the electrons collide with neutral molecules of
the dielectric
Electrons are also detached from these neutral molecules of the
dielectric resulting in still more ionization
Ionization becomes so intense and a very narrow channel (plasma
channel) of continuous conductivity is established
In this channel, there is a continuous flow of considerable number of
electrons towards the anode and that of ions towards the cathode
Their K.E. is converted into heat energy
Heating of anode due to the bombardment of electrons and heating of
cathode due to the bombardment of ions take place
Thus it ends up in a momentary current impulse resulting in a
discharge which may be an arc or a spark
Spark energy raises the localized temperature of the tool and w/p to
such a huge value that it result either in melting / melting &
vaporization of a small amount of material from the surface of both
electrodes at the point of spark contact
Amount of material eroded from the w/p and the tool will depend
upon the contributions (in the form of K.E.) of electrons and ions.
As the potential difference is withdrawn, the plasma channel is no
longer sustained
As the plasma channel collapse, it generates pressure or shock waves
which evacuates the molten material forming a crater of removed
material around the site of the spark

Schematic representation of crater formation

Material removal in EDM mainly occurs due to formation of shock
waves as the plasma channel collapse owing to discontinuation of
applied potential difference
Generator is used to apply voltage pulses between the tool and job
(constant voltage is not applied). Polarity normally used is straight
(tool is negative and w/p is positive)
EDM equipment consists of:
• Dielectric reservoir, pump and circulation system
• Power generator and control unit
• Working tank with work holding devices
• X-Y table accommodating the working table
 • Tool holder
• Servo system to feed the tool

Process Parameters:
• open circuit voltage – Vo
• working voltage – Vw
• maximum current – Io
• pulse on time – duration for which the voltage is applied – ton
• pulse off time – toff
• gap between the work piece and tool – spark gap – δ
• polarity – straight polarity – tool (-ve)
• dielectric medium
• external flushing through the spark gap
Characteristics of EDM
EDM can be employed for machining any electrically conductive
material irrespective of its hardness and other physical, mechanical &
metallurgical properties
Material removal depends on mainly thermal properties of the work
material
Can perform different kind of operations, viz drilling, slotting multiple
hole drilling, profile cutting etc
High degree of repeatability and high accuracy (± 0.025 to ± 0.127
mm) and tolerances upto ± 2.5 μm
Taper ranges from 0.005 to 0.050 mm/cm depending upon the values
of machining parameters
Aspect ratio of 100:1 can be achieved during drilling of holes
Volumetric material removal rate (MRR) is quite low (0.1 to 10
mm3/min-A)
Microscopic study of the machined components reveals three kind of
layers, viz recast layer, HAZ and converted layer
Recast layer: If the molten material from the w/p is not flushed out
quickly, it will resolidify and harden due to the cooling effect of
dielectric fluid and gets adhered to the machined surface. This thin
layer of about 2.5 to 50 μm is called as recast layer
HAZ: layer next to recast layer, approx 25 μm thick. Heating, cooling
and diffused material are responsible for the presence of this zone
Converted layer: It is identified as an outer layer to the HAZ and is
characterized by a change in grain structure from the original structure
Surface finish achieved in EDM is around 0.8 to 3.1 μm
Rapid heating and cooling and local high temperature leads to surface
hardening which may be desirable in some applications

Dielectric system:
Consists of dielectric fluid, reservoir, filters, pumps and delivery
devices
Dielectric fluid should possess certain properties, viz, it should;
• have high dielectric strength (i.e. remain electrically non-
conductive until the required breakdown voltage between the
electrodes is achieved)
• take minimum possible time to breakdown (i.e. ignition delay
time) once the breakdown voltage is reached (dielectric should
ionize when electrons collide with its molecule)
• deionize the gap immediately after the spark has occurred
• serve as an effective cooling medium
• have high degree of fluidity
Fluids commonly used: transformer oil, paraffin oil, kerosene and
deionized water
(Tap water cannot be used as it ionizes too early and thus breakdown
due to the presence of salts / impurities)
Effective flushing of dielectric removes debris from the gap and
increase the MRR
Various methods of flushing: suction thru electrode, pressure through
electrode, jet flushing & rotating electrode flushing

Electrode material:
Material should be such that it would not undergo much tool wear
when it is impinged by positive ions
Material should posses desirable properties like easily machinable,
low wear rate, good conductor of electricity and heat
Tool should be easily workable as intricate shaped geometric features
are machined in EDM

Basic characteristics of electrode materials are:

• High electrical conductivity
• High thermal conductivity – for the same heat load, the local
temperature rise would be less due to faster heat conducted to the
bulk of the tool and thus less tool wear
 • Higher density – for the same heat load and same tool wear by
weight there would be less volume removal or tool wear and thus
less dimensional loss or inaccuracy
• High melting point – high melting point leads to less tool wear
due to less tool material melting for the same heat load
• Easy machinability

Common electrode materials: Graphite, Electrolytic oxygen free

copper, Tellurium copper – 99% Cu + 0.5% tellurium and Brass

Power generator
• Resistance-capacitance type (RC type) relaxation generator
• Rotary impulse type generator
• Electronic pulse generator
• Hybrid EDM generator

Applications of EDM:
• Manufacturing of hardened steel dies for forming process
• Manufacturing of aerospace, automobile and machine tool
components
• Making through cavities and miniature holes
 • Making components for plastic injection molding machine
• Making dies for molding, casting, forging, stamping, coining,
extruding, wire drawing etc.
• Employed for tiny holes, orifices (50 μm) and fragile features
(micro sized slots)
• Matte finish obtained during EDM minimizes polishing time
• Common application is removal of broken taps, drills, studs,
reamers, pins etc.
• Machining can be done on heat treated materials, tougher
material such as carbides.
• Used to produce shapes which are extremely difficult to make
otherwise, viz squares, ‘D’ holes, splines, narrow slots and
grooves, blended features etc.
• Can be employed to machine thin and fragile components
without any damage to the components.

Electrochemical Machining
Introduction
A controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level of the w/p that is
electrically conductive by a shaped tool due to flow of high current at
relatively low potential difference through an electrolyte which is
quite often water based neutral salt solution

Process

Reactions occur at the electrodes i.e. at the anode / work piece and at
the cathode / tool in the presence of electrolyte
Ex. Machining of low carbon steel, neutral salt solution NaCl
(Electrolyte)
Electrolyte and water undergoes ionic dissociation as the potential
difference is applied
NaCl ↔ Na+ + Cl-
H2O ↔ H+ + (OH)-
As the potential difference is applied between the w/p (anode) and the
tool (cathode), the positive ions move towards the tool and negative
ions move towards the work piece
Hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the tool (cathode) and
form hydrogen gas

2H+ + 2e- = H2↑ at cathode

Similarly the iron atoms will come out of the work piece (anode)
Fe = Fe++ + 2e-
Within the electrolyte iron ions would combine with chloride ions to
form iron chloride and similarly sodium ions would combine with
hydroxyl ions to form sodium hydroxide
Na+ + OH- = NaOH
In practice FeCl2 and Fe(OH)2 would form and get precipitated in the
form of sludge
In this manner w/p gets gradually machined and gets precipitated as
sludge
As the material removal takes place due to atomic level dissociation,
the machined surface is of excellent quality and stress free
ECM Machine Tool
Power supply:
The electrochemical machining system consists of
• Power supply
• Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
• Tool feed system

Schematic of a ECM drilling unit

Power supply:
The electrochemical machining system consists of
• Power supply
• Electrolyte filtration and delivery system
 • Tool feed system
Work piece & work holding system
High Direct current of 40,000 A and a low electric potential in the
range of 5 – 25 V across the IEG is desirable
Highest current density achieved is around 20,000 A/cm2

Electrolyte filtration and delivery system:

Consists of pump, filters, pipings, control valves, heating or cooling
coils, pressure gauges and a storage tank.
Supply ports may be made in the tool, work of fixture
Small IEG (< 1mm) to be maintained for achieving high MRR and
high accuracy
Smooth flow of electrolyte should be maintained
Electrolyte cleanliness is imperative and filters are made of stainless
steel, monel or any other anti-corrosive material
Piping system is made of S.S., GFRP, plastic lined mild steel or any
other anti-corrosive materials.
Required minimum capacity of electrolyte tank is about 500 gallons
for each 10,000 A of current

Tool and Tool Feed system:

Use of anti-corrosive material for tools and fixtures is important
because of longer machining time in the corrosive environment of
electrolyte
High thermal conductivity & high electrical conductivity of tool
material are important
Aluminum, brass, bronze, copper, tungsten, titanium, S.S and monel
are the common tool material
Use of non-corrosive and electrically non-conducting materials is
preferred for making fixtures

Work piece and work holding system:

Only electrically conductive work materials can be machined
Chemical properties of anode (work) material largely govern the
MRR.
Work holding devices are made of electrically non-conductive
materials having good thermal stability and low moisture absorption
Graphite fibres-reinforced plastics, plastics are used for fabricating
work holding devices.
ECM Process Parameters:
1) Power supply
Type : Direct current
Voltage : 2 to 35 V
 Current : 50 to 40,000 A
Current density : 0.1 A/mm2 to 5 A/mm2

2) Electrolyte
Sodium chloride for alloyed/unalloyed steel (moderate MRR), Sodium
chlorate for steel (High MRR), Sodium Nitrite for copper alloys (low-
medium MRR), Sulphuric acid for Ni, Cr, Co alloys and Sodium
hydrate for tungsten and Molybdenum.
Temperature : 20 – 50 deg. C
Flow rate : 20 lpm per 100 A current
Pressure : 0.5 to 20 bar
Dilution : 100 g/l to 500 g/l
3) Working gap : 0.1 mm to 2 mm
4) Over cut : 0.2 mm to 3 mm
5) Feed rate : 0.5 mm/min to 15 mm/min
6) Electrode material : Copper, brass, bronze
7) Surface roughness, Ra : 0.2 to 1.5 μm

Advantages:
Can machine highly complicated and curved shapes in a single pass
Single tool can be used to machine a large number of pieces without
any loss in its shape and size
Tool life in ECM is very high
Machined surfaces are stress free and burr free having good surface
finish (0.1 to 1.0 μm)

Limitations:
Used only for electrically conductive materials
Cannot produce sharp corners & edges
Machining of materials containing hard spots, inclusions etc are
difficult
Accuracy of machined components depend on such factors like tool
design, degree of the process control and complexity of shape
produced.

Applications
ECM is used for
• Die sinking
• Profiling & Contouring, Trepanning, Grinding, Drilling
• Micro-machining
MRR in ECM
Governed by Faraday’s law of electrolysis
Amount of chemical change produced by current (ie) the amount of
any substance deposited or dissolved is proportional to the quantity of
electricity that is passed through the electrolyte
Amount of metal from an electrode removed by the flow of same
quantity of electricity (eg) one faraday of electricity will liberate one
gram equivalent weight of the metal
W = EIt / F, where W is the mass of ions dissolved in Kg
E – Equivalent weight of substance dissolved or deposited
I – Current in amps
t – Time in sec
F – Faraday constant (26.8 amp – hr.)
MRR = W / Aρt
A is machined area in m2, ρ density of work piece
MRR = EIt / FAρt
= EI / FAρ = EI / Fρ m3/s for a unit square area
Accuracy in ECM depends on
• machining voltage
• feed rate of electrode (tool)
• temperature of electrolyte
• concentration of electrolyte
 Laser Beam Machining
Introduction
Laser: Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Working principle of laser was put forward by Albert Einstein in 1917
First industrial laser for experimentation was developed around 1960’s
Laser beam can very easily be focused using optical lenses as their
wavelength ranges from half micron to around 70 microns.
Focused laser beam can have power density of around 1 MW/mm2.
As laser interacts with the material, the energy of coherent photons /
laser beam (a unit of light) is mostly converted into thermal energy
Thermal energy is absorbed by the work material leading to rapid
substantial rise in local temperature resulting in melting and
vaporization of the work material.

Energy band in materials

Lasing Process
Describes the basic operation of laser i.e. generation of coherent beam
of light by “light amplification” using “stimulated emission”
Einstein hypothesized that under appropriate conditions, light energy
of a particular frequency can be used to stimulate the electrons in an
atom to emit additional light with exactly same characteristics as the
original stimulating light source
An atom, initially in any of the excited states does not remain forever
in that state (or energy level)
Einstein proposed that when an atom at ‘q’ energy level has light of
right frequency acting on it, it absorbs photons of that light and the
transition takes place from lower energy level ‘q’ to higher energy
level ‘p’
Phenomenon of the movement of an atom to the higher energy level is
called absorption
Transition of an atom from the higher energy level ‘p’ back to the
lower energy level ‘q’ is known as emission.
Emission could be two kinds: Spontaneous emission (independent of
light intensity) and stimulated emission (influenced by the intensity
of light)
 Spontaneous & Stimulated Emission
Let an atom be brought to high energy level (say, E3) by an outside
energy source (heat, light, chemical, etc.)
Now, if it is allowed to decay back to its ground state energy level
(E0), a photon is released
If this photon comes in contact with another atom at high energy level
(E3), then this atom will also decay back to ground state releasing
another photon.
This chain of events would produce photons having same
characteristics (wave length, direction and energy)
Triggering of clone photons from stimulated atoms is known as
stimulated emission.
Stimulated emission forms the basis of laser operation.
In a material, if more number of atoms are at their higher energy level
as compared to the number of atoms at lower energy level, then it is
called as “population inversion”
Refers to the population of atoms in the lasing material.
Feedback mechanism is an essential element of the laser producing
system
It captures and redirects a part of the coherent photons back into the
active medium
These photons further stimulate the emission of some more photons of
the same frequency and phase
Also permits a small % of coherent photons to exit the system in the
form of laser light which is utilized for manufacturing processes
Working of LASER
A cylindrical glass vessel contains the gas (lasing medium)
One end of the glass is blocked with a 100% reflective mirror and the
other end is having a partially reflective mirror

Lasing Action
Population inversion can be carried out by exciting the gas atoms by
pumping it with flash lamps
Stimulated emission would initiate lasing action and emission of
photons could be in all directions.
Most of the stimulated photons which are not along the longitudinal
direction would be lost and generate waste heat
Photons in the longitudinal direction would form coherent, highly
directional, intense laser beam.
Lasing medium
Many materials can be used as the heart of the laser
Depending on the lasing medium, lasers are classified as solid state
and gas laser

Solid – state lasers are

• Ruby which is a chromium – alumina alloy having a
wavelength of 0.7 μm
• Nd-glass lasers having a wavelength of 1.64 μm
• Nd-YAG laser having a wavelength of 1.06 μm

Gas lasers are

• Helium – Neon
• Argon
• CO2
Lasers can be operated in continuous mode or pulsed mode
Typically CO2 gas laser is operated in continuous mode and Nd-
YAG laser is operated in pulsed mode.
Laser Construction:

Solid state laser with pumping unit

Working of a solid state laser

Solid state (Nd-YAG) laser is pumped using flash tube
Flash tubes may be helical / flat
Lasing material is at the focal plane of the flash tube
Electrical circuit for operation of a solid state laser shows the flash
tube being operated in pulsed mode by charging and discharging of
the capacitor
Pulse on time is decided by the resistance on the flash tube side and
pulse off time is decided by the charging resistance
A high voltage switching supply is provided for initiation of pulses.

Construction of a gas laser

Gas lasers can be axial flow, transverse flow and folded axial flow
Power of a CO2 laser is typically around 100 Watt per metre of tube
length
To make a high power laser, long tube is required which is quite
inconvenient
For optimal use of floor space, high-powered CO2 lasers are made of
folded design
In a CO2 laser, a mixture of CO2, N2 and He continuously circulate
through the gas tube
Continuous recirculation of gas is done to minimize consumption of
gases.
CO2 acts as the main lasing medium whereas Nitrogen helps in
sustaining the gas plasma
Helium helps in cooling the gases
Working of a gas laser

Construction of a folded gas laser

High voltage is applied at the two ends leading to discharge and
formation of gas plasma
Energy of this discharge leads to population inversion and lasing
action
One end of the laser tube is 100% reflector and the other end is partial
reflector
100% reflector redirects the photons inside the gas tube and partial
reflector allows a part of the laser beam to be released, which is used
for material processing
CO2 lasers may be folded to achieve high power
In a folded axial flow laser there would be a few 100% reflective
turning mirrors for manoeuvring the laser beam from gas supply as
well as high voltage supply

LBM – Applications
Laser beam energy has been favorably employed for cutting difficult –
to – machine materials such as hardened steels, composites, ceramics
etc.
Laser beam energy has been utilized for operations like drilling,
cutting, micromachining, trepanning, trimming, marking, welding,
soldering, brazing etc.
Micro-holes (cooling holes) of diameter < 1mm can be made on super
alloy materials (for components such as turbine blades, guide vanes,
casing etc.)
Drilling miniature holes in diamond dies for wire drawing, in sapphire
and ruby, bearings for watches
Large sized holes (> 1.2 mm diameter) can not be drilled, rather they
can be trepanned
Trepanning is performed either by moving the laser beam or the work
piece according to the type of the profile of the hole
Non circular holes can be better machined by CNC contour cutting
Three-dimensional laser beam machining process, utilizing two laser
beams, for operations like threading, turning, grooving etc can be
employed
During 3-D cutting, two independent lasers are simultaneously used to
cut two grooves which are moving closer to each other
When these two grooves converge, a volume is cut off without being
melted / vaporized

LBM – Advantages
In LBM, there is no physical tool, no machining force, no wear of tool
Aspect ratio (depth to diameter ratio) of 100:1 can be achieved with
acceptable dimensional accuracy
Micro holes can be drilled in difficult – to – machine materials
HAZ in pulsed laser processing is not very significant due to shorter
pulse duration
LBM – Limitations
High initial cost
High maintenance cost
Not very efficient process
Presence of HAZ in Gas assisted CO2 laser cutting
Thermal process – not suitable for heat sensitive materials like
aluminum glass fiber laminate
 Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Introduction
Abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material at a high
velocity (200 – 400 m/s)
High velocity stream of abrasive is generated by converting the
pressure of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy
Material removal takes place through chipping / erosive action
This erosive action has been employed for cutting, cleaning, etching,
polishing and deburring
Effective on hard / brittle materials (glass, tungsten, ceramics etc.) and
not so effective on soft materials like aluminum, rubber etc.
Nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work
material
Distance between the nozzle & w/p and the impingement angle can be
set desirably
Abrasive particles of around 50 μm grit size would impinge on the
work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of I.D of 0.5 mm
with a stand off distance of around 2 mm.
Schematic of AJM process
 AJM setup
AJM Equipment
Gas Propulsion system:
Air is compressed in an air compressor and compressed air at a
pressure of around 5 bar is used as the carrier gas.
CO2 and N2 can also be used as carrier gas, taken directly from gas
cylinders
Carrier gas is passed through a pressure regulator to obtain the desired
working pressure
Passed through an air drier to remove any residual water vapor
To remove any oil vapor or particulate contaminant the same is passed
through a series of filters
Gas enters a closed chamber (mixing chamber)
Abrasive feeder:
Required quantity of abrasive particles is supplied by abrasive feeder
Abrasive particles enter the chamber from the hopper through a
metallic sieve
Sieve is constantly vibrated by an electromagnetic shaker
Mass flow rate of abrasive (15 gm/min) entering the chamber depends
on the amplitude of vibration of the sieve and its frequency
Abrasive particles are then carried by the carrier gas to the machining
chamber through an electro-magnetic on-off valve

Machining Chamber:
Machining chamber is essential to contain the abrasive and machined
particles in a safe and eco-friendly manner.
Chamber is equipped with a vacuum dust collector

AJM nozzle:
Machining is carried out as high velocity (200 m/s) abrasive particles
are released from the nozzle onto the w/p
Nozzle is usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire which has high
resistance to wear
Made of either circular or rectangular cross-section
Nozzle pressure is maintained between 2 – 8.5 bar, which depends on
the material of w/p and desired characteristics of the machined surface

Abrasives:
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), Silicon carbide (SiC), Glass beads, crushed
glass, and sodium bicarbonate
Selection of abrasives depends upon the type of work material,
material removal rate and machining accuracy desired.
Al2O3 is good for cleaning, cutting and deburring on soft materials
SiC is used for cleaning, cutting and deburring on hard materials
For obtaining matte finish, glass beads are good while crushed glass
performs better for giving sharper edges
Small abrasive particles are used for cleaning and polishing while
large particles perform better during cutting
Abrasives should have sharp and irregular shape and be fine enough to
remain suspended in the carrier gas
Re-use of the abrasives is not recommended because of two reasons:
abrasives get contaminated with metallic chips which may block the
nozzle passage
Cutting ability of the used abrasive particles is reduced due to wear
Process Parameters
• Abrasive
Material: Al2O3 / SiC / Glass beads
Shape: irregular / spherical
Size: 10 – 50 μm
Mass flow rate: 2 – 20 gm / min
• Carrier gas
Composition: Air, CO2, N2
Density: Air – 1.3 kg / m3
Velocity: 500 – 700 m/s
Pressure: 2 – 10 bar
Flow rate: 5 – 30 lpm
• Abrasive Jet
Velocity: 100 – 300 m/s
Mixing ratio: mass flow ratio of abrasive to gas: Mabr / Mgas
Stand off distance: 0.5 – 5 mm
Impingement angle: 60 – 90 deg.
• Nozzle
Material: WC / Sapphire
Diameter: (Internal) 0.2 – 0.8 mm
Life: 10 – 300 hrs