GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

AS LEVEL
UNIT ONE
PEOPLE AND POLITICS

There are no true friends in politics. We are all sharks circling,

and waiting, for traces of blood to appear in the water.
Alan Clark MP and diarist, 1928-1999

UNIT ONE
WRITTEN EXAM
1 HOUR 20 MINUTES (80 MINUTES)
Choice of four questions
Candidates answer TWO COMPLETE QUESTIONS
Answer the a, b and c parts of each chosen question
A = 5 marks
B = 10 marks
C = 25 marks
Total 40 x 2 = 80 marks available on this paper.

HOW TO IMPRESS THE EXAMINER ON UNIT ONE

If you are going to achieve highly in Unit One Politics it is important that you
understand how the examiners are marking these papers, since there are important
techniques that you need to deploy if you are going to be awarded top marks.
The UNIT ONE MODULE is 80 MINUTES long and you have to answer TWO COMPLETE
questions. Therefore each complete question should take 40 MINUTES. You should
therefore stick rigorously to the following time frame for each question. As you can
see it is essentially a case of A MARK A MINUTE.
As a golden rule when answering an ESSAY QUESTION always DEFINE YOUR TERMS
to begin with. For example, if you were writing an essay on whether the Conservative
Party was still a Thatcherite Party you would have to begin it with a working
definition of what Thatcherism is.
In your introduction briefly explain the main arguments you will be considering. Even
at this stage, you can suggest your conclusion by referring to what you think is the
most convincing argument. For example, There are numerous arguments in favour
of electoral reform such as the way in which it encourages choice and provides a closer
link between the numbers of votes for a party and the representation it achieves in
parliament; however the main argument in favour of First Past the Post that it
encourages strong government is, in many ways, still more compelling.
You also need to use the sort of TECHNICAL LANGUAGE that shows you understand
the subject. Thus, if you were writing about GENERAL ELECTIONS, you would be

expected to be using words like MANIFESTO, LEGITIMACY and MANDATE with

effortless familiarity.
DO NOT RUN OUT OF TIME. Almost as many marks are lost through bad timing as are
lost through lack of knowledge. Check your timing regularly and, if you really are in
trouble concentrate what time you have left on the high value questions. AVOID
BULLET POINTS SINCE THEY CANNOT INCLUDE EXPLANATION AND THIS IS WHAT THE
EXAMINERS ARE LOOKING FOR.
Use the term, ARGUABLY. If you are making a slightly controversial but interesting
point introduce it with arguably since this will provide your work with real academic
sophistication, Arguably, the Labour Partys unwillingness to condemn the Coalitions
public dramatic spending cuts is the greatest contemporary example of consensus
politics.

HOW YOUR SCRIPT WILL BE MARKED

Q1 AO1 5 MARKS
TOTAL 5 MARKS
5 MINUTES
This brief question should only take you 5 minutes and is marked according to
Assessment Objective One [AO1]. This means that to gain full marks you need to
demonstrate accurate and relevant factual knowledge [defining terms / concepts;
providing examples; describing institutions / processes; identifying arguments /
theories etc. In order to achieve 5/5 the examiners would expect detailed and / or
developed knowledge. You can access 5/5 by making 5 different points or by
providing 2-3 and then by developing them further.
A very good way of achieving 5/5 is to answer the question in the first sentence and
then develop it with further explanation and examples: For example A pressure
group is an organisation that represents either a cause or a section of society and
seeks to put pressure on those in authority to adopt the policies that they support
would be a good opening sentence which you could then take further by
distinguishing, with examples, between cause and sectional pressure groups and then
showing how they seek to influence the public in favour of their point of view and do
not aim to establish a government.

Whenever you make a point in the exam you must immediately support it with detail;
if you do not you will not be given marks for it. For example, if you stated that the
1983 General Election provided an example of adversarial politics you would then
have to provide evidence to explain why this was the case. Leave nothing to chance,
therefore, in your explanations!

Q2 AO1: 7 MARKS / A02 3 MARKS

TOTAL 10 MARKS
10 MINUTES
This question is more challenging and 7 of the 10 marks will be awarded for AO1 and
3 will be awarded for AO2. This means you will have two marks on this question. AO1,
as we have seen examines accurate and relevant factual knowledge, but AO2 takes
this further and requires that candidates show the ability to explain, not just describe
[giving reasons for, or causes of, something; showing how something works].
This means that candidates do not simply explain an issue, but they also provide some
ANALYSIS as well; therefore for the question WHAT DIVISIONS EXIST WITHIN THE
CURRENT CONSERVATIVE PARTY OVER IDEAS AND POLICIES? [January 2009; 10
marks] 7 of the marks would be awarded for AO1 showing a clear understanding of
the issues at stake, but for AO2 [3 marks] there would also need to be some
EVALUATION so the candidate would want to explain why the One Nation
Conservatives and the New Right are ideologically so divided over the 50p top rate of
taxation and the Human Rights, while also pointing out that they are most dramatically
divided over our membership of the European Union and these splits have increased
as a result of the election, in 2010, of a large number of very right wing new Tory MPs.
As a golden rule you need at least 4 explanations topped up with some evaluation for
this question. A02 is thus accessed by including ANALYSIS AS WELL AS DESCRIPTION.
For example, if the question was EXPLAIN HOW THREE ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
WORK IN THE UK, you would achieve 10/10 only if you managed to explain how they
worked, but also what they aimed to achieve.

There is no need for either an introduction or a conclusion for a Q2 response. Do not

add these as it will simply lose you time.

Another way of achieving 10/10 is to introduce your answer by explaining that there
are 4 issues that you are going to consider, the MOST IMPORTANT OF WHICH IS
BECAUSE . . . the last few words will ensure you achieve your A02 marks! If you can
list your POINTS IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE that will really impress the examiner too,
gaining you A02 marks. Thus, the following introduction would be bidding for high
marks on A02:

On a Q2 you might also be asked a DISTINGUISH BETWEEN question. For example,

you might be asked to DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE FEATURES OF A PRESSURE
GROUP AND A POLITICAL PARTY. Once again, in order to ensure you achieve your 3
A02 marks begin your response as follows: There are a number of important
differences between a political party and a pressure group. Unlike a pressure group a
political party will have a range of manifesto commitments, while its leadership will
always be elected. A political party is also accountable to the public in an election,
unlike a pressure group, while the most important difference between a pressure
group and a political party is that a political party aims to form a government but a
pressure groups wants a government to listen to its advice. You can then develop
these differences in the main body of your writing. Whatever you do dont write
contrasting paragraphs i.e a long paragraph on pressure groups, followed by a long
paragraph on pressure groups.
Q3
The essay question examines 3 Assessment Objectives:
AO1: Understanding and examples 8 MARKS
A02: Evaluation / Structure 9 MARKS
AO3: Clarity of writing and apt use of political vocabulary 8 MARKS

Always choose the question you attempt based on how approachable the essay is!

A good essay will have to show IMPRESSIVE FACTUAL UNDERSTANDING, combined

with a great deal of INTERESTING DEBATE and an impressive OVERALL SENSE OF
STRUCTURE. This means that the essay has a very clear introduction which sets out
what the issues you are going to debate are and hints at which are the most significant:
Then there needs to be lots of evaluation and analysis and, at the end an intelligent
and interesting conclusion. Throughout the essay you should be carefully deploying
appropriate words thus in an essay on to what extent the UK is democratic it would
be vital that you explain the significance of KEY TERMS such as LEGITIMACY.
If all of these criteria are fulfilled you will achieve highly on all the assessment
objectives. The best way of making sure that you achieve highly is if you can sit back
and think that this is a coherent and well written essay which will the examiner will
enjoy reading! In order to do this YOU NEED TO KNOW WHAT THE MAIN THRUST OF
YOUR CONCLUSION WILL BE BEFORE YOU BEGIN WRITING SINCE THIS WILL ENSURE
THAT YOU HAVE A STRUCTURED ESSAY THAT CLEARLY AND INEVITABLY BUILDS UP
TO A FITTING CONCLUSION.
The Chief Examiner also points out that whatever essay you do you will be EXPECTED
TO EVALUATE BOTH SIDES OF AN ARGUMENT AND IN YOUR CONCLUSION EXPLAIN
WHICH SIDE YOU FIND MOST CONVINCING AND WHY. DO NOT SIT ON THE FENCE!
Dont be afraid to be controversial or question the assumptions of the question.

1. DEMOCRACY /
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
When you revise this subject you should be able to show an understanding of the
meaning of all these KEY TERMS:

CITIZENSHIP, DEMOCRACY, LEGITIMACY, REPRESENTATION, DIRECT

DEMOCRACY,
REPRESENTATIVE
DEMOCRACY,
PLURALIST
DEMOCRACY, LIBERAL DEMOCRACY, PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY,
PARTICIPATION, REFERENDUM.
SAMPLE QUESTION
(a) Define representative democracy [5]
(b) What are the main features of the UKs democratic system? [10]
(c) How and why has the UK democratic system been criticised? [25]
JANUARY 2009
(a) What are the main features of representative democracy? [5]
(b) In what ways has political participation declined in the UK in recent years? [10]
(c) Evaluate the effectiveness of the various ways in which participation and
democracy could be strengthened in the UK [25]
MAY 2009
(a) Define liberal democracy [5]
(b) Explain the main features of the UKs democratic system. [10]
(c) To what extent is there a democratic deficit in the UK? [25]
JANUARY 2010
(a) Define direct democracy [5]
(b) Explain three forms of democratic participation [10]
(c) Assess the arguments in favour of the greater use of direct democracy in the UK.
[25]

MAY 2010
(a) What is meant by legitimacy? [5]
(b) Explain three strengths of representative democracy? [10]
(c) How democratic is the UK? [25]
JANUARY 2011
(a) Apart from voting in elections and referendums, describe two ways of participating
in politics. [5]
(b) Explain the arguments in favour of lowering the voting age. [10]
(c) To what extent would the wider use of referendums improve democracy in the UK?
[25]
JUNE 2011
(a) Outline the key features of a referendum [5]
(b) Apart from referendums, explain three ways in which democracy in the UK could
be improved. [10]
(c) To what extent does democracy in the UK suffer from a participation crisis? [25]
JANUARY 2012
(a) How does a referendum differ from an election? [5]
(b) Explain the arguments in favour of making voting compulsory. [10]
(c) How effectively does representative democracy operate in the UK? [25]
MAY 2012
(a) Define democratic legitimacy, and outline one way in which it is achieved. [5]
(b) In what circumstances are referendums held in the UK? [10]
(c) Should referendums be more widely used in the UK? [25]

JANUARY 2013
(a) Outline two features of the UKs system of parliamentary democracy [5]
(b) Explain how and why the use of digital democracy could make the UK more
democratic. [10]
(c) Should direct democracy be more widely used in the UK? [25]
MAY 2013
(a) Using an example, define direct democracy. [5]
(b) Explain three criticisms of representative democracy. [10]
(c) Assess the various measures, other than electoral reform, that have been
suggested to improve democracy in the UK. [25]

CONTENT EXPLANATION: Nature of democracy a knowledge and understanding of

the idea of democracy, of the forms that democratic governance has taken,
particularly the difference between direct and representative forms of democracy and
their strengths and weaknesses, and the nature of liberal democracy. Democracy in
the UK a knowledge and understanding of the main features of democracy in the
UK; an awareness of both the strengths and the UK system and why it has been
criticised, including reasons for, and the extent, of the participation / legitimacy
crisis in UK politics; how far the UK system conforms to liberal democratic principles;
and the implications of developments such as devolution and EU membership.
Enhancing democracy a knowledge and understanding of reforms of the UK
democratic system that would extend participation and strengthen accountability,
such as the wider use of referendums, lowering the voting age, compulsory voting and
digital democracy and an assessment of their implications and possible benefits.

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?
8

Democracy means that the PEOPLE THEMSELVES ELECT A GOVERNMENT which

governs the country IN THE INTERESTS OF THE WHOLE COMMUNITY RATHER THAN
JUST ONE SECTION OF IT. Elections for the Government take place on a REGULAR
BASIS and, as a result of FREEDOM OF SPEECH, all democratic political parties can
freely publicise their political beliefs. In a democracy ALL CITIZENS have EQUAL
VOTING RIGHTS based on the principle of ONE PERSON / ONE VOTE so we all enjoy
POLITICAL EQUALITY ensuring that all citizens have the same political influence. In a
pluralist democracy all citizens may PARTICIPATE FREELY in the democratic process
either by JOINING A POLITICAL PARTY or PRESSURE GROUP OF THEIR CHOICE or
STANDING FOR ELECTIVE OFFICE.

In a larger sense we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this

ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far
above our power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember, what
we say here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedicated here to the unfinished work
which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be
here dedicated to the great task remaining before us . . . that we here highly resolve
that the dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation, under God, shall have a new
birth of freedom; and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people,
shall not perish from the earth.
Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, 19th November 1863

WHAT IS A PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY? [5 MARKS]

The United Kingdom is a good example of a parliamentary democracy in which
PARLIAMENT IS SOVEREIGN; this means that the voters elect parliament and
parliament, as the LEGAL REPRESENTATIVE OF THE POPULAR WILL, possesses the
LEGAL SOVEREIGNTY to pass any bill that it has support of parliament. In a
parliamentary democracy there is, therefore, no sovereignty greater than that of
parliament. Parliament is held ACCOUNTABLE to the public in regular elections in
which the governments MANDATE may be withdrawn or renewed and all parts of the
United Kingdom are all EQUALY REPRESENTED at Westminster. In a parliamentary
democracy the EXECUTIVE [GOVERNMENT] derives from parliament and is held
accountable to parliament since it may be removed by losing a VOTE OF NO
CONFIDENCE as happened to JAMES CALLAGHAN in 1979.

DEFINE LIBERAL DEMOCRACY [5 MARKS]

A liberal democracy means that democracy is carried out according to the RULE OF
LAW. This means that as well as having all those elements of democracy that give
government LEGITIMACY such as UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, whereby we can all vote on
the principle of ONE PERSON / ONE VOTE, as well as REGULAR ELECTIONS in which

government is made accountable to the voters, the government itself acts according
to the RULE OF LAW and the rights of the minority are not suppressed by the
TYRANNY OF THE MAJORITY. The United Kingdom is thus a liberal democracy because
we have a FREE PRESS that can be as critical as it likes of the government, while the
BBC is not a mouthpiece for the government. The rights of citizens are also protected
by the SEPARATION OF POWERS; whereby judges are independent of the government
and uphold the RULE OF LAW; if necessary in defiance of the government. The EQUAL
RIGHTS OF ALL CITIZENS are also maintained by conventions such as MAGNA CARTA
which protects us from arbitrary arrest and the government cannot act illegally, for
example by banning a political party that is prepared to seek power through
democratic means. In short, in a liberal democracy, the government must, like the
public, obey the laws of the land.

DEFINE LEGITIMACY [5 MARKS]

Legitimacy means that a government has been given by the voters a DEMOCRATIC
MANDATE in an election to govern and therefore legally exercises power in the
interests of all the people. At a British General Election, for example, a government is
HELD ACCOUNTABLE for its policies and the party, or parties, that wins the most seats
may be said to have the DEMOCRATIC CONSENT or LEGITIMACY to govern on behalf
of the public. Thus, in the 2010 General Election, the Conservative and Liberal
Democrat Parties achieved more members of parliament than the other political
parties and may therefore be said to have a legitimate right to govern the country.
Legitimacy also suggests that a democratically elected government will govern
according to the RULE OF LAW and will not seek to subvert our civil liberties, for
example, by abolishing regular elections or habeas corpus.

WHAT IS A PLURALIST DEMOCRACY? [5 MARKS]

A Pluralist democracy is a liberal democracy in which the rights of everyone are
protected by the SEPARATION OF POWERS and the maintenance of the RULE OF LAW
which ensures that the government should not act against the principles of Justice.
This sort of democracy also involves many ways in which citizens can express their
political viewpoints; all of which as equally valid. A pluralist democracy will thus
provide voters with a large number of political parties to vote for, while it will also
enable citizens to express their political views between elections, through joining
PRESSURE GROUPS, sending E PETITIONS and having the opportunity to vote on
important constitutional issues in REFERENDUMS. All of this will ensure that
POLITICAL POWER will be WIDELY DISPERSED which is an essential characteristic of a
PLURALIST DEMOCRACY.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN FEATURES OF UK DEMOCRACY?

10

Britain is a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY because we have REGULAR ELECTIONS which have

to take place within 5 YEARS. This means that the government is made ACCOUNTABLE
for everything that it has done and can be democratically replaced by another
government; as happened in 2010 when the Brown Government was defeated.
Voters also elect representatives to LOCAL GOVERNMENT, as well as to the
DEVOLVED ASSEMBLIES in SCOTLAND, WALES and NORTHERN IRELAND, while there
are an increasing number of towns and cities where local people can elect their own
MAYOR.
Our democracy is also based on the principle of UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE whereby
everybody above the age of 18 is able to vote and, of course, can vote for whatever
party they wish. Voting is carried out in General Elections by FPTP on the basis of ONE
PERSON / ONE VOTE.
Our democracy is based, too, on a REPRESENTATIVE MODEL whereby we elect MPs
to the HOUSE OF COMMONS who represent their constituents in the House of
Commons, while non-elected members of the House of Lords scrutinise legislation
deriving from the Commons and may delay it for a year if they think it ill-advised.
British Citizens also live in a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY since they are protected by the
RULE OF LAW and the SEPARATION OF POWERS from ARBITRARY GOVERNMENT.
This means that key elements of our democracy include FREEDOM OF SPEECH, the
principle of HABEAS CORPUS and TRIAL BY JURY which protects us from arbitrary
government.
No political party, as long as it is prepared to work through the
democratic process, is banned, while there is a FREE MEDIA, ensuring that the public
are exposed to a huge variety of political opinions and can therefore make entirely
free political decisions.
We are also a PLURALIST DEMOCRACY because PRESSURE GROUPS are an integral
part of the democratic process and may freely publicise their views ensuring that,
between General Elections, citizens are kept fully informed about important issues
and even if the government disagrees with what is being said, for example, by pressure
groups such as OCCUPY LONDON it cannot silence them.

EXPLAIN THREE CHARACTERISTICS WHICH ESTABLISH THE UKS CLAIM

TO DEMOCRATIC STATUS. [10 MARKS]
MODEL ANSWER: There is no doubt that the UK is entitled to claim democratic status
and it can do this via several routes. Democracy has emerged slowly and steadily in
the UK over the past 100 years [a]. The most obvious claim to democratic status arises
from the regular holding of elections to secure representatives and office holders. A
general election, for instance, must take place every five years. Furthermore, the
general election [and all others] are subject to close scrutiny and official procedures
and process, the casting of the vote must be in secret, the TV media many not show

11

any bias to a particular party and, importantly, the counting of votes is done under
close scrutiny. [b]. There are other significant processes which have to be followed to
ensure that elections follow strict democratic procedures. Secondly, in addition to
elections there have been several referendums in the UK in recent years [c]. There
have been two national referendums; one over our continued membership of the EU
and one to decide if we should change the way by which we elect Westminster MPs.
Other referendums have taken place to decide if devolution of power was to take
place in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Referendums are a link to the principle
of direct democracy and can be said to motivate the public on crucial issues and
stabilise the democratic process. In the UK they are now seen as essential if
government is to embark on major constitutional changes. Finally, the UK can claim
democratic status as the country adheres to the principles associated with liberal
democracy which enshrines the principle and practice of civil liberties. [d]. Civil
liberties are where the citizen is allowed particular rights or entitlements which the
state cannot take away. There are several of these but one, in particular, which
demonstrates clearly the UKs democratic status is freedom of association. This allows
the citizen to form groups [political and otherwise] and take collective views and
possibly actions. The ability to form pressure groups is a good example of this civil
liberty, but perhaps even clearer for the UKs democratic status is the ability to form
political parties and contest elections. Freedom of association allows new political
parties to emerge and contest elections. The political party Respect was formed in
opposition to the Iraq War and Sir James Goldsmith was instrumental in the formation
of the Referendum Party in the 1990s.
EXAMINERS COMMENT: This response is really well focused and has the question
clearly in target. There is a brief opening, which strictly speaking is not essential in a
10 mark question but it does set the scene [a]. Three points are well developed. The
use of examples in each not only enhances the knowledge and understanding [AO1]
but also serves as a platform for AO2. Elections are well explained and detailed [b].
Next the topic of referendums is well handled [c] and finally the introduction of civil
liberties and the link with liberal democracy is excellent [d]. In the time restrictions
little more could be expected and the answer earns full marks. [10/10]

EXPLAIN THREE FORMS OF DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION [10 MARKS]

There are numerous ways in which the public can participate in democracy such as by
voting in REFERENDUMS, signing E PETITIONS, joining a POLITICAL PARTY or a
PRESSURE GROUP, STANDING FOR ELECTION or most obviously VOTING in an
election.
Thus, in 2011 members of the public were able to freely participate in the democratic
process when they were given the opportunity whether to replace FPTP with the
ALTERNATIVE VOTE for elections to the Westminster Parliament. The Coalition
government has also furthered the PARTICIPATORY / CONSULTATIVE nature of our
democracy by introducing E PETITIONS, whereby if we feel strongly about a particular
issue we now have the opportunity to sign a petition that it be debated at
12

Westminster, In this way the public have already succeeded in having issues such as
the publication of documents relating to the HILLSBOROUGH DISASTER debated in
parliament, together with the issue whether there should be a referendum concerning
our CONTINUED MEMBERSHIP OF THE EU. Increasingly, too, the public can express
their political opinions by TWEETING and other forms of SOCIAL MEDIA. There were,
for example, a huge number of tweets following the death of Margaret Thatcher in
which the public expressed their opinions about her legacy.
Another way of getting involved in politics is to join a political party, such as Labour,
although, increasingly, the public have been more likely to manifest their political
beliefs by supporting pressure groups, such as MAKE POVERTY HISTORY or directly
trying to influence the government by joining the STUDENT PROTESTS or SIT-INS or
the OCCUPY LONDON MOVEMENT. The most obvious way though, still, of getting
involved in politics is to VOTE IN AN ELECTION, whether it be a Council, European or
General Election. In this way we make our representatives ACCOUNTABLE to us
thereby ensuring that our democracy is as fully based as possible on public
participation and consent.

NATURE OF REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY

Even though on occasions referendums have been held in the UK we are a
REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY because most decisions are still made by our ELECTED
REPRESENTATIVES in WESTMINSTER. The principle of REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY
is that there are so many complicated political decisions that need to be made that it
would be inconceivable for the public to vote upon all of them so we therefore need
PROFESSIONAL POLITICIANS to devote their careers to this task.
In practise this means that when we vote in a General Election we elect a
REPRESENTATIVE to make decisions ON OUR BEHALF. These ELECTED POLITICIANS
are then made ACCOUNTABLE TO THE VOTERS in a GENERAL ELECTION when we can
decide whether or not they have served us sufficiently well.

In 1945 the good citizens of Plymouth Devonport elected me to be their MP; and in
1951 the bastards threw me out. Michael Foot, 1913-2010

Very importantly, in a representative democracy, our representatives should listen to

their constituents but, in the final analysis, the way they vote is based on a
combination of each ones individual conscience and how their party whips instruct
them to vote. The principle that your REPRESENTATIVE IS NOT SIMPLY A DELEGATE
was put brilliantly well by EDMUND BURKE in 1774.

13

Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgement; and he betrays
instead of serving you if he sacrifices it to your opinion.
Edmund Burke, Speech to the Electors of Bristol, 1774

WHAT IS REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY? [5 MARKS]

Representative democracy is the most widely used form of democracy in which the
public vote for representatives to govern the country on their behalf, as citizens of the
United Kingdom did in the General Election of 2010. These representatives are chosen
in regular elections based on the principle of universal suffrage. Our representatives
are PROFESSIONAL POLITICIANS who are made ACCOUNTABLE to the public in a
General Election. In a representative democracy our representatives should listen to
the views of the electorate, but, as EDMUND BURKE pointed out, they do not slavishly
need to follow their opinions.

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY? [10

MARKS]
The main advantages of representative democracy are that government is carried out
by professional and responsible politicians who understand how government
operates, are more likely to make informed decisions than the broad mass of the
public and are made accountable for what they have done in regular elections.
Thus, in a representative democracy, professional politicians appreciate that
legislation is a complicated issue, rather than a simple knee-jerk reaction, and they
know how to work with civil servants in order to draft appropriate bills. Ministers will
often possess the sort of specialist knowledge necessary to make informed decisions;
for example the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, has a strong
background in Economics. Our representatives also relieve the public of the burden
of governing themselves. Not all of us want to be continually making decisions about
issues that we may not actually know very much about and their expertise saves us
from making hasty political judgements. Indeed, with over 40 million voters in the UK
it would be a recipe for disaster if we were to be expected to make political decisions
ourselves; unlike the inhabitants of Ancient Athens our democracy is too enormous,
and the issues are too complicated, for us to have the leisure and understanding to be
able to govern ourselves without representatives. If, for example, there is a
referendum on the UKs continued membership of the European Union in 2017 it is
quite likely that many voters could confuse the European Union with the European
Court of Human Rights.
Our representatives also know how to balance the conflicting claims of party loyalty,
constituent interests and pressure groups demands in order to reach an informed

14

decision. This is proved by the fact that the public on issues such as the death penalty,
denying welfare to convicted rioters and our membership of the European Union are
often more swayed by emotion [and the sensationalism of tabloid headlines] than
representative politicians. At the same time, representative democracy involves the
principle of accountability, unlike direct democracy. This therefore means that the
public, have the opportunity to give or withhold a mandate from their representatives
in an election, thereby ensuring the smooth transition of power from one government
to another.

EXPLAIN THREE CRITICISMS OF REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY [10

MARKS]
Representative democracy has been criticised because our representatives can be too
much influenced by both elitist pressure groups and the dictates of party whips
ensuring that the interests of constituents are not fully represented. This, in turn,
creates political apathy and a distrust of village Westminster, while others argue
that representative democracy does not provide all groups in society with equal
representation.
Critics of representative democracy, such as Russell Brand, argue that our
representatives are too disengaged from the public to represent our views effectively.
Thus, MPs too often support the party whip rather than prioritizing the concerns of
their constituents, while elitist pressure groups, such as the Conservative Friends of
Israel wield disproportionate influence over MPs. The cab for hire scandal even
showed how corrupt MPs have even demanded money for their services in defiance
of the principles of how a representative democracy should operate.
The vast majority of politicians are still male, middle class and middle aged and this
further suggests that, as it now operates, representative democracy does not
sufficiently represent contemporary multi-cultural Britain. The declining number of
young people who are prepared to vote further illustrates this problem, while one
could argue, too, that, as there are only three women in the Cabinet, parliament does
not provide fair gender representation either. The elitist nature of the cabinet with
the majority having been educated at independent schools and Oxbridge, while many
of Camerons key advisers have been likened to an Eton College cabal also, it has
been suggested, distances too many of our representatives from the concerns of
ordinary people.

HOW EFFECTIVELY DOES REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY OPERATE IN

THE UK? [25 MARKS]

15

Representative democracy in the UK has been criticised because it has been such as
giving too much power to a small number of elected MPs and un-elected Lords who
do not effectively understand and represent the concerns of ordinary people. On the
other hand, we should beware of being too critical of representative democracy since
the alternative of more direct democracy is equally problematic, while our
representatives are accountable to the electorate and have striven to modernize our
Constitution in some interesting ways.
Critics of the UKs system of representative democracy, such as Russell Brand, point
out that Village Westminster does not effectively represent multi-cultural Britain
today. Most MPs are male, middle class and middle-aged and women and ethnic
minorities are severely under-represented in parliament. Indeed, only three members
of the cabinet are women and David Cameron has been criticised for surrounding
himself with Old Etonian advisers who have little, if any, understanding of the
concerns of the vast majority of people in Britain today.

Mr Cameron has faced claims that he is running a chumocracy in Downing Street

after he promoted several Old Etonians to senior positions in his team.
Daily Telegraph, 16th June 2013

The heckling of ministers visiting the flood plains of Somerset provides an apt
illustration of the way in which politicians can be seen as losing touch with their
constituents.

When Owen Paterson arrived a chorus of shouts from angry placard waving
residents rose just above the roar of the water. They want government action and
they wanted to show the Environment Secretary just how mad they are. After
nearly a month underwater, many have lost money; all have lost patience.
BBC News, 27th January 2014

The House of Lords is even more elitist, still containing 92 hereditary peers, while,
since most other Lords have been appointed because of their political or non-political
accomplishments they are hardly representative of the vast majority of people in the
UK today. The way, too, in which MPs are elected, by First Past the Post, further makes
the system unfair since minority parties, such as the BNP, UKIP, Greens and Respect,
are denied the representation which they would receive through a more proportional
system of election.
Those who want change also argue that MPs too often obey their party whips, rather
than responding to the concerns of their constituents, while elitist pressure groups,
such as the Conservative Friends of Israel, wield disproportionate influence on our
representatives. Indeed, on some occasions, MPs have even accepted money to
16

represent the interests of powerful lobbying groups, which is completely against the
principles of representative democracy. The cab for hire scandal is a good example
of this. No wonder, opponents of representative democracy argue, so few of us are
voting; just 65.1% in 2010, compared to 77.1% in 1992.
However, we should beware of being too critical of the UKs current system of
representative democracy. Apart from outspoken radicals, like Russell Brand, there is
no dramatic consensus calling for change, while the numbers voting in 2010 was
actually greater than in the previous two elections. Admittedly MPs, especially in the
Conservative Party, do represent a very narrow social clique but this does not
necessarily mean that they cannot still represent the interests of their constituents. It
is a similar case, too, with the Judiciary but we are confident that they uphold the Rule
of Law. Chris White MP, for example, has firmly opposed HS2, in the interests of his
constituents, while Charlotte Leslie MP is lobbying hard for a new stadium for Bristol
Rovers in the interests of hers. MPs return to their constituencies every weekend to
meet with their constituents, while parliament may indeed be socially
unrepresentative but it has also passed a great deal of legislation protecting and
developing the rights of minority groups such as gender and sexual equality acts,
together with legislation allowing gay marriage.
At the same time, our representatives are professional politicians who understand the
importance of weighing up evidence and trying to govern in the interests of the whole
country. Everyone in the UK is represented by an MP, which ensures that all regions
are equally represented at Westminster, while MPs and Lords are less likely to be
swayed by emotion and have the time to study and debate proposed legislation.
Direct democracy can lead to populism which is why it has been argued that a
complicated issue such as the UKs membership of the EU is better determined by
politicians than by the public who could easily confuse the European Union with the
European Court of Human Rights.
In conclusion, representative democracy does have its faults.
Too many
parliamentarians can become so obsessed with what goes in at Westminster that they
lose touch with what really matters to their constituents, but, as it stands, it does
provide us all with equal representation and, if we wish, we can dismiss our MPs in a
General Election. Such a key element of accountability, absent from direct democracy,
is perhaps the key advantage of representative democracy which finally persuades me
that representative democracy does still operate effectively in the UK.

Less than one in three Conservative candidates set to fight target seats in 2015 is
female. Only 16% of Conservative MPs are women, against 31% for Labour and 12%

17

for the Liberal Democrats. And Britain fares badly in international comparisons ,
with 22% female MPs, way behind countries such as Sweden [46%] and the
Netherlands [41%]
The Observer, 26th January 2014

NATURE OF DIRECT DEMOCRACY

Direct democracy is best understood as being a form of CONSULTATIVE DEMOCRACY
in which the government directly consults with the public without the opinions of the
public being filtered through their representatives. The public, therefore, make
important decisions rather than leaving them to their representatives. The most
famous example of DIRECT DEMOCRACY IN ACTION can be found in 5th CENTURY
ATHENS when all free men discussed and then VOTED THEMSELVES on key issues
concerning their state. However, the Athenian state was small enough for them to be
able to make decisions themselves without needing representatives to do it for them.
The most obvious example of direct democracy is the REFERENDUM, whereby the
public vote on an issue which directly concerns themselves. A national example of this
could be the 2011 national referendum on whether or not to replace FPTP with AV for
Westminster Elections, while there was a local referendum in Bristol on whether or
not to increase the council tax so that more could be spent on education.
However, there are many other examples of direct democracy in which the
government seeks to CONSULT DIRECTLY WITH THE PUBLIC. E PETITIONS can be sent
to WESTMINSTER in order to force debate on issues that the public feel strongly
about. For example, 139,000 signatures were gathered by e petition leading to the
reopening of an enquiry into the HILLSBOROUGH DISASTER which exculpated the
victims and laid the blame on the police for the disaster. Other E Petitions that have
generated debate in the Commons involve whether there should be a referendum on
our continued membership of the EU, Romanian and Bulgarian immigration and the
proposed badger cull. As DAVID CAMERON said, when he introduced E Petitions, One
of the points of the new E Petition website is to make sure that if a certain level of
signatures is reached, the matter will be debated in the House, whether we like it or
not. This is an important way of empowering the people1.
Visit THIS IS ANFIELD.

There is, however, growing concern that the government may be manipulating E Petitions since a
number of controversial ones are now only being down-graded to debate in Westminster Hall where no
vote is taken. An e petition that rioters should lose their benefits has been treated in that way, as has an
E Petition criticising the government for detaining BABAR AHMAD, wanted in the US for questioning
on terrorist charges, for six years without trial. Indeed, his family have said, Other E Petitions which
have secured over 100,000 signatures have been debated in the main chamber of the House of Commons.
The decision to treat this E Petition differently is a slap in the face for over 140,000 people who demanded
that Babar be put on trial in the UK. A Westminster source has agreed that, We do give priority to
those topics that have widespread support from MPs.

18

The government has confirmed that cabinet papers relating to the Hillsborough
Disaster will be made public. An online petition saw over 100,000 signatures including
the likes of Kenny Dalglish, Michael Owen and Joey Barton. This triggered debate in
the House of Commons. A statement from the Cabinet Office subsequently read, The
government has now confirmed its commitment to full transparency about the
Hillsborough disaster through full public disclosure.
Whatever happens now, the e-petition has shown it can be a force for good and one
that we should all ensure remains probably somewhat modified to become more
effective a part of the governance of the UK.

Another example of CONSULTATIVE DEMOCRACY are PUBLIC CONSULTATIONS;

which have become more used by the government as a result of the Internet. In
TOWER HAMLETS, for example, the council has encouraged the residents to vote on
how money is allocated to public services, while residents affected by the proposed
HS2 ROUTE have been encouraged to raise their concerns with government.

During February and March 770 Tower Hamlets residents participated in making
decisions about how to spend over 2 million to improve local areas. At eight YOU
DECIDE! Events held across the borough, residents decided how to spend council and
NHS money to address local priorities in their local area. Staff from public health and
public engagement were involved in facilitating discussions with residents and
provided expert advice on health and well-being.
Our innovative approach to ENCOURAGING PARTICIPATION IN DECISION MAKING
has generated significant interest from the media and from central government. One
of the YOU DECIDE! events was filmed by Michael Portillo for the BBC2 series Power
to the People, looking at how to increase participation in British democracy.
Network, Tower Hamlets, May 2010

19

Giving as many people as possible the chance to give their feedback in ways that best
suit them is central to Northamptonshire County Councils Local Deal Consultation.
The Council will be kicking off a series of consultation activities over the next eight
weeks and is providing a whole host of different ways for people to be able to have
their say over the proposals. As well as the traditional ways of giving feedback via
petitions and mail the council is also organising a Question Time event in the New Year
as well as using its Local Deal web pages and its Facebook site and Twitter account to
get views. Councillor, Joan Kirkbride, said, We are looking to build on our very
successful You Choose Campaign last year which saw a huge leap of 251% in the
number of people taking part in our budget consultation. To do this we want to give
a wide variety of ways for people to have their say in ways that suit them most so I
hope as many people as possible take this opportunity to give their feedback.
Northamptonshire County Council, 15th December 2011

OPEN PRIMARIES, although rarely used, are another example of the public directly
participating in the democratic process. In 2009, for example, ALL the voters of
TOTNES were given the opportunity to choose who the Conservative candidate in the
next General Election was going to be. An OPEN PRIMARY was thus arranged for all
the candidates and the voters thus were able to decide who to have as their candidate.
Generally decisions such as this are taken by a small group of party members so this
innovation DIRECTLY opened up the choice to all members of the constituency.

The Totnes Open Primary achieved a high turn out [at 16,500, nearly a quarter of the
electorate voted and more than 100 times the numbers involved in a normal selection]
and a fresh local candidate [a GP new to politics] all provided an antidote to the recent
cynicism about MPs.
The Times, August 5th 2009

The public will be able to VETO COUNCIL TAX INCREASES ABOVE AN AGREED LIMIT
IN LOCAL REFERENDUMS, Communities Secretary, ERIC PICKLES has said. Mr Pickles
wants to give communities the final say over council tax bills by voting on them in
referendums. By 2012 he wants people to be able to reject bills if they exceed a ceiling
agreed annually by MPs. Mr Pickles told Radio 4 that he was IN FAVOUR OF LOCAL
PEOPLE MAKING LOCAL DECISIONS and that this was A RADICAL EXTENSION OF
DIRECT DEMOCRACY. BBC News, 30th July 2010

UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES HAVE REFERENDUMS BEEN CALLED IN

THE UNITED KINGDOM?
Referendums have been called as a result of POLITICAL EXPEDIENCY when the survival
of the government depends upon it calling a referendum in order to resolve a political
crisis. For example, in 1975 the Labour government of HAROLD WILSON called a
referendum on our membership of the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY since his

20

government was fractured over the issue and the only way of uniting it was to give the
public a vote on our membership of the EEC with the proviso to his colleagues that
they would have to accept the will of the majority. Similarly, in 2011 DAVID CAMERON
was forced to call a referendum on whether to replace FPTP with AV for
WESTMINSTER ELECTIONS since this was the price the Liberal Democrats had
demanded for joining the coalition. His decision to promise a referendum on the UKs
continued membership of the EU, if the Conservatives win the 2015 General Election,
might also be seen as another example of political expediency since it could be seen
as a way of pacifying the right wing of the Tory Party and winning votes back from
UKIP.
Referendums can be also called when the government is considering a major change
to the Constitution and believes that it will only have real LEGITIMACY if it has the sort
of POPULAR MANDATE that only a referendum can give. For example, TONY BLAIR
used referendums to give legitimacy to the far-reaching constitutional changes that
he was introducing for the UK, such as devolution in SCOTLAND and WALES, together
with POWER SHARING in NORTHERN IRELAND [the referendum on the GOOD FRIDAY
AGREEMENT in 1998]. More locally referendums have been called on whether a
number of towns and cities in the UK wish to have ELECTED MAYORS. Of course, too,
these reasons are not necessarily mutually exclusive; in both 1975 and 2011 there
were major constitutional issues that needed to be resolved and in both cases the
future of a government depended upon a referendum being called.

EXAMPLES OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES IN WHICH REFERENDUMS HAVE

BEEN HELD, 1975-2014
1975 REFERENDUM ON THE UKS The Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson,
CONTINUED MEMBERSHIP OF THE EEC
called a referendum over whether the UK
should continue as a member of the EEC since
his Labour government was so fractured on the
issue, with Michael Foot and Tony Benn
leading opposition to Europe and Roy Jenkins
and Shirley Williams in favour, that as long as
the issue was unresolved, his cabinet would
continue hopelessly divided.

1979 REFERENDUM ON SCOTTISH AND In 1979 the Labour Prime Minister, James
WELSH DEVOLUTION
Callaghan, guaranteed Scottish Nationalist
support for his minority government by
allowing the Scots a referendum on
devolution. 40% of the Scots had to approve,
but this % was not achieved so the Scots had
to wait until 1997 for another referendum on
devolution.
21

1997 ANOTHER REFERENDUM ON Scotland voted in favour of a Scots Parliament

SCOTTISH AND WELSH DEVOLUTION
with tax varying powers and Wales voted in
favour of a Welsh Assembly.

1998 GOOD FRIDAY PEACE AGREEMENT

Northern Ireland voted in favour of POWER

SHARING within the province.

1998 LONDON MAYOR

Londoners voted in favour of having an elected

mayor.

2001 COUNCIL TAX IN BRISTOL

Bristolians voted against an increase in council

tax to provide more money for education.

2002 PRESENT REFERENDUMS ON David Camerons plans to replace local

WHETHER TOWN AND CITIES SHOULD council cabinets with directly elected mayors
HAVE ELECTED MAYORS
have been rejected by voters in nine English
cities. Birmingham, Manchester, Newcastle,
Nottingham, Sheffield, Wakefield, Coventry,
Leeds and Bradford voted no to the idea but
Bristol was in favour and Doncaster voted to
keep its mayor. BBC News, 4th May 2002

2004 REFERENDUM ON A DEVOLVED The North East decisively voted against having
ASSEMBLY FOR THE NORTH EAST
a devolved assembly.

2005 INTRODUCTION OF EDINBURGH Edinburgh voted decisively against

CONGESTION CHARGE
congestion charge on the London model.

2011 NATIONAL REFERENDUM ON The Yes to AV campaign was decisively

WHETHER TO REPLACE FPTP WITH AV defeated; quite likely because many voters
FOR WESTMINSTER ELECTIONS
used the referendum as an excuse to punish
the Liberal Democrats for their role in the
coalition.

22

2014 SCOTTISH
INDEPENDENCE

REFERENDUM

ON

WHY HAS THE USE OF REFERENDUMS INCREASED SINCE 1997? [5]

When Tony Blair became Prime Minister in 1997 he introduced the greatest number
of constitutional changes since Asquith. These included devolution and power sharing
in Northern Ireland, but since they involved profound constitutional change it was felt
that they had to be endorsed by the public in referendums. This would give them real
legitimacy and entrench the decision. Scottish independence would require the same
sort of popular mandate which is why they will be a referendum on this in 2014.
Referendums have also increased because all parties want to encourage greater
popular participation in politics [Blairs stakeholder society and Camerons Big
Society] which is why there have been referendums on whether or not to have
elected mayors and a congestion charge in Edinburgh. However, the referendum over
AV in 2011 was different and was called because that was the price the Liberal
Democrats demanded for the coalition, while, David Camerons offer of a referendum
over our EU membership in 2017 is another example of political expediency as he
wants to head-off the UKIP challenge in the 2015 General Election.

ASSESS THE ARGUMENTS FOR A GREATER USE OF DIRECT DEMOCRACY

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. [25]
Both the Coalition and Labour have emphasised the importance of encouraging more
DIRECT DEMOCRACY in the United Kingdom as a way of REINVIGORATING
DEMOCRACY THROUGH INVOLVING THE PUBLIC MORE IN THE DEMOCRATIC
PROCESS. This would also improve the CONSULTATIVE nature of government,
ensuring that the government better understands the concerns of the public and could
be achieved through a greater use of REFERENDUMS, E PETITIONS, OPEN PRIMARIES,
and the greater use of CONSULTATIVE EXERCISES.
Referendums can therefore provide an effective way of ensuring that the public is able
to make its views known on important issues that directly effect it, rather than having
their views filtered through MPs who do not have, as EDMUND BURKE pointed out,
have to represent the views of their constituents2. Referendums thus provides real
LEGITIMACY to controversial issues; for example the decision to introduce devolution
for Wales and Scotland, as well as power sharing in Northern Ireland and elected
Mayors in a number of towns and cities in the UK have all been issues that directly
impact on the public and, in order to be legitimate require a clear MANDATE from the
public itself.

This can be shown by the way in which the High Speed Rail Link is widely supported by most
Conservative MPs in defiance of the wishes of their constituents.

23

At the same time, a greater use of direct democracy could be a highly effective way of
combating political apathy in the UK. There is a great deal of distaste for politicians
who are often perceived as putting party interests above those of their constituents,
while VILLAGE WESTMINSTER is often seen as having very different values and
interests to the rest of the country. More direct CONSULTATION with the public
would thus make us greater STAKE-HOLDERS in our democracy, thus contributing to
the sort of BIG SOCIETY in which the public feel a vested interest. This would, in
turn, create a more vibrant society in which more people feel a stake in making it
successful. This would, therefore, combat the sort of ALIENATION from politics which
has undermined the fabric of society as illustrated by the 2011 LONDON RIOTS.
Linked to this would be the greater use of OPEN PRIMARIES which would give all
constituents the opportunity to have a real say in who should be the candidate to fight
a constituency, thus making politicians a great deal MORE ACCOUNTABLE to the
public and, in the process, reducing that sense of alienation from politics that too
many voters have today.
In this way, a greater use of E PETITIONS, whereby if 100,000 signatures can be found
for a petition, that question needs to be debated at Westminster [as has been the case
with demands for a full disclosure of documents relating to the Hillsborough disaster,
fuel pricing and whether there should be a referendum on our continued membership
of the EU] can be instrumental in more fully involving the public in the democratic
process. This can be true, too, at a local level. The BIG SOCIETY is aimed at building
up STRONGER COMMUNITIES and so if the public can be more fully involved at
decision making at a local level then they will feel a greater sense of commitment to
the success of their community. Therefore, CONSULTATIVE EXERCISES whereby the
public is involved in the debate over, for example, the ALLOCATION OF FUNDING in
TOWER HAMLETS, whether the COUNCIL TAX should be increased over a certain level
[as ERIC PICKLES is introducing in the LOCAL COMMUNITIES BILL] or whether local
residents want a CONGESTION CHARGE introduced into EDINBURGH] can all be used
to EMPOWER CITIZENS, while ensuring that the government has a better appreciation
of public sentiment and therefore avoids policies that fly directly in the face of public
opinion. After all, if there had been greater consultation with the public, the Thatcher
government might well not have introduced the disastrous POLL TAX in 1990. Giving
the public a greater say in decision making also has an important EDUCATIVE ROLE
since if the public are asked for their opinions more often a more ACTIVE CITIZENSHIP
is thus created. As SIR KEITH JOSEPH once put it, GIVE PEOPLE RESPONSIBILITY AND
YOU WILL MAKE THEM RESPONSIBLE.
However, we should not ignore the very real advantages of REPRESENTATIVE
DEMOCRACY. Professional politicians, in spite of all the criticism of them, understand
the way in which political decisions are made and their decisions are often more
MEASURED than those of the public. For example, there is the danger with a greater
use of direct democracy that the public will make decisions purely in terms of their
IMMEDIATE SELF INTEREST, without fully appreciating the RAMIFICATIONS of what
they have voted for. For example, a number of E PETITIONS, such as those demanding
a REFERENDUM ON OUR MEMBERSHIP OF THE EU or the REMOVAL OF BENEFITS

24

FROM RIOTERS may well be too POPULIST to be politically viable and it is quite likely
that those who signed these petition were not fully aware of the dramatic implications
that both measures would have if they were passed. It is possibly concerning, too, that
another e petition to be debated in 2012 concerns further limits on IMMIGRATION.
Direct democracy can, therefore, encourage a KNEE-JERK REACTION from the public,
especially if it is fuelled by the tabloid press. Decision-making thus requires a balanced
appreciation of all the significance of all the various issues and the public may well lack
the EDUCATION to fully appreciate what they are voting for.
Indeed, those occasions when we have had REFERENDUMS show the dangers of direct
democracy. For example, in 1975 the YES TO EUROPE campaign won so successfully
because it spent significantly more than the No Campaign and was dramatically better
organised, while it has been suggested that, in 2011, the YES TO AV campaign lost
so heavily because too many voters saw the referendum as less about AV than as an
excuse to punish NICK CLEGG and the LIBERAL DEMOCRATS for their role in the
coalition. The issues being debated were also so obscure that there was some doubt
as to whether the public really understood what they were being asked to vote on.
There is concern, too, that if, indeed, there is a referendum on the UKs continued
membership of the EU in 2017 then large numbers of voters may well confuse the
European Union with European Court of Human Rights and, angry about cases such as
ABU QATADA [which has nothing to do with the EU] could vote to leave the EU for the
wrong reasons. Given that the press regularly confuse the EU with the Human Rights
Act this would very likely happen and suggests that the public may not always be
politically educated and astute enough to be trusted on important issues such as this.
Governments, too, can use referendums for their own advantage, rather than
necessarily for the good of the public. HAROLD WILSON certainly did this in 1975 when
he called a referendum over British membership of the EEC and Eric Pickles proposal
that the public should be allowed a direct say over whether their council tax should
be increased may well be politically motivated; after all, based on the experience of
Bristol where voters decided not to vote for a higher council tax to fund more money
for education, voters are likely not to vote for an increase which is just what the
budget-cutting Tories want. As CLEMENT ATTLEE once put it, referendums are
actually, A DEVICE FOR DEMAGOGUES AND DICTATORS.
There is a danger, too, that with direct democracy that the public becomes OVERBURDENED with decision making and actually becomes increasingly indifferent to the
issues; as a result of this decisions affecting everyone are made only by those who are
prepared to vote and important decisions end up being made by a very small number
of voters. This could be termed a TYRANNY OF THE POLITICALLY ACTIVE and is
neatly illustrated by the fact that the 2 MILLION BUDGET of TOWER HAMLETS ended
up being allocated by the 770 residents who turned up to vote. Since so few often
vote in referendums and consultative exercises it could be argued that the results
actually LACK DEMOCRATIC LEGITIMACY.

25

Bristol has voted in favour of a directly-elected mayor on a turn-out of just 24%;

Manchester and Nottingham rejected the introduction of an elected major on a
turn-out of only 24% as well. The decision to abolish Hartlepools mayor was made
on a turn-out of just 18%.
BBC News, 4th May 2012

Finally there is no element of ACCOUNTABILITY with direct democracy. At least with

representative democracy if we do not like what the government has done we can
vote them out of power at the next Election. Too much direct democracy therefore
gives too much influence to the public and could lead to an increasingly UNSTABLE
and ANARCHIC government in which there is little continuity of decision-making and
the public vote for policies of INSTANT GRATIFICATION without fully exploring the
implications of what they are voting for. This does not, of course, ignore the fact that,
as we have seen, CONSULTATIVE DEMOCRACY has considerable merits. However, as
the government has appreciated by relegating some E Petition debates to
Westminster Hall rather than the Commons itself what the public wish to discuss may
not always be entirely in the public interest.

TO WHAT EXTENT IS UK DEMOCRACY SUFFERING FROM A

PARTICIPATORY CRISIS?
In recent years there has been growing concern that British democracy is now
suffering from a PARTICIPATORY CRISIS with dramatically FALLING LEVELS OF
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION. This is, of course, especially concerning since for
democracy to flourish it needs an ACTIVE CITIZENRY eager to be involved in the
democratic process. RUSSELL BRANDS interview with JEREMY PAXMAN has
particularly highlighted just how unpopular traditional Westminster politics is
amongst young people.

Comedian Russell Brand is undermining democracy by encouraging young people

not to vote, David Blunkett has said. Mr Brand has said there is no point in voting
because politicians are corrupt and untrustworthy. Mr Blunkett said his views were
a disgrace and he attacked writer Will Self for expressing similar opinions. Mr Self
who has said that people who join political parties are donkeys said young
people had good reasons not to vote and it was not just apathy. Russell Brand
sparked controversy last year when he said he did not vote and never would. He
told the BBCs Newsnight, Im angry, because for me its real. This is what I come

26

from . . . there is going to be a revolution. Dont bother voting. Stop voting stop
pretending, wake up, be in reality now. Why vote? We know its not going to make
any difference.
Mr Blunkett hit back that, older people, wealthier people, better educated people,
engaged people are most likely to turn out on polling day. And who vote the east?
Yong people, poor people, badly educated people. And who do politicians of all
parties fear alienating the most? Who do they ignore the most? Who, when it
comes down to further austerity, are in the firing line? And paradoxically the more
those who are not engaged are ignored, targeted under the austerity programme
and dismissed, the more alienated and disillusioned they become.
BBC News, 22nd January 2014

PARTY MEMBERSHIP is, for example, declining. In 1980 4.12% of the public were
members of political parties; by 2006 this had fallen to just 1.28%. Indeed, the RSPB
now has a larger membership than all the UKs political parties combined. The low
amount of VOTER REGISTRATION is especially concerning amongst young people, too.
For example, twice as many 18 year olds now use Facebook than are registered to
vote; thus only 55% of 17 / 18 year olds are on the electoral register; amongst those
over 65 it is 94%!
VOTER TURN-OUT has also dramatically declined; in 1992 77.7% voted; but by 2001
this had gone down to 59.4% and by 2005 had only just risen to 61.3%. In 2010 it rose
again to 65% but this is still far removed from what it had been in 1992. Especially
worrying is the fact that only 34% of 18-24 year olds bothered to vote in the 2010
General Election.

Labour has held onto its seat in the Wythenstawe and Sale East by-election with a
comfortable majority, while UKIP beat the Tories into third place. The turn-out was
just 28%
BBC News, 14th February 2014

There are many reasons for this decline in enthusiasm for traditional party politics;
growing CONSENSUS between the parties has discouraged people from bothering to
vote since the solutions they offer in AFGHANISTAN and in terms of ECONOMIC
RECOVERY, EDUCATION, IMMIGRATION and SOCIAL WELFARE as so close that they
fail to convince voters that when they vote they are voting for real change,
The EXPENSES SCANDAL uncovered by the Daily Telegraph in 2009 have significantly
undermined our faith in the probity of politicians which had already been tarnished
by a series of scandals involving ministers in both Conservative and Labour
governments. Financial scandals such as GEOFF HOON, PATRICIA HEWITT and

27

STEPHEN BYERS, offering their services to political LOBBYING FIRMS for cash3 have
further tarnished the reputation of MPs, as has the more resignation of the former
Defence Secretary, LIAM FOX, for his own links [through his friend ADAM WERITTY]
to political lobbying firms
At the same time accusations that the government MISLED the public over its
justification for going to war against IRAQ in 2003 have never been effectively refuted
further increasing contempt for politicians. The COALITION has also further
undermined our faith in politicians, especially amongst young people who were
statistically most likely to have voted Liberal Democrat in the 2010 General Election.
Now they feel that NICK CLEGG has betrayed his election promises by supporting an
increase in TOP UP FEES and, consequently, their faith in politicians to tell the truth
has been seriously eroded.

Joshua Forstenzer, President of the Sheffield University Students Union said, If we

have the power of recall, we should have the power to remove MPS on democratic
grounds. What we are trying to say is that in a democracy, when someone makes a
pledge, you expect them to honour and fulfil that pledge. If they flip-flop or do a U
Turn on these issues, they are betraying the electorate. It is a fundamental democratic
principle that we should be able to remove them.
BBC News, 30th November 2010

However, we should not exaggerate the PARTICIPATORY CRISIS! It could be argued

that the public are simply abandoning traditional outlets for their political beliefs and
making their political views known in other ways.
For example, the number and size of CAUSE PRESSURE GROUPS has greatly increased
in recent years as the public becomes POLITICALLY DEALIGNED from its support for
specific political parties and pursues its own specific interests through relevant
Pressure Groups. Such POLITICAL CONSUMERISM, whereby we choose to support a
pressure group that we fully support (rather than a political party that we might not
fully agree with) might therefore be seen, not so much as evidence for political apathy
as evidence for a new POLITICAL SOPHISTICATION. In other words is our democracy
now NO LONGER PARTY-LED but ISSUE-LED? This might even be seen as a democratic
advance since it removes the tyranny of the party machine over the electorate!
Evidence for this can be found in 2003 when ONE MILLION PEOPLE marched through
LONDON against the IRAQ WAR (the biggest ever demonstration in Londons history),
while in 2004 300,000 joined the COUNTRYSIDE ALLIANCE march in London. MAKE
POVERTY HISTORYS LIVE EIGHT CONCERTS were similarly massively influential, while
the popularity of the LIVE EARTH CONCERTS also put a great deal of pressure on the
government to tackle the issue of CLIMATE CHANGE. The success of such high profile
campaigns in POLITICAL AGENDA SETTING has further encouraged support for
3

Stephen Byers even referred to himself as being like a cab for hire.

28

pressure groups and, most recently, the OCCUPY LONDON movement has
highlighted huge popular concern about the implications of GLOBALISATION.

NEW YEARS EVE WEEKEND AT OCCUPY LONDON MAKE IT COUNT.

6-7PM: Charles Dickens A Christmas Carol on the steps of St Pauls Cathedral. As
Dickens bicentennial approaches, Occupy London will stage a public reading of A
Christmas Carol at St Pauls Cathedral, especially adapted for Occupy London by
Timberlake Wertenbaker and directed by Josh Appignanesi.
8-11.30PM: Trials and Tribulations! Cabaret at Occupy Justice, former Old Street
Magistrates Court, Shoreditch. After 5 weeks of inspirational Friday night cabaret
shows at the Bank of Ideas, this weeks performance moves to the recently occupied
Old Street Magistrates Court in Shoreditch to support the Occupy Justice campaign
about to unfold on the site.
Occupy London Website

The COMMUNICATIONS REVOLUTION has also made it much easier for the public to
have a greater influence over political decision making and large numbers of us have
taken the opportunity to sign ON-LINE PETITIONS requiring that on issues as diverse
as our membership of the EU, fuel pricing, whether convicted rioters should lose their
benefits and the release of documents relating to the Hillsborough Disaster,
parliament should be required to debate the issue. Politicians have also re-engaged
with the public through TWEETING; Ed Miliband has 290,000 followers, George
Galloway 171,000 and Nigel Farage 105,000.

Margaret Thatchers death was greeted by a torrent on Twitter and elsewhere.

Within minutes, news of her death was trending under at least three hashtags. So
many people took to comments on online newspaper articles that the Daily
Telegraph closed its comments section on the death of Thatcher because it was so
full of abuse.
BBC News, 9th April 2013

At the same, too, the INCREASE IN TOP UP AND TUITION FEES and PROPOSED
GOVERNMENT CUTS have led to MASSIVE PROTESTS, especially by students, against

29

the government which hardly suggests that the public is apathetic about key issues
such as these. Over 200 people were in custody today after the trouble flared
following a separate rally where hundreds of thousands protested against the
Governments spending cuts. The violence began as Ed Miliband addressed a TUC rally
of at least 250,000 peaceful protestors in Hyde Park who had marched to Westminster
to demonstrate against government spending cuts. [Daily Telegraph, 26th March
2011]

Police have dispersed the final student demonstrators in central London after a day of
protests against higher tuition fees and university cuts. There have also been
occupations in at least 12 universities, including Oxford Universitys Bodleian Library.
School pupils walked out of lessons to join university and college students on local
protest marches across the UK.
BBC 24th November 2010

It is also true that the FASTER GROWING POLITICAL PARTIES are those that do not
accept the POLITICAL CONSENSUS and seek to change it. The only political party with
an increasing membership is, significantly, therefore the BNP since its radical policies
self-consciously refute the consensus of the main political parties which many feel has
not succeeded in creating a better society. In the 2001 General Election it achieved
0.2% of the popular vote with 47,129 votes. Ominously, and interestingly, in the 2010
General Election it gained 1.9% of the popular vote with 563,743 votes.

UKIP says a record year of growth has taken its membership above 30,000 for the
first time. Its leader, Nigel Farage, said UKIP was appealing to people who had never
joined a party before, many of whom had given up on politics altogether. The
membership of the Conservative Party has though halved since David Cameron
became party leader.
Although political party membership fluctuates in line with political fortunes, recent
decades have seen a general decline in people willing to join parties, with more
people preferring to get involved with individual issues and campaigns.
BBC News, 31st December 2013

30

Thus, we need to be careful of arguing that political apathy has increased in the UK. It
would be truer to say that the public has become increasingly disaffected with
TRADITIONAL REPRESENTATIVE PARTY POLITICS, but that it is VENTING its political
concerns in numerous other ways; on many occasions using the new TOOLS OF
SOCIAL NETWORKING to disperse new political ideas. As TONY BENN has said it may
be more a case of the government being apathetic and not the public! [Malvern,
September 30th 2008].

IN WHAT WAYS HAS DEMOCRACY IN THE UK BEEN CRITICISED?

Even though we pride ourselves on being a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY as well as having
spread democratic values throughout much of the world, British democracy is severely
limited and there is a worrying amount of ALIENATION from traditional party politics.
For example, only 65.1% of the public voted in the 2010 General Election.
The HOUSE OF LORDS has been criticised for LACKING DEMOCRATIC LEGITIMACY
since the PARTY LEADERS appoint the MAJORITY of PEERS in the HOUSE OF LORDS
so that, almost uniquely in the world, one of our LEGISLATIVE CHAMBERS is
UNELECTED4. It also still contains 92 HEREDITARY PEERS which is democratically
unjustifiable. As long as the HOUSE OF LORDS is thus un-elected it could be argued
that our democracy is seriously undermined.
The HOUSE OF COMMONS is elected by means of FIRST PAST THE POST and the
system is certainly DISCRIMINATORY ensuring that SOME VOTES DO COUNT MORE
THAN OTHERS. What matters therefore is not so much how many people vote as
WHERE they vote, since in many parts of the country the victorious party has an
INBUILT MAJORITY so those who vote for other parties will never achieve the result
they want. Voters in SWING / MARGINAL SEATS with SMALL MAJORITIES are
therefore much more important than those who live in constituencies with MASSIVE
MAJORITIES. PROFESSOR DAVID DENVER has even estimated that as many as 80% of
votes cast in General Elections dont actually matter!
As a result of FPTP, MINORITY PARTIES are also significantly DISADVANTAGED and
the VICTORY MARGIN of the WINNING PARTY is often UNFAIRLY EXAGGERATED. For
example in 2005 the LIBERAL DEMOCRATS won 22% of the vote and yet because their
support was generally EVENLY SPREAD over the country and they had few rock solid
areas of support they only gained 9.6% of the share of the seats in the House of
Commons. Other minority parties like the GREENS, BNP and UKIP were similarly
disadvantaged while, because of their solid areas of support in Wales, Northern
England and Scotland Labour gained 55.1% of the seats having only won 35.2% of the
vote! The size of constituencies is also hardly fair with the ISLE OF WIGHT having an
electorate of 108,253 which is five times bigger than the smallest constituency, the
4

This is in defiance of the European Convention on Human Rights which the UK has signed up to in
the Human Rights Act [2000]

31

WESTERN ISLES, with only 22,141; thus it is not true to say that we are all equally well
represented in parliament. Remarkably, as a result of FPTP, political parties can win
fewer votes but still form a government because they gain more MPs (WINSTON
CHURCHILL, 1951; HAROLD WILSON, FEBRUARY 1974)

2010 GENERAL ELECTION

This has further highlighted the inherent problems with FPTP. After all, in 2010
Labour, even though it managed to achieve only 29% of the popular vote still managed
to gain 258 MPS compared to John Major who in 1997 achieved 31% of the popular
vote and yet this only gave him 165 MPs. At the same time the Conservatives 36% of
the popular vote was not, in 2010, enough to enable them to form a majority
administration, whereas in 2005, with only 35.2% of the popular vote, Labour had a
66 seat majority over all other parties. It is interesting to note too that in 2005 the
Liberal Democrats achieved 22% of the vote giving them just 9.6% of the seats in the
House of Commons. In 2010 they actually gained 23% of the vote but their share of
the seats in parliament actually decreased to just 9%.

ELITIST PRESSURE GROUPS wield too much UNACCOUNTABLE / ILLEGITIMATE

influence in UK politics. For example, elitist pressure groups such as the INSTITUTE
OF DIRECTORS, the CONSERVATIVE FRIENDS OF ISRAEL and the TAXPAYERS
ALLIANCE have a huge amount of influence on the policies of the current government
[more so than the voters or a Conservative back-bench MP], while LOBBYING FIRMS,
such as LUTHER PENDRAGON, are similarly UNACCOUNTABLE and yet wield huge
influence over decision making.
Since 1997 Labour tried hard to make Britain MORE DEMOCRATIC but it might actually
be argued that their reforms have actually made the UK LESS DEMOCRATIC!
DEVOLUTION has, for example, been given to some parts of the UK, but not to others
raising the still unresolved WEST LOTHIAN QUESTION whereby SCOTTISH MPs at
WESTMINSTER have disproportionate influence since they can still vote on English
affairs, whereas English MPs at Westminster can no longer vote upon domestic policy
in Scotland since that is now decided by the Scottish Parliament. It could therefore be
argued that devolution has created UNEQUAL DEMOCRACY in the UK with Scots being
best off (MP and MSP), the Welsh and Northern Irish next (MP and Assembly member)
and the English worst off (just an MP).
The contribution to democracy of REFERENDUMS can also be questioned since the
government can often call these on the basis, less of what the public want, than on
POLITICAL EXPEDIENCY. For example, in 2011, the referendum was called on AV not
because there was any public clamour for one; it was simply the price that the Liberal
Democrats demanded if they were to join the coalition. E PETITIONS, if they achieve
100,000 signatures, only ensure that an issue is debated at Westminster indeed, in
2014, a number of controversial issues will not even make it to the Commons and will

32

simply be discussed in Westminster Hall. A more democratic solution [and one which
there is very little likelihood of any government introducing] would be a million
signatures automatically precipitating a referendum on that issue.
It has also been argued that further EUROPEAN INTEGRATION has undermined British
democracy since increasing numbers of decisions are now being taken in BRUSSELS by
those whom the British public have not elected. We do certainly elect MEPs to the
European Parliament, but they have only very limited powers to legislate; instead
legislation is introduced by UNELECTED COMMISSIONERS, while it is increasingly
voted upon in the COUNCIL OF MINISTERS by QUALIFIED MAJORITY VOTING (QMV)
so that the UK will have to accept decisions even if we vote against them. Both the
EUROPEAN PRESIDENT and the HIGH COMMISSIONERS FOR FOREIGN AFFAIRS have
not been elected by the peoples of Europe. Therefore, it could be argued, as TONY
BENN has, that further European integration is taking power away from the voting
public and CENTRALISING it in power structures which are not ACCOUNTABLE to the
British public and which we can therefore not remove.

Britain has now become, in European terms, a big local authority, and this is one of
the factors which have led to a certain cynicism about us as a self-governing
democracy, and raises doubts about the value of voting. Because if we are a
democracy the people must be sovereign and the government must be its servant and
not its master.
Tony Benn Letters to my Grandchildren, 2009

To be a liberal democracy our CIVIL LIBERTIES also need to be protected and this is
certainly not the case in the UK since we are one of only three countries in the world
which does not have a CODIFIED CONSTITUTION ENTRENCHING OUR CIVIL LIBERTIES.
This means that PARLIAMENT may legally restrict our CIVIL LIBERTIES by a simple act
of parliament. This has, of course, happened a great deal since 9/11 and 7/7. For
example, since 2005 the SERIOUS ORGANIZED CRIME AND POLICE ACT has restricted
unauthorized protests within 1KM of WESTMINSTER, while the government is still
using CONTROL ORDERS to monitor terrorist suspects even though they have not
been legally convicted of any crime. Some 4000 police officers were on duty, as
student protestors marched peacefully in protest against higher tuition fees and
privatisation in universities. BBC correspondent, Mike Sergeant, was with the
protestors as they neared St Pauls and the City. The march is moving slowly, sedately
even. It is quite extraordinary the way its being policed, he said. Its the most tightly
controlled march through London that I have ever seen. Very little opportunity for
protestors to break away an enormous contrast to last year As a warning against
any outbreaks of violence, a spokesman for the Metropolitan Police had said that one
of the tactics available was the authority to deploy baton rounds [plastic bullets] in
extreme circumstances. As police and news helicopters hovered overhead, thousands
of protestors set off from Malet Street in Londons university district. James Dodge,
22, from Ashford, Kent said, I like to exercise my free right to protest, even when it is
being curtailed by the Metropolitan Police. [BBC News 9th November 2011]

33

Green Party London Assembly member, Jenny Jones, has said that the tactic of kettling
amounted to FALSE IMPRISONMENT after hundreds of students were boxed into
Trafalgar Square by police. She said, Its time kettling was publicly recognised for
what it is: False Imprisonment. Its time the government made kettling illegal.
The Morning Star, 1st December 2010

The government has signed up to the EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS

but the significance of this to the protection of our civil liberties can be exaggerated
since it was enacted by an Act of Parliament and, because of the doctrine of
parliamentary sovereignty, a fresh act could either suspend or repeal it and both
DAVID CAMERON and the HOME SECRETARY, THERESA MAY, have pledged
themselves to the REPEAL of the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT.

ASSESS THE WAYS IN WHICH THE UNITED KINGDOM COULD BE MADE

MORE DEMOCRATIC
As we have seen fewer of us are joining political parties and in 2010 only 65% of us
bothered to vote in the General Election. Astonishingly, just 55% of 17/18 year olds
are on the electoral register, while in 2010 only 34% of 18-24 year olds voted in the
2010 General Election.
This is due, to a great extent, to the fact that we no longer feel that voting changes
anything and we do not think that our elected politicians really make a difference. The
key therefore, if political participation and political activism are to be enhanced is to
RECONNECT PEOPLE WITH POLITICS BY MAKING THEM REALLY BELIEVE THAT THEY
CAN HAVE AN INFLUENCE ON POLITICAL DECISION MAKING.

The public have lost confidence in parliament and when that happens democracy is
in real trouble, because the secondary function of a democracy is to provide a
justification for obedience of the law on the grounds that the people make the laws.
If that justification no longer obtains, power will move back to the streets. So great is
the scepticism and cynicism about parliament today that popular contempt of the kind
which led to cheering crowds when the Houses of Parliament caught fire in 1834, may
well return.
Tony Benn, Letters to my Grandchildren, 2009

In order to make the UK more democratic a number of reforms could be implemented.

They seem to fall into two categories; those that would MODERNISE OUR
ANTIQUATED INSTITUTIONS OF GOVERNANCE [for example the reform of

34

Westminster Elections, the democratisation of the Lords and a codified constitution

to protect our civil liberties]. These are covered in points 1-8 below.
There are then those that would EMPOWER THE PUBLIC by encouraging GREATER
DIRECT DEMOCRACY and making our representatives MORE ACCOUNTABLE to the
public. [9-14]

EXAM HINT
If you attempt an essay on how best to ENHANCE DEMOCRACY in the UK you should
be able to discuss the following arguments. Crucially, though, you must not simply list
them in order to achieve a top grade you must EVALUATE them. An A Grade essay
would therefore explain that some reforms are likely to achieve much more than other
reforms indeed, be prepared to argue that some potential reforms might achieve
very little, while explaining why you think that other reforms really would dramatically
enhance democracy in the UK. In short, there is no question that we need to reengage the public with politics; the interesting question is how best to do this!

1. REFORM OF FPTP AT WESTMINSTER

FPTP does not provide a fair relationship between the numbers of votes cast for a
party and the number of representatives elected. It exaggerates the importance of
MARGINAL CONSTITUENCIES and penalises minority parties whose support is SO
EVENLY SPREAD throughout the UK that they only come first rarely in constituencies.
The LIBERAL DEMOCRATS, for example, in 2005 only 22% of the vote but only gained
9.6% of the seats, while LABOUR with just 35.2% of the vote gained a hefty 55.1% of
the seats. FPTP also ensured that even though the CONSERVATIVES won 36.1% of the
vote in 2010 [more than Labour did in 2005] they still failed to achieve an overall
majority and consequently could only form a COALITION with the LIBERAL
DEMOCRATS.
It has thus been suggested that a form of PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION could be
used to remove the imbalance whereby marginal constituencies are considerably
more important than safe seats, while ensuring that parties gain a fairer share of seats
in parliament more accurately based upon the number of votes they receive
However, we do need to beware of the implications of Proportional Representation.
It could be argued that PR can undermine the key principle of liberal democracy which
is ONE PERSON / ONE VOTE, while it would remove the close connection between a
constituency and its MP. Proportional Representation would be likely, too, to lead to
the establishment of MORE COALITION GOVERNMENTS based on the sorts of
compromises that ensure that MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS CANNOT BE PUT INTO
PRACTISE making it much more difficult for us to hold governments ACCOUNTABLE.
At least FPTP generally provides us with a strong government which can then put into

35

practise all its manifesto commitments and then be held accountable for them. The
current situation, whereby the Liberal Democrats have been forced to support the
increase in TOP UP and TUITION FEES even though this was explicitly campaigned
against by them would become a more likely state of affairs under AV. In short, our
experience of the coalition so far is that a lot of Liberal Democrat voters feel betrayed
that their partys manifesto commitments have been abandoned. This state of affairs
[which some have argued is, in itself, undemocratic, would likely become the normal
state of affairs under a form of proportional representation.

2. ELECTED HOUSE OF LORDS

The liberal Democrats and Labour are committed to a WHOLY OR MAINLY ELECTED
Lords using PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION. This would certainly make the UK
significantly more democratic by enabling us to VOTE FOR ALL OUR LEGISLATORS (a
basic right enshrined in the EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS), while it
would remove a great deal of POLITICAL PATRONAGE POWER from party political
leaders which is always open to abuse.
However, even this reform is problematic since it could either lead to POLITICAL
GRIDLOCK if two RIVAL PARTIES dominated each chamber while, even worse, if the
SAME PARTY dominated both chambers it would dramatically increase its political
influence. At best too APPOINTED LORDS have represented some of our most notable
thinkers and politicians [LORDS WINSTON, SUGAR and HURD] making the Lords a
HIGHLY RESPECTED REVISING CHAMBER; elections would replace this with yet more
professional politicians who are not always the brightest and the best.

If you decide in favour of an elected Lords do stress to the examiner that this would
need to be elected using PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION since it would have to
REPRESENT DIFFERENT ISSUERS TO THOSE BEING REPRESENTED IN THE COMMONS
[which will be elected either by AV or FPTP]. If the same system of voting was used
for both Houses then the Lords might simply become a mirror image of the Commons.

3. CODIFIED CONSTITUTION
One of the basic principles of a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY is that GOVERNMENT IS
LIMITED and our CIVIL LIBERTIES ARE PROTECTED; however because of
PARLIAMENTARY SOVEREIGNTY this is not the case and, as we have seen under
Labour, parliament can pass laws that dramatically undermine our civil liberties such
as the EXTENSION OF POLICE POWERS OF DETENTION and the RESTRICTION OF
FREEDOM OF ASSEMBLY in the SERIOUS ORGANIZED CRIME AND POLICE ACT, as well
as recent restrictions of trial by jury and changes concerning the rule of double
36

jeopardy. It has therefore been suggested that a CODIFIED CONSTITUTION would

safeguard our civil liberties in a way that they are not now.
However, an ENTRENCHED CODIFIED CONSTITUTION would also have severe
practical difficulties since it would place the DEAD HAND OF PAST DECISION MAKERS
on what parliament can and cannot do (and since Parliament represents the people
that is hardly democratic), while in an emergency such as the aftermath of 9/11 a
government should be able to do what is necessary to protect the life of the nation.
At the same time, NICK CLEGG has, for example, reversed many of Labours most
controversial infringements of our civil liberties such as proposals for a NATIONAL
DATA BANK and IDENTITY CARDS. This suggests that we may not actually need a
codified constitution to protect our civil liberties and may simply need to rely upon a
change of government!

4. REDUCTION IN PREROGATIVE POWER OF THE PRIME MINISTER

Even though we are a liberal democracy the Prime Minister still wields a number of
ROYAL PREROGATIVE RIGHTS on behalf of the monarch. One way in which DAVID
CAMERON has already helped to enhance democracy has been his decision to GIVE
UP THE PRIME MINISTERS RIGHT TO CALL THE GENERAL ELECTION AT A DATE OF
HIS OWN CHOOSING. A further significant way in which the UK could be made more
democratic would involve the Prime Minister relinquishing his right to be consulted
on senior appointments to the judiciary, while an elected Lords would dramatically
reduce the huge PATRONAGE POWERS of the Prime Minister.

5. EQUALISATION OF THE SIZE OF CONSTITUENCIES / WEST LOTHIAN

ISSUE
Even though the debate over whether or not to reform elections to Westminster has
gained a very great deal of publicity there are other, much less high profile ways, in
which Westminster could quickly be made more democratic. It is, for example hardly
democratic that some constituencies are significantly bigger than others [compare the
ISLE OF WIGHT to the WESTERN ISLES], while the WEST LOTHIAN ISSUE still needs to
be resolved, whereby Scottish MPs vote on English domestic issues, but English MPs
may no longer vote on Scottish domestic issues.

6. COMPULSORY VOTING / POSTAL VOTING / DIGITAL DEMOCRACY

Compulsory Voting does not actually solve the problem of why so many of us are
deciding not to vote. Indeed, it could be argued that it ignores the root cause of the
problem by further undermining one of the great principles of liberal democracy
which is that the states power over the individual should be, as much as possible,

37

limited. VOTING ON SUNDAYS is also probably IRRELEVANT [if you cannot be

bothered to vote on Thursday will you vote on Sunday?], while POSTAL VOTING
certainly makes voting easier but it is liable to MASSIVE ABUSES since it undermines
the principle of the SECRET BALLOT [1872]. ELECTRONIC VOTING [E VOTING] is also
liable to mistakes, confusion and fraud see the HANGING CHADS scandal in
FLORIDA during 2000 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION, while there is the danger that DIGITAL
DEMOCRACY can TRIVIALISE the important civic responsibility of voting.

7. LOWERING THE VOTING AGE TO 16

The LIBERAL DEMOCRATS support LOWERING THE VOTING AGE to 16 as a way of
encouraging more enthusiasm for politics amongst young people who are notoriously
apathetic. They argue that at 16 young people can marry and join the armed services
so it is entirely appropriate that they should also be allowed to vote. By allowing them
to vote, it is argued, this will encourage habits of political participation from a young
age. However, it could also be argued that lowering the voting age is basically a
COSMETIC EXERCISE. In order to encourage young people to vote you need to give
them REASONS to vote and an electoral system that fairly translates their votes into
seats; maybe therefore CONSENSUS POLITICS and FPTP are the main reasons why
fewer young people are voting so simply lowering the voting age would be a futile
exercise since it would not address the real root of the problem. Also CITIZENSHIP
LESSONS require teachers who inspire pupils about the subject; if the teacher is not
sufficiently interested then teaching Citizenship badly might even make the problem
worse.

8. RENEGOTIATION OF BRITISH MEMBERSHIP OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

At present an astonishing 84% of national legislation in EU member states derives
from Brussels. Before these powers can be devolved to local councils and private
citizens, they must first be repatriated from the EU. [Carswell and Hannan]
If you want to be especially controversial you might say that, ARGUABLY the most
effective way of improving PARTICIPATION and ACCOUNTABILITY at the same time
would be for the UK to withdraw from the EUROPEAN UNION! This would, at a stroke,
RESTORE PARLIAMENTS FULL POWER AS OUR REPRESENTATIVE BODY. It would
therefore be ENTIRELY ACCOUNTABLE to the British public (EU COMMISSIONERS are
NOT ACCOUNTABLE TO THE BRITISH PUBLIC) and we would be encouraged to vote
for a body that really did have the SOVEREIGN POWER to LEGISLATE on all issues that
concern the UK. At the moment, since so many political decisions concerning the UK
are made in BRUSSELS it might be argued that many of us dont bother voting as we
see Westminster as increasingly being IRRELEVANT.

9. E PETITIONS

38

The Coalition has followed the model of the Scottish Parliament, by introducing E
Petitions whereby, if 100,000 signatures are gathered, then that issue will be debated
at Westminster. This has proved to be an effective way of ensuring that the issues
that the public are most interested in are now being debated at Westminster; thereby
creating a greater sense of CONNECTIVITY between parliament and the public. Thus,
parliament has already debated whether there should be a referendum on our
continued membership of the European Union, the publication of documents relating
to the Hillsborough Disaster and fuel pricing.
However, there are limits to this reform. After all, parliament does not have to accept
the proposal [it voted down proposals for an EU referendum] and controversially
some contentious issues have been relegated to being discussed in Westminster Hall
without a vote being taken; for example why BABAR AHMAD is still being detained
without trial by the British government. There are even concerns that too many
inappropriate e petitions will reach 100,000 and that the system could give too much
power to the press to manipulate what parliament discusses.
After all four of the most popular e petitions, which the right wing press have backed,
are to STRIP LONDON RIOTERS OF BENEFITS, REFERENDUM ON UK MEMBERSHIP OF
THE EU, SCRAP PLANNED RISE IN FUEL DUTY and DRAMATIC CURBS ON
IMMIGRATION. Indeed, the most number of signatures in 2011 by far [over quarter
of a million] was that convicted London Rioters should lose all benefits, which is
unashamedly populist!

Senior MPs appear increasingly concerned that they have created a monster with the
e petition scheme, which forces them to consider debating an issue once an online
petition attracts more than 100,000 signatories. Its critics warn that the Governments
plans will allow the Commons to be hijacked by campaigners and would mean MPs
spending precious parliamentary time debating proposals that have little or no chance
of becoming law.
But ministers insist it will revitalise public engagement with Parliament in the wake of
the expenses scandal even if MPs are forced to confront difficult issues.
Mail Online, 16th November 2011

10. REFERENDUMS ON THE DEMAND OF THE PUBLIC

At the moment the way in which referendums are called in the UK is deeply flawed
since on important issues of regional or national concern it is the GOVERNMENT THAT
DECIDES whether or not to call a referendum and so will not call a referendum if it is
fearful of not getting the result it wants.
It has thus been suggested, that a better model, if we want to make the UK truly
democratic would be the SWISS MODEL, whereby if ONE MILLION signatures was
gathered then there would automatically have to be a referendum on that particular
39

issue. This would put real power into the hands of the public, while ensuring that the
government was not using referendums merely for political expediency or when it was
proposing a significant constitutional change to the way in which the country is being
governed. However, as with E Petitions there is the concern that the press could use
this for their own agenda and that dangerously contentious referendums might occur
such as the 2009 Swiss Referendum which voted to ban the construction of more
minarets.

11. MORE CONSULTATIVE / DIRECT DEMOCRACY

Possibly less controversial is the encouragement of more CONSULTATIVE LOCAL
DEMOCRACY; for example the notoriously deprived TOWER HAMLETS has introduced
the YOU DECIDE initiative in which local people have the opportunity to decide on
how council money is spent; this has been especially useful in involving local people
in democratic decision making thereby creating a much greater sense of CIVIC
RESPONSIBILITY, thereby contributing to the philosophy of the BIG SOCIETY.

This years You Decide budget of 2.4 million has now been voted on by residents and
will be spent on additional local services to tackle crime, improve education and
projects to make the borough cleaner and greener. Lime House resident Michael Gray
took part in You Decide for the first time. Most of the things I voted for in the area
we got; the improvement of the park and the road safety initiatives were just a couple
of the things I voted for. Id certainly do it again next year!
Tower Hamlets Website, March 2011

There are also many other examples of LOCAL COUNCILS consulting on important
local issues thereby invigorating peoples sense that they have a real say in what their
communities look like; In Tower Hill East London council chiefs are waiting for the
result of a public consultation which proposes that the eleven strip clubs in the
borough are all in unsuitable areas.

Daventry District Council has always been committed to the provision of affordable
housing and has made it one of its top priorities. To help the Council understand
further the housing needs and aspirations of our residents we have developed a three
year rolling programme of housing needs surveys, which means all parishes will have

40

an up to date housing needs survey every three years. This will ensure that the
information the council holds is as accurate as possible, leading to the right homes
being built in the right place.
Daventry District Council

12. LOCAL REFERENDUMS ON EXCESSIVE COUNCIL TAX INCREASES

The Communities Secretary, ERIC PICKLES has now spearheaded through parliament
the LOCALISM ACT whereby if local councils wish to increase COUNCIL TAX by more
than 3.5% they will have to consult the public in a REFERENDUM. Mr Pickles has
called this a RADICAL EXTENSION of direct democracy adding, Councils have a
moral obligation to help hard-working families and pensioners with the cost of living.
If they want to hike taxes on their local residents above 3.5% they will now need to
get a direct democratic mandate to do so. Opponents of this measure suggest that
it is a politically motivated populist move against Labour and the Greens who are more
likely to spend more on local services. Brighton and Hove City Council, which is run
by the Green Party, said earlier this month that it would have to increase council tax
by 3.5% each year for the next two years in order to protect key services and the most
vulnerable residents. [BBC News, 8th December 2011]

13. OPEN PRIMARIES

For example, if all party candidates in a constituency had to be chosen by OPEN
PRIMARIES TO CONTEST AN ELECTION this would make those who want to hold
elective office DIRECTLY ACCOUNTABLE TO THE PUBLIC, rather than to the small body
of party hacks who currently choose candidates and the PARTY WHIPS who then
enforce the obedience of those who actually end up in Westminster as MPs.
Candidates for political office really would have to immerse themselves fully in a local
community and engage with everyone in order to be nominated as a candidate.

HOW AND WHY SHOULD DEMOCRACY BE ENHANCED IN THE UK? [25]

MODEL ANSWER: There have been growing voices proclaiming that there is an urgent
need to enhance and improve democracy in the UK. The UK is an indirect democracy
and calls have been made to make this system operate in a fairer and more equitable
fashion. This includes calls to change the operation of the representative model by
changing the existing fabric. More radical alternatives, by providing closer links with
direct democracy, have been called for. Both avenues of repair and renewal should
be considered and evaluated as to their application [a]

41

The current system of democracy suffers from defects in the electoral system which
is used. This is most serious in how we elect MPs to Westminster using FPTP. It is a
non-proportional system and has a host of problems which include the dominance of
safe seats, the over importance of marginal seats which are few in number but can
decide the outcome in a general election. This gives credence to the view that all votes
are not of equal value: a vote in a marginal counts far more than a vote in a safe seat
where the outcome is a foregone conclusion [b]. A reform to any other voting system,
majoritarian or proportional, would enhance democracy. It would level the playing
field in elections, it would encourage voters to turn out if they felt two things, firstly
that they had a choice and secondly their vote registered and counted.
Other means of reforming the representative model could include the use of recall [c].
This would give an extra layer of accountability and control over MPs. Once elected
MPs now have virtual freedom until they go back to their constituency electors at the
next election. Recall would give more power to the constituency voters who may audit
the work and input of their representative in an on-going rather than summative
fashion. This would make MPs take care in their work and prove to be more
industrious and committed.
Representative democracy could be enhanced if the structures and institutions were
to be updated. The continued existence of the House of Lords is an affront to any
claim for democratic status: it is un-elected and unaccountable [d]. Democracy would
be enhanced if it were elected and its members prone to scrutiny. Accident of both
and prime ministerial favour are not democratic qualifications to pass law. Other
institutional changes could see power devolved even more from Westminster to the
regions and more political decisions made at a grassroots level.
A second way by which democracy could be enhanced is by the use of methods
associated with direct democracy; three aspects can be considered [e]. Firstly, the
greater use of referendums, secondly the introduction of initiatives and finally greater
consultation with the population. More referendums at all levels, both local and
national, would improve democracy. They would enhance democracy and add a great
deal of legitimacy to decisions. They would hold governments accountable at a
national level and at a local level would be ideal to ensure that decisions met with
local approval.
Another way is the development of initiatives; these are methods whereby the citizens
can request a referendum to take place. Currently the government instigates a
referendum via a parliamentary bill and, as such, it is the government who ration
the supply of referendums. However, if the citizens themselves could commence the
process democracy would be enhanced.
The greater involvement of citizens in-between elections would help. This could be
via consultative focus groups. These could really provide the continuous link between
the government and the governed that is continually present in direct democracy. In
addition the link could be built upon the use of modern electronic technology

42

sometimes referred to us digital democracy. This ease of communication would allow

instant feedback on new issues as they arose.
In conclusion, there are numerous methods by which democracy could be enhanced
in the UK. It would be stretching the imagination if all of these at one time could be
considered and even implemented. What we see are gradual and incremental
changes to the way in which democracy works [f]. In the time of Labour, 1997-2010,
we saw referendums and devolution and some changes to the House of Lords. That
is the nature of a mature and progressive democracy. We are likely to see
constitutional reform to the House of Lords and some type of recall for errant MPs.
Democracy is a work in progress and will be added to and changed through time.
EXAMINERS COMMENT: There is a good introduction which sets the scene [a].
Overall this response is well structured and keeps a close monitor on the set question.
It sets out the direction of travel with a brief introduction and then provides a credible
summary.
The essay looks at the electoral system and addresses both the how and why aspect
[b]. In particular it deals it deals with specifics about the value of votes and uses good
A03 terminology to show comprehension. Next it deals with a speculative issue, that
of recall, and it does this in a credible fashion with the possible implications [c]. IT then
mentions structural reform and focuses on the House of Lords and makes the point
why linked to the question exceptionally well [d]. More constitutional topics could
have been chosen, such as a codified constitution or reform of the House of Commons,
but in an exam we would not expect 100% coverage of every possible topic. The answer
then moves to introducing elements of direct democracy covering initiatives,
referendums and citizen participation [e]. All of this is done with focus on both the
method and the reasons supporting how democracy could be enhanced. The
conclusion is not extensive but it adds weight to the A02 criteria and considers the long
term trends of how democracy in the UK has developed over time [f]. Note that more
topics could have been advanced, for instance, not mentioned were compulsory voting
or reducing the voting age. This answer develops the points well and keeps a focus
throughout on the question.
TOTAL MARKS 21 / 25
AO1: 7/8 A02: 7/9 A03: 7/8

EXPLAIN HOW THE USE OF DIGITAL DEMOCRACY COULD MAKE THE UK

MORE DEMOCRATIC?
Since the British public have become increasingly disengaged from politics, digital
democracy provides a way for politicians to be able to ENGAGE MORE IMMEDIATELY
with the public, while digital democracy also allows the public to directly express and
debate their political views, while holding politicians more accountable.

43

For example, TWEETING and FACEBOOK enables politicians and the public to engage
in an immediate dialogue over significant events such as the recent FLOODING and so
helps politicians to better understand the publics concerns. At the same time,
political tweeting allows politicians to reach out to the public over issues that concern
them and both David Cameron and Ed Miliband have large numbers of followers for
their Tweets. CONSULTATION EXERCISES, over debated projects such as HS2, are also
facilitated by the Internet, while the introduction of E PETITIONS shows how, if the
public are concerned about an issue such as Romanian / Bulgarian immigration, they
can directly lobby parliament and, if they achieve 100,000 signatures, their concerns
must be debated. This can be further seen as a way of opening up democracy and so
encouraging greater public participation in politics and ensuring that politicians better
understand public concerns. It has, further, been suggested that if DIGITAL VOTING
was introduced that would dramatically increase voting levels by facilitating the ease
by which we vote.
Thus, a greater use of digital democracy could engage more people in the democratic
process, especially young people who are digitally more confident but also less likely
to engage in traditional politics, while providing politicians with more opportunities to
gauge, and even lead, public opinion.

HOW CONVINCING ARE THE ARGUMENTS FOR LOWERING THE VOTING

AGE TO 16?
16 year olds will be allowed to vote in the 2014 Scottish Independence referendum
and it has also been suggested that they should be able to vote in elections. This
would, it is argued, encourage political participation and instil a greater sense of civic
responsibility amongst young people who are, currently, disenfranchised even though
they can marry, join the army and have a job for which they pay income tax. 16 year
olds very disengaged from politics and if they were given the vote this might address
their apathy, while giving them the vote at 16 would create a much clearer division
between childhood and the rights and responsibilities of adulthood. It is important,
too, that many issues, such as education and youth training, that politicians deal with
involve 16 year-olds, and so it would be appropriate that young people should have
the vote on issues that concern them. However, giving 16 year olds the vote would
not necessarily encourage more voting it might simply mean that they choose not
to vote [like so many 18 year olds]. Equally, 18 year olds have a maturity that 16 year
olds lack, while there is no massive demand for the voting age to be reduced. To lower
the voting age, too, without making Citizenship lessons at school compulsory, could
thus be seen as giving young people an important right that they are not sufficiently
well- informed to use.

44

TO WHAT EXTENT IS THERE A DEMOCRATIC DEFICIT IN THE UNITED

KINGDOM? [25]
It has been suggested that poor voter turn-out in elections, declining party
membership together with a disproportionate voting system for Westminster
Elections, an un-elected House of Lords, the undue influence of elitist pressure groups
and government assaults on our civil liberties suggest that we are suffering from a
democratic deficit. However, we need to beware of ignoring those ways in which our
democracy has shown itself capable of modernisation; for example through proposals
to reform the Lords, devolution, the greater use of referendums and the way in which
E Petitions have proved so popular with the public.
Critics of British democracy point out that only 34% of 17/18 year olds are registered
to vote, while in 2001 only 59% of the public bothered to vote at the General Election.
The membership of all the main political parties is also in decline, while the Expenses
Scandal, together with political lobbying scandals involving Geoff Hoon, Patricia
Hewitt and Stephen Byers, and more recently Liam Fox, have all tarnished our faith in
the democratic process. However, it is important to note that in the 2010 General
Election the numbers voting had actually increased to 65%, which although still a lot
less than the 77% voting in the 1992 General Election is still significantly more than
those who vote in an American Presidential election. The membership of the BNP and
UKIP is also burgeoning which indicates that the public will join parties if they feel that
their policies are made relevant to them.
At the same time, even though fewer of us are joining traditional political parties;
there has been an upsurge in pressure group activity in recent years possibly
highlighting not so much political apathy as political maturity since, as consumers, we
are now giving our allegiance to cause pressure groups rather than signing up to the
raft of manifesto commitments of a political party. Thus, the student protests, the
Occupy London Movement and the way in which the public succeeded in stopping the
governments proposals that British forests should be privatised hardly suggested that
we are living in a period of political apathy. Having said that, the influence of elite
pressure groups on government policy, such as the Taxpayers Alliance, the Friends of
Israel, the Institute of Directors and, most importantly political lobbying firms, is of
concern and there is a good case for further reform here. Indeed, David Cameron,
before he became Prime Minister, presciently called political lobbying the next
parliamentary scandal waiting to happen!
It is a similar story with our democratic institutions. The House of Lords is un-elected
and the system of First Past the Post used for Westminster Elections does penalise
smaller parties, especially if, like the Liberal Democrats, they have a breadth rather
than a depth of support. Certainly, too, FPTP, exaggerates the importance of marginal
constituencies. However, one can hardly criticise FPTP for being undemocratic given
that the public, in the 2011 referendum, voted by a large majority to keep it rather
than replace it with AV, while greater levels of self-determination have been
encouraged throughout the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland, Scotland and

45

Wales all now having their own elected governments and increasing numbers of towns
and cities throughout the UK have called referendums on whether or not they should
have elected mayors. The Rule of Law is also, crucially, protected by the Separation
of Powers and judges have been increasingly proactive in trying to ensure that
politicians act according to the principles of the Human Rights Act. The House of Lords
does, of course, lack democratic legitimacy, but the significance of this can be
exaggerated since it is clear that the Commons enjoys primacy as the elected chamber
and the Lords can do no more than delay legislation.
The Coalition is also, far from ignoring the importance of democracy, considering quite
radical extensions of democracy in order to create a more participatory Big Society
democracy. Thus the public will now be able to vote in referendums on whether they
want to accept council tax increases greater than 3.5%, as well as now being able to
elect police commissioners who will be responsible for local policing. The increasing
number of consultative exercises being initiated by local councils, as well as initiatives,
such as the one in Tower Hamlets, whereby residents were able to decide how their
council tax was spent, all suggests that the government is taking seriously plans to
encourage democracy in the UK. Certainly, too, the huge popularity of E Petitions, on
issues as diverse as our membership of the European Union and the full publication of
government documents relating to the Hillsborough Disaster suggest that there is a
great deal of public enthusiasm for these sorts of reform. The way, too, in which both
politicians and the public are tweeting their opinions on issues from the death of
Nelson Mandela to the recent flooding indicates that there the Internet is providing a
powerful forum for the discussion of political ideas.
There is, of course, still a great deal wrong with our democracy. The West Lothian
Issue has yet to be resolved and numbers voting in Elections are significantly less than
they were twenty years. However, it would be misleading to exaggerate the
democratic deficit. It would probably be truer to say that our democracy is going
through a period of transformation with the public articulating its political will in
different ways and the government responding with new initiatives, such as E
Petitions, designed to reflect this new state of affairs.

EVALUATE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE VARIOUS WAYS IN WHICH

PARTICIPATION AND DEMOCRACY COULD BE STRENGTHENED IN THE UK
[25 MARKS]
Political participation and democracy in the UK have frequently been criticised
because of the undemocratic nature of many of our political institutions, together
with the publics lack of engagement with contemporary politics. Russell Brand has,
for example, argued that we should not vote as it further entrenches a useless political
process. Many proposals have thus been made to encourage greater legitimacy,
participation and accountability in the United Kingdom ranging from the reform of

46

institutions such as the House of Commons and the House of Lords to a better
utilisation of the Internet in order to encourage greater involvement in politics.
Many critics of UK democracy argue that institutions such as the House of Commons
need to be updated. First Past the Post does not fairly translate votes into seats and
smaller parties such as the Liberal Democrats and UKIP struggle to gain the sort of
representation they deserve. FPTP thus gives too much political influence to Labour
and the Conservatives, even though their popular share of the vote has dramatically
fallen in recent years. However, the public were given a referendum on whether to
replace FPTP with AV in 2011 and decisively voted against it, while FPTP generally
leads to stable governments which are able to carry through their manifesto
commitments, while maintaining a strong constituency link so the usefulness of this
reform could be exaggerated, especially since there is little public demand for reform.
The undemocratic nature of the House of Lords has also been criticised by many on
the Left and in the Liberal Democrats and, certainly, the Lords cannot claim democratic
legitimacy. However, if the Lords were to be made democratic there is a concern that
having two democratic chambers, each with its own electoral mandate, could lead to
gridlock between the two, while if the Lords were elected, then the influence of
political parties in the Lords would increase, thus reducing the useful political
independence of many Crossbenchers who vote on the merits of a bill rather than
political party allegiance. Others have suggested that the UK needs a codified
constitution to safeguard our civil liberties from the government and encourage a
greater sense of civic responsibility. The Human Rights Act cannot do this as it is an act
of parliament and, because of parliamentary sovereignty, could be repealed by a
subsequent Act of Parliament. But, a codified constitution would give unelected
judges more power and diminish the right of elected politicians who are accountable
to the public to balance our civil liberties. Equally, parliament has already done a great
deal to protect our civil liberties by passing both the Gender Equality Act and legalizing
gay marriage.
It has also been suggested that politicians need to engage with the public more by
encouraging greater direct democracy. This could be achieved by having more local,
regional and national referendums, more consultative exercises, as well as improving
the use of e petitions so that all of those that reach 100,000 signatures have to be
voted upon in parliament. Certainly, direct democracy can encourage greater political
participation and a number of e petitions, such as the Hillsborough petition, have
forced the government to engage more seriously with the concerns of the public, thus
helping to reduce the village Westminster atmosphere of parliament. However,
there is a danger that direct democracy can lead to populism the majority of
successful e petitions have been backed by the press, such as those seeking to limit
Bulgarian and Romanian immigration, which is hardly genuine direct democracy. The
turn-out in referendums has also been very low Bristol, for example, voted for a
directly elected mayor even though 76% of Bristolians did not bother to vote so the
legitimacy of decisions taken by referendum can be questioned. Linked to this point
more directly elected mayors also seems unlikely to re-invigorate local interest in
politics since when there were referendums on introducing elected mayors nine cities
actually rejected the idea.

47

The communications revolution could provide a way of encouraging the public to

engage more with politics; for example by enabling us to vote electronically and make
our opinions known through consulting exercises. However, as tweeting illustrates,
people tend not to think before they tweet and one wonders whether electronic
voting and electronic consulting might actually encourage thoughtlessness and
sensationalism; the death of Thatcher, for example, encouraged a great deal of illinformed tweeting and could important civic responsibilities, such as voting, be
diminished if it could be carried out on a phone. Equally, voting should be a personal
choice and, on the phone, it could become a dangerously collective act destroying the
great principle of the Secret Ballot [Gladstone, 1872]. As the 2000 US presidential
election illustrates, electronic voting, can also be subject to fraud and
misunderstanding.
Compulsory voting and voting at 16 have also been recommended as ways of
increasing voter participation. But compulsory voting, by forcing people to vote,
would hardly resolve political disaffection and might even increase anger against
politicians. Equally, by giving the vote to 16 year olds there is no evidence that they
would, therefore, be encouraged to vote since other young people, aged 18-34, are
already so disaffected with politics as it is.
In conclusion, many proposals have been suggested that would make the UK more
democratic, but the majority of them have as many drawbacks as advantages. Indeed,
it seems as though if we want to make our political voice heard there are already a
number of ways in which we can usefully do thus, so the problem may actually lie with
politicians not offering us enough choice and inspiration to justify our voting. As Tony
Been puts it the problem may not be so much the public being apathetic about politics
as politicians being apathetic about the public!

SUMMARY
Having revised this topic you should be confident enough to be able to answer the
following 5 / 10 / 25 mark questions if not keep on revising the material!
5 Marks
Define democracy
Define direct democracy
Define representative democracy
Define pluralist democracy
Outline two forms of political participation
Outline two reasons why referendums are held
Outline two ways of increasing political participation
Outline the meaning of parliamentary democracy
Define political legitimacy
Explain digital [e-] democracy

48

10 Marks
Distinguish between direct and representative democracy
Explain the circumstances in which three referendums have been held
Explain the arguments in favour of the further use of referendums
Explain the arguments against the further use of referendums
Explain how political participation has fallen in the UK in recent years
Assess the proposals that have been made to increase political participation
Explain three ways in which people are represented in the UK
Explain three criticisms of democracy in the UK
Assess the effectiveness of digital [e-] democracy
25 Marks
How democratic is the UK political system?
How and why has political participation declined in the UK?
Examine the arguments for and against the further use of referendums
How effectively are UK citizens represented?
Assess the relative merits of direct and representative democracy
To what extent is the UK a liberal democracy?

2. PARTY POLICIES AND IDEAS

KEY TERMS: POLITICAL PARTY; LEFT / RIGHT, LIBERALISM;
CONSERVATISM; SOCIALISM; FACTIONALISM; CONSENSUS POLITICS;
ADVERSARY POLITICS

Traditions and policies of parties a knowledge and understanding of the central

ideas, traditions and policies of the major UK political parties, and the development of
party policies in recent years and factors that influence ideological and policy
development, including policy and ideological differences within parties. Although
extended questions will not be set solely on political traditions, they may be set on
sub-traditions such as new Labour or Thatcherism.
Comparing party policies and ideas - a knowledge and understanding of similarities
and contrasts between the ideas and policies of the major parties and the ideological
relationship between and amongst them.

CONTENT EXPLANATION: Nature of political parties a knowledge and understanding

of political parties, of their distinctive features and of their key SAMPLE QUESTION

49

(a) Outline two features of a political party [5]

(b) Explain three ways in which new Labour differs from old Labour [10]
(c) Has the Conservative Party abandoned Thatcherism? [25]
JANUARY 2009
(a) Using an example, define adversary politics. [5]
(b) What divisions exist within the current Conservative Party over ideas and policies?
[10]
(c) To what extent are there differences between the Labour and Conservative parties
over policies and ideas? [25]
MAY 2009
(a) Outline two functions of a political party. [5]
(b) In what ways has the Conservative Party distanced itself from Thatcherism? [10]
(c) To what extent is the Labour Party still committed to its traditional principles? [25]
JANUARY 2010
(a) Using an example, define consensus politics [5]
(b) Explain the ideas and policies which link the modern Labour Party to socialism.
[10]
(c) To what extent is the modern Conservative Party influenced by One Nation
principles? [25]
MAY 2010
(a) Distinguish between left-wing and right-wing political ideas. [5]
(b) Explain the differences within the Labour Party over ideas and policies [10]
(c) To what extent are the ideas and policies of the Labour and Conservative parties
similar? [25]
JANUARY 2011
(a) Define two functions of a political party. [5]

50

(b) Explain what is meant by Thatcherism. [10]

(c) To what extent do the UKs major parties accept Thatcherite ideas and policies?
[25]
JUNE 2011
(a) What is meant by consensus politics? [5]
(b) Has consensus politics become more or less evident in the UK since May 2010? [10]
(c) To what extent are the major UK parties internally united over ideas and policies?
[25]
JANUARY 2012
(a) Outline two ideas associated with liberalism. [5]
(b) Explain three policies of the modern Labour Party. [10]
(c) To what extent have the parties involved in the Conservative Liberal Democrat
coalition remained faithful, since 2010, to their traditional principles and ideas? [25]
JUNE 2012
(a) Using an example, define adversary politics. [5]
(b) What divisions exist within the current Conservative Party over ideas and policies?
[10]
(c) To what extent are there differences between the Labour and Conservative parties
over policies and ideas? [25]
JANUARY 2013
(a) Describe two political ideas that are considered to be right wing. [5]
(b) Explain three ways in which one of the major political parties is internally divided.
[10]
(c) To what extent do the major parties differ over policies and ideas? [25]
MAY 2013
(a) How does factionalism apply to political parties? [5]
(b) Explain three functions of political parties. [10]

51

(c) To what extent has the Conservative Party abandoned Thatcherism? [25]

WHAT ARE THE MAIN FEATURES OF A POLITICAL PARTY?

A political party is a grouping of individuals who share a similar political ideology and
who encourage others, with similar views, to join and support them. For example,
those who believe that the state is there to better enable us to achieve INDIVIDUAL
AND SOCIAL FULFILMENT may be drawn towards the Labour Party. A political party
then sets itself the goal of winning seats in the legislature so enabling it to form a
government that can put its policies into action. In order to do this it will publish a
MANIFESTO which it hopes will persuade people to vote for it and SELECT
APPROPRIATE CANDIDATES to compete for public office.

FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES REPRESENTATION, GOAL

FORMATION, POLITICAL RECRUITMENT, ORGANISATION OF
GOVERNMENT
A Political Partys main objectives are to WIN SEATS IN THE LEGISLATURE and,
hopefully, win enough of them to be able to FORM A GOVERNMENT. Senior members
of a Political Party will therefore work together, often with specific FOCUS GROUPS,
to formulate a PARTY MANIFESTO that is likely to appeal to the public. In order to do
this it will, therefore, AGGREGATE all the political opinions contained amongst party
members so as to make them as acceptable to as many of the public as possible. At
the moment one of the functions of the Conservative Party is thus to develop the sorts
of policies that appeal to voters by persuading the public that they believe in both the
COMMUNITY and also INDIVIDUALISM. Similarly Labour hopes to return to office by
persuading the voters that they will be able to improve peoples lives by improving the
cost of living.
A Political Party will also ENCOURAGE ACTIVISTS to work for it by handing out leaflets
and knocking on doors especially during an election. It will also seek to PUBLICISE ITS
MESSAGE by working closely with ADVERTISING EXECUTIVES [the Conservatives have
often used SAATCHI AND SAATCHI] as well as IMAGE CONSULTANTS, like the
Conservatives STEVE HILTON. Parties will also want to set up an EASILY NAVIGABLE
and ATTRACTIVE WEB SITE and ensuring that its most impressive public performers
appear on popular programmes such as the ANDREW MARR SHOW or QUESTION
TIME. In short, a Political Party will continually be trying to convince the Electorate
that it has the BEST POLICIES FOR GOVERNMENT and to do this will often CRITICISE
THE POLICIES OF ITS POLITICAL RIVALS.

52

In order to ACHIEVE ITS GOAL OF FORMING A GOVERNMENT a Political Party will also
need to SELECT THE MOST ATTRACTIVE CANDIDATES FOR PUBLIC OFFICE whether it
is for parliament, devolved assemblies, the European Parliament or the council. Thus
the Conservative candidate to contest Leamington Spa and Warwick at the next
General Election is CHRIS WHITE. Political Parties will also provide their candidates
with training and regular political updates in the hope that that will help them to be
elected.

IDEOLOGICAL AND POLICY DIFFERENCES WITHIN AND BETWEEN THE

MAJOR PARTIES
FACTIONALISM
All political parties have FACTIONS within them which are political groupings who
favour a particular political ideology within the party and think it is superior to others.
Thus, although they accept the main principles of the party, such factions have a
particular bias in favour of a specific belief-set. Thus, within the Conservative Party
there is an ongoing struggle between the New Right which has a more Thatcherite bias
than more One Nation Conservatives. Within Labour today, Blue Labour provides a
radical approach to building communities by limiting immigration and ending
universalism in the welfare state which is different to both the solutions offered by
New Labour and Old Labour.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LEFT AND RIGHT WING POLITICAL IDEALS

The Left believes in the POSITIVE VALUE of the STATE in constructing a FAIRER and
MORE EQUAL SOCIETY. Left wingers thus believe that government needs to protect
the most vulnerable in society by limiting the inequalities of capitalism by supporting
REDISTRIBUTIVE TAXATION in order to create a fairer division of wealth in society, as
well as having close links with the TRADE UNIONS as well as ensuring that the
WELFARE STATE protects EVERYONE equally. The Right Wing has much less of a social
conscience. They believe very much in the importance of LIBERATING THE
INDIVIDUAL FROM THE GOVERNMENT and thus have a much more NEGATIVE VIEW
OF GOVERNMENT. Right wingers thus want to reduce the governments influence in
society by encouraging PRIVATISATION and the FREE MARKET thereby encouraging
GREATER EFFICIENCY and LOWERING TAXES in order to further encourage WEALTH
CREATION; they also want to further reduce the influence of government by
minimizing its control of both the NHS and EDUCATION. The Right Wing is also strong
on LAW AND ORDER and supports the principle of the NATION STATE as the key
player in global politics and is thus sceptical about the limitations placed on national
authority by EXTERNAL INSTITUTIONS such as the European Union or the European
Court of Human Rights.

WHAT IS CONSENSUS POLITICS? [5 MARKS]

53

When Politics is consensus based this means that there are so many political
similarities between the government and the opposition that the opposition can
support government policies and will not, as a matter of principle, oppose them. The
leading parties, therefore, share so much of the same political ideology that there are
few significant differences between them. This sort of shared similarity has been
termed BUTSKELLISM after the Labour and Conservative, Chancellors, RA Butler and
Hugh Gaitskell whose economic policies were virtually indistinguishable. Similarly,
when TONY BLAIR was Prime Minister, his policies were so similar to the
Conservatives that they found it difficult to oppose much of his legislation since it was
based on such a similar political ideology to their own.

WHAT IS ADVERSARIAL POLITICS? [5 MARKS]

When Politics is adversarial this means that the Opposition has such a radically
different political agenda to the government that it regularly opposes the policies of
the government. Adversarial politics will thus occur when the political philosophical
of the government and opposition parties are so totally different. A good example, of
adversarial politics was during the 1980s when the FREE MARKET ideology of
MARGARET THATCHER was totally at odds with the SOCIALIST MANIFESTO being
offered by MICHAEL FOOT.

OUTLINE TWO IDEAS ASSOCIATED WITH LIBERALISM [5 MARKS]

Liberalism is the dominant political ideology in the UK and states that the government
should intervene as little in the lives of private individuals as possible. It should only
do this when absolutely necessary for the good of society and so liberalism opposes
illiberal concepts like identity cards which government interference in our private
correspondence. Liberalism also suggests that people should live their lives as they
wish, so long as they do not interfere in the lives of others and, therefore, accepts
alternative life styles, gay marriage and gender equality, while is supportive of the
Human Rights Act to ensure that the personal freedoms and liberties of all are fairly
protected.

THE LIBERAL DEMOCRATS

The Liberal Democrats are a new political party combining the old LIBERAL PARTY of
William Gladstone, Lloyd George and Jeremy Thorpe with the SOCIAL DEMOCRATS
who broke away from Labour in 1981 as a result of its lurch to the left under Michael
Foot. The first leaders of the Social Democrats were the, so called, Gang of Four [Roy
Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rogers and Shirley Williams]. In 1988, following seven years
in which they worked together as an Alliance the two parties decided that they would
be a more powerful force in British politics if they merged.
The political ideology of the Liberal Democrats is quite difficult to pinpoint with
certainty since, of course, it derives from the two different parties. Thus, the LIBERAL

54

wing of the party has tended to be economically closest to the Conservatives, disliking
too much interference by the government in our lives and, following, Gladstone in
believing in the virtue of BALANCED BUDGETS. NICK CLEGG has, for example, pleased
this wing of the party by supporting SAVAGE CUTS in public spending. These Liberals
have sometimes been called ORANGE BOOK LIBERALS after the ORANGE BOOK
[2004] which emphasised the Liberalism of the Liberal Democrats.
Liberals have also been totally against Labours proposals for IDENTITY CARDS and
GREATER USE OF CCTV, because they involve state interference in our private lives,
while they have always been extremely positive about the EUROPEAN UNION, arguing
that it provides a model of FREE TRADE and CO-OPERATION between countries which
could serve as a global model for other states to follow. Liberals have also fought
PRIVILEGE and ELITISM wanting to create as a fair and democratic society as possible;
this is why they support CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM, for example, making the LORDS
a democratic chamber. Their focus, too, on LIMITED GOVERNMENT and the RULE OF
LAW in order to ensure that all rights are protected has made them supportive of GAY
MARRIAGE, the GENDER EQUALITY ACT and, of course, the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT.
They also support a CODIFIED CONSTITUTION in order to ENTRENCH OUR CIVIL
LIBERTIES.
SOCIAL DEMOCRATS have, though, tended to be more on the left, since they
themselves were originally refugees from Michael Foots Labour Party. Their
ideological hero would be that great Liberal WILLIAM BEVERIDGE [1879-1963] who
provided the intellectual foundations for Clement Attlees Welfare State in the
BEVERIDGE REPORT. This section of the Party would therefore focus particularly on
the importance of ensuring that the WELFARE STATE is able to effectively look after
the most vulnerable in society, while it is also prepared to support higher taxes
[especially on the most wealthy]. Interestingly, before the 2010 Election, VINCE
CABLE pledged a new MANSION TAX on homes worth over 2 MILLION.

KEY LIBERAL DEMOCRAT POLICIES

Liberal Democrats are very positive about the EUROPEAN UNION. They support its
basis in the principles of FREE TRADE and, as a party that supports a liberal belief in
the advantages of GLOBAL GOVERNANCE, rather than states simply looking after their
own best interests, they see institutions with a significant SUPRANATIONAL element
as setting an important precedent for what the Twenty First century should look like.
Liberal Democrats also believe in ELECTORAL and CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM. They
are, thus, keen to modernize the constitution rather than being held back by tradition
and convention. Thus, they firmly support attempts to make the UK MORE
DEMOCRATIC by encouraging DEVOLUTION, MORE REFERENDUMS and an ELECTED
HOUSE OF LORDS. They also support the principles of ELECTORAL REFORM since they
argue that FIRST PAST THE POST is unfair in that it ensures that where you vote
matters much more than who you vote for. They are very opposed, too, to the way in
which FPTP has always penalised the third party in UK politics; for example in

55

The Liberal Democrats are also very eager to protect our civil liberties from the
government. Two great liberal philosophers laid down these principles and they still
provide the basis to the party today. JOHN LOCKE [1632-1704] argued that we are all
born with NATURAL RIGHTS and BASIC FREEDOMS and that government should
TOLERATE different modes of THOUGHT and RESPECT OUR INDIVIDUAL FREEDOMS,
while JOHN STUART MILL argued that ALL CITIZENS HAVE AN ABSOLUTE RIGHT TO
EXERCISE THEIR FREEDOM, PROVIDED THEY DO NOT INTERFERE WITH THE
FREEDOM OF OTHERS. The Liberal Democrats, therefore, resolutely oppose IDENTITY
CARDS and giving the Security Services the right to monitor e mails and phone calls,
while resisting right wing Tory calls to repeal the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT. Instead they
would like a CODIFIED CONSTITUTION in order to ensure that our rights are fully
ENTRENCHED.
The Liberal Democrats, like Labour, also believe that the state should improve the lives
of its people which is why they have promised FREE SCHOOL LUNCHES for all PRIMARY
SCHOOL CHILDREN in their first three years at school. This nicely illustrate the more
socially aware elements of the party, Universal free school meals will help give every
child the chance in life they deserve, building a stronger economy and fairer society,
while they also support a MANSION TAX on homes worth more than 2 million in
order to more fairly distribute the national wealth.
But on the right of the party, Liberal Democrats stress that the government must be
prepared to continue with what, Nick Clegg has called, SAVAGE CUTS in order to
balance the budget. Thus, Treasury Secretary, DANNY ALEXANDER, has said that,
Tough decisions on tax and spending will be needed to meet the governments
target of eliminating the structural deficit by 2018 and, even after that, the UK must
not go back to the old bad habits. The Liberal Democrats have said a further 26
billion will have to be found from 2016-2018 in the form of additional spending cuts
or tax rises to enable the government to balance the books. [BBC News, 17th
September 2013]

HOW UNITED ARE THE LIBERAL DEMOCRATS TODAY?

The decision of the Liberal Democrats to join the coalition with the Conservatives led
to Nick Clegg having to break a number of MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS which has
outraged many, especially on the LEFT of the party, and this has dramatically divided
the Liberal Democrats on a number of issues. Thus, whereas, right wing Liberal
Democrats, such as DAVID LAWS, have been very positive about the coalition saying
that it will last right up to the wire more left wing Liberal Democrats have been
much more critical of the Conservatives, creating a major practical division between
those who support the coalition and thus who are much more sceptical about it.

56

We must revisit and reclaim some of the traditional building blocks of liberalism if
we are to play a creative and constructive role in British politics. It is thus time to
consider whether the Liberal Democrat Party of today is being true to its Liberal
traditions and, if not, what we should be doing about it. We have, for example,
defended civil liberties against a succession of illiberal home secretaries, but we
have rarely defended liberalism against the nanny state.
The Orange Book, Ed Laws MP, 2004

Lib Dem Vince Cable has launched a scathing attack on his Conservative coalition
partners, accusing them of ugly and blinkered policies. The Business Secretary
told activists the Tories had reverted to type as the nasty party and called their
election adviser, Lynton Crosby, a Rottweiler. It was necessary to work with the
Tories in the national interest, but the Lib Dems must not be dragged down, he said.
He suggested the Conservatives had scapegoated the unions, benefit claimants and
ethnic minorities to achieve their objectives. The list of people the Tories disapprove
of is even longer than that public sector workers, especially teachers, the unmarried,
people who do not own property, he said.
BBC News, 16th September 2013

The left of the party has also been shocked that they have had to drop their proposed
MANSION TAX from the coalition programme as well as accepting the governments
huge public spending cuts, which are especially hitting the poorest in society and there
is a growing feeling that the partys social democratic emphasis on FAIRNESS has
been side-lined as they have ended up supporting massive Conservative public sector
cuts which have often hit the most vulnerable in society most. In response NICK CLEGG
has replied that there is no alternative to these spending cuts if the government is to
restore international faith in our economy. Indeed, the ORANGE BOOKERS have, in
support of the coalition, established their own website LIBERAL VISION with a
slogan that sounds entirely Conservative, Our aim is to bring together all Lib Dem
supporters who support lower taxes, a smaller state and an extension of personal
freedoms. The Left though of the Party would rather reduce the deficit by taxing the
rich more heavily; they therefore still support the Mansion Tax as well as capping tax
relief on 1 million pension pots which they suggest could raise another 5 billion
without having to further cut public spending.
The Liberal Democrats have also been clearly divided over the coalitions decision to
increase TOP UP MAXIMUM to 9000, with 21 Lib Dem MPs voting against the
government, Some 21 Lib Dem MPS rebelled, while 27 including the partys

57

ministers backed the change and 8 abstained. Former Lib Dem leaders Sir Menzies
Campbell and Charles Kennedy were among those who opposed the government,
whose Commons majority of 83 was cut to 21. [BBC, 9th December 2010].
There has always been a strong distrust of NUCLEAR ENERGY in the Liberal Democrats
[linked to a very marked ant war tradition within Liberalism]. Therefore, the Liberal
Democrats agreement to support our TRIDENT NUCLEAR DETERENT, as well as
support the continued intervention in AFGHANISTAN has outraged many genuinely
pacific Liberal Democrats, while Orange Book Liberals argue that, in the real world,
nuclear defence is a non-negotiable part of the UK being a major global power.
Many Liberal Democrats have also been shocked by the coalitions passing of the
JUSTICE AND SECURITY ACT [2013] which allows SECRET TRIALS in cases involving
NATIONAL SECURITY. Nick Clegg has argued that this is necessary in order to protect
the country but a number of Liberal Democrats have resigned their party membership
since they argue that the Act undermines one of the core principles of liberalism which
is LIMITED GOVERNMENT and respect for CIVIL LIBERTIES. For example, DINA ROSE
QC resigned from the party because she said the act, undermines free, fair and open
society which is the basis to liberalism.

THE LABOUR PARTY

OLD LABOUR [LEFT WING]
Old Labour is associated with great LEFT WING figures such as ANEURIN BEVAN,
CLEMENT ATTLEE, MICHAEL FOOT and TONY BENN. What unites all such SOCIALISTS
is the belief that the GOVERNMENT HAS THE PRIMARY ROLE IN ESTABLISHING A
FAIRER AND MORE EQUAL SOCIETY.
The ATTLEE GOVERNMENT (1945-51) is generally seen as the great example of a
SOCIALIST GOVERNMENT. This government introduced policies of NATIONALISATION
in order to stop the workers being exploited by the owners; REDISTRIBUTED THE
NATIONAL WEALTH by significantly RAISING TAXES on the WEALTHIER and, with the
resulting money, established the WELFARE STATE (the key plank of which was the
NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE). In 1979 the TOP RATE OF TAXATION (under Labours
Chancellor of the Exchequer, DENIS HEALEY, was 83%)
Subsequent Labour governments introduced COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATION in order
to encourage all children being given the same opportunities at school, while the focus
of Labour governments was to maximise the EQUALITY in society, thereby minimising
the differences between rich and poor.
The emphasis was therefore on a
COLLECTIVIST STATE in which the collective good of society therefore had to be the
key element of government policy.

58

I want to leave time for what will be a full debate, so I shall conclude on the policies
that may follow from the [socialist] ideas that I have advanced. First, we must expand
the public services and ensure that they are publicly funded. In the immediate postwar years, the idea of National Insurance was based on that of universal benefits. I do
not believe that it is right for people to be means-tested before they are entitled to
benefits for which they have paid, either through National Insurance contributions or
taxation.
We should expand public services for the provision of health care and education,
which should be open, so as to allow every child access to the full range of knowledge
in schools that are comprehensive in what they offer. If we are, too, genuinely
interested in the idea of full employment, it is essential that we support manufacturing
industry. And we need a fairer tax system. I cannot understand why any government
should ring-fence the rich and say, Whatever we do, we will not ask you to pay more,
when people on benefits are continually being faced with demands to open the books
and be examined, in an attempt to deal with benefit fraud. Those are my convictions.
I am a socialist and I became a socialist through experience. After fifty years in the
House of Commons and many years as a minister, I realise the way in which power is
exercised to shape our society. All progressive change comes from underneath.
Tony Benn, 16th May 2000 [House of Commons Debate on Socialism]

Labour governments also believed in using KEYNESIAN ECONOMIC POLICIES to

ENCOURAGE FULL EMPLOYMENT by investing to create jobs, while Labour Prime
Ministers maintained close relations with the TRADE UNIONS, since they were the
best representatives of the WORKING CLASS whose interests Labour were pledged to
fight for. [BEER AND SANDWICHES AT NUMBER 10]

In short, Old Labour was essentially a COLLECTIVIST PARTY which emphasised the
importance of BRINGING PEOPLE TOGETHER and ESTABLISHING A SHARED
COMMUNAL VISION while MINIMIZING OUR DIFFERENCES BY REDISTRIBUTING

59

WEALTH AND PROVIDING US ALL WITH EQUAL ACCESS TO THE SAME PUBLIC
SERVICES.
In place of socialist collectivist ideals New Labour has instead argued that individual
citizens should take responsibility for ensuring the cohesion of society . . . the state
should simply facilitate individuals and private or voluntary section organizations that
wish to undertake this role [NEIL McNAUGHTON]

NEW LABOUR
After MICHAEL FOOTS disastrous General Election defeat in 1983 Labour began to
abandon much of its socialist heritage in order be able to win power again. The
process began under NEIL KINNOCK and then JOHN SMITH and culminated under
TONY BLAIR when Labour adopted many economic policies that had traditionally been
seen as THATCHERITE and DOWNPLAYED LABOURS SOCIALIST HERITAGE IN ORDER
TO APPEAL TO MIDDLE CLASS VOTERS WHO HAD TRADITIONALLY VOTED
CONSERVATIVE.
New Labour was defined by new phrases such as the THIRD WAY which explained that
New Labour now represented a compromise between Socialism and Capitalism and
the STAKEHOLDER SOCIETY which focused, much less on equality, but ensuring that
everyone feels that they have a stake in society.
In short, New Labour was based upon the principle that individuals do have an
obligation to make a success of their lives through the existing capitalist structure, but
that the government, while recognising this, has to provide us all with the help we
need to be able to take advantage of the free market by spending extensively on
STATE EDUCATION and providing a MINIMUM WAGE, while encouraging us to act in
as SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE a manner as possible. By recognising the importance of
INDIVIDUAL ENDEAVOUR and not trying to treat everybody the same, New Labour
thus created a MORE COMMUNITARIAN and LESS COLLECTIVIST approach to society.
Thus, according to NEW LABOUR THE STATE SHOULD INTERVENE MUCH LESS IN THE
FREE MARKET AND PEOPLES LIVES AND SHOULD SIMPLY ENCOURAGE US TO BUILD
A BETTER COMMUNITARIAN SOCIETY.
In terms of practical policy Labour therefore modified CLAUSE 4 of the LABOUR PARTY
CONSTITUTION so that Labour would no longer be committed to NATIONALISATION.
Like the Conservatives, it now accepted that the FREE MARKET and PRIVATISATION
produce the sort of HEALTHY COMPETITION that encourages PROSPERITY and
INVESTMENT.

60

New Labour, like the Conservatives, also focused on the public as CONSUMERS
introducing TUITION FEES whereby the student has to contribute towards the cost of
his or her own education. CITY ACADEMIES and FOUNDATION HOSPITALS were also
established in which PRIVATE COMPANIES AND CHARITIES could invest in the health
and education thereby reducing the governments role in providing these services.
Like the Conservatives, New Labour has focused on LEAGUE TABLES for both SCHOOLS
and HOSPITALS as a way of DRIVING UP STANDARDS.
The public was also encouraged to LOOK AFTER ITSELF IN OLD AGE by opening up
STAKEHOLDER PENSION PLANS so that you can contribute more to your old age so
that the state has to intervene less.
Since 1997 the TOP RATE OF TAXATION also remained for a long time at 40% where
it was put in 1988 by the Conservative Chancellor of the Exchequer, NIGEL LAWSON,
thereby highlighting that Labour would not deter enterprise by taxing the incomes of
the more wealthy. Indeed, Labour would now be more focused on WEALTH
CREATION RATHER THAN WEALTH REDISTRIBUTION.

We are intensely relaxed about people getting filthy rich.

Lord Mandelson

LABOUR PARTY DIVISIONS

All political parties have different FACTIONS within them which aim to influence the
party manifesto since they believe that their views are most likely to appeal to the
voters as well as having greater philosophical and political merit. There are many such
factions within Labour today. Socialists like TONY BENN and DENIS SKINNER believe
that, under New Labour, Labour abandoned its core vote in the working class and that
it needs to recover this by once again emphasising the sorts of policies that are most
likely to appeal to the working class such as more redistributive taxation and greater
investment in the NHS. Supporters of New Labour, on the other hands, argue that if
Labour once again associates itself too greatly with socialism then it will have no
chance of winning the 2015 General Election. Since it will not gain the middle class
votes it needs. This is why Tony Blair has been so critical of Balls promise that Labour
would return the top rate of taxation to 50p and why PETER MANDELSON has
launched the THINK TANK PROGRESS to encourage the adoption of Blairite policies
within the party.
Another faction BLUE LABOUR is an interesting mixture of both left and right wing
ideas which is designed to appeal to frustrated working class voters who might be
tempted to vote for the BNP or UKIP. Its founder, MAURICE GLASMAN, is thus critical
of Labours adoption of free market economics and yet has also said Labour ought to
take a harder line on immigration, while reducing its links with the trade unions and
supporting a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU.

61

ED MILIBAND AND THE LABOUR PARTY

Ed Miliband secured the leadership of the Labour Party because he gained the votes
of the TUC; however he entered government under Tony Blair so to say that his
political roots are either left or right wing would be misleading.

Eds actions as Labour leader seem to swing wildly between socialist rhetoric and
Blairite pragmatism.
New Statesman, 9th July 2012

The Labour leader, Ed Miliband, says he is not embarrassed to call himself a socialist
and admits he would have joined the student protestors but was doing something
else. Mr Miliband, branded Red Ed when he beat his older brother David to the
Labour leadership with the backing of the trade unions, told the BBCs Nicky Campbell
this morning, Yes, I am a socialist. Responding to questions over his support for the
50p tax rate, Mr Miliband said, I am not embarrassed about it . . . look my dad was a
. . . he would have considered himself a socialist too, but he would have said . . . we
need to have public ownership of everything . . . I dont subscribe to that view. What
I do say is that there are big unfairnesses in our society and part of the job of
government is to bring about social justice and to tackle those unfairnesses. And
thats why Im a politician, thats why Im in politics.
Channel 4 26th November 2010

On a number of issues he has certainly antagonised the Left of the Party; for example
by making clear that he is NOT IN FAVOUR OF NATIONALISATION. He also distanced
himself from the PUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES arguing that THESE STRIKES ARE WRONG.

Mr Miliband has rejected an invitation from student leaders to take part in protests
against tuition fee increases. The Labour leader has backed peaceful protests against
fees and told the BBC that he had been tempted to take to the streets to talk to
demonstrators. Asked if he would join future protests, he said: Well see what
happens. In an interview with BBC Radio 4s Today Programme on Friday morning,
Mr Miliband was asked whether he agreed with Labour MP David Winnick who said
Wednesdays protest in central London, which led to 35 arrests and thousands of
pounds of damage was marvellous. Mr Miliband said he was obviously not in
favour of violent protests but he understood the depth of anger that people felt about
rising tuition fees and cuts in university budgets. I was quite tempted to go out and
talk to the protestors, he said. I applaud young people who successfully
demonstrate. I said I was going to talk to them at some point, I was tempted to go out

62

and talk to them. Asked why he had not, he explained, I think I was doing something
else at the time actually.
BBC News

He has further outraged the TRADES UNION CONGRESS by declaring that the
influence the trade unions have within the Labour Party must be limited by replacing
the third of the vote they wield in party leadership elections by one member one vote.
Given that the trade unions have been so closely linked to Labour since the partys
foundation in 1900 this is a very significant development suggesting that Miliband
does want to reach out more to the centre ground of British politics.

Currently, under Labours electoral college system, MPs get a third of the votes to
select a new leader, trade unions get a third and party members another third. That
system is to be abolished with every party member and those union members who
decide to donate to the party having an equal say. Under Labours plans, from the
end of 2014 new members of unions affiliated to the party would have to opt in and
pay a 3 fee to Labour before they got a vote.
BBC News, 1st February 2014

Miliband has also accepted that some of the governments PUBLIC SPENDING CUTS
are NECESSARY, since the last Labour government did spend beyond its means as
we shall later his criticism of the government is that these spending plans are
disproportionately hurting the poorest in society. Balls coupled his announcement
on the reintroducing the 50p top rate of taxation with a pledge that a Labour
government would run a budget surplus by 2020, by keeping tight control on public
spending. He also committed the party to begin cutting the national debt during the
course of the next parliament. [The Observer, 26th January 2014]

The Labour Party lost trust on the economy. And under my leadership, we will regain
that trust. I am determined to prove to you that the next Labour Government will
only spend what it can afford. That we will live within our means. That we will manage
your money properly. As someone who believes that government can make a
difference, I have a special responsibility to show you that every pound that is spent,
is spent wisely. The next Labour Government will still face tough decisions. We wont
be able to reverse many of the cuts this Government is making.
We need a new era of wealth creation in this country. But it will not happen with the
old set of rules. And we cant spend our way to a new economy. We need the most
competitive tax and regulatory environment we can for British business.
Ed Miliband, Speech to Labour Party Conference, September 27 th 2011

63

Miliband accepts that fiscal conservatism is and will be the order of the day and that
Labour will have no money to spend if it wins the General Election of 2015. In January,
Ed Balls, the shadow Chancellor also stated that My starting point is, Im afraid, we
are going to have to keep these Tory cuts. In a speech a few days later, Miliband
reiterated the position.
This though angered Labours trade union paymasters and many commentators on
the left who believe it is Labours mission to mitigate the worst excesses of capitalism
and keep on taxing and spending. Len McCluskey, head of the union Unite, wrote, Ed
Balls sudden embrace of austerity and the public sector squeeze represents a victory
for discredited Blairism at the expense of the party core support. It also challenges
the whole course Ed Miliband has set for the party, and perhaps his leadership itself.
Ed Miliband interview, New Statesman, 5th September 2012

In June, Mr Miliband committed to a cap on welfare costs and instructed shadow

cabinet ministers to work within the spending limits set out by George Osborne. The
roars of anguish from the left and the unions were an augury of many more
arguments to come.
The Economist, July 13th 2013

On WELFARE REFORM, Labour has been surprisingly uncritical of the Coalitions

policy that BENEFITS SHOULD NO LONGER BE UNIVERSAL [one of the great
principles of Attlees Welfare State] and Miliband has even gone further than the
coalition and stated that WEALTHIER PENSIONERS WILL NO LONGER BE GRANTED
THE WINTER FUEL ALLOWANCE. Indeed, one of the key principles of Blue Labour,
which has become increasingly influential with Miliband, is that working class society
has actually been undermined by a too ready reliance on welfare hand outs which
has, consequently, discouraged thrift and hard work.

64

Welfare reform has become one of the most divisive issues in austerity Britain. Now,
a rising force within the Labour Party wants to silence the partys critics and win the
welfare debate by abandoning some of its oldest principles. Its adherents want to
scale back the states role in welfare, reward with extra support people who have
paid in more than others, and even take away universal benefits. They are not
though a right wing think tank, they are Blue Labour. And they are closer than ever
to the heart of the Labour Party.
Labours new clique believes that the welfare state has contributed to the downfall
of communities blamed for so long on inequality and a collapse of industry by
allowing people to think it is acceptable just to take. Outspoken academic and
Labour peer, Lord Maurice Glasman, a close friend of John Cruddas, advocates
removing absolute entitlement to welfare in favour of rewards based on
contributions both financially and socially.
BBC News, 29th May 2013

Miliband also outraged the Left of the Party by accepting the principle of TUITION and
TOP UP FEES [although, according to Miliband these will be capped at 6000, rather
than 9000, while he was heckled at the TUC Conference when he praised the parental
choice and better standards that city academies and free schools offered, Struggling
to make himself heard over catcalls from the audience, Mr Miliband said, What you
need is academies, free schools and other schools working together. He also said two
academies in his Doncaster North constituency had made a big difference to local
education. BBC 13th September 2011

There are hard lessons here for my party which some wont like. Some of what
happened in the 1980s was right. It was right to let people buy their council houses.
It was right to cut taxes of 60, 70, 80%. And it was right to change the rules on the
closed shop, on strikes before ballots. These changes were right, and we were wrong
to oppose it at the time.
Ed Miliband, Speech to the Labour Party Conference, September 27 th 2011

65

Most audaciously at his party conference speech in October 2012 he even coined the
phrase ONE NATION LABOUR suggesting that Labour is now the moderate centre
party that traditional moderate Conservatives could be happy voting for.

Ed Miliband has attempted to snatch the centre ground of British politics by declaring
that Labour is now the "one-nation" party. The phrase - normally associated with
moderate Tories - was repeatedly used by the Labour leader as he roamed the
conference stage at Manchester. Mr Miliband said the country could not carry on as
if it were, "as two nations, not one, the bankers and the rest of the country". "We
must have a one-nation banking system as part of a one-nation economy."
The Labour leader cited as his inspiration a former Conservative Prime Minister,
Benjamin Disraeli, who made a famous speech on One Nation Conservatism in
Manchester's Free Trade Hall, now a luxury hotel opposite Labour's conference venue.
BBC News, 2nd October 2012

However, Miliband is in some ways further to the Left than many of the Blarites in the
Party. He has, together with Ed Balls, thus, confirmed that the 50P TOP RATE OF
TAXATION should be made PERMANENT, since the wealthy should pay a greater
burden of the cost of the public services. According to Miliband it is thus wrong in a
time of austerity and will not successfully inject vigour into the economy. Instead For
Britains millionaires it is a massive income tax cut each and every year. [Ed Miliband].
In another example of Milibands commitment to traditional Labour principles of
WEALTH REDISTRIBUTION, Labour would introduce a MANSION TAX on homes worth
over 2 million which would thus enable Labour to reintroduce a 10P STARTING RATE
OF TAXATION for the poorest in society. Mr Miliband said the 10p pledge would
send a clear message about Labours commitment to a fairer tax system and
improving the living standards of working people. [BBC News, 14th February 2013]

Speaking at the Fabian Societys annual conference, Mr Balls said: The latest figures
show that those earning over 150,000 paid almost 10 billion more in tax in the
three years when the 50p top rate of tax was in place . . . it cannot be right for David
Cameron and George Osborne to have chosen to give the richest people in the
country a huge tax cut. Reversing a tax cut that only hit the richest 1% was proof
that Labour would reduce spending in a fairer way.

66

The Observer, 26th January 2014

Miliband has also led the attack on the governments increase in VAT to 20%, as well
as its huge SPENDING CUTS which, according to Miliband, are HURTING THE POOREST
AND MOST VULNERABLE IN SOCIETY MOST, while not sufficiently targeting the
better-off. As Miliband told Andrew Marr, The public spending cuts are not working,
its not working for Britain because unemployment is going up, and its not working
even to cut the deficit because unless you grow the economy you cant cut the deficit.
Miliband has also suggested that he would be a great deal more INTERVENTIONIST
within the economy. He is in favour of a NEW BANKING CODE which would enable
Bankers to be STRUCK OFF if they abuse the trust placed in them.

Ed Miliband has given his backing to suggestions that bankers should face being struck
off if they are deemed unfit to do the job. Calling for the creation of a disciplinary
code similar to that observed by doctors and lawyers, he went on: I think the industry
should take responsibility and strike people off who do the wrong thing. This is
nothing to do with the politics of envy. It is to do with the sense of real destruction
caused by bankers, for which other people paid the price.
BBC News, 11th September 2011

He has pledged to intervene significantly more within the economy in order to ensure
fairness and equality. Thus, Labours RESPONSIBLE CAPITALISM includes pledges on
COMPULSORY APPRENTICESHIP SCHEMES whereby big businesses will be expected
to introduce apprenticeship schemes or face punitive taxes. There will also be PRICE
REGULATION OF ENERGY COMPANIES and Miliband has thus said energy companies
will be legally required to place PENSIONERS on the LOWEST TARIFF. He has also
promised a 20 MONTH FREEZE on DOMESTIC ENERGY PRICES as a way of protecting
householders from what he has called PREDATORY CAPITALISTS.

Labour would freeze gas and electricity bills for every home and business in the UK for
20 months if it wins the 2015 election, Ed Miliband has said. The big energy firms
would be split up and governed by a new tougher regulator to give people "a fairer
deal". Labour says the move will save average households 120 and businesses 1,800
- but cost the energy giants 4.5bn. But energy companies said the policy could lead
to power shortages, and jeopardise investment and jobs. The Labour leader said firms
had been overcharging "for too long" and it was time to "reset" the energy market,
denying that he was trying to return to discredited 1970s price controls. BBC News,
24th September 2013

67

Such an interventionist stance, reminiscent of more traditional Old Labour, can also
be seen in regard to the NHS, where Miliband has said that he would reverse
government policy which removes the GOVERNMENTS DUTY to provide these
services. When Labour created the NHS, in the face of austerity and Conservative
opposition, we placed on the statute book a legal duty requiring national government
to provide a comprehensive health service free at the point of delivery for all British
citizens. It was a foundation stone of political accountability. And it was abolished by
the very first line of David Camerons Health Act last year, Mr Miliband said. Mr
Miliband went on to promise that, if Labour returned to power, we would repeal
David Camerons Health Act and reinstate the Secretary of States duty to provide a
comprehensive health service. [The Independent, 2nd July 2013].
Such interventionist policies, in regard to BUSINESS, the NHS and ENERGY
COMPANIES thus indicate that Miliband still has a more positive view of the STATES
CAPACITY TO DO GOOD than the Coalition and that under Miliband there could still
be a return to some of the old-style Labour principles of BIG GOVERNMENT.

KEY LABOUR POLICIES

In a number of ways Miliband has quite a traditionalist Labour attitude that BIG
GOVERNMENT and STATE INTERVENTION can be beneficial in creating a fairer
society; in particular driving down the COST OF LIVING.
Thus, Labour would INTERVENE IN THE MARKETS to FREEZE DOMESTIC ENERGY
PRICES FOR 20 MOINTHS and demand GREATER REGULATION of the energy markets
to ensure that pensioners were always put on the lowest tariff. Similarly, they would
demand that big businesses introduce COMPULSORY APPRENTICESHIP SCHEMES in
order to create a more RESPONSIBLE CAPITALISM that works for the good of everyone
in society. As part of Labours commitment to the importance of state intervention to
protect the public, the SECRETARY OF HEALTHS DUTY TO PROVIDE COMPREHENSIVE
HEALTH CARE would be reinstated in order to ensure that the NHS is still sufficiently
accountable to the government.
Linked to this focus on FAIRNESS, Labour would increase taxes on the most wealthy in
society; thus Miliband would reintroduce the 50P TOP RATE OF TAXATION on incomes
over 150,000 thus removing the MILLIONAIRES TAX BONUS, while Labour would
also introduce a MANSION TAX on homes worth over 2 MILLION in order to help
them lower the tax rate to 10p for the lowest earners in the country.
Similarly, Labour would immediately CUT VAT from 20% back to 17.5% since this is
targeting the most vulnerable in society most and discouraging people from spending
which is therefore not only immoral, but also lengthening the recession.

68

However, Miliband is also committed to continuing to CUT THE DEFICIT; so not

returning to the high public spending of the Blair and Brown years; ED BALLS,
therefore, often refers to the need for TIGHT CONTROL OF PUBLIC SPENDING, while
in some ways he is offering some very right wing policies such as an END TO THE
PRINCIPLE OF UNIVERSALISM IN THE WELFARE STATE; for example WEALTHIER
PENSIONERS WILL NO LONGER BE ENTITLED TO THE WINTER FUEL ALLOWANCE
UNDER LABOUR.

HOW UNITED IS LABOUR TODAY?

The Left believe that Miliband is too associated with Blairism and thus criticise the
ongoing influence within the party of PETER MANDELSON, perhaps the key architect
of New Labour. Indeed, some trade unionists have said Mandelsons think tank
PROGRESS should be banned from the party! Mandelsons response is
characteristically catty, Its forward looking, its progressive, its modernising and it
wants to commit to use the best possible platform on which we can fight and win the
next election. Perhaps thats why the trade unions dont like it.
The Left are also highly critical of the founder of BLUE LABOUR LORD GLASMAN
who has, controversially, condemned Labour for in the past being stranded in
Keynesian orthodoxy and its close association with the trade unions which has been
abusive. Lord Prescott has even tweeted, in response to Glasmans ideas, Glasman.
You know sod all about politics, economic policy, Labour or solidarity. Bugger off and
go organise some communities.
Ed Milibands criticism of the PUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES, These strikes are wrong has
outraged many on the Left of the party, as well as the trade union movement.
According to trade union boss, Bob Crow, A Labour leader who doesnt stand by the
workers is one a one way ticket to oblivion.
The trade unions and the Left are also furious that neither Ed Miliband nor Ed Balls
will say that they will increase PUBLIC SPENDING; indeed Ed Balls has said, My
starting point is, Im afraid, we are going to have to keep these Tory cuts. Len
McCluskey, another union leader has condemned these policies as discredited
Blairism.
Milibands plans to reduce the influence of the TRADE UNIONS within the Labour
Party by ending its THIRD OF THE SHARE OF THE VOTES TO ELECT A LABOUR LEADER
has also outraged many such as Tony Benn who argue that the trade unions and
Labour must always be linked since the trade unions established the Labour Party as
a way of politically representing the working class [in 1900]
Milibands acceptance that FREE SCHOOLS and CITY ACADEMIES provide parents with
greater choice and help to drive up standards also frustrates the Left as they believe
we should all have the same opportunities within comprehensive education.
The Left also regards the phrase RESPONSIBLE CAPITALISM as worryingly Blairite
and not at all socialist, while they have been horrified by the use of the Disraelian

69

phrase ONE NATION LABOUR which seems to suggest that Labour is no longer going
to be a party of the working class and will instead be a centrist party for everyone.
That would, of course, destroy Labours socialist credentials and make it a poor
shadow of itself.
But Right Wingers in the Party also question Milibands commitment to Blairism! They
are highly critical of any return to a 50P TOP RATE OF TAXATION since this will
punish the wealth creators. Milibands enthusiasm for a BANKING CODE OF
CONDUCT and interventions in the markets to encourage a LIVING WAGE and
GUARANTEED APPRENTICESHIPS also concerns them as being too state-centric,
while Ed Balls plans for a PERMANENT MANSION TAX is much too reminiscent of
Old Labours traditional commitment to WEALTH REDISTRIBUTION. They also feel
that too much of Milibands philosophy is based on old socialist ideas of BIG
GOVERNMENT, for example, Milibands commitment to FREEZING DOMESTIC
ENERGY PRICES FOR 20 MONTHS.
The right are fearful, too, that Miliband has put JOHN CRUDDAS MP in charge of
Labours influential POLICY REVIEW since he has unashamedly said that he believes in
the role of collective action in peoples lives which is the true Labour way! Might
he then reverse the whole thrust of Blairism?

According to Mr Cruddas the story should now be about rebuilding Britain both in
terms of bricks and mortar [more housing and infrastructure] to create jobs and
creating a sense among its citizens of joint involvement in national renewal. This,
he argues, will involve the unashamed championing of the role of collective action in
peoples lives as distinct from the Tory Lib Dem coalition, which he says wants to
hack back the public sector from the state. He cannot give away details of policy,
but his broad thinking is radical. He wants to look at the idea of appointing union
officials to company boards. He wants to plug the public into the debate on Europe
by offering an in / out referendum once the shape of the new European Union is
known. He wants to reform the public services, where necessary, but only where that
will enhance their role, not as a means of shrinking them and hiving them off in parts
to the private sector.
The Guardian, 16th June 2012

The Left and the Right of the Party are also at odds over whether they could be
prepared to work in a coalition with the Liberal Democrats after the next Election. Ed
Balls seems particularly open to this, but Deputy Leader, HARRIET HARMAN and those
on the Left are much more sceptical warning against cosying up with the Liberal
Democrats.

TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE LABOUR PARTY STILL COMMITTED TO ITS

TRADITIONAL PRINCIPLES? [25]

70

In order to determine whether the Labour Party is still committed to its traditional
socialist principles we need, of course, to determine what they are. Traditionally,
therefore, Labour has been committed to establishing a FAIRER and more EQUAL
society, based on the principles of SOCIAL JUSTICE. Labour has thus been in favour of
INCREASING TAXES on the WEALTHIEST in society in order to provide the best
possible PUBLIC SERVICES that everyone can share in. This is, of course, the basis to
CLEMENT ATTLEEs WELFARE STATE, while Labour has also been in favour of
policies of NATIONALISATION in order to ensure that workers are provided with the
best possible chance of a job and do not simply become victims of the free market.
Given the partys belief in fairness many of its leading supporters have believed in the
principles of COMPREHENSIVE EDUCATION. Unsurprisingly, over the years most of
Labours support has, therefore come from the working class and the party has always
fostered very strong links with the TRADE UNION movement.
Since becoming Labour leader in 2010, ED MILIBAND, has, therefore, had to grapple
with the question of whether he should return the Labour party to these traditional
principles, or whether he should follow a more BLAIRITE agenda and move the policies
of Labour closer to those of the Conservatives. The evidence, so far, suggests that, in
spite of his being labelled RED ED by the right wing tabloids he has pursued quite a
nuanced strategy combining elements of traditional BIG GOVERNMENT Labour with
some quite radical MODERNIZING POLICIES which have worried traditionalists in the
party.
On the one hand, Miliband has made clear that he is not in favour of returning to large
scale policies of nationalisation since the FREE MARKET has to be the main provider
of employment. He also failed to support the PUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES, continually
reminding the public that, THESE STRIKES ARE WRONG. This suggests that, like
Blair, he is most eager to win the support of the middle classes than appeal to his
traditional supporters amongst the working class. Indeed, he has gone so far as to
announce that Labour is going to DEAFFILITATE FROM THE TRADE UNIONS and the
UNIONS WILL THUS LOST THEIR ONE THIRD VOTE IN THE ELECTION OF A LABOUR
LEADER. This represents a dramatic departure from traditional Labour principles. It is
within this context that Trade Union leader, BOB CROW has angrily said, Ed Miliband
needs to decide whose side he is on.
Significantly, too, Miliband does not disagree with the need for massive SPENDING
CUTS. Indeed, he told the Labour Party Conference in 2011, We wont be able to
reverse many of the cuts this government is making, while in almost Thatcherite
language he told conference, We need a new era of wealth creation in this country.
His support for the principle of TOP UP FEES [at 6000, rather than 9000] has also
outraged traditionalists within the party, as has his praise for the way in which CITY
ACADEMIES can drive up standards. His invention of the phrase ONE NATION
LABOUR has also shocked many on the left of the party who see it as abandoning the
working class roots of Labour in favour of the party being just an imitation of moderate
Conservatism. He has also abandoned the principle of UNIVERSALITY WITHIN THE

71

WELFARE STATE, a core Labour belief, by accepting that WEALTHIER PENSIONERS

WILL NOW LONGER BE ABLE TO CLAIM THEIR FREE WINTER FUEL ALLOWANCE.

Shadow Chancellor, Ed Balls, has indicated Labour will support a pay freeze for
public sector workers in order to help reduce the deficit. Trade Union leaders have
responded that Labour is failing to speak up for ordinary people.
Mr Balls comments are expected to anger many public sector workers and trade
unionists. Mark Serwotka, the leader of the Public and Commercial Services union,
says Mr Balls stance is hugely disappointing and accused the Labour Party of
emulating the Tories on many issues.
The President of the RMT union, Alex Gordon, says Mr Balls decision to back the
public sector pay freeze will cost Labour votes. What Ed Balls is announcing is that
Labour has given up on opposing those policies, he said. I think from the trade
unions point of view, what were going to be asking is if Labour doesnt want to be
the opposition, then where is the opposition going to come from to this
government?
BBC News, 14th January 2012

And yet, Miliband is, in some ways, further to the Left than either Tony Blair or Gordon
Brown, given his belief in the POSITIVE ADVANTAGES OF STATE INTERVENTION in
both the economy and society. For example, he favours a new BANKING CODE to
control what bankers can and cannot do, while he has demanded, too, that companies
provide COMPULSORY APPRENTICESHIPS in order to show that they are
RESPONSIBLE rather than PREDATORY CAPITALISTS. The way, too, in which he
has also said that a future Labour government would FREEZE DOMESTIC ENERGY
PRICES FOR 20 MONTHS and require energy companies to put PENSIONERS ON THE
LOWEST TARIFF, is another example of Milibands BIG GOVERNMENT approach to
problems, as his commitment to ensure that the HEALTH SECRETARY once again has
a DUTY to provide comprehensive health care for all.
The way in which he favours more REDISTRIBUTIVE TAXATION, for example, by
returning to a 50P TOP RATE OF TAXATION and introducing a MANSION TAX also
appeals to traditionalists, as does his commitment to reduce VAT back to 17.5% from
20% since VAT hits the poorest in society most. However, one should not exaggerate
the socialism of this; in 1979 the top rate of taxation was 83%, Miliband is only arguing
for 50% on incomes above 150,000.
It is, therefore, difficult to categorise what Miliband is doing to Labour. His faith in the
POSITIVE VALUE OF STATE INTERVENTIONISM is certainly to the Left of New Labour,

72

but his MODERNIZING IMPULSE which will dramatically reduce Labours strong links
with the TRADE UNIONS, together with his focus on BALANCED BUDGETS and
willingness to abandon the principle of UNIVERSALITY in the WELFARE STATE
indicates he is prepared to confront some of Labours most long lasting and cherished
values!

THE CONSERVATIVES
Just as there has been an ongoing struggle in the Labour Party between those who
support a SOCIALIST STATE and those social democrats who follow what has been
termed a THIRD WAY, during the past thirty years there has been a similar struggle
for influence within the Conservative Party between ONE NATION CONSERVATIVES
and those more radical Conservatives on the NEW RIGHT who have been popularly
termed THATCHERITE. The big debate within the Conservative Party at the moment
is therefore whether David Cameron is better seen as a Thatcherite or a One Nation
Conservative or has he managed to create a new sort of party based upon the
principles of both?

ONE NATION CONSERVATIVES

Two nations between whom there is no intercourse and no sympathy; who are as
ignorant of each others habits, thoughts and feelings, as if they were dwellers in
different zones, or inhabitants of different planets; the rich and the poor.
Benjamin Disraeli Sybil [1844]

The phrase ONE NATIONISM derives from BENJAMIN DISRAELI in his novel SYBIL
[1844]. One Nation Conservatives thus try to bridge the gap between rich and poor
and thereby bring society together around a shared platform of values. One Nation
Conservative Prime Ministers, like HAROLD MACMILLAN [PM: 1957-63] and EDWARD
HEATH [PM: 1970-74] thus tended to support the POST WAR CONSENSUS which was
for the government to intervene to keep EMPLOYMENT LEVELS HIGH, as well as
investing in the WELFARE STATE and not deliberately antagonising the trade unions.
For One Nation Conservatives, the Conservative Party should bring the country
together rather than divide it. As EDWARD HEATH said in 1974, We are a great
people and a great nation. We are one nation. One Nation in which men and women
of all creeds and races can live together not in conflict but as neighbours. One Nation
in which all those who work in industry share the same aim of creating new prosperity
for themselves and for the community. In short, One Nation Conservatives like Heath
believed that the state should have a positive role in creating a better society, while
One Nation Tories have also tended to be very pro-European. Indeed, it was under

73

Edward Heath that the UK joined, what was then called, the EUROPEAN ECONOMIC
COMMUNITY in 1973.

THATCHERISM / NEW RIGHT

MARGARET THATCHER [PM: 1979-1990] supported a very different sort of
Conservatism to that of her predecessors. Unlike former Conservative leaders,
Thatcher was not prepared to sacrifice her principles in order to create a FALSE
CONSENSUS. Instead; she was an ADVERSARIAL POLITICIAN quite prepared to divide
the country between her supporters and, as she once called the MINERS, during their
1984-5 strike as, THE ENEMY WITHIN.
Thus, Thatcherism focused on the FREE MARKET, PRIVATISATION, LOW TAXATION,
REDUCTION IN THE SIZE OF THE WELFARE STATE, OPPOSITION TO TRADE UNIONISM
and the REDUCTION OF STATE INTERVENTION IN THE ECONOMY. All of this was
designed to PROVIDE PEOPLE WITH GREATER CHOICE, while FREEING THE
INDIVIDUAL TO MAKE A GREATER SUCCESS OF THEIR LIFE. She also distrusted
greater European integration, fearing that this was going to eventually undermine
PARLIAMENTARY SOVEREIGNTY.

Let Europe be a family of nations, understanding each other better, appreciating

each other more, doing more together but relishing our national identity no less
than our common European endeavour.
Margaret Thatcher the Bruges Speech, 1988

The main focus of Thatcher was therefore DISENGAGEMENT; the state would
therefore stop interfering in the market place and the free market would determine
the success or failure of business. By the state not intervening, businesses would
either disappear altogether, allowing resources to move to other growing industries,
or they would be forced to make themselves more efficient in order to survive. [NEIL
MCNAUGHTON].
In a real sense, Thatcher could thus be seen as a LIBERAL since, like traditional liberals,
she believed in the importance of the individual determining the direction of their life,
rather than the state doing it for them. Thatcherism thus disliked too much
government and wanted to reduce the influence of government in your life.

74

DAVID CAMERONS CONSERVATIVE PARTY

David Cameron is acutely aware that, as his Home Secretary, THERESA MAY, once put
it, the Conservatives were in danger of becoming seen as THE NASTY PARTY because
of their continued focus on INDIVIDUAL SUCCESS rather than the well-being of
society. Therefore, in a number of ways, Cameron has distanced himself from the
New Right / Thatcherite wing of the party in order to prove his social conscience.

This is my DNA: family, community, country. These are the things I care about. They
are what made me. We will reward those who take responsibility and care for those
who cant. [David Cameron]
Mr Cameron said Britain needed people to take more responsibility and government
action could only ever be part of the answer to solving societys problems. He said he
wanted to make it easier for people to volunteer.
Addressing criticism that the Big Society idea was too vague, Mr Cameron said it was
not just about rolling out one single policy, What this is all about is giving people more
power and control to improve their lives and communities.
BBC, 14th February 2011

David Cameron has thus been responsible for introducing many new more One Nation
sounding policies which emphasise the importance of SOCIAL COHESION and which
traditional Thatcherites are uncomfortable with. Thus, his policy chief, OLIVER
LETWIN, is a leading One Nation Conservative, while the reassuring One Nation and
pro-European figure of KENNETH CLARKE is still a member of the Cabinet.
Thus Cameron is not promising tax cuts that the government may not be able to
afford. WE WILL NOT PROMISE UNFUNDED TAX CUTS WE CANNOT DELIVER.
[DAVID CAMERON]. Indeed, having won power one of the first policies that he
dropped in order to win the support of the Liberal Democrats was the abolition of
INHERITANCE TAX on inheritances worth less than 1 MILLION. This will have shocked
many Conservatives, while, significantly, he has taken those who earn less than
10,000 out of tax altogether! This was a Liberal Democrat policy which will now
have to be funded by a RISE IN CAPITAL GAINS TAX which will particularly hit SECOND
HOME OWNERS and STOCK MARKET INVESTORS!

75

I know its your money. I know you want some of it back and I want to give it to
you. Its one of the reasons Im doing this job. But we will only cut taxes once its
responsible to do so.
David Cameron

At the same time, Cameron has focused a great deal more on SOCIETY than any
Conservative leader since Edward Heath. He has, for example, put a much greater
emphasis on the importance of MENDING A BROKEN SOCIETY. Former Tory leader,
IAIN DUNCAN SMITH, has thus been made head of the highly influential SOCIAL
JUSTICE POLICY UNIT which has put at the forefront of the Conservative Party the task
of REBUILDING A BROKEN SOCIETY; thus providing a much greater emphasis than
ever before in understanding the causes of social breakdown and not simply
condemning it. And, as Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, IAIN DUNCAN
SMITH has said that his mission is to understand the root causes of poverty.

Mr Cameron has said that the governments duty was sorting out the budget deficit
and building economic growth but he added, What is my mission, what is it I am really
passionate about? It is actually social recovery as well as economic recovery.
We do need a social recovery to mend the broken society and to me, thats what the
Big Society is all about.
And in response to suggestions that people believed he was Margaret Thatcher all
over again, he said, I am different to Margaret Thatcher, different to past
Conservative governments, this whole idea of emphasising the importance of building
the Big Society and all the things we can do government is not just about making
cuts and saying lets hope society steps forward.
BBC, 14th February 2011

The Conservatives have also promised to EXEMPT THE NHS FROM THE PUBLIC
SPENDING CUTS THAT THEY SAY THEY WILL HAVE TO INTRODUCE. FEW THINGS
MATTER MORE TO OUR COUNTRY THAN THE NHS ITS AN INSTITUTION THAT
BINDS THE COUNTRY TOGETHER. [DAVID CAMERON]

The NHS is the most precious institution in our country to my family, to your family.
At the last election, it was Labour policy to cut the NHS. It was Liberal Democrat policy
to cut the NHS. It was our policy Conservative policy to protect the NHS and spend
more on it this year, next year and the year after that because we are the party of the
NHS, and as long as Im here we always will be.
David Cameron, Conservative Party Conference Speech, October 2011

76

Thus at the Conservative MANCHESTER CONFERENCE in OCTOBER 2009 Cameron

clearly, and in true One Nation fashion, positioned the Conservative Party as the Party
of the poor and dispossessed in society, rather than Labour, Dont you dare lecture
us about poverty. You have failed and it falls to us, the modern Conservative Party, to
fight for the poorest who you have let down.
Under Cameron the Conservatives have also become much more comfortable with
ALTERNATIVE LIFESTYLES and Cameron recently used his authority as party leader to
push through parliament a radical agenda LEGALISING GAY MARRIAGE which shocked
many traditional Conservatives.

I once stood before a Conservative Party conference and said it shouldnt matter
whether commitment was between a man and a woman, a woman and a woman, or
a man and another man. You applauded me for that. Five years on, were consulting
on legalising gay marriage.
David Cameron, Conservative Party Conference, October 2011

The new ENVIRONMENTALISM of the Conservative Party is also at odds with more
traditional Thatcherism which primarily focused on CAPITALIST PROFIT without
focusing on the environmental consequences of this. We believe in quality of life so
environmental issues must be at the heart of politics. [DAVID CAMERON].
Camerons willingness to fully embrace the Liberal Democrats in a coalition, with NICK
CLEGG as DEPUTY PRIME MINISTER, and VINCE CABLE as BUSINESS SECRETARY
suggests that Cameron has also been prepared to reposition the Conservative Party at
the heart of the PROGRESSIVE MIDDLE GROUND of British politics.

In response to suggestions that people believed he was Margaret Thatcher all over
again, Mr Cameron said, I am different to Margaret Thatcher, different to past
Conservative governments, this whole idea of emphasising the importance of
building the Big Society and all the things we can do government is not just about
making cuts and saying lets hope society steps forward.
BBC News, 14th February 2011

CAMERON AND THE RIGHT OF THE PARTY

However, it has also been suggested that Cameron is not quite as progressive as he
may sometimes give the impression and that many aspects of his programme have
become increasingly Thatcherite.
For example, Cameron is planning SIGNIFICANTLY GREATER CUTS IN PUBLIC
SPENDING THAN EVER BEFORE IN ORDER TO BRING THE DEFICIT DOWN EVEN
77

THOUGH THIS WILL CERTAINLY HURT SOCIAL WELFARE. This will naturally appeal to
Thatcherites who have never liked over-spending on the public sector. Sound money
means saving in the good years so we can borrow in the bad. It means ending Labours
spendaholic culture and it means clamping down on government waste. [DAVID
CAMERON] Interestingly though GEORGE OSBORNE, the Shadow Chancellor, has
tried to sell these potentially unpopular policies in a distinctly ONE NATION
FASHION, Were all in this together, but the cuts are massive indeed another 10
billion off welfare was announced in October 2012.
Camerons WELFARE REFORMS are thus dramatic and are reminiscent of NORMAN
TEBBITS attack on DEPENDENCY CULTURE and a rather Thatcherite attempt to
encourage you to be individually responsible for yourself rather than looking to the
state for assistance.

In the next four years WELFARE WILL BE CUT BY 25 BILLION. The reduction will be
achieved by stripping hundreds of thousands of people of their incapacity benefit by
introducing means testing. Those who are judged capable of being able to return to
some work will lose out if they have savings and investments worth more than
16,000. Higher rate tax payers will lose child benefit from 2013, winter fuel payments
to the elderly will fall by 50 to 200 for the over 60s. Housing benefit payouts will be
cut by 5 billion.
Daily Telegraph, 19th October 2010
Welfare began as a life-line. For too many its become a way of life.
David Cameron Speech to the Conservative Party Conference, October 2011

The Conservatives also support the increase of TOP UP FEES to 9000 in order to
ensure that the best UK universities are still able to afford to offer a world class
education. Given that the government is in such debt, this will also help it to pay off
its debt more quickly.

This is no normal recession; were in a debt crisis. It was caused by too much
borrowing, by individuals, businesses, banks and, most of all, governments. When
youre in a debt crisis, some of the normal things that governments can do, to deal
with a normal recession, like borrowing to cut taxes or increase spending these
things dont work because they lead to more debt, which would make the crisis worse.
Why? Because it risks higher interest rates, less confidence and the threat of even
higher taxes in the future. The only way out of the debt crisis is to deal with your
debts. Thats why households are paying down their credit card and store card bills.
It means banks getting their books in order. And it means governments all over the
world cutting spending and living within their means.
David Cameron Speech to the Conservative Party Conference, October 2011

78

The Right of the Party has also succeeded in having the 50P TOP RATE OF TAXATION
reduced to 45p and want it further reduced to 40p since, they argue, this is penalising
societys WEALTH CREATORS. This is a, characteristically, right wing policy focusing
on the importance of encouraging wealth creation through tax reduction for the very
wealthiest; what under RONALD REAGAN was termed, TRICKLE DOWN.
In regard to IMMIGRATION the Conservatives are still much less liberal than the other
leading political parties and, the Home Secretary, THERESA MAY has introduced much
stricter RESTRICTIONS OF IMMIGRATION, while David Cameron has, himself,
CONDEMNED MULTI-CULTURALISM in his MUNICH SPEECH.

Under the doctrine of state multiculturalism, we have encouraged different cultures

to live separate lives, apart from each other and apart from the mainstream. Weve
failed to provide a vision of society to which they feel they want to belong. Weve
even tolerated these segregated communities behaving in ways that run completely
counter to our values. So, when a white person holds objectionable views, racist views
for instance, we rightly condemn them. But when equally unacceptable views or
practices come from someone who isnt right, weve been too cautious frankly
frankly, even fearful to stand up to them. The failure, for instance, of some to
confront the horrors of forced marriage the practice where some young girls are
bullied and sometimes taken abroad to marry someone when they dont want to, is a
case in point.
David Cameron, Munich Speech, 5th February 2011

And, in regard to EUROPE, Cameron, in true Thatcherite fashion, has, at last, offered
the Conservative right what they have long craved a YES / NO REFERENDUM on the
UKs continued membership of the European Union.
David Cameron has said the British people must "have their say" on Europe as he
pledged an in/out referendum if the Conservatives win the election. The Prime
Minister said he wanted to renegotiate the UK's relationship with the EU and then give
people the "simple choice" between staying in under those new terms, or leaving the
EU. The news was welcomed by Eurosceptics who have long campaigned for a vote.
During noisy Prime Minister's Questions exchanges in Parliament, Labour leader Ed
Miliband said Mr Cameron was "running scared" of the UK Independence Party, whose
poll ratings have been rising.
BBC News, 23rd January 2013

The Home Secretary, THERESA MAY and the Justice Secretary, CHRIS GRAYLING have
also committed themselves to repealing the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT since, in their
opinion, it is too often used as a VILLAINS CHARTER and gives too much unjustified
79

influence in UK affairs to an EXTERNAL COURT - the EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN

RIGHTS in STRASBOURG.

Mrs May told the gathering she was sceptical whether the convention limited human
rights abuses in other countries and suggested it restricted Britain's ability to act in its
own interests. "When Strasbourg constantly moves the goalposts and prevents the
deportation of dangerous men like Abu Qatada, we have to ask ourselves, to what end
are we signatories to the convention?" she said. "Are we really limiting human rights
abuses in other countries? I'm sceptical. She said that "by 2015, we'll need a plan for
dealing with the European Court of Human Rights". "And yes, I want to be clear that
all options - including leaving the convention altogether - should be on the table. She
also called for greater use of the private sector in delivering public services and more
state involvement in industrial planning. The shadow home secretary Yvette Cooper
accused Mrs May of a "blatant political pitch" to right-wing Tories, disillusioned with
the prime minister's leadership. "It is clear that she is more concerned about appealing
to... Tory back benchers and setting out an alternative to David Cameron and George
Osborne than she is about a coherent policy for Government. BBC News, 9th March
2013
In short, even though the Conservatives have been prepared to enter into coalition
with the Liberal Democrats it is interesting to note that Cameron has been unprepared
to budge on certain key right wing policies such as not supporting any further
European integration, limiting immigration and dramatically cutting back spending on
the public services.
In an essay on whether or not the Conservative Party is Thatcherite or One Nation you
should discuss the significance of as many of the arguments above as you possibly can.
You would probably be best advised to conclude that it is a MIXTURE of both; indeed
Cameron has been working hard to develop a distinctive new Conservative based on
the principles of each which is best summed up as REBUILDING SOCIETY AND
REIGNITING THE ECONOMY BY TAKING POWER FROM THE STATE AND GIVING IT
BACK TO THE PEOPLE. It has also been suggested that Camerons reliance on the
support of the Liberal Democrats in the coalition has also ensured that he has to retain
his One Nation principles; if not he would quickly lose their support and the coalition
would collapse.

KEY CONSERVATIVE POLICIES

David Cameron is very eager to BALANCE THE BUDGET, while also creating a BIG
SOCIETY which is more socially cohesive. The policies of the Conservatives are thus
designed to cut the debt as well encouraging a greater sense of COMMUNITY, SELF
MOTIVATION and SELF RESPECT.

80

David Cameron is thus committed to DRAMATIC PUBLIC SPENDING CUTS of 80

BILLION in the next four years in order to reduce the immense national debt, thereby
restoring confidence in the economy. Linked to this the government is also
REFORMING WELFARE in order to encourage people to work or train. For example,
the Conservatives have announced that they will STOP BENEFITS TO UNDER 25 YEAROLDS who are not earning or learning in order to nag and push and guide young
people away from a life on benefits. The Conservatives have also reduced the TOP
RATE OF TAXATION to 45P in order to encourage greater WEALTH CREATION amongst
the most prosperous in society, thereby creating a TRICKLE DOWN EFFECT that all will,
they hope, benefit from.
At the same time, the Conservatives have argued that they are in favour of providing
people with their more CHOICE IN THEIR LIVES and are, therefore, in favour of
transforming education by establishing more CITY ACADEMIES and FREE SCHOOLS
which are supported by private money and in which Head Teachers can have more
power over discipline and syllabuses, thus providing parents with greater choice, as
well as giving teachers greater authority over education. Within this context they have
also introduced the RIGHT TO BUY SCHEME, whereby potential householders will be
given government assistance to purchase their home with only a 5% deposit thus
creating more people with a genuine stake in society. This is thus part of Camerons
plans for a more ASPIRATIONAL SOCIETY, As Prime Minister I am not going to stand
by while peoples aspirations to get on the housing ladder are being trashed.
The Conservatives are also increasingly influenced by New Right ideas and Cameron
has said that the Conservatives are now committed to giving the British public an IN /
OUT REFERENDUM ON OUR CONTINUED MEMBERSHIP OF THE EU since this ongoing
debate now, at last, has to be finally settled one way or another. The Prime Minister
has also said that the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT is being used too often to protect societys
villains and should, therefore, be replaced by a BRITISH BILL OF RIGHTS which stresses
responsibilities as well as rights.

TO WHAT EXTENT IS THE MODERN CONSERVATIVE PARTY INFLUENCED

BY ONE NATION PRINCIPLES [25]
When David Cameron became leader of the Conservative Party he aimed to remove
the partys image as the nasty party. He, therefore, distanced himself from many
traditional elements of Thatcherism which had seemed to make the Tories so focused
on wealth creation, law and order and rolling back the state that they had lost touch
with the importance of building up communities, protecting the environment and
accepting alternative life-styles. He, therefore, increasingly focused on traditional
ONE NATION Conservatives values based on the importance of protecting the most
vulnerable in society and strengthening social cohesion.
As Prime Minister, he has, therefore, emphasised that his MISSION is to create a BIG
SOCIETY based on SHARED COMMUNAL VALUES, while the way in which he has put

81

his political weight behind the GENDER EQUALITY ACT and pushed through the
Commons legislation legalizing GAY MARRIAGE indicates that the Conservative Party
is now much more comfortable with ALTERNATIVE LIFE STYLES. His emphasis on the
importance of the NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE, as an institution that binds our
country together, is also very One Nation orientated and, as well as RING FENCING
SPENDING ON THE NHS, he has done the same for OVERSEAS AID; further illustrating
the sort of social conscience that one associates with One Nation Conservatism. When
he became Prime Minister, Cameron also promised the greenest ever government;
fully committing the government to cutting carbon emissions by 80% by 2050 in line
with EU targets.
However, the right wing of the Conservative Party remains highly influential and, it
has been suggested, that the longer David Cameron is Prime Minister, the more the
Conservatives have begun to shift to the right. For example, GEORGE OSBORNE has
been responsible for the BIGGEST PUBLIC SPENDING CUTS in history; considerably
greater than those of Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s, while WELFARE REFORMS are
designed to make it considerably more difficult to automatically claim welfare thus
forcing people into training and employment. Most recently, Cameron has announced
that under 25 year olds will no longer be able to claim benefits if they are not seeking
a job or in training. Such policies are very reminiscent of Thatcherite GOOD HOUSE
KEEPING and NORMAN TEBBITS condemnation of the idle5, while his focus on
ASPIRATION NATION seems to position Cameron on the side of Thatchers moneymaking, risk-taking role-models rather than the poor and the dispossessed

Mr Cameron vowed to build an aspiration nation driven by individual ambition

the doers, the risk-takers. Taking a swipe at intellctualds like Ed Miliband who
last week attempted to seize the moderate One Nation mantle from the
Conservatives he said, We dont preach about One Nation but practise class
warfare, we get behind people who want to get on in life.
BBC News, 10th October 2012

The way, too, in which the Conservatives have backtracked on GREEN TAXES further
suggests that they are retreating from some of their earlier One Nation commitments,
while the increasing EURO-SCEPTICISM of the Party is at odds with the pro
Europeanism of One Nation Conservatives. For example, Cameron has appeased his
right wing backbenchers by promising a REFERENDUM on the UKs continued
membership of the EU, while his commitment to withdrawing from the EUROPEAN
CONVENTION ON HUMAN RIGHTS is based upon nationalistic principles of state
sovereignty and, once again, is quite far removed from the liberal cosmopolitanism of
One Nation Conservatism. Like Thatcher, Cameron has also avoided major
constitutional changes; rejecting both an elected Lords and power of recall.

My father didnt riot; he got on his bike and looked for work and didnt stop looking until he found
it [Conservative Party Conference, 1980]
5

82

We need to help people pay their fuel bills and we need to keep those bills down,
Mr Cameron told MPs. We need to roll back some of the green regulations and
charges that are putting up bills.
BBC News, 23rd October 2013

Thus, it is very difficult to say categorically how influenced by One Nation principles
the Conservative Party is. Certainly, Cameron campaigned as a modern Conservative
in 2010 not held back by Thatcherite baggage and he is certainly much more focused
on the good of society than any Tory Prime Minister since Edward Heath and yet it
would be unwise to suggest that One Nationism is somehow dominant within the
Conservative Party. Camerons welfare reforms, massive public spending cuts, lack of
interest in constitutional reform and growing nationalism are all quintessentially
Thatcherite, while his ASPIRATION NATION language feels rooted in the 1980s. The
growing influence, too, of right wingers in the cabinet, such as THERESA MAY, CHRIS
GRAYLING and MICHAEL GOVE, and the marginalisation of KENNETH CLARKE, further
suggest that the influence of One Nationism within the party may actually be
declining.

HOW UNITED ARE THE CONSERVATIVES TODAY?

The divisions within the Conservative Party between One Nation and New Right Tories
have become increasingly pronounced over issues to do with national sovereignty,
while there have been growing divisions, too, between traditionalists and modernizers
within the party over issues such as alternative life styles.
For example, the Conservative Party has become increasingly divided over the issue
of EUROPE which must be a concern to David Cameron because both his
predecessors, as Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher and John Major ended up being
destroyed by Europe. Thus, the RIGHT of the party have been delighted that David
Cameron has promised a REFERENDUM on the UKs relationship with the EUROPEAN
UNION; their only complaint is that it will not take place this parliament. One Nation
Conservatives, on the other hand, think it dangerous that the UK should even be
considering leaving the EU; indeed CAROLINE SPELMAN MP has said that it is A NO
BRAINER that it would be MADNESS for the UK to leave the EU.

More than 100 Conservative MPs have defied the government by backing an
amendment to the Queens Speech on an EU referendum. They expressed regret
that a bill paving the way for a referendum in 2017, as pledged by David Cameron,
was not being brought forward this year. The backers of the amendment included
116 Tory MPs, representing half of the partys backbenchers.
BBC News, 15th May 2013

83

THE HUMAN RIGHTS ACT has also, increasingly, divided the Conservative Party. One
Nation Conservatives, such as KENNETH CLARKE MP and TONY BALDRY MP argue that
it does provide a fundamental protection for our civil liberties, while New Right
Conservatives see it as fundamentally undermining parliamentary democracy. In
January 2014, for example, 87 TORY REBELS voted that ARTICLE 8 of the HUMAN
RIGHTS ACT [the right to a family life] should not stop ministers from deporting foreign
criminals.

Amid farcical scenes in the Commons, Mr Cameron had to rely on the votes of
Labour MPs and his Liberal Democrat coalition partners to defeat a revolt by 87
Tories, who voted to give ministers rather than judges the final decision on whether
deportation would breach the human rights of foreign criminals.
The Independent, 30th January 2014

The Conservatives are also very divided over ALTERNATIVE LIFE STYLES with many
traditional Conservatives hostile to concepts such as GAY MARRIAGE which they see
as being at odds with traditional TORY VALUES OF THE FAMILY. They thus find
Camerons METROSEXUAL enthusiasm for non traditional life styles troubling.

David Cameron has said equal marriage would help build a stronger and fairer
society but nearly half of all Tories voted against it in February and many party
activists remain deeply opposed to it in principle.
BBC News, 20th May 2013

HOW UNITED IS THE COALITION?

The Coalition between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats does, of course,
agree on many issues such as the importance of BALANCING THE BUDGET,
RESTORING CIVIL LIBERTIES and DRAMATICALLY REDUCING THE NATIONAL DEBT.
On other issues, especially CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM, the EUROPEAN UNION and
the importance of the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT it has been rather less united, although it
now looks likely to last until the 2015 General Election.
Thus the Coalition parties remain firmly united on the importance of CUTTING THE
NATIONAL DEBT. GEORGE OSBORNE and DANNY ALEXANDER have managed to
work closely together at the Treasury CUTTING PUBLIC SPENDING. Indeed, Business
Secretary, VINCE CABLE, has said There is no Plan A,B,C or V which provides an
alternative.

84

Danny Alexander has sparked a row with Liberal Democrat activists by endorsing
Chancellor George Osbornes plans for yet more spending cuts well beyond next
years election.
Mr Alexander has formed a close working relationship with Mr Osborne since
moving to the Treasury shortly after the 2010 General Election. Tory ministers
regard the Treasury as the most pro coalition department in Whitehall. But some
Lim Dems privately complain that Mr Alexander has gone native and is too keen
to wield the axe on public spending.
The Independent on Sunday, 3rd February 2014

Both the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats also believe in the importance of
building up LOCAL COMMUNITIES in order to create a more healthy and participatory
democracy, while both parties are fully committed to RESTORING CIVIL LIBERTIES that
were threatened by Labour, by ABOLISHING PLANS FOR IDENTITY CARDS. On
WELFARE REFORM, both parties argue that, in order to cut the national debt and
reinforce a sense of community pride, people have to be encouraged to look for work
and, as Nick Clegg has put it, You cant just be given benefits, with no strings attached
and with no questions asked, when you are being given support to find your way back
into work.

Our first big decision was to clear the structural deficit this parliament. To wipe the
slate clean by 2015. This has meant painful cuts. Agonisingly difficult decisions. Not
easy, but right.
Nick Clegg, Liberal Democrat Party Conference, September 2011

However, there are growing divisions, too, over how best to BALANCE THE
GOVERNMENTS BOOKS, with VINCE CABLE arguing strongly that too much emphasis
has been put on welfare cuts and not enough on tax increases in order to reduce the
countrys debt. The Liberal Democrats have also been highly critical of the
Conservatives retreat from GREEN TAXES; since they have been raising domestic fuel
prices so greatly. For the Liberal Democrats the long term future of the environment
is what really matters.

Mr Cable said he was disturbed that the spending review for 2015-2016 was
working on the assumption that 85% of the further deficit reduction would come
from spending cuts and only 15% from tax rises. He said he did not agree with this
balance, and urged higher taxes on pensioners perks such as universal; winter fuel
payments, free TV licenses, travel passes, eye tests and prescriptions.
BBC News, 8th March 2013

85

Even more divisive has been the issue of CONSTITUTIONAL REFORM. Liberal
Democrats are committed to modernizing the Constitution and so support a fully
elected HOUSE OF LORDS which would, thus, have real DEMOCRATIC LEGITIMACY,
while they believe that the HUMAN RIGHTS ACT provides an essential guarantee of
the human rights of all. This has, therefore, created a great deal of disunity with the
Conservatives since they have a much more BURKEAN approach to the Constitution
and, because of this traditionalism, have blocked Liberal Democrat plans to
democratize the Lords. At the same time, growing Conservative opposition to the
Human Rights Act, because many Tories see it as being a VILLAINS CHARTER and
giving too much more to an EXTERNAL COURT so infringing PARLIAMENTARY
SOVEREIGNTY, has antagonized the Liberal Democrats who see the Act as a
fundamentally important safeguard of our civil liberties. Indeed, Nick Clegg has said
that the Human Rights Act is NON NEGOTIABLE. The Liberal Democrats are also
PRO EUROPEAN and thus see Camerons offer a REFERENDUM on the UKs continued
membership of the EUROPEAN UNION as unnecessary and potentially damaging to
business confidence. Neither party can agree either on ELECTORAL REFORM; the
Liberal Democrats [in spite of their defeat in the Alternative Vote referendum] still
want the introduction of FIRST PAST THE POST for WESTMINSTER ELECTIONS, while
the Conservatives believe that FIRST PAST THE POST should be retained as it is much
more likely to provide stable and secure government.

The European Convention on Human Rights and the Human Rights Act are not, as
some would have you believe, foreign impositions. They are British rights, drafted by
British lawyers. Forged in the aftermath of the atrocities of the Second World War.
Fought for by Winston Churchill. So let me say something really clear about the
Human Rights Act. In fact Ill do it in words of one syllable: It is here to stay.
Nick Clegg, Speech at the Liberal Democrat Party Conference, September 2011

There has also been a clash over the LEVESON REPORT with the Conservatives fearful
that too much press regulation would undermine a free press, while the Liberal
Democrats have accepted the report arguing that individual rights to privacy are more
important and so there should be a LEGAL ENFORCEMENT OF THE PRESS.
In conclusion, there is no doubt that there are significant divisions within the Coalition.
That though is hardly surprising as the two parties fought the 2010 General Election
on different manifestos. Indeed, some Liberal Democrats have been particularly
scathing about their Conservative colleagues. VINCE CABLE has called the
Conservatives, ruthless, calculating and thoroughly tribal, while Liberal Democrat
President, TIM FARRON has called the coalition a MARRIAGE which will certainly
end in a DIVORCE. However, it is in the best interests of both David Cameron and
Nick Clegg for the coalition to last until the General Election in 2015 and so it probably
will, not least because on the biggest issue facing the country; CUTTING THE
NATIONAL DEBT both parties are united that further cuts are vital if the economy is
to fully recover from the years of Labour over-spending.

86

TO WHAT EXTENT DO THE MAJOR PARTIES DIFFER OVER POLICIES AND

IDEAS? [25 MARKS]
The ability of the Liberal Democrats and Conservatives to establish a coalition
government indicates that there must be at least some consensus because, if politics
was adversarial, they would not be able to serve together in the same government,
while the Labour Party also now accepts the main principles of the Thatcherite focus
on the free market, a balanced budget and low taxation being the most effective way
stimulating recovery.
Miliband, like the coalition partners, has therefore not
advocated huge public spending on the model of JM KEYNES to reinvigorate the
economy, while he has not argued for a return to nationalisation, accepting that the
best way to encourage prosperity is through the FREE MARKET

We need a new era of wealth creation in this country. But it will not happen with the
old set of rules. And we cannot spend our way to a new economy.
Ed Miliband, Labour Party Conference Speech, September 2011

Both coalition parties accept the need for dramatic PUBLIC SPENDING CUTS in order
to restore confidence in the British economy. Indeed, DANNY ALEXANDER and
GEORGE OSBORNE have worked very closely together at the TREASURY cutting
Welfare as much as possible in order to balance the books. Interestingly, both ED
MILIBAND and ED BALLS also accept the need for public spending cuts and agree that
the last Labour governments did spend too much money and future Labour
government would have to prioritise cutting public spending. It is a similar story with
WELFARE REFORM; the coalition parties agree that the government has paid out too
much money in providing welfare so contributing to the debt crisis, while ease of
entitlement has also too often undermined the fabric of society. Labour, increasingly
influenced by BLUE LABOUR, has moved in a similar direction and Ed Balls has
accepted that the Welfare State can no longer be based on the principle of
UNIVERSALISM. He has thus, pre-empted even the coalition by arguing that wealthier
pensioners should no longer be entitled to the FREE FUEL ALLOWANCE, while agreeing
that a benefits culture has, for too long, undermined communities by discouraging
hard work and responsibility.

Mr Ed Balls has said that he would consider supporting a range of new benefit rules
outlined by George Osborne. The comments are the latest sign of Labours shifting
approach on welfare. Mr Balls now accepts the coalition principle of a total cap on
welfare spending. I want to see the social security bill coming down, Mr Balls said,
and the reality is we are going to have to face some very difficult decisions.
Daily Telegraph, 27th June 2013

87

John Cruddas, a major figure in Blue Labour is in charge of crafting Ed Milibands

speeches and writing policies for the next election manifesto. It is not acceptable
that generations of people live on welfare it is not good for them. It is not right
and it is not fair and we have allowed that to happen, he said. Labours new blue
clique believes the welfare state has contributed to the downfall of communities
blamed for so long on inequality and the collapse of industry by allowing people
to think it is acceptable to just take. According to Mr Cruddas, Its absolutely
correct that people who have paid in over a lifetime should be treated better than
people who havent paid in, he said
BBC News, 29th May 2013

At the same time, the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats have moved close to the
Labour Party in their focus on the importance of building up SOCIETY. David Cameron
has thus referred to the need for a BIG SOCIETY, while all the political parties have
staked a claim to being the party of the NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE; all of them
vowing to protect the NHS from spending cuts, as well as making the NHS MORE
ACCOUNTABLE TO THE PUBLIC.

Few things matter more to our country than the NHS its an institution that binds
our country together. [David Cameron]
Let me tell David Cameron this. Its the oldest truth in politics. He knows it and
now the public know it. You cant trust the Tories with the NHS. [Ed Miliband]
I will never let the profit motive get in the way of the essential purposes of the
NHS. [Nick Clegg]

Ed Miliband has said a future Labour government would create a new culture for
public services in England, handing more power to parents and patients. In a speech
later, he will sketch out a series of reforms aiming to tackle what he called
unaccountable state power and unresponsive public services. Mr Miliband will
also acknowledge in his speech that further spending cuts are still needed, saying,
That is why it is all the more necessary to get every pound of value out of services.
BBC News, 10th February 2014

On the ENVIRONMENT all of the main political parties are in favour of PRIORITIZING
GREEN ISSUES more than any previous government and reducing carbon emissions by
50%, in line with EU targets, by 2050, while there is a consensus, too, on important
national issues such as the importance of retaining TRIDENT as the main focus of our
NUCLEAR DEFENCE and fighting hard for the future of the UNITED KINGDOM in the
SCOTTISH INDEPENDENCE REFERENDUM. In terms of EDUCATION, the similarities

88

between the Coalition and Labour are also striking with Labours Shadow Education
Secretary, TRISTRAM HUNT, accepting the principle of FREE SCHOOLS as the best way
of driving up standards and increasing PARENTAL CHOICE.

Labour has announced a reversal of its policy on free schools and is to abandon
opposition to the Tories flagship state schools programme. In a surprise move the
new Shadow Education Secretary, Tristram Hunt, has also signalled a further change
saying there would be no return to the days when all state schools were under the
control of the local authority. The TV historian who was among the big winners in
Ed Milibands shadow cabinet reshuffle, confirmed that a Labour government would
not close down any of the free schools established under the reforms pioneered by
Education Secretary, Michael Gove.
He said Labour would be coming forward with its own version of the scheme which
enables groups of parents and other organisations to set up schools that are outside
local authority control to be called Parent-Led Academies.
The Observer, 13th October 2013

It seems, too, that in regard to CIVIL LIBERTIES, the coalition has established a
consensus that Labour also now accepts. Cameron and Clegg are thus committed to
restricting the governments interference in our civil liberties, Obsessive law-making
simply makes criminals out of ordinary people. So, well get rid of unnecessary laws
and once theyre gone, they wont come back. [Nick Clegg] and have, therefore,
condemned Identity Cards and a further CCTV cameras. Ed Miliband agrees, admitting
that the last Labour governments interfered too much with civil liberties and that,
Civil liberties must be at the centre of what we stand for as a political party.
However, we need to beware of over-emphasising modern day consensus. Indeed, in
the past year [possibly due to the increased self confidence of the large number of
right wing Tory MPs first elected in 2010] the Conservative Party has moved
considerably towards the right opening up major fissures between both the Coalition
and Labour, but also within the Coalition. Thus, there are significant divisions over the
HUMAN RIGHTS ACT, with the Conservatives eager to repeal it as it is an infringement
of PARLIAMENTARY SOVEREIGNTY as well as being, too often, A VILLAINS
CHARTER, while the Liberal Democrats and Labour see it as a vital protection for our
civil liberties. At the same time, both the Liberal Democrats and Labour support
greater PRESS REGULATION, in line with the proposals of the LEVESON REPORT, while
the Conservatives are concerned that this would undermine the FREEDOM OF THE
PRESS. Over constitutional reform, the Conservatives have frustrated the plans of
Labour and the Liberal Democrats for an ELECTED HOUSE OF LORDS by withdrawing
their support for these proposals. On the EUROPEAN UNION, the Conservatives are
the only party to offer a REFERENDUM on our continued membership if they win the
next General Election. Labour, on the other hand, are in favour of returning the TOP
RATE OF TAXATION to 50P, although the significance of this difference can, perhaps,

89

be exaggerated since it is a difference of just 5p on incomes over 150,000 and so

would affect very people in the UK.
And yet, on the key issues that will define the next General Election; WELFARE
REFORM, PUBLIC SPENDING, EDUCATION and the NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE, there
is a remarkable degree of consensus with Labour not offering any significant change
of direction from the Coalition. It thus seems as though the Coalition has, indeed,
established a new ROLLING CONSENSUS and that the differences between the
parties at the 2015 General Election will be significantly less than the similarities.

SUMMARY
5 Marks
Outline two functions of political parties
Outline two features of political parties
Outline two policies of the current Conservative Party
Outline two policies of the current Labour Party
Outline two policies of the current Liberal Democrat Party
Outline two policies on which Labour and Conservative disagree
Outline two policies on which Labour and Conservative agree
Explain the term factionalism
Explain the meaning of consensus politics
Explain the meaning of adversary politics
Explain the term right wing
Explain the term left wing
10 Marks
Explain three ways in which modern Conservatism differs from New Right
[Thatcherite] Conservatism
Explain three ways in which modern Labour Party beliefs differ from traditional
socialism
Explain the main policies that are currently the subject of consensus politics
Explain the main policies that are currently the subject of adversary politics
Explain the main divisions within the Conservative Party
Explain the main divisions within the Labour Party
25 Marks
To what extent has the Conservative Party abandoned Thatcherism [New Right]?
To what extent has the Labour Party abandoned New Labour ideas?
To what extent do the coalition parties agree on policy?
To what extent is the Conservative Party internally divided?
To what extent is the Labour Party internally divided?
To what extent is there a political consensus in UK politics?
To what extent do the three main parties disagree on UK policy?

90

3. ELECTIONS
KEY TERMS: ELECTION; MAJORITARIAN REPRESENTATION; MANDATE;
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION; ELECTORAL REFORM; PARTY SYSTEM;
STRONG GOVERNMENT; STABLE GOVERNMENT

CONTENT EXPLANATION: Elections and democracy a knowledge and understanding

of how and why elections promote democracy and of the limitations of this
democratic role.
Elections in the UK a knowledge and understanding of the workings of the voting
systems used for elections to the House of Commons, to devolved bodies and local
authorities, and to the European Parliament, and an awareness of their implications
for party representation and government.
Debating electoral systems a knowledge and understanding of the advantages and
disadvantages of the UK electoral system and, in particular, of the benefits or
otherwise of changing the Westminster Electoral System. Extended questions will not
be set on particular electoral systems, except for First Past the Post [Simple Plurality
System].

SAMPLE QUESTION
(a) What are the features of the first past the post electoral system? [5]
(b) Explain the workings of two other electoral systems used in the UK [10]
(c) Should proportional representation be introduced for Westminster elections? [25]
JANUARY 2009
(a) Outline the workings of the Additional Member System [AMS] [5]
(b) How has the use of AMS affected party representation in the UK? [10]
(c) Should proportional representation be introduced for elections to the House of
Commons? [25]

MAY 2009

91

(a) What is the doctrine of the mandate? [5]

(b) Explain the workings of three electoral systems used in the UK [10]
(c) Assess the advantages of the first past the post electoral system. [25]
JANUARY 2010
(a) Define proportional representation. [5]
(b) Explain why proportional representation systems have been used more widely in
the UK since 1997. [10]
(c) Assess the criticisms of the various electoral systems used in the UK [25]
MAY 2010
(a) Outline two functions of elections [5]
(b) Explain three advantages of the first past the post electoral system [10]
(c) Make out a case in favour of the introduction of proportional representation for
Westminster Elections. [25]
JANUARY 2011
(a) How do elections promote democracy? [5]
(b) Distinguish between majoritarian and proportional representation. [10]
(c) How far does the Westminster electoral system ensure strong and stable
government? [25]
JUNE 2011
(a) Distinguish between a mandate and a manifesto. [5]
(b) Explain the workings of three electoral systems used in the UK. [10]
(c) Should the Westminster electoral system be reformed? [25]
JANUARY 2012
(a) Outline the workings of the Party List electoral system. [5]
(b) Explain three criticisms of the first past the post electoral system. [10]

92

(c) Make out a case in favour of retaining the first past the post electoral system for
the House of Commons. [25]
JUNE 2012
(a) Outline the workings of the Additional Member System [AMS]
[5]
(b) How has the use of AMS affected party representation in the UK? [10]
(c) Should proportional representation be introduced for elections to the House of
Commons? [25]
JANUARY 2013
(a) What is meant by the term party system? [5]
(b) Explain how and why party representation may be affected by three different
electoral systems? [10]
(c) Assess the advantages of using proportional representation electoral systems. [25]
MAY 2013
(a) Outline the workings of the single transferable vote electoral system. [5]
(b) Using examples, distinguish between a two party system and a multi-party system.
[10]
(c) Should first past the post continue to be used for elections to the House of
Commons? [25]

FUNCTIONS OF ELECTIONS: FORMATION OF

REPRESENTATION OF PUBLIC OPINION, MANDATE

GOVERNMENTS,

The purpose of an election is to provide the VOTER with a DEMOCRATIC CHOICE

between RIVAL POLITICAL PARTIES. All parties will thus issue a MANIFESTO setting
out their policies and so the public can thus decide which party they feel best appeals
to them. An Election therefore has an EDUCATIVE FUNCTION in which we can explore
the rival policies of the various parties and thereby reach an INFORMED DECISION.
An Election also ensures that our REPRESENTATIVES and the GOVERNMENT itself are
made ACCOUNTABLE to us; thus when we vote we can decide whether or not to

93

change our representatives and, in the process, either retain or change the
GOVERNMENT. For example, at the General Election in 2010 the Labour Government
was ejected from office and local Labour MP, JAMES PLASKITT, lost his seat to the
Conservative, CHRIS WHITE.
When we vote we are thus either extending a GOVERNMENTS MANDATE TO
GOVERN or giving another Party or Parties a mandate to govern. As a result of this an
election can provide for an orderly TRANSITION OF POWER with a new government
having been given the necessary LEGITIMACY to govern the country. In short a
GENERAL ELECTION LEGITIMISES EITHER AN EXISTING OR A NEW GOVERNMENT.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A MANIFESTO AND A MANDATE

A MANIFESTO is the document that all political parties publish during a General
Election. In it they explain what their policies would be if they are elected to
government and they try to make these policies so attractive to the electorate that
they win the most number of seats in the House of Commons so that they are able
to form a government. A MANDATE is what an individual or a party receives if it
wins an election. The term mandate comes from the Latin mandare which means
to hand over something. Thus in the 2005 General Election Labour achieved a third
electoral mandate to govern the country, while James Plaskitt received his own
personal mandate to represent Leamington Spa and Warwick for the duration of
the government. By achieving an electoral mandate an individual or a government
can thus claim the LEGITIMACY to represent us on our behalf. A government, or an
individual representative, without an electoral mandate would thus be illegitimate.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A GENERAL ELECTION AND A REFERENDUM

GENERAL ELECTION

REFERENDUM

94

As a result of a GENERAL ELECTION a

government is elected which then
LEGITIMATELY GOVERNS the country
and is ACCOUNTABLE to the voters at
the next General Election. For example,
the Coalition was elected to office in
2010 and will have to face the electorate
again by 2015.

In a General Election the voter is also

electing a REPRESENTATIVE [MP] who
will represent him or her in Parliament;
for example at the next Election in
Leamington Spa and Warwick the voters
will have to decide whether they want
CHRIS WHITE to continue being their
representative.
The result of a General Election is
BINDING; this means that if the
government loses the confidence of the
House of Commons as a result of losing
a General Election it must immediately
resign.

A General Election must also be called

within 5 years of the last General
Election so there will have to be a British
General Election by MAY 2015; General
Elections are therefore MANDATORY.

This contrasts with a REFERENDUM

because in a referendum the public are
not being asked to vote for a
government; they are simply being
asked whether they agree or disagree
with a certain PROPOSITION; for
example the 2011 Referendum over
whether or not to introduce AV for
Westminster Elections.

On the other hand, a referendum is an

example of DIRECT DEMOCRACY,
whereby voters make their own views
known without needing to elect a
representative to speak on their behalf.

In contrast the peoples verdict in a

referendum is NOT BINDING according
to the principle of PARLIAMENTARY
SOVEREIGNTY by which parliament
rather than the public are the supreme
law making body in the country.
This
means that, although it would be highly
controversial, the government could
legally ignore the result of a referendum
if it so wished. A referendum is thus
simply a CONSULTATIVE EXERCISE and
has no binding power.
Whether or not a referendum is called is
entirely up to the government and is
thus DISCRETIONARY. For example,
Cameron had a choice whether or not to
offer a referendum on our membership
of the EUROPEAN UNION, he cannot
though avoid calling a General Election
in 2015.

WHAT IS MEANT BY THE TERM PARTY SYSTEM? [5 MARKS]

The term Party System is a way of explaining the influence that political parties have
on government. Thus in a TWO PARTY SYSTEM two political parties generally contest
power between each other. This has generally been the case in the UK since 1945
95

with the Labour and Conservative Parties competing with each other to form a
MAJORITY GOVERNMENT. Power thus ALTERNATES between two dominant political
parties and it is difficult for a new political party to penetrate government.
In a MULTI PARTY SYSTEM there are three or more political parties, with a more even
share of the vote. This is the case in SCOTLAND, where the SCOTTISH NATIONALISTS,
LABOUR, CONSERVATIVES and LIBERAL DEMOCRATS have a more equal share of the
government ensuring that COALITION governments are more likely. There are also,
what have been called, TWO AND A HALF PARTY SYSTEMS there are two dominant
political parties who have to co-operate with a third lesser party if they are going to
be able to form a government. Traditionally, the UK has been a two party system, but
since the establishment of the Coalition in 2010 and the continued decline of support
for the two major parties we seem increasingly to have become a TWO AND A HALF
PARTY SYSTEM.

MULTI-PARTY ELECTIONS TO THE NORTHERN IRELAND ASSEMBLY

Party

% Vote

Seats Won

% Seats
[2011]

Democratic
Unionist Party

29.3%

38

35.2

Sinn Fein

26.3

29

26.9

Unionist 12.9

16

14.8

Social Democratic 13.9

Labour Party

14

13

Alliance

7.5

7.4

Greens

0.9

0.9

Others

9.2

1.9

Ulster
Party

Won

FEATURES OF THE FIRST PAST THE POST (FPTP), OR SIMPLE PLURALITY

ELECTORAL SYSTEM
Elections to the WESTMINSTER PARLIAMENT are conducted according to FIRST PAST
THE POST. There are 650 CONSTITUENCIES in the UK and each of them elects an MP.

96

EACH ELECTOR IN THE CONSTITUENCY HAS JUST ONE VOTE AND EACH PARTY ONLY
NOMINATES ONE CANDIDATE. All parts of the UK are thus equally represented at
the Westminster Parliament. To win a constituency a candidate simply needs to win
the most votes (this is sometimes referred to as gaining a SIMPLE PLURALITY) so he
or she could win the seat with a majority of just ONE VOTE over their nearest rival.
Thus, Labour held onto CRAWLEY in the 2005 General Election with 39.1% of the vote
and the Conservatives with 39% of the vote gained nothing. With FPTP the party that
wins the MOST NUMBER OF MPs in the HOUSE OF COMMONS therefore forms the
government, even if it did not win the most votes in the country. FPTP, has also
generally led to the establishment of one party governments, since it can often overreward the winning party [although this was not the case in 2010].

ELECTORAL SYSTEM

EXPLANATION AND WHERE USED

FIRST PAST THE POST

[SIMPLE PLURALITY]

First Past the Post is still used for

elections
to
the
Westminster
parliament, having defeated the
Alternative Vote in the 2011
referendum. With FPTP an MP is elected
if he manages to achieve more votes
than any other candidate in a
constituency. He can therefore still be
elected with a minority of the vote so
long as he scores more votes than his
next rival. A government is formed if it
has the support of more MPs than the
opposition.

ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM [AMS]

[PROPORTIONAL]

This system is used for elections to the

SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT, the WELSH
ASSEMBLY and the LONDON ASSEMBLY
and is a MIXTURE of FPTP and PR. Each
voter has TWO VOTES; ONE for his or her
CONSTITUENCY REPRESENTATIVE and
ONE for a REGIONAL PARTY LIST.
The CONSTITUENCY REPRESENTATIVE is
elected by means of a SIMPLE
PLURALITY just like FPTP, but TOP UP
REPRESENTATIVES are elected by means
of the PROPORTION OF THE VOTE that
each PARTY LIST receives.

97

The majority of representatives are

elected by means of FPTP and represent
constituencies and the remainder are
TOP UPS who do not represent
constituencies and were elected
because of the proportion of the vote
their party gained in the REGIONAL LIST
VOTE.
Thus in the 60 MEMBER WELSH
ASSEMBLY; 20 SEATS are awarded on
the proportion of the vote your party
received and in the SCOTTISH
PARLIAMENT it is 56 out of a total of 129
SEATS.
The advantage of this system is that it
RETAINS TO A CERTAIN EXTENT THE
CONSTITUENCY
LINK
and
also
COMPENSATES those parties that have
significant, but thinly spread support,
such as the CONSERVATIVES in both
WALES and SCOTLAND.

SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE [STV]

[PROPORTIONAL]

STV is used for elections to the

NORTHERN IRELAND ASSEMBLY. Each
constituency elects six representatives
and voters rank the candidates in ORDER
OF PREFERENCE. In order to be elected a
candidate needs a certain QUOTA OF
VOTES. Candidates who achieve the
quota on their first preference are
elected; when that happens, their
second and subsequent preferences are
then redistributed amongst the
remaining candidates. This carries on
until the required number of candidates,
have all achieved the necessary quota of
votes to be elected.
The advantage of STV is that it
dramatically MAXIMISES VOTER CHOICE

REGIONAL CLOSED PARTY LIST

[PROPORTIONAL]

This PR system is used for elections to

the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT. With this
system the country is divided into
98

TWELVE REGIONS and the voter votes

for a PARTY LIST, rather than a specific
candidate. The seats are then awarded
in PROPORTION TO THE VOTES CAST
FOR EACH PARTY.
For European Elections, the Party
leadership decides your SENIORITY on
the list so the higher up you are the list
the more likely you are to be elected.
Thus if your party won 30% of the total
votes, then the top 30% of the
candidates on that list would be elected.
This is referred to as the CLOSED LIST
since the party leadership decides who is
on the list and where they will be placed.
Although producing a close link between
votes cast and seats gained this system
has been criticised for REMOVING
INDIVIDUAL VOTER CHOICE and giving
much too much POWER to the PARTY
LEADERSHIP in deciding who is on the
list and where they come (if you are
bottom of the list you have virtually no
chance of being elected unless there is
an incredible political landslide).

SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE [SV]

[MAJORITARIAN]

The SV system is used to elect the

LONDON MAYOR. The first preference
votes are initially counted and if any
single candidate receives over 50% of
the vote he or she is automatically
elected. If no candidate receives more
than 50% of the first preference votes,
all candidates other than the top two are
eliminated.
The two remaining
candidates then receive the SECOND
PREFERENCE VOTES OF ALL THE
ELIMINATED CANDIDATES. These are
then ADDED TO THE FIRST PREFERENCE
VOTES of the top two candidates. As a
result of this addition of the
supplementary votes, the candidate
with the greatest number of votes is
elected.

99

This is the system most likely to provide

a MAJORITARIAN RESULT; since it
provides the winner with a MAJORITY by
creating a RUNOFF between the TOP
TWO CANDIDATES and then giving the
winner an ABSOLUTE MAJORITY over
the other by adding SECOND CHOICE
PREFERENCES.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN ADVANTAGES OF THE FIRST PAST THE POST
ELECTORAL SYSTEM?
A significant advantage of FPTP is that it provides voters with a CLEAR CHOICE
between candidates based upon the democratically crucial principle of ONE PERSON
/ ONE VOTE. Voters, therefore, simply vote for the candidate that they most want to
represent them which is both simple and gives all voters equal influence.
Generally First Past the Post has given us STRONG AND STABLE GOVERNMENTS which
can fulfil their MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS and can last the full five years of the
lifetime of a parliament. Governments elected by FPTP have, therefore not usually
had to enter into coalition governments [the exception is what occurred in 2010] and,
as a result of this, the governing party can be held directly ACCOUNTABLE for its
policies at the next General Election. Proportional representation would be likely to
give us more coalitions and, as we have seen, coalitions have to be based upon
COMPROMISE so it is much more difficult to judge the accountability of a political
party since it may have been forced to support policies it said it would not in its
manifesto; as the Liberal Democrats did with their volte-face on TOP UP FEES.
FPTP also establishes a STRONG CONSTITUENCY LINK between the MP and his or her
constituents. Systems of Proportional Representation, such as the Closed List or AMS,
dilute this important link and one of the great advantages of FPTP is that constituents
are more likely to know who their representative is than in any other system of voting.
This provides an important way of ensuring that an MP RESPONDS APPROPRIATELY
to local concerns; indeed the system has allowed the election of a number of MPs to
parliament who, although they do not represent a major party, were seen to be
especially responsive to local concerns; for example the election of Green MP
CAROLINE LUCAS for BRIGHTON AND HOVE in the 2010 General Election.
Finally, FPTP has been practically very successful at keeping EXTREMIST PARTIES out
of influence in British politics since parties such as the BNP have generally LACKED THE
DEPTH OF SUPPORT NECESSARY TO WIN A CONSTITUENCY and thus gain influence
at Westminster which would provide them with the sort of media spot light that could
allow their support to further increase. Given the rise of extremism in Europe in recent

100

years this may seem a highly effective, although not entirely democratic way, of
safeguarding the nation from extremism.

WHAT IS STRONG AND STABLE GOVERNMENT?

First the Post is generally associated with the establishment of strong and table
governments. This means that because one party generally wins an ABSOLUTE
PARLIAMENTARY MAJORITY then there does not have to be a coalition. A result of
this is that the government is STRONG enough to be able to pass its legislative
programme through the House of Commons. This, in turn, means that the
government is likely to be STABLE since the government will have a sizeable
parliamentary majority and so will not have to run the risk of splitting between
coalition partners thus leading to a weak MINORITY GOVERNMENT.

THE ALTERNATIVE VOTE [MAJORITARIAN SYSTEM]

The ALTERNATIVE VOTE is an example of a MAJORITARIAN SYSTEM since, according
to this system, you can only be elected as an MP if you gain MORE THAN 50% OF THE
FIRST CHOICE VOTES IN A CONSTITUENCY, or alternatively achieve a majority by a
combination of FIRST CHOICES and ALTERNATIVE VOTES.
Therefore, although AV is similar to FPTP since one MP for a single constituency is still
elected, AV does provide the voter with significantly more choice since he or she can
RANK IN ORDER OF PREFERENCE AS MANY CANDIDATES AS THEY LIKE. The voter
thus puts a 1 by their first preference candidate and can continue, if they wish, to
put a 2 by their second preference, and so on, until they dont care anymore or they
run out of names.

THE SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE [MAJORITARIAN SYSTEM]

Another majoritarian electoral system is the SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE which is used to
elect the LONDON MAYOR. With this system each voter has TWO VOTES. If one
candidate achieves 50% + of the vote with FIRST CHOICE VOTES then that individual
is duly elected. If this is not achieved then the TOP TWO CANDIDATES GO THROUGH
TO A SECOND ROUND IN WHICH THE WINNER IS DECIDED BY ADDING SECOND
CHOICE VOTES TO FIRST CHOICE VOTES UNTIL ONE ACHIEVES MORE THAN 50% OF
THE TOTAL.
Thus, in the 2008 LONDON MAYOR ELECTIONS, BORIS JOHNSON only gained 43.20%
of FIRST CHOICES, but he also gained 12.86% of SECOND CHOICE VOTES which pushed
him over the 50% total with a combined total of 56.06%. KEN LIVINGSTONE, on the
other hand gained 37% of FIRST CHOICE VOTES and 15.13% of SECOND CHOICE VOTES
placing his combined total [52.13%] significantly behind that of Johnson.

PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

101

It has been strongly argued that with FPTP there is not a fair relationship between the
number votes cast and the number of seats a party wins (after all, in 2005 LABOUR
won just 35.2% of the VOTE and yet gained 55.1% of the SEATS). In 2010 the
Conservatives achieved a greater share of the popular vote [36.1%] than Labour had
done five years earlier but this was not sufficient to give them a parliamentary
majority so they have had to establish a coalition with the Liberal Democrats. Similarly
the Liberal Democrats share of the vote increased from 22% to 23% between 2005
and 2010 and yet in 2010 their share of the seats decreased from 9.6% to 9%!
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION [PR] therefore tries to make elections fairer by
ensuring a much closer relationship between the votes cast for a party and the number
of seats it then wins in the legislature (in theory therefore if one party wins 22% of the
vote (as the LIBERAL DEMOCRATS did in 2005) they should have 22% of the seats in
the legislature. PR also aims to eliminate the significance of where you vote (with
FPTP if you are voter in a MARGINAL CONSTITUENCY you are much more important
than if you are voting in a SAFE SEAT) so that ALL VOTES, WHEREVER CAST, ARE ALL
EQUALLY IMPORTANT so that there are NO WASTED VOTES.
There are a VARIETY OF TYPES of PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION used in the
United Kingdom: the SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE for elections to the NORTHERN
IRELAND ASSEMBLY, the REGIONAL CLOSED LIST for elections to the EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT and ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM used for elections to the SCOTTISH
PARLIAMENT and the WELSH ASSEMBLY.

REASONS FOR THE WIDER USE OF NEW ELECTORAL SYSTEMS SINCE 1997
Since the election of Labour in 1997 PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION has been used
much MORE EXTENSIVELY within the UK. Before the 1997 general election, Labour
had emphasised its desire to establish an effective LIBERAL DEMOCRACY within the
UK and a key way of achieving this was to provide a CLOSER CORRELATION between
the number of VOTES CAST and the number of SEATS that a party received.
Therefore, in order to provide voters with more choice and so create a truly
STAKEHOLDER SOCIETY, in which everybody could feel that their opinions mattered,
Labour introduced a number of PR systems in order to ELIMINATE WASTED VOTES
and so provide government with a CLEARER MANDATE and GREATER LEGITIMACY.
Labour before 1997 was also uncertain whether it could actually achieve a sufficient
parliamentary majority with FPTP and indeed it was widely believed the system
favoured the Conservatives and so there was a lot of practical self interest behind
Labours support for electoral reform.
The SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE was thus introduced to elect the new LONDON MAYOR,
while the CLOSED REGIONAL LIST was favoured for EUROPEAN ELECTIONS and the
SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE for the NORTHERN IRELAND ASSEMBLY. A hybrid of
PR and FPTP known as the ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM was also introduced for
elections to the WELSH ASSEMBLY and the SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT. All of these
reforms were designed to increase CHOICE thereby encouraging PARTICIPATION and
102

giving the resulting victors GREATER LEGITIMACY. Interestingly, Labour (once in office
with a MASSIVE 179 SEAT MAJORITY in 1997) decided NOT TO INTRODUCE PR for
WESTMINSTER ELECTIONS since, after all, TURKEYS DONT VOTE FOR CHRISTMAS!

IMPACT OF PROPORTIONAL ELECTORAL SYSTEMS ON PARTY

REPRESENTATION
The introduction of proportional representation in non Westminster Elections was
supposed to give the public greater choice in the process making coalitions
governments more likely as voters voted for minority parties which, with FPTP, they
might not have considered voting for.
To a certain extent this has been the case, but as you can see from the table below
the implications for the parties have not been as they expected! In fact, the great
irony of proportional representation is that it has created a SNP victory in Scotland,
while FPTP has actually created a coalition at Westminster!
In terms of party fortunes one can list the winners and losers as follows:
SNP: No longer a party of protest they now dominate the SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT
[69/129 SEATS]
UKIP: 2nd only to the Conservatives in the 2009 EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT ELECTIONS
[13/72]
CONSERVATIVES: Largest party in EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT [26/72] and greater
representation on both WELSH PARLIAMENT [14/60] and SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT
[17/129] than they get with FPTP as their vote is spread quite thinly so they do well
by top-up votes. Indeed, they have just one Westminster MP North of the border.
DEMOCRATIC UNIONISTS / SINN FEIN: The use of STV in Northern Ireland has
stopped the DUP from gaining an absolute majority on the Northern Ireland Assembly
so it has to work with Sinn Fein; thus giving both sections of the comm. Unity a share
in government thereby contributing to the ongoing success of the PEACE PROCESS.
BNP: ONE MEMBER LONDON ASSEMBLY and 2/72 MEPs on the EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT.
LABOUR: Little to show from proportional representation! Stranglehold on domestic
Scottish and Welsh politics ruined, especially in Scotland: SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT
37/129; WELSH ASSEMBLY 30/60. On the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT they scored
fewer votes than UKIP [13/72]

103

GREENS: Little success: No members of the Welsh Assembly and just TWO members
of the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT and the SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT. FPTP has actually
given them ONE MP at WESTMINSTER - CAROLINE LUCAS [BRIGHTON AND HOVE]
LIBERAL DEMOCRATS: Very definite losers although the most vocal supporters of
proportional representation WELSH ASSEMBLY 5/60; SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT
16/129; EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT 11/72. Ironically it has been FPTP that has given
them power at Westminster!
None of the other minority parties such as RESPECT, the ENGLISH DEMOCRATS or
SOCIALIST LABOUR has achieved any greater representation with proportional
representation than with FPTP. In fact, it could be argued that FPTP has given small
parties, such as Respect a greater opportunity to achieve representation by targeting
specific seats. GEORGE GALLOWAY, the leader of RESPECT thus won the BRADFORD
WEST by election in 2011 with a massive 10,140 majority.

LABOUR

Although LABOUR has been responsible

for the introduction of PR, ironically, it
has done best, because of the depth of
its core support, when elections have
been decided by FPTP.
LABOUR
REPRESENTATION HAS THUS USUALLY
SUFFERED WHEN PR HAS BEEN USED.

Thus, AMS in SCOTLAND has encouraged

the public to vote SNP and steadily
eroded Labours former stranglehold
over Scottish politics. Indeed, in the
2011 SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT elections
Labour achieved its lowest share of the
vote since 1931 with just 37 SEATS; way
behind the SNP on 69.
In WALES, Labour is still able to form a
MINORITY GOVERNMENT with exactly
half the seats on the Assembly [30/60]
with the remaining 30 split between the
Conservatives [14] / Plaid Cymru [11] /
Liberal Democrats [5]. However, as in
Scotland, proportional representation
has broadened support for other
political parties weakening Labours
traditional dominance of Welsh politics.

104

CONSERVATIVES

Although they have traditionally been

hostile to PR the CONSERVATIVES have
actually gained a great deal from it. In
both WALES and SCOTLAND their
support is spread quite EVENLY so, like
the Liberal Democrats in England, they
have done very badly with FPTP in recent
elections (in 2010 just one Tory MP was
elected for Scotland).
They have thus done well out of TOP UPS
in both WALES and SCOTLAND.
Indeed they are now the second biggest
party on the WELSH ASSEMBLY [14/60
seats]
and
in
the
SCOTTISH
PARLIAMENT they are third biggest
[17/129].
The CLOSED LIST [for elections to the
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT] has also
made the Conservatives comfortable
winners with 26/72 SEATS double that
of UKIP and Labour, both on 13.

LIBERAL DEMOCRATS

The LIBERAL DEMOCRATS have always

been highly vocal in their support of
proportional representation since they
have tended to have a breadth, rather
than a depth of support, which FPTP
does not reward.
However, ironically, in recent elections
they have fared worse with PR than with
FPTP. FPTP [which they have long
opposed] has actually propelled them
into government at Westminster, while
AMS only gave them 16 / 129 on the
SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT [putting them
fourth behind the Conservatives], while
on the WELSH ASSEMBLY
are have
only 5 / 60 [a long way behind the 14 for
the Conservatives]. In the EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT elections [2009] they only
gained 11/72 SEATS putting them
fourth behind UKIP.

105

GREENS

Proportional Representation has not

given the GREENS quite the success that
they anticipated. In fact they have NO
SEATS now on the WELSH ASSEMBLY,
while they have just 2/129 in the
SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT.
They did though gain 2 / 72 SEATS for
the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, although
that is hardly an electoral breakthrough!
Ironically, though FPTP has given them
an MP at WESTMINSTER: CAROLINE
LUCAS for BRIGHTON AND HOVE.

UKIP

Of all the minority parties UKIP has done

best from Proportional Representation;
although its success is confined to the
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT and may be as
much due to British Euro-scepticism and
our attitude towards the European
Parliament [as we are not voting for a
government we are more likely to be
more radical and imaginative in our
voting habits].
As a result of the REGIONAL LIST which
fairly translates votes into seats, UKIP
gained 16.5% in the 2009 EUROPEAN
ELECTIONS, making them the 2nd biggest
party ahead of Labour [13 / 72 SEATS]

SCOTTISH NATIONALIST / PLAID CYMRU Ironically AMS, by creating a fairer

distribution of seats between the 4 main
parties in SCOTLAND should have made
coalition government more likely.
However, in 2011 it actually gave the
SNP a MAJORITY at HOLYROOD, with
69/129 seats. AMS has, therefore, taken
the SNP from being a minority to
SCOTLANDS PARTY OF GOVERNMENT

106

with dramatic repercussions for the

future of the United Kingdom since the
SNP are committed to a referendum on
Scottish independence.
In WALES the success of PLAID CYMRU
has been less impressive and they only
have 5 assembly members out of a total
of 60 on the WELSH ASSEMBLY.

DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST / SINN FEIN

In Northern Ireland, STV has not

broadened support for parties and, as in
the General Election, power is divided
between the largest party the
DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST [38/108] and
the second party SINN FEIN [29/108]
who continue to govern the province in
a coalition.
It had been hoped that STV might
increase support for moderate parties;
this has not happened, although it could
be argued, too, that in forcing the DUP
and SINN FEIN to work together in
government this has been crucial for the
success of the PEACE PROCESS.

BNP

ADVANTAGES
AND
REPRESENTATION

AMS has also led to the election of the

first BNP member of the LONDON
ASSEMBLY so, in these times of
economic turmoil, it could also facilitate
the rise of EXTREMISM. This has most
obviously been seen in the election of
TWO BNP members of the EUROPEAN
PARLIAMENT, NICK GRIFFIN and
ANDREW BRONS.

DISADVANTAGES

OF

PROPORTIONAL

The advantages of PR can be seen from where it has already been used in the UK and
from where it has been used abroad. It would give GOVERNMENT GREATER

107

LEGITIMACY because there would be a much fairer TRANSLATION OF VOTES INTO

SEATS; thus a party that achieved 40% of the vote would therefore achieve more like
40% of the seats. It thus would not matter where you voted and who you voted for
and there would no longer be WASTED VOTES in an Election which throws into doubt
our principles of LIBERAL DEMOCRACY.
Electoral Reform would also remove the STRANGLEHOLD that LABOUR and
CONSERVATIVE have achieved over politics providing other parties (as has already
happened in Scotland and Wales) with the opportunity to be able to share in
government or even form a government (as has already happened in SCOTLAND with
the SNP). This would significantly increase VOTER CHOICE (when the CLOSED LIST was
used for the 2009 EUROPEAN ELECTIONS UKIP won 16.5% of the vote) and encourage
voters to vote for any party that they want to represent them without fearing they are
WASTING A VOTE. [In a LIBERAL DEMOCRACY, after all, EVERY VOTE SHOULD COUNT
EQUALLY].
When PR has been used it is interesting to note that the voters have often taken the
opportunity to vote for MINORITY PARTIES and in the case of the SNP even place them
in GOVERNMENT so this suggests that the voters really do want Electoral Reform since
if they had it they would vote in new and imaginative ways. In turn, this would force
both LABOUR and CONSERVATIVE to appeal more to the voters with their own more
imaginative policies so DEMOCRACY WOULD THUS BECOME MORE VIBRANT.
Greater use of proportional representation might also help to resolve the
PARTICIPATION CRISIS since if we knew our votes were more likely to matter then we
might well be more willing to vote. Given, too, that fewer of the public are voting
Labour and Conservative than ever before it could be argued that proportional
representation is urgently needed to reflect the greater choice that we want in
elections.
Where PR has been used in the UK COALITION GOVERNMENTS have been
established, but they have still managed to LEGISLATE SUCCESSFULLY; for example
SCOTLAND has had a LABOUR / LIBERAL DEMOCRAT COALITION but it still managed
to pass a great deal of legislation (SMOKING BAN, FREEDOM OF INFORMATION ACT,
NO TOP UP or TUITION FEES). Our experience of STRONG GOVERNMENT is
sometimes that they can become HAILSHAMS ELECTIVE DICTATORSHIPS and make
arrogant mistakes such as the invasion of IRAQ; might then coalition governments
actually create a more BALANCED and INFORMED style of government and so reduce
what DAVID CAMERON has called A PUNCH AND JUDY STYLE APPROACH TO
POLITICS. For example, the Westminster Coalition is the first government since 1935
able to claim the support of more than 50% of the Electorate and it has proved
successful in putting its manifesto commitments into action. Indeed, some political
commentators have seen the Liberal Democrats as a useful constraining influence on
the Conservatives; stopping them from introducing too radical policies such as the
repeal of the Human Rights Act.
However, if we did introduce PR we would lose certain ADVANTAGES of the existing
FPTP and each PR system brings with it its own DRAWBACKS. All of the variations on

108

PR would be likely to make the LIBERAL DEMOCRATS PERMANENT COALITION

PARTNERS of either LABOUR or CONSERVATIVE and has TONY BENN has pointed out
we DO NOT VOTE FOR COALITIONS so such government would not be fulfilling the
wishes of the electorate. Our experience of the present coalition hardly suggests that
we would like to institutionalise this form of government through the adoption of
proportional representation for Westminster elections.
ACCOUNTABILITY (a vital part of LIBERAL DEMOCRACY) would also be more difficult
to determine because it would be much less clear where political responsibility lay;
either with the junior or senior coalition partner. At the same time, the experience of
foreign coalitions, especially those in ISRAEL, ITALY and especially now GERMANY is
that they are WEAK and UNSTABLE and do not provide the STRONG GOVERNMENT
that Britain needs [NB Given the current ECONOMIC CRISIS it is not the time to be
changing the system to encourage less united and strong government!)
FPTP also guards against the sort of POLITICAL EXTREMISM represented by the BNP
and likely to become more of a threat if the current economic crisis worsens.
It could also be argued that LOCAL CHOICE would be reduced by the introduction of
PR; GEORGE GALLOWAY [RESPECT] and CAROLINE LUCAS [GREENS] were both
elected by means of FPTP because they were addressing significant local issues, while
all of the variations of PR have their own SPECIFIC DEMOCRATIC WEAKNESSES.
AMS creates a CONFUSING HYBRID between CONSTITUENT MPs and, what TONY
BENN calls PIGGY BACK MPs with constituency MPS having a greater workload. The
CLOSED LIST which is used for EUROPEAN ELECTIONS does establish PROPORTIONAL
RESULTS but it is HIGHLY UNDEMOCRATIC because it only allows us to vote for a
PARTY LIST and the leadership will have already decided who has priority on the list
so this system stop us voting for individuals [TONY BENN has joked that as a
MAVERICK he would never have been elected to parliament because the leadership
would always have put him at the bottom of the party list as a troublemaker!]. Under
STV, almost certainly smaller parties would proliferate because of the added choice,
but the danger of this would be that we would end up with a system like that in ISRAEL
where there are so many minority parties that COALITIONS have to involve even more
than two parties which makes for extremely UNSTABLE GOVERNMENT. AV would
create a MAJORITARIAN FORM OF ELECTION; but it would be unfair to Labour and
Conservative because it involves a SECOND VOTE and this would, very likely go to the
LIBERAL DEMOCRATS giving them UNDUE INFLUENCE.
NB According to NEIL McNAUGHTON to do well on this sort of question you would
therefore need to explain that the impact of PR on WESTMINSTER would therefore
greatly depend upon the type of PR that would be used. At LUDLOW on FRIDAY 27th
NOVEMBER 2009, TONY BENN in response to a question on WESTMINSTER
ELECTIONS made the interesting suggestion that the CONSTITUENCY system should
be retained but that the SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE system [STV] could be used
with it. This would provide voters with MORE CHOICE, while also retaining the vital
link between constituent and MP, which Benn prizes so highly and which neither AMS

109

nor the CLOSED LIST provide. In an essay asking how Westminster could be reformed
you could nominate this as your preferred PR solution.

SHOULD THE WESTMINSTER ELECTORAL SYSTEM BE REFORMED? [25]

There are many criticisms of FIRST PAST THE POST which have persuaded many that
a form of PROPORTIONAL VOTING, or the ALTERNATIVE VOTE, would provide us with
a FAIRER DISTRIBUTION OF SEATS in a General Election. Certainly FPTP is not the
most effective way of translating votes proportionally into electoral influence, while it
certainly does magnify the importance of certain marginal constituencies. However,
it does still have a number of advantages over proportional representation and, even
if we did decide to introduce a form of proportional representation, it would be
important to ensure that we introduced the most appropriate version.
To begin with FIRST PAST THE POST has been criticised for not fairly translating votes
into seats. This has ensured that, because the Labour and Conservative Parties have
SOLID GEOGRAPHICAL BASES OF SUPPORT throughout the United Kingdom then
parties, such as the Liberal Democrats, UKIP and the Greens which tend to have their
support MORE EVENLY SPREAD over the country have ended up being UNFAIRLY
UNDER-REPRESENTED at WESTMINSTER. For example in 2005 LABOUR achieved just
35.2% of the popular vote and yet this still gave Blair a 66 SEAT MAJORITY over all
other parties, primarily because of where these votes were cast. On the other hand
the LIBERAL DEMOCRATS achieved 22% of the vote in 2005 and yet only gained 9.6%,
in effect, disenfranchising many Liberal Democrat voters leading to what has been
called too many WASTED VOTES. Parties, like UKIP and the BNP both have rising
membership and yet FPTP majorly disenfranchises their voters since they lack
sufficient depth of support necessary to win a constituency. It is hardly right, too, that
fewer than one third of MPs get more than 50% of the vote in their constituencies,
while governments are generally established with well under 50% of the public voting
for them; undermining their claim to LEGITIMACY.
In the 2010 General Election, once again FPTP did not fully reflect the demands of the
electorate. After all the Conservatives achieved 36.1% of the vote [almost 1% more
than Labour in 2005] and yet, unlike Labour in 2005, they still lacked a majority and
thus had to form a coalition with the Liberal Democrats.
FPTP also focuses too much influence on MARGINAL SWING CONSTITUENCIES since
many constituencies will have either inbuilt Labour or Conservative majorities
depending on where they are situated. For example, with FPTP, voters in a solid Tory
constituency like STRATFORD UPON AVON are considerably less influential than Tory
voters in a SWING MARGINAL such as LEAMINGTON SPA AND WARWICK. At the
same time, FPTP ensures that the scale of an election victory is decided not so much
by the numbers who voted for you, but by where they voted. Thus in 1992 JOHN
MAJORS 42.3% of the popular vote gave him just very vulnerable 21 SEAT MAJORITY,
while, as we have seen, the 35.2% of the popular vote that BLAIR achieved in 2005
succeeded in giving Labour a much more respectable 66 SEAT MAJORITY. Indeed,

110

since the election is decided not by the numbers who vote for you, but by the number
of seats you it is quite possible for the winning party to gain fewer votes than the
losing party which is hardly democratic. This has happened, though, in 1951 and again
in FEBRUARY 1974.
Proportional Representation, or the Alternative Vote, would, therefore, grapple with
many of these issues more fairly translating votes into seats, EQUALISING THE
IMPORTANCE OF OUR VOTES and giving influence to political parties which have
traditionally been under-represented. The public would thus be EMPOWERED BY
BEING GIVEN MORE CHOICE and this might well increase the numbers voting in
General Elections since the choice would no longer be, primarily, between Labour and
the Conservatives. This could, therefore, encourage MORE PARTICIPATORY
DEMOCRACY because voters would now know that their votes really did count and,
arguably, INCREASE THE NUMBERS OF US VOTING (in 2010 only 65.1% bothered to
vote in the General Election).
However, we should be careful of ignoring the ADVANTAGES of FPTP and the
DRAWBACKS of other systems. FPTP generally gives us FIRM GOVERNMENTS which
are able to fulfil their MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS and can then be held directly
ACCOUNTABLE for them at the next General Election. The exception to this was, of
course, the uncharacteristic result of the 2010 General Election. Governments elected
by FPTP usually last the full life time of a parliament without having to go to the
country early. Proportional Representation, it is generally agreed, would be more
likely to give us MORE COALITION GOVERNMENTS and coalitions do have drawbacks.
For example, the partners in a coalition find it much more difficult to fulfil their
manifesto commitments thereby OBSCURING THE ISSUE OF ACCOUNTABILITY. For
example, the Liberal Democrats discovered that, by having had to abandon their
commitment not to introduce Top Up Fees, they outraged many Liberal Democrat
voters thereby undermining a great deal of faith in politicians, especially amongst
young people.
It is also misleading to say that all minority parties are disadvantaged by FPTP; indeed
it could equally well be argued that FPTP has enabled local constituencies to elect
politicians who reflect the concerns of that particular community. For example,
RICHARD TAYLOR was twice elected MP for WYRE FOREST on a pledge to keep open
the local hospital, while CAROLINE LUCAS was in 2010 elected as the GREEN MP for
BRIGHTON and GEORGE GALLOWAY won a huge majority in BRADFORD WEST at a by
election in 2011.
FPTP also provides the electorate with an extremely simple electoral process firmly
based upon the principle of ONE PERSON / ONE VOTE which provides the bedrock
to a liberal democracy, while the link between the MP and his or her constituents is
particularly strong with FPTP. Given, too, the rise of extremism a system that keeps
the BNP out of Westminster is surely well suited to the sort of MULTI-CULTURAL
LIBERAL DEMOCRACY that the majority of us seek to aspire to.

111

As well as encouraging the establishment of more coalitions, each of the forms of

proportional representation currently used in the UK has significant drawbacks. The
REGIONAL CLOSED LIST does not allow us to vote for an individual; we simply vote for
a party list and whether or not you are elected primarily depends on highly the party
leadership has placed you on the list! AMS obscures the constituency link by enabling
us to elect two representatives, while STV would be a highly complicated system
which, by giving voters a huge amount of choice, would actually undermine the simple
but effective democratic principle of ONE PERSON / ONE VOTE. The ALTERNATIVE
VOTE was also decisively rejected in the 2011 referendum so there is clearly no public
enthusiasm for this form of election at Westminster. Indeed, as well as being highly
complicated, AV would have been very likely to have benefitted extremist parties,
while allowing a candidate who had just scored less than 50% of the vote to be leapfrogged by one who with many fewer first preferences, because the candidate with
the least votes had given that candidate more votes. As WINSTON CHURCHILL put it
in 1931, the implementation of AV would mean that elections, would be determined
by the most worthless votes given to the most worthless candidate.
Therefore we need to appreciate that the various forms of proportional
representation and the alternative Vote are not perfect and that FPTP has tended to
give us STRONG GOVERNMENTS which can be made ACCOUNTABLE for their policies
at the next General Election. The current coalition is a highly unusual result for FPTP
and highlights just how damaging to democracy coalitions are since in order to form a
government both parties have to ditch many of their manifesto promises.
Proportional Representation would though, since it would be likely to INCREASE
LIBERAL DEMOCRAT INFLUENCE, lead to the establishment of more such coalitions.
To conclude, the case for replacing FPTP with Proportional Representation or the
Alternative Vote is still, in my opinion, unproven. For all its faults FPTP does provide
STRONG and UNACCOUNTABLE GOVERNMENT and ensures that everyone has
EQUAL ACCESS TO JUST ONE VOTE, while enabling local communities to still elect
candidates who reflect the specific wishes. All the various forms of Proportional
Representation on offer, as we have seen, have significant drawbacks and it would be
very difficult to prefer one over the other and so, in default of an obviously better
alternative, the case to retain FPTP is still persuasive.

ASSESS THE CRITICISMS OF THE VARIOUS ELECTORAL SYSTEMS USED IN

THE UNITED KINGDOM. [25]
There is a great deal contemporary debate about the various strengths and
weaknesses of the various electoral systems in the UK. FIRST PAST THE POST is
particularly controversial because its critics argue that it does not fairly translate
VOTES into SEATS. Indeed, with FPTP the key thing is where you vote. Thus LABOUR
and the CONSERVATIVES have generally done well out of FPTP because they have
112

solid bases of support throughout the UK and yet the Liberal Democrats, and other
minority parties have ended up being squeezed because their support is more EVENLY
SPREAD over the country and there are no prizes with FPTP for coming second. As a
result of this FPTP can often produce very unfair results. For example in 2005 LABOUR
won 35.2% of the vote, and because of where these votes were cast, were able to
form a government with a 66 SEAT MAJORTY.
The Conservatives, on the other hand, in 2010, achieved almost 1% more and yet
where not able to form a majority government even though more people had voted
for them. However we need to be aware, too, of the advantages of FPTP; it has
generally led the establishment of STRONG ACCOUNTABLE GOVERNMENTS, while it
also ensures a very strong link between an MP and his or her constituents.
PROPORTIONAL ELECTORAL SYSTEMS do not have this important link, while there is
little doubt, too, that proportional representation would lead to MORE COALITIONS
GOVERNMENTS. Some argue that this is a good thing because it encourages parties
to work together and co-operate in order to provide more broad church policies for
the country. However, others argue that proportional representation ensures that
coalitions are established which involve parties having to abandon manifesto
commitments [as the Liberal Democrats did over their commitment not to increase in
Top Up Fees], which therefore means that the electorates wishes not always reflected
in government policy. At least FPTP generally leads to the establishment of strong
governments that can then be held accountable for putting their manifesto
commitments into action as they promised.

The Parliament that was elected is a grossly distorted version of what Britains
voters chose in 2005.
Electoral Reform Society report on the 2005 General Election

Having said that, there are various forms of proportional representation used in the
UK some of which are better than others. The CLOSED LIST, which is used for elections
to the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, is very proportional, creating the fairest link between
votes cast and seats gained, but it has been very heavily criticised for only allowing the
public to vote for a PARTY LIST rather than an INDIVIDUAL. This therefore gives most
power to those politicians who decide who gets the highest place on the list! It has
also allowed, the election of two BNP candidates to the EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
even though they only achieved an insignificant share of the vote. One advantage of
FPTP is thus that it tends to stop extremists, like ANDREW BRONS or NICK GRIFFIN
gaining representation in democratic assemblies.
The ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM [AMS] which is used for elections to the WELSH
ASSEMBLY and the SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT does retain a degree of proportionality,
but it significantly gives voters TWO VOTES one for the CONSTITUENCY CANDIDATE,
who carries on being elected by FTP and one for the TOP UP REGIONAL LIST
CANDIDATE who is elected by proportional voting. This has certainly ensured that
Scotland and Wales have achieved representation that more perfectly reflects the

113

voting wishes of their public, although the notion of voting for two representatives
has been criticised as over complicating the system. TONY BENN has, for example,
referred to REGIONAL LIST TOP UPS as PIGGY BACK representatives, while others
have noted an imbalance between the work load of those who represent a
constituency and those who were elected by means of the top up.
The SINGLE TANSFERABLE VOTE has also been introduced for elections to the
NORTHERN IRELAND ASSEMBLY, as well as for council elections in SCOTLAND and has
certainly been praised for giving voters the MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF CHOICE [more
certainly than the SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE used for the LONDON MAYOR elections
which gives voters just two votes]. However such ranking systems have their
drawbacks in London it is quite possible for a candidate who achieves fewer first
choice votes to leap frog a candidate with more first choice votes who has not though
managed to achieve 50% plus of the vote. This would be done by taking into account
second preferences. Similarly, the use of STV in Scottish council elections has meant
that of 27 councils all but 5 are now coalitions, while the connection between the
constituency and its representative is also broken with the establishment of MULTI
MEMBER CONSTITUENCIES. Having said that, the way in which the use of STV in
Northern Ireland has actually forced the unionist DEMOCRATIC UNIONIST PARTY and
republican SINN FEIN to work together in a COALITION has been crucial in advancing
the peace process in the province.
Thus, to conclude, every voting system currently in use in the UK has both advantages
and disadvantages. To say that one achieves all the objectives of democracy would
be wrong, although it is interesting to note that even though AMS combines the
advantages of both proportional representation and FPTP it has not, surprisingly, been
used more widely throughout the UK.

CLOSED LIST
[EUROPE]

STV [NORTHERN AMS [WALES / SV [LONDON]

IRELAND]
SCOTLAND]

Highly Proportional
system
which
translates
votes
into
seats

STV provides voters

with a very great
deal of choice
because they can

AMS
combines This is as close to a
Proportionality with MAJORITARIAN
constituencies
SYSTEM as it is
thereby trying to

114

effectively
but,
voters are unable
to vote for a
specific candidate
which is hardly
democratic and no
constituency link
simply
massive
regions so link
between voter and
representative is
weakened.

LIST ALL OF THEIR

CANDIDATES
IN
ORDER
OF
PREFERENCE this
provides a great
deal
of
EMPOWERING
VOTERS
However,
STV
provides a large
number of parties
with the prospect
of representation
and is the form of
PR most likely to
MINIMIZE
THE
CHANCE OF AN
OVERALL
MAJORITY
Therefore it is
probably
best
suited to Northern
Ireland, rather than
the whole of the
UK, since that part
of
the
UK
necessarily
required a form of
voting
whereby
various
parties
were required to
negotiate
and
collaborate.

gain the best of both possible to get in

worlds.
the UK.
It
does
though
certainly encourage
coalitions which may
result
in
weak
government
[currently a minority
SNP government in
Scotland and a Plaid
Cymru / Labour
coalition in Wales].
Disproportionate
voice
for
small
parties Greens in
Scotland only have 2
MSPs and yet they
have great influence
in propping up a
minority
government; does
this give such parties
TOO
MUCH INFLUENCE?

It does though
tend to favour the
two
highest
scoring candidates
in
the
FIRST
BALLOT, since the
third candidates is
then eliminated
EVEN
THOUGH
THEY MAY HAVE
WON A LOT OF
SECOND CHOICE
PREFERENCES.

TWO
TIER
REPRESENTATIVES
created; with Top Up
MPs being seen to
have more influence
as they do not have
constituency duties.

SUMMARY
5 Marks
Outline two functions of elections in the UK
Outline two distinctions between elections and referendums
What is meant by proportional representation?
Briefly outline the workings of the First past the Post electoral system
Explain the term two party system
Explain the workings of STV

115

Explain the workings of AMS

Explain the workings of List electoral systems
What is meant by stable government?
What is meant by strong government?
Explain the term mandate
10 Marks
Explain the main impacts of the First past the Post system
Explain why First Past the Post is associated with a two party system
Explain the arguments in favour of the introduction of proportional representation
in UK general elections
Explain the arguments in favour of retaining First Past the Post for general
elections
Explain the main impacts of proportional representation
25 Marks
Assess the arguments in favour of the introduction of proportional representation
for UK general elections
Assess the arguments for the retention of First Past the Post for UK general
elections
Explain the relationship between electoral systems and party systems
To what extent do UK elections promote democracy?
To what extent do UK elections promote strong and stable government?

4. PRESSURE GROUPS
KEY TERMS: ELECTION; MAJORITARIAN REPRESENTATION; MANDATE;
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION; ELECTORAL REFORM; PARTY SYSTEM;
STRONG GOVERNMENT; STABLE GOVERNMENT

SAMPLE QUESTION
(a) Distinguish between insider and outsider pressure groups. [5]

116

(b) Why do some pressure groups use insider methods and other groups use
outsider methods? [10]
(c) Why are some pressure groups more influential than others? [25]
JANUARY 2009
(a) Using examples, distinguish between sectional and promotional pressure groups.
[5]
(b) Explain the methods used by pressure groups to influence government. [10]
(c) To what extent do pressure groups promote pluralist democracy? [25]
MAY 2009
(a) What is meant by pluralism? [5]
(b) Why is it sometimes difficult to distinguish between pressure groups and political
parties? [10]
(c) To what extent have pressure groups become more important in recent years?
[25]
JANUARY 2010
(a) Using examples, distinguish between insider and outsider pressure groups. [5]
(b) Explain the reasons why the success of pressure groups may be limited. [10]
(c) To what extent do pressure groups promote political participation in the UK? [25]

MAY 2010
(a) Distinguish between elitism and pluralism [5]
(b) Explain three political functions of pressure groups [10]
(c) To what extent do pressure groups undermine democracy? [25]
JANUARY 2011
(a) Outline two differences between pressure groups and political parties. [5]

117

(b) How and why do some pressure groups use direct action? [10]
(c) To what extent are the largest pressure groups the most successful ones? [25]
JUNE 2011
(a) Using examples, distinguish between promotional and sectional pressure groups.
[5]
(b) How and why do pressure groups influence public opinion? [10]
(c) Is pressure group politics in the UK better described as pluralist or elitist? [25]

JANUARY 2012
(a) How do pressure groups promote functional representation? [5]
(b) Explain three factors which may restrict the influence of a pressure group. [10]
(c) Are pressure groups becoming more powerful, or less powerful? [25]
JUNE 2012
(a) Using examples, distinguish between sectional and promotional pressure groups.
[5]
(b) Explain the methods used by pressure groups to influence government. [10]
(c) To what extent do pressure groups promote pluralist democracy? [25]

JANUARY 2013
(a) Describe two ways in which pressure groups promote political participation. [5]
(b) Explain three reasons why pressure group activity may undermine democracy. [10]
(c) To what extent is the success of pressure groups a reflection of their level of public
support? [25]
MAY 2013

118

(a) What is the link between elitism and pressure groups? [5]
(b) Explain three ways in which pressure groups exert influence. [10]
(c) To what extent is pressure group power in decline? [25]

CONTENT EXPLANATION: Nature of pressure groups a knowledge and

understanding of the features and functions of pressure groups; of how and the extent
to which they differ from political parties and an awareness of the different types of
pressure groups.
Pressure Group power a knowledge and understanding of how pressure groups exert
influence and of the extent of their influence and an awareness of the distribution of
power amongst pressure groups, including the factors that influence this.
Pressure Groups and democracy a knowledge and understanding of the relationship
between pressure groups and democracy and, in particular, of the extent to which
they promote political participation and responsive government.

DEFINITION OF A PRESSURE GROUP

A Pressure Group represents the INTERESTS of a certain CAUSE or SECTION of society
and aims to encourage support for its beliefs amongst the PUBLIC and tries to PUT
PRESSURE on either local government, Westminster or Brussels to ADOPT POLICIES
that that particular pressure group favours. Thus, LIBERTY is a CAUSE PRESSURE
GROUP that pressurises the government to stop its EROSION OF CIVIL LIBERTIES and
the MUSLIM COUNCIL OF BRITAIN is a SECTIONAL PRESSURE GROUP that represents
the interests of Moslems in society and aims to ensure that they are in no way
discriminated against. By giving greater influence to sections of society or those
united by a commitment to a specific cause pressure groups thus DISPERSE POWER
AWAY FROM THE GOVERNMENT thereby increasing democratic participation.

PRESSURE GROUP CLASSIFICATION

SECTIONAL [INTEREST] PRESSURE GROUPS
A Sectional Pressure Group represents a certain section of society and attempts to
persuade or force decision-makers to adopt policies that would favour that section of
society. For example, the NATIONAL UNION OF STUDENTS represents the interests
of students and is currently running the BROKE AND BROKEN campaign to urge the

119

government to reform STUDENT FINANCE. Similarly the MUSLIM COUNCIL OF

BRITAIN is working to establish a position for the Muslim community within British
society that is FAIR and BASED ON DUE RIGHTS, while working, TO ERADICATE THE
DISADVANTAGES and FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION FACED BY MUSLIMS.

CAUSE [PROMOTIONAL] PRESSURE GROUPS

A Cause or Promotional Pressure Group seeks to PROMOTE A PARTICULAR CAUSE.
For example, the membership of MAKE POVERTY HISTORY or LIBERTY is not confined
to a certain section of society and instead unites all sorts of people in their
determination to, respectively, make the government contribute more to OVERSEAS
DEVELOPMENT or backtrack on their pledge to introduce IDENTITY CARDS. The
OCCUPY LONDON movement is a good contemporary example of a cause pressure
group which is trying to alert the public to the gross inequalities that, it argues,
globalisation is responsible for.

INSIDER PRESSURE GROUPS

Insider Pressure Groups have access to decision making within governing circles
because their input is regarded as essential if an INFORMED DECISION is going to be
taken. This can be true of either Cause or Sectional Groups. Thus, the BRITISH
MEDICAL ASSOCIATION [sectional] and the ASSOCIATION OF CHIEF POLICE OFFICERS
[sectional] have permanent insider status because the government will need their
expertise when introducing new policies concerning health and policing. In recent
years too, two Cause Pressure Groups, FRIENDS OF THE EARTH and MAKE POVERTY
HISTORY have increasingly achieved insider status as the government is increasingly
concerned about environmental issues [pledge to cut greenhouse emissions by 80%
by 2050] and what the extent of our commitment to overseas development should
be. Unsurprisingly therefore, Insider Pressure Groups, because of their close links with
the government, tend to be most successful and so pressure groups will want to
achieve this sort of useful status. Indeed, NEIL MCNAUGHTON suggests there are
even some SUPER INSIDER PRESSURE GROUPS which have achieved so much political
influence, such as the NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO
CHILDREN [NSPCC] that are even trusted to help draw up legislation.

OUTSIDER PRESSURE GROUPS

Outsider Pressure Groups have not been granted special access to the decision making
process and so can only influence decision making bodies by appealing DIRECTLY TO
THE PUBLIC in order to raise awareness about their concerns and so, they hope,
INDIRECTLY put pressure on the government to act. Thus, the ANTI WAR COALITION
in 2003 had no chance of the government listening to its views as it was committed to
the IRAQ WAR and therefore it could only hope to achieve its objectives by
120

highlighting public opposition to the war thereby putting pressure on MPs (as
representatives of the public) to vote against the war. Outsider Pressure Groups may
also try to COERCE the government to change its policies; as the POLL TAX RIOTERS
successfully did in 1990 and as increasingly marginalized TRADE UNIONS do if they call
STRIKE ACTION forcing the government to give into their demands for more money
or better conditions by refusing to work.

IS THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN SECTIONAL AND CAUSE PRESSURE GROUPS HELPFUL?

You might possibly be asked this question since the Chief Examiner is uncomfortable
with the traditional classification of pressure groups and says he would like to ask this
question. After all the COUNTRYSIDE ALLIANCE is, at one level, clearly SECTIONAL and
yet you need not live in the Countryside to support some of its causes such as the
legalisation of fox hunting.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS

Pressure Groups can stand in Elections in just the same way as Political Parties. This
gains them more publicity and they may even win a seat! For example, DR RICHARD
TAYLOR was twice elected as an INDEPENDENT MP for WYRE FOREST (2001 and 2005)
on a pledge to fight to keep open KIDDERMINSTER HOSPITAL. Similarly, in 2008 the
former Conservative Shadow Home Secretary, DAVID DAVIS, resigned from the
Commons and fought a BY-ELECTION in his constituency not as a Conservative but on
the issue of LABOURS ATTEMPT TO UNDERMINE OUR CIVIL LIBERTIES WITH THE 42
DAY TERROR BILL.
Some political parties primarily focus on SINGLE ISSUES or represent just one SECTION
OF SOCIETY. Thus the GREEN PARTY, UKIP, RESPECT and the BNP are primarily
defined by one specific cause and this can make it difficult to distinguish them from
CAUSE pressure groups. For example, the environmental agenda of the GREEN PARTY
is very similar to that of GREENPEACE, while RESPECTS opposition to the WAR in IRAQ
is very similar to that of the ANTI WAR COALITION. Similarly some SECTIONAL
POLITICAL PARTIES ARE VERY SIMILAR TO SECTIONAL PRESSURE GROUPS; for
example, the SCOTTISH SENIOR CITIZENS UNITY PARTY naturally only appeals to a
certain section of society and could hardly form a government so it is very similar to a
pressure group. Therefore, both pressure groups and the smaller political parties only
make LIMITED MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS to a relatively small range of issues.
On the other hand, LARGER PRESSURE GROUPS can end up, like a political party,
making a large number of MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS.
For example, the
environment is such an all-encompassing issue that FRIENDS OF THE EARTH has
policies on TRANSPORT, AGRICULTURE, TRADE and FOREIGN POLICY.

121

MEMBERSHIP can often OVERLAP because of the SIMILAR AIMS of political parties
and pressure groups. For example, the TRADE UNIONS have provided a great deal of
FINANCIAL SUPPORT to Labour and currently still have 1/3 of the vote in electing a
Labour leader; many Labour MPs also retain their trade union membership such as
ALAN JOHNSON who is a member of the COMMUNICATION WORKERS UNION.
Similarly Conservative Think Tanks, such as the TAXPAYERS ALLIANCE seek to develop
Conservative ideology and many right wing Tory MPs are members of it; within Labour
the FABIAN SOCIETY similarly is a THINK TANK that seeks to development LEFT OF
CENTRE POLITICAL IDEAS.
Some pressure groups, like political parties, also allow elections for the leadership.
Thus the leadership of the ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS AND LECTURERS is, elected by
the membership as are the leaders of political parties and so both the leaders of
pressure group and political parties can be made ACCOUNTABLE by their members.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS

Political Parties are different to pressure groups in that a political partys ultimate
ambition is to FORM A GOVERNMENT. A pressure group, even if it stands in a General
Election, would not want to form a government; it simply wants to put pressure on a
government to act in a certain way. For example, even though the REFERENDUM
PARTY fought the 1997 General Election its aim, had it won, would have been to call
a Referendum on the Single Currency and then resigned office.
Pressure Groups therefore seek to INFLUENCE GOVERNMENT to act in a specific way.
For example, MAKE POVERY HISTORY wants to persuade the government to CANCEL
AFRICAN DEBT and INCREASE AID, while LIBERTY wants to persuade the government
to drop its plans for IDENTITY CARDS.
Pressure Groups are also generally UNACCOUNTABLE. Politicians and governments
are made accountable when we vote in elections and so, if we dont like their policies,
we can replace them. Thus, at the next election DAVID CAMERON could lose office
to ED MILIBAND. Pressure group leaders are often un-elected and so unaccountable
so, unlike politicians, SHAMI CHAKRABARTI of LIBERTY or BOB GELDOF of MAKE
POVERTY HISTORY are not held accountable for their actions and so, in that way, have
greater powers than political leaders.
Pressure Groups focus on a specific CAUSE (AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL; POLITICAL
PRISONERS) or the interests of a particular SECTION of society (MUSLIM COUNCIL OF
BRITAIN). This inevitably gives them a NARROWER APPEAL than political parties.
Political parties cannot focus simply on one cause or one section of society so they will
have VERY BROAD MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS. For example, the Labour and
Conservative Manifestoes will provide policies on everything from the environment to
housing to the War on Terror.

WHAT ARE THE MAIN POLITICAL FUNCTIONS OF A PRESSURE GROUP?

122

Pressure groups provide an important EDUCATIVE FUNCTION which means that they
can better inform the public about significant political issues. For example,
environmental pressure groups, such as FRIENDS OF THE EARTH, have ensured that
we now know a great deal more about the possible harmful effects of global warming,
while the OCCUPY LONDON movement is encouraging us to debate the implications
of globalisation in a way that we would otherwise not have done.
They also provide a very important REPRESENTATIVE FUNCTION and thus enable
MINORITY GROUPS to have their voice heard in POLITICAL DEBATE. This was
particularly true of the GURKHAS whose plight was very highly publicised by JOANNA
LUMLEY. Without this sort of support their aspirations would have been very unlikely
to have been dealt with by parliament since they are such a small minority. This would
also be true of the work being done by the MOSLEM COUNCIL OF BRITAIN.
Pressure Groups also encourage PARTICIPATION. One of the greatest threats to
democracy is political apathy and one of the great advantages of pressure groups is
that they encourage the public to get involved in the public debate. Thus, the
NATIONAL UNION OF STUDENTS and the TRADES UNION CONGRESS have been very
important in getting the public to express their dissatisfaction with the cost cutting
policies of the government.
Pressure groups have an important role in SCRUTINISING what the government is
proposing to do. The TUC has done this by organizing events such as the HYDE PARK
MARCH to emphasise the unacceptable scale of the cuts, while the NATIONAL
TRUST was highly successful, amongst others, in persuading the government to
reconsider its reasons for selling off the English forests.
The most influential INSIDER PRESSURE GROUPS can also have a role in POLICY
FORMULATION. For example, the INSTITUTE OF DIRECTORS and the TAXPAYERS
ALLIANCE are so trusted by the Conservatives that they are having a significant role in
the development of government policy; similarly the NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE
PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO CHILDREN [NSPCC] is so trusted by all main political
parties that it has been allowed a significant role in helping to draw up legislation
relating to childrens issues.

EXPLAIN THE METHODS USED BY PRESSURE GROUPS TO INFLUENCE

GOVERNMENT
There are a variety of methods and strategies that pressure groups use to achieve
success; the majority of which involve trying to achieve INSIDER STATUS and ensuring
that the PUBLIC CONCERN REMAIN BOTH INFORMED AND CONCERNED about what
they want to achieve:

123

Pressure Groups need to be as involved as possible in the DECISION-MAKING

PROCESS and therefore they need to gain as much access to government as possible.
Therefore, BOB GELDOF worked hard to build up close relations with both GORDON
BROWN and DAVID CAMERON since he understands that if AFRICAN POVERTY is
going to be a key government policy he needs to have a strong working relationship
with the leadership of all the main political parties.
SHAMI CHAKRABARTI of LIBERTY also works very closely with both MPs and LORDS
since they vote in parliament upon issues such as the 42 DAY TERROR BILL and
IDENTITY CARDS, and if she can win their support, (as she did in OCTOBER 2008 when
the Lords rejected the 42 DAY TERROR BILL) then Liberty will be better able to achieve
its objectives. Liberty has worked particularly closely, too, with the Liberal Democrats
since NICK CLEGG is committed to repealing many of Labours most repressive
statutes and Liberty wants to have as much influence over him, as a decision maker,
as possible.
Elitist pressure groups such as the CONSERVATIVE FRIENDS OF ISRAEL, the INSTITUTE
OF DIRECTORS and the TAXPAYERS ALLIANCE all appreciate, too, the importance of
maintaining close links with ministers, civil servants and other KEY DECISION MAKERS.
Pressure Groups will also want to generate as much FAVOURABLE PUBLICITY as they
can through HIGH PROFILE PUBLIC EVENTS, since if the public becomes concerned
about an issue that will put pressure on the government to act. For example, the LIVE
EIGHT CONCERTS generated an enormous amount of international focus on
OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT putting a lot of pressure on the G8 to cut African nations
debt and increase aid. Similarly, the LIVE EARTH concerts focused a massive amount
of international focus on the issue of GLOBAL WARMING encouraging governments
to act IN RESPONSE TO POPULAR CONCERN; so much so that the British government
is now committed to cutting our carbon dioxide emissions by 80% by 2050. SIT-INS
and MARCHES THROUGH CENTRAL LONDON by the NATIONAL UNION OF STUDENTS
are similarly designed to increase public awareness of TOP UP FEES, while the OCCUPY
LONDON protest camp at ST PAULS has generated a great deal of public awareness
about the repercussions of GLOBALISATION.
Increasingly, pressure group will use MODERN ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION such
as the INTERNET in order to win as much enthusiasm for their cause as possible. THE
GIRL EFFECT website in a very short period of time has already had over a MILLION
HITS, developing a great deal of interest in the issue of whether female emancipation
is one of the best ways of addressing global poverty.
Now that the government has introduced E PETITIONS pressure groups like
MIGRATION WATCH UK are urging the public to sign an e petition to ensure that the
issue is debated at Westminster. THIS IS ANFIELD very successfully did this, to, over
its e petition that the government should release official documents relating to the
HILLSBOROUGH DISASTER.

124

The UK population is now expected to hit 70 million in only 16 years. Two thirds
of the increase will be due to immigration that is 5 million or five times the present
population of Birmingham.
We now have over 120,000 signatures but the more we get the greater impact.

Now at last your chance to speak

Sign
our
petition
to
the
http://epetitions.direct.gov.uk/petitions/19658
Migration Watch UK

Prime

Minister

at:

TRADE UNIONS will also use their ECONOMIC COERCIVE POWER in order to try to
persuade a government to reverse or modify certain policies. At the moment the
PUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES [for example by teachers unions] are trying to so disrupt
public services that the government agrees to reconsider their proposed pension
reforms. At the same time, the TUC hopes to drive a wedge between the Liberal
Democrats and Conservatives thereby undermining the ability of the coalition to
govern the country and so, possibly, bringing down the government.

Tens of thousands of people joined rallies around the UK as a public sector strike
over pensions disrupted schools, hospitals and other services. About two thirds of
state schools shut and thousands of hospital operations were postponed as unions
estimated up-to two million people went on strike.
According to TUC General Secretary, Brendan Barber, Uniting so many people in
such strong opposition to their pension plans should give the government pause for
thought. They now need to give the negotiations real content. Unions want to
achieve a fair settlement, but it takes two to reach a deal.
BBC News, 30th November 2011

HOW AND WHY DO SOME PRESSURE GROUPS USE DIRECT ACTION? [10
MARKS]

125

Pressure Groups may decide to use DIRECT ACTION if they know that they will be
unable to achieve insider status with the government and, therefore, the best
opportunity for them to achieve their objectives is to take their case directly to the
public. For example, the NATIONAL UNION OF STUDENTS has arranged a series of
SIT-INS and high profile MARCHES through CENTRAL LONDON as the best way of
generating MEDIA PUBLICITY for their cause. Knowing, too, that the government is
fully committed to the principles of GLOBAL CAPITALISM the OCCUPY LONDON
movement has used a similar strategy by camping out at ST PAULS in order to gain as
much PUBLIC DEBATE as possible about their cause.
Pressure Groups that LACK FINANCIAL RESOURCES open to powerful pressure groups
may, similarly, attempt direct action as a way of gaining PUBLIC SUPPORT for their
cause; FATHERS FOR JUSTICE have done this with their SUPERMAN STUNTS but
with a singular lack of success. On the hand BOB GELDOF appreciated that direct
action, in the form of the LIVE EIGHT CONCERTS could generate so much popular
concern about continuing global poverty that politicians, FEARFUL OF IGNORING
POPULAR CONCERNS, would have to give the problem significantly greater attention.
Finally, TRADE UNIONS may well resort to STRIKE ACTION since they believe that the
most effective way of forcing a government to COMPROMISE is to use their
ECONOMIC COERCIVE POWER TO DISRUPT GOVERNMENT. This is what the TUC is
currently doing with the PUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES which aim to drive such a wedge
between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats in government that they will revise
their plans or the coalition may even collapse thus precipitating a General Election.

HOW
DO
PRESSURE
GROUPS
REPRESENTATION? [5 MARKS]

PROMOTE

FUNCTIONAL

Pressure Groups promote functional representation because they provide voters with
the opportunity to express their views exactly. Political parties, in order to get elected,
AGGREGATE their policies in order to appeal to as much of the electorate as possible.
Pressure groups thus challenge the limitations of representative democracy by
allowing sectional groups such as pensioners or trade unionists or interests such as
the opponents of HS2 or the environmental lobby to make their case exactly without
it having to be diluted in a range of broader manifesto commitments.

WHAT IS A PLURALIST DEMOCRACY? [5 MARKS]

In a PLURALIST DEMOCRACY power is DISPERSED which means that can try to
INFLUENCE DECISION MAKING IN A WIDE VARIETY OF WAYS NOT ONLY AT
ELECTIONS BUT BETWEEN ELECTIONS. Thus you can join a pressure group like
LIBERTY in order to try to influence government according to you political views. In a
pluralist democracy the government is thus perceived as being NEUTRAL and
impartially weights up the merits of the points of view that pressure various pressure
groups present it with. Such POLITICAL DIVERSITY is thus vital to the health of

126

democracy since government will be made EQUALLY AWARE of many different

strands of thought when making decisions.
Thus, it has been argued that PRESSURE GROUPS CONTRIBUTE TO A MORE
PLURALIST DEMOCRACY because they DISPERSE POWER AWAY FROM THE
GOVERNMENT BACK TO THE PEOPLE and enable us ALL TO EXPRESS OUR VIEWS IN
AN EQUALLY VALID WAY, while whatever your point of view [as long as it is legal] you
can express it to the government through pressure group activity.

THE ELITIST MODEL

It has though been argued that the Pluralist Model is much too optimistic and, in fact,
pressure groups, FAR FROM DISPERSING POWER ACTUALLY CENTRALISE IT IN A
SMALL NUMBER OF VERY POWERFUL ELITE PRESSURE GROUPS THEREBY MAKING
US A MORE ELITIST AND A LESS PLURALIST DEMOCRACY! For example, ED MILIBAND
was elected Labour leader because of the TRADE UNION VOTE even though his
brother was the choice of party members and MPs, while it might be argued that the
BANKS have not been sufficiently regulated because, like many corporate pressure
groups, they have insider status with the government. POLITICAL LOBBYING firms,
such as LUTHER PENDRAGON as well as wealthy and rather secretive pressure groups
such as the TAXPAYERS ALLIANCE and the CONSERVATIVE FRIENDS OF ISRAEL are all
totally UNACCOUNTABLE to the public and yet wield hugely disproportionate
influence on government decision making. The opinions of financially influential
pressure groups such as the CONFEDERATION OF BRITISH INDUSTRY and the
INSTITUTE OF DIRECTORS also wield a disproportionate amount of influence on the
development of government policy.

Chastened, perhaps, by the industrys well-financed lobbying and politicians failure

to take tougher action, regulators have dodged the crucial issue of how much
bankers earn. Instead they have tinkered at the systems edges.
Financial Times, 20th March 2011

Over Labours commitment to the 50p top rate of taxation, the Institute of Directors
stated that it will significantly damage Labours credibility with the business
community, while Katja Hall, chief policy director at the CBI commented, We dont
believe that introducing a 50p income tax rate is the right way to raise the money,
because that puts off talented people coming to the UK to invest and create jobs.
The Observer, 26th January 2014

127

Taxpayers should be looking forward to toasting in the New Year; instead the
enormous cost of Government spending and regulation means that they will
effectively be working for the Government until the summer. Government
spending and expensive regulations are costing more than half of ordinarys
peoples income and this simply cannot go on. The Government needs to cut
spending, get rid of burdensome regulations and cut taxes to get the economy going
and leave more taxpayers money in their own pockets
Matthew Elliott, Chief Executive of the Tax Payers Alliance, December 2011

Luther Pendragon has been appointed by the UK Liquid Petroleum Gas Association
for a targeted public affairs and political engagement campaign with the aim of
securing a long term commitment on fuel duty from central government and the
continuation of an exemption from LPG vehicles in London. Chris Guyver6, Director
at Luther Pendragon said, We have a long track record at Luther Pendragon of
delivering highly creative, well-orchestrated programmes and at influencing
political opinion at every level. Given the range of UKLPGs experience and its
successful track record, we believe there is a real opportunity for the association to
achieve campaign success and we are looking forward to working with UKLPG to
deliver this.
Luther Pendragon Website

In January 2009 candidates did very badly on the question To what extent do
pressure groups promote PLURALIST democracy?, because they ignored pluralist.
What they needed, therefore, to do was to focus on whether pressure groups actually
decentralises power [pluralist model] or centralises it [elitist model]. In other words
does it give us all equal opportunity to make our views heard or does it give undue
influence to the most wealthy and influential thus undermining democracy?

WAYS IN WHICH PRESSURE GROUPS WAYS IN WHICH PRESSURE GROUPS

CONTRIBUTE
TO
A
PLURALIST CAN UNDERMINE A PLURALIST
DEMOCRACY
DEMOCRACY

One of the greatest threats to However, Pressure Group activity can

democracy is APATHY [NB Only 65.1% also give rise to ELITISM. WEALTHY
6

Warwick School, 1970-1982

128

voted in the 2010 General Election] and

so PRESSURE GROUPS ensure a
PLURALIST DEMOCRACY in which the
public continues to be INVOLVED in the
POLITICAL
PROCESS
BETWEEN
ELECTIONS. The EDUCATIVE ROLE of
pressure groups is therefore vital in
making us the sort of INFORMED and
ACTIVE CITIZENS who are the
CORNERSTONE
of
a
HEALTHY
DEMOCRACY.

PRESSURE GROUPS are able to spend a

lot of money gaining ACCESS TO
DECISION MAKERS. The INSTITUTE OF
DIRECTORS, for example, is extremely
powerful with headquarters in both
LONDON and BRUSSELS and, because of
its huge financial power, government
ministers will frequently meet with its
representatives and so generally put the
interests of British interests before those
of British workers. [Tony Benn, Malvern,
September 2008].

When people do not involve

themselves in political activity there is a
strong probability that government will
become dictatorial, safe in the
knowledge that its power is unlikely to
be challenged.
[NEIL MCNAUGHTON]

The Institute of Directors clear Euroscepticism will certainly be influential

with the Prime Minister, The UKs
relationship with Europe is dominated
by political and economic uncertainty
but the business verdict is very clear.
Almost two thirds of Institute of
Continuous Pressure Group activity thus Directors members want to see a looser
ensures that the public are kept WELL- relationship with the EU.
INFORMED and do not simply abdicate
their democratic responsibilities to the Similarly, powerful business interests,
government. For example, the ANTI like BETFAIR, can employ POLITICAL
WAR
COALITION,
GREENPEACE, LOBBYING
FIRMS,
like
LUTHER
LIBERTY and MAKE POVERTY HISTORY PENDRAGON, to lobby parliament to get
have all publicised really vital issues and them a favourable decision. MPs and
ensured that the public are much better Lords who were potentially hostile to
informed than if they were simply our client were identified and where
listening to politicians! NONE ARE possible briefed and neutralised.
ELITIST AND ALL HAVE ACHIEVED
SUCCESS BY USING THE INFLUENCE OF The way in which STEPHEN BYERS,
PUBLIC
PRESSURE
ON
THE GEOFF HOON and PATRICIA HEWITT
GOVERNMENT. Pressure groups thus were prepared to sell their services to an
provide FRESH CHANNELS by which the imaginary political lobbying firm also
public can articulate their political shows how much UNDEMOCRATIC and
concerns.
UNACCOUNTABLE
INFLUENCE
LOBBYING FIRMS wield at Westminster.
Pressure Group activity therefore
STIMULATES POLITICAL DEBATE and is LIAM FOX, also resigned as DEFENCE
vital in POLITICAL AGENDA SETTING. SECRETARY when it became clear that
For example, some of the really big international businesses were using
political debates of recent months such their relationship with his lobbyist friend
as our response to GLOBAL WARMING ADAM WERRITY to achieve favourable
and the WAR AGAINST TERROR have all decisions from the Ministry of Defence.

129

been kick-started by pressure groups The TAX PAYERS ALLIANCE is a good

highlighting these issues.
example of an UNACOUNTABLE and
LITTLE KNOWN pressure group which
Today, the OCCUPY LONDON exerts enormous power over the current
movement is raising awareness about government pushing for LOWER TAXES,
the dreadful INEQUALITIES caused by LOWER PUBLIC SPENDING and a major
GLOBAL CAPITALISM.
renegotiation of our membership of the
EUROPEAN UNION, through meetings
Equally once a government has been with ministers, focus groups and
elected there is a danger that it can, if it research
documents.
Indeed,
has a sufficient majority in the House of MATTHEW ELLIOTT, leader of the TAX
Commons, pass any bill that it likes. PAYERS ALLIANCE confided at Warwick
LORD HAILSHAM in 1976 referred to this School that he is much more influential
as AN ELECTIVE DICTATORSHIP, while as head of this pressure group than he
the
eighteenth
century
French would be as a Tory backbench MP; so
philosopher, JJ ROUSSEAU stated that much so that David Cameron had him
the English were only free on the day on lead the No to AV Campaign.
which they voted. Pressure Group
activity though reduces this threat by The CONSERVATIVE FRIENDS OF ISRAEL
ensuring that GOVERNMENT IS also has huge FINANCIAL RESOURCES at
CONSTANTLY
BEING
HELD their disposal and has used the threat to
ACCOUNTABLE BY THE PUBLIC FOR ITS withhold funds to help determine
ACTIONS.
Conservative
policy
on
ISRAEL.
WILLIAM HAGUE has not condemned
It
reduces,
too,
a
VILLAGE ISRAEL over GAZA since Cameron
WESTMINSTER
atmosphere
and understandably does not want to lose
ensures that the government are kept the backing of such wealthy backers. See
continually aware of the public mind; PETER OBORNE in DISPATCHES
this is, of course, vital in a properly [NOVEMBER 2009]
functioning
PARTICIPATORY
/
CONSULTATIVE DEMOCRACY which is 1975 The YES TO EUROPE CAMPAIGN
what David Cameron is trying to build won
the
REFERENDUM
on
through his BIG SOCIETY.
MEMBERSHIP OF THE EEC even though
it began as the under-dog. Significantly
For example, LIBERTY has helped to so it spent 1,850,000 on the campaign,
publicise the CONSEQUENCES for our while the NO campaign was only able
CIVIL LIBERTIES of anti terror legislation to spend 133,630
that politicians are now engaging with
the issue, while the ongoing PUBLIC Pressure Group leaders also PUT THEIR
SECTOR STRIKES, together with the OWN CAUSE OR SECTION FIRST
STUDENT PROTEST MARCHES and SIT- WITHOUT, NECESSARILY, CONSULTING
INS are important in RAISING THE GOOD OF THE COMMUNITY. The
AWARENESS of the justification for the TUC, for example, oppose government
governments huge cuts in spending. cuts, and is putting a great deal of
Such protests are certainly enabling the pressure on the coalition to back down
public to have their voice heard in the through the calculated use of STRIKE
debate, rather than just letting the ACTION. Such action, it could be argued,

130

government do whatever it likes. PRO

GAY pressure groups have also
highlighted awareness about gay rights
so protecting and developing the civil
liberties of a section of society.

is undemocratic since the TUC is using its

INDUSTRIAL COERCIVE POWER out of
self interest for its members, when the
cuts may well be necessary for the good
of the country and have, too, a
democratic mandate from the public in
The success of the JUSTICE FOR the 2010 General Election.
GURKHAS campaign, together with the
highly effective way in which local Famously, in FEBRUARY 1974 the
pressure groups allied with the National NATIONAL UNION OF MINERS STRIKE
Trust persuaded the government to halt succeeded in BRINGING DOWN THE
its plans to sell off BRITISH FORESTS DEMOCRATICALLY ELECTED HEATH
shows how pressure groups really can GOVERNMENT when, in panic, he called
allow the public to influence a snap election which he lost to HAROLD
government decision making in their WILSON.
They had little popular
favour.
support, but because they were so
powerful could do what they liked.
There is also the danger of a TYRANNY
OF THE MAJORITY within any During the next MINERS STRIKE, 1984democracy and pressure groups can help 5, Miners Leader, ARTHUR SCARGILL,
guard against this by representing the made clear he wanted to TOPPLE THE
rights of MINORITY GROUPS when the DEMOCRATICALLY
MANDATED
majority may want to discriminate THATCHER
GOVERNMENT;
EVEN
against them. This has recently been the THOUGH HE HAD NOT EVEN ALLOWED
case with the MUSLIM COUNCIL OF HIS OWN MEMBERS A VOTE ON STRIKE
BRITAIN representing Muslim interests ACTION AND HE LACKED PUBLIC
against potentially DISCRIMINATORY SUPPORT!
LEGISLATION following 7/7.
It could therefore be argued that
powerful pressure groups, on both the
left and the right of British politics, are
UNACCOUNTABLE for their actions and
LACK DEMOCRATIC LEGITIMACY. They
can therefore PERSUADE or COERCE a
government to act in a certain way; even
though the majority of the public may
disagree. In other words powerful
pressure groups DO NOT DECENTRALISE
POWER; INSTEAD THEY FURTHER
CENTRALISE IT AROUND A FEW KEY
PLAYERS WHO ARE POWERFUL,
UNELECTED AND UNACCOUNTABLE
AND IN THAT SENSE THESE SORTS OF
PRESSURE GROUPS MAY BE SAID TO
UNDERMINE PLURALIST DEMOCRACY
BECAUSE THEY ENCOURAGE POLITICAL
INEQUALITY.

131

Many pressure group leaders, such as

BOB GELDOF or MATTHEW ELLIOTT are
not elected naturally ensuring that they
are NOT ACCOUNTABLE to their
members which could be seen as
undermining democracy since these
leaders can wield so much power.
At least with a government its
MANDATE comes from the voters and it
can be withdrawn in a GENERAL
ELECTION.
Power without responsibility the
prerogative of the harlot through the
ages* STANLEY BALDWIN, 1931
*Baldwin was referring to the Daily Mail and
Daily Express but might it also be said of pressure
group leaders today?

CONCLUSION: In essence the key question is whether pressure groups have

successfully made us a MORE PLURALIST DEMOCRACY by DISPERSING POWER MORE
BROADLY THEREBY BREAKING DOWN THE CONCENTRATION OF POWER AT THE
CENTRE, or has it actually done the opposite GIVING MORE POWER TO POWERFUL
AND INFLUENTIAL BODIES THEREBY FURTHER REDUCING THE POWER OF THE
INDIVIDUAL? In other words, has the increasing influence of pressure groups really
broadened power at all or has it simply re-concentrated amongst the BIG TENT of
the most influential elected and non-elected figures in society?
[NEIL
MCNAUGHTON]

A surgeon who pioneered research linking street violence and cheap drink says the
influence the alcohol industry has on UK ministers is just wrong. Prof Jonathan
Shepherd, of Cardiff University, said that drinks industry lobbying changed the
governments mind on plans for an alcohol minimum unit price.
BBC News, 8th January 2014

The research and campaign co-ordinator of Corporate Europe Observatory, Oliver

Hoedeman, - which monitors lobbying pauses outside a smart office block, a few
streets away from the European Parliament. He points to the second floor and the
offices of British American Tobacco. It has seven full time lobbyists here and Mr

132

Hoedeman says the tobacco industry employs around 100 in Brussels, spending
more than 5 million euros a year. Those numbers have grown as the industry fights
proposed new regulation of the industry
BBC News, 17th July 2013

WHY ARE SOME PRESSURE GROUPS MORE SUCCESSFUL THAN OTHER

PRESSURE GROUPS?

SUCCESSFUL
PRESSURE GROUPS

UNSUCCESSFUL
PRESSURE GROUPS

A Pressure Group is likely to be most

successful if the GOVERNMENT is IN
TUNE WITH ITS WISHES. Thus, in recent
years MAKE POVERTY HISTORY has
achieved a great deal more success
because TONY BLAIR, GORDON BROWN
and DAVID CAMERON have all been so
concerned about the issue of GLOBAL
POVERTY.

Unsuccessful Pressure Groups have

generally FAILED TO ACHIEVE INSIDER
STATUS WITH DECISION MAKERS and
also FAILED TO WIN PUBLIC SUPPORT.
For example, the ANTI WAR COALITION
has failed to achieve its objectives of a
British withdrawal from AFGHANISTAN
before 2014 since all the main political

133

Today LIBERTY exercises a great deal

more influence in government circles,
because the Deputy Prime Minister,
NICK CLEGG, is so eager to protect our
civil liberties; for example, by scrapping
plans for IDENTITY CARDS as well as
cutting back on the further expansion of
CCTV.

parties have been committed to that

policy. Similarly, the CAMPAIGN FOR
NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT has never
achieved its objective of UNILATERAL
NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT since all
governments since 1948 have been
resolutely committed to NUCLEAR
DEFENCE.

The INSTITUTE OF DIRECTORS and the

TAX PAYERS ALLIANCE are also both
highly influential in the coalition because
the Tories support many of their Eurosceptic, low tax principles. They would
have significantly less influence were Ed
Miliband to become Prime Minister.

The COUNTRYSIDE ALLIANCE has, in the

past, failed in its attempts to protect
COUNTRYSIDE SPORTS since New
Labour had LARGE PARLIAMENTARY
MAJORITIES and was thus been able to
ignore the countryside.
It has thus
lacked
necessary
influence
in
Westminster; although this may change
GAY RIGHTS pressure groups have also now that there is a coalition
been increasingly successful because the government.
Coalition is firmly in favour of GAY
EQUALITY and has passed the GENDER FATHERS FOR JUSTICE has also been so
[SEXUAL ORIENTATION] EQUALITY ACT unsuccessful because its STUNTS did not
as well as legalizing GAY MARRIAGE. gain the PUBLICS IMAGINATION and it
The HUMAN RIGHTS ACT has also been lacked the sort of FINANCIAL
interpreted by the SUPREME COURT to RESOURCES necessary to successfully
provide gays with equality under the lobby parliament.
ANIMAL RIGHTS
law; all of which has been greatly to the GROUPS are in a similar position; their
advantage of gay pressure groups, while, activities have tended to turn the public
especially since the Blair governments, against them (such as digging up GLADYS
public opinion has shifted decisively in HAMMOND) and their publicity tends to
favour of gay rights.
be AMATEUR and they lack the money
to successfully lobby parliament.
If a Pressure Group succeeds in making
the PUBLIC feel very strongly about an
issue then this will put pressure on the Opponents of the HIGH SPEED RAIL LINK
government to act for fear of losing are also finding it very difficult to achieve
electoral support. For example, there their objectives because the Coalition
has been so much PRESSURE GROUP Government, as well as the Labour Party
GENERATED PUBLICITY ABOUT GLOBAL are all in favour of the policy since it fits
WARMING that all the leading political in
with
their
GREEN
POLICY
parties are pledged to significantly CREDENTIALS. It is, therefore, very
reduce our carbon dioxide emissions.
difficult to see how they could gain
enough support in parliament to be able
A pressure group will also achieve to over-turn this policy.
success if it can persuade the

134

government that it would be electorally Philip Hammond7, the Transport

disastrous for it to oppose them.
Secretary, has said that a high speed rail
link from London to Birmingham would
For example, the recent decision of the help the West Midlands economy catch
Coalition Government to back down on up with the South East. He said the high
its plans to SELL OFF BRITISH FORESTS is speed rail link was also vital to allow the
primarily due to the fact that most of the whole country to be opened up to
opposition was coming from traditional foreign business opportunities.
69
Conservative voters, as well as middle leading business executives have also
England pressure groups, such as the pledged their support for the High Speed
NATIONAL
TRUST
which
the Rail Link in a letter to the Financial
government
do
not
want
to Times. Professor David Begg, Chief
unnecessarily antagonise. The fact, too, Executive of the Transport Times said,
that there were potentially many For too long the debate on the high
Conservative and Liberal Democrat MPs speed rail link has been dominated by
who were unlikely to support the sell-off local opponents but many in business
was another key reason why the want it developed as soon as possible.
government decided not to continue BBC News, 24th February 2011
with these plans, as they might have
ended up being defeated in the ISLAM 4 UK has also been a failure,
Commons as Labour was over their plans because its extreme radicalism has been
to deny residency rights to the Gurkhas. condemned by the much larger Moslem
Council of Britain and its plans for a
The success of the GURKHAS in their march through WOOTTON BASSETT,
battle to have BRITISH CITIZENSHIP where dead British servicemen are
rights was also dramatically helped by repatriated to the UK, generated a huge
the intervention of JOANNA LUMLEY, amount of NEGATIVE PUBLICITY.
and the resulting MEDIA SUPPORT
[especially from the DAILY MIRROR, AMNESTY
INTERNATIONAL
and
which put a great deal of pressure on an HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH have also
already weakened government to back demanded that more be done to
down].
intervene in SYRIA in order to reduce the
killing, but since the government is
FAVOURABLE PRESS COVERAGE is, unprepared to intervene, their calls have
therefore, very useful to your success. been unsuccessful.
For example, the support of the DAILY
EXPRESS for the E PETITION on an EU
REFERENDUM helped it reach its target
of 100,000 signatures. MIGRATION
WATCH UK has also successfully
gathered over 120,000 signatures thus
ensuring a high profile debate on
immigration.

135

It is therefore important to PUBLICISE

your pressure group effectively if it is to
be successful. An effective use of the
INTERNET is a good way of achieving
this, as the surge of interest in the GIRL
EFFECT illustrates. Pressure Groups are
also, as we have seen, increasingly,
urging their supporters to sign up to E
PETITIONS whereby Westminster has
debate issues that they feel strongly
about.
Thus, the government has now agreed to
release documents relating to the
HILLSBOROUGH DISASTER as a result of
an E petition started by THIS IS
ANFIELDS BRIAN IRVINE and endorsed
by KENNY DALGLISH.
HIGH PROFILE CELEBRITIES such as BOB
GELDOF and the late NELSON MANDELA
have also been highly important in
successfully publicising the MAKE
POVERTY HISTORY, while AL GORE has
been similarly influential in highlighting
the need for action on CLIMATE
CHANGE.
A wealthy pressure group will also have
the money to pay for PROFESSIONAL
ADVERTISING; CHRISTIAN AID is able to
launch very high profile campaigns while
the TAX PAYERS ALLIANCE has paid for
some very slick broadcasts calling for the
UK to leave the EU. AMNESTY
INTERNATIONAL also publicises its
cause highly effectively on the Internet,
as does HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH.
Wealthy pressure groups like OXFAM,
COMMISSION INFLUENTIAL REPORTS
WHICH IT CAN THEN CIRCULATE TO THE
GOVERNMENT.
Over a number of years the Tax Payers
Alliance has produced pioneering
research into public spending, taxation

136

and broader economic policy. In areas

such as public remuneration and
quangos, TPA research now represents
the definitive primary source used by the
media, academics and the public.
Tax Payers Alliance Research Archive
A wealthy pressure group will also be
able to FOLLOW POWER so the TUC, CBI
and LUTHER PENDRAGON have all
opened up OFFICES in BRUSSELS since,
with increasing numbers of decisions
being made at EU-level, they need to be
able to INFLUENCE THE DECISION
MAKING PROCESS THERE.
If a Pressure Group has a great deal of
KNOWLEDGE POWER then it can wield
this in order to achieve its objectives.
THE INSTITUTE OF DIRECTORS, for
example, represents British big business
to the government and, in the current
economic crisis, its increasing EUROSCEPTICISM and support for LOWER
TAXES and LESS REGULATION has
helped to give growing influence to the
right of the Conservative party.
Similarly, the BRITISH MEDICAL
ASSOCIATION has great power since it
has the SPECIALIST KNOWLEDGE that a
government needs if it is to successfully
legislate on matters of health. FRIENDS
OF THE EARTH are increasingly in this
position as they provide the government
with key information that they need
when
deciding
upon
their
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES.

Facebook has said it will review how it deals with controversial, harmful and
hateful content after admitting current measures are not effective. The admission
follows sustained pressure from campaign groups, advertisers and the media. An
open letter from several feminist groups urged Facebook to ban pages they said

137

promoted violence and leading brands Nissan and the Nationwide Building Society
have removed their advertising until, they say, Facebook acts more responsibly.
BBC News, 29th May 2013

I want to say a big thank you to the Mirror and its army of readers for supporting
our campaign to win justice for the Gurkhas. Everyone at the Mirror and especially
you, the readers, have been Absolutely Fabulous. The Gurkhas and their families
have told me how much they appreciate your support. The recent debate and vote
in Parliament has forced the Government to rethink its policy on Gurkhas rights to
stay in Britain. It was a fantastic result, with Mirror readers signing our petition in
their thousands, as well as persuading their MPs to back our cause.
Joanna Lumley in the Daily Mirror, 1st May 2009

TO WHAT EXTENT ARE INSIDER PRESSURE GROUPS MORE LIKELY TO BE

SUCCESSFUL THAN OUTSIDER PRESSURE GROUPS? [25 MARKS]
Insider pressure groups certainly have a number of advantages over outsider pressure
groups and yet it is not the case that they are inevitably always going to be more
successful. Insider groups do, of course, have direct communication with the
government and this can ensure that they can be very involved in the decision making
process. For example, banking lobbying firms have fought hard to withstand Vince
Cables plans to further regulate the banks, while the CONFEDERATION OF BRITISH
INDUSTRY and the even more influential INSTITUTE OF DIRECTORS have both been
thoroughly consulted about the governments plans to reduce the deficit and
stimulate economic growth. The TAXPAYERS ALLIANCE has also used its very close
relationship with the Conservative Party to provoke a great deal of INFORMED
DEBATE WITHIN GOVERNMENT about the need to cut public spending and taxes, as
well as reconsidering the UKs relationship with the EU. Similarly, the governments
benign attitude towards ISRAEL has been helped by the significant financial support
that it can rely upon from the FRIENDS OF ISRAEL.
Since the establishment of the coalition civil liberties pressure groups, such as
LIBERTY, have been able to secure greater access to influential politicians, like the
Deputy Prime Minister, NICK CLEGG. At the same time, BOB GELDOF has been adept
at securing strong relations with all Blair, Brown and Cameron ensuring that they have
all been prepared to prioritise the issue of OVERSEAS DEVELOPMENT; indeed the
influence of Geldof over the coalition is one of the key reasons why the overseas aid
budget has been, almost uniquely, ring fenced at 0.7% of GDP, from the ongoing
government cuts.
POLITICAL LOBBYING FIRMS, such as LUTHER PENDRAGON, thus well understand the
importance of pressure groups being able to influence government decision making
138

from the inside. MECCA BINGO, for example, successfully used it to lobby the
government in the end meeting with GORDON BROWN and a number of leading
ministers. Luther Pendragon utilized Mecca Bingos large constituency footprint to
gain support from cross-party MPs and government departments to lobby the
Treasury. The team then built a campaign which included over 20 oral questions,
including one at Prime Ministers Questions, over 70 written parliamentary questions
on the subject of bingo and a Westminster Hall debate. Eventually the government
decided to scrap double taxation on bingo. [Luther Pendragon Website]

Luther Pendragons new Brussels office is here to help you find your way through
the EU. Luther Brussels can ensure that you keep on top of developments in the EU
and interpret the effects that they will have on your organisation. We can facilitate
your engagement with the European Commission, parliament and Council, and we
can help you understand and influence EU policy and regulation.
Luther Pendragon Website

Indeed, some insider pressure groups such as the BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION
and the ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRUELTY TO CHILDREN have
achieved so much influence with government ministers than they have even been
involved in the actually drawing up of proposed legislation. However, it would be
misleading to suggest that insider pressure groups are always the most successful.
Certainly, too, many pressure groups that lack effective links with the government
have often proved highly unsuccessful. Opponents, for example, of the NEW HIGH
SPEED RAIL LINK have been unable to win much support within the coalition, or even
with Labour, and thus seem unlikely to be able to stop the line being built. At the
same time, the COUNTRYSIDE ALLIANCE, during the last LABOUR GOVERNMENT and
the TRADES UNION CONFERENCE and the NATIONAL UNION OF STUDENTS today lack
the influence in government to be able to change its policies. For example, Labour
banned FOX HUNTING without any reference to the Countryside Alliance, while the
Coalition is likely to carry on with its SPENDING CUTS in spite of the TUC and NUS
protests. FATHERS FOR JUSTICE and the STOP THE WAR COALITION have also never
had enough support in government to be able to achieve their objectives.
And yet, there are still examples of OUTSIDER PESSURE GROUPS still being able to
achieve their objectives in spite of the opposition of the government. Back in 1990
the POLL TAX RIOTERS succeeded in forcing the new MAJOR government to drop the
POLL TAX since they had caused so much unrest in the country. More recently,
GORDON BROWN decided to drop plans to deny residency to the GURKHAS since the
plans were so wildly unpopular amongst the electorate and the leading Labour
supporting newspaper, the DAILY MIRROR, had decided to lead the JOANNA LUMLEY
campaign against the government. Soon after, the Coalition also dropped its plans to
SELL OFF ENGLISH FORESTS because this was proving so unpopular amongst
Conservative and Liberal Democrat voters. STRIKES, too, can work in forcing a
government to compromise and the TUC is hoping that their public sector strikes will

139

force the government to compromise over its pension reforms by driving a wedge
between the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats.
It is likely, too, that the ability of outsider pressure groups to influence the political
process may increase because of the introduction of E PETITIONS. This means that, if
a pressure group achieves 100,000 signatures then its cause will be debated at
Westminster and even if, as with the debate on an EU referendum, the motion fails, it
will at least generate much greater public awareness of that pressure group. For
example, the THIS IS ANFIELD E PETITION has already persuaded the government
to release documents relating to the HILLSBOROUGH DISASTER, while MIGRATION
WATCH UKs petition on limiting migration has made this issue significantly more main
stream and generated a full debate in the Commons in 2012.
Thus, insider status is a very effective way of gaining influence and it is one that most
pressure groups wish to achieve. However, particularly as the government focuses on
encouraging a more CONSULTATIVE DEMOCRACY in the UK, opportunities for
outsider pressure groups to use the MASS MEDIA and NEW FORMS OF ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION to achieve their objectives are likely to increase making it more
likely that even outsider groups may have an opportunity of being able to achieve their
ambitions.

EXPLAIN THE REASONS WHY THE SUCCESS OF PRESSURE GROUPS MAY

BE LIMITED. [10 MARKS]
The success of a pressure group may be limited if its actions generate unpopular media
coverage or if it lacks political leverage and if it faces opposition from a more powerful
opponent. Thus, Islam 4 UK has been very unsuccessful because its radical Islamist
policies, such as demonstrating against the return of dead British servicemen to
Wootton Bassett, have generated intense media criticism of their actions. The same
is true for Fathers for Justice who, by a combination of poor leadership and unpopular
stunts have not generated the sort of media support that they wanted. If the
government oppose your policies, it will also be difficult to achieve success as the
opponents of HS2 have discovered. All the three main political parties still support
the building of the rail link and, therefore, it is difficult for them to achieve political
leverage, especially as they lack significant financial backing. The trades unions have
also declined in importance, because all the main political parties now favour free
market principles and, since the economic crisis and the rise of globalisation, they have
lost a great deal of their economic bargaining power. If a pressure group is opposed
by a more powerful one that will also reduce its effectiveness. The anti abortion Life
pressure group is increasingly at odds with public opinion which favours choice, while
it is opposed by a number of well-connected Pro-Choice groups. Similarly, the
Countryside Alliance fared badly when Labour was in power, because Labour MPs
were more favourable to the League against Cruel Sports. Thus, pressure groups will
be unsuccessful if they cannot mobilise the public opinion they need to put pressure
on government or if the government is so committed to its policies that it will not
negotiate with them.

140

TO WHAT EXTENT HAVE PRESSURE GROUPS BECOME MORE

IMPORTANT IN RECENT YEARS?
It has been argued that, Pressure Groups have become increasingly INFLUENTIAL in
recent years because we have been living in a period of CONSENSUS POLITICS. As a
result of this there has been so much agreement between the main political parties
on issues such as the WAR AGAINST TERROR that the public have had to join CAUSE
PRESSURE GROUPS such as the ANTI WAR COALITION or OCCUPY LONDON in order
to influence the political process in a way that they could not have done by joining
such similarly minded political parties.
Our voting habits have also changed, as a result of POLITICAL DEALIGNMENT and
GREATER POLITICAL CONSUMERISM. This means that we are less likely to support all
the MANIFESTO COMMITMENTS of a particular political party and are much more
likely to support a pressure group which is more DIRECTLY RESPONSIVE to our
concerns. Thus, the rise in influence of pressure groups such as MAKE POVERTY
HISTORY, LIBERTY and FRIENDS OF THE EARTH shows that we are increasingly focuses
on one key issue than seeking to associate ourselves with all the policies of a particular
party.
Support for Pressure Groups have also increased dramatically since their leaders, such
as SHAMI CHAKRABARTI and BOB GELDOF has usually seen as being more IDEALISTIC
and TRUSTWORTHY than politicians who have to be continually involved in POLITICAL
COMPROMISE. This is particularly true of NICK CLEGG who has lost much of his
political sheen because of the compromises that he has to make with the
Conservatives in order to keep the Coalition together. In recent years, Pressure Groups
have achieved NOTEWORTHY SUCCESSES in POLITICAL AGENDA SETTING which has
further increased our support for them. For example, the huge publicity that MAKE
POVERTY HISTORYS LIVE EIGHT CONCERTS generated and the huge impact that the
LIVE EARTH CONCERTS also caused have placed CLIMATE CHANGE and GLOBAL
POVERTY high up the political agenda. Similarly LIBERTYS campaign against the 42
DAY TERROR BILL bore fruit when the Lords decided to throw out the bill and the
government decided not to reintroduce it. The success of the JUSTICE FOR GURKHAS
campaign, together with the way in which the government caved into pressure group
activity and decided NOT TO SELL OFF BRITISH FORESTS has also shown the way in
which pressure groups can have a major say in modern politics.
The COMMUNICATIONS REVOLUTION has also made it easier for Pressure Groups to
make an IMMEDIATE IMPACT. The INTERNET enables activists to immediately make
their views known and, for example, THE GIRL EFFECT has successfully stirred up a
great of debate over whether female emancipation could provide the key to solving
global poverty; leaders from the British government to the Head of the World Bank
are now all discussing this issue in earnest. As a result of the introduction of E
PETITIONS, pressure groups can also achieve IMMEDIATE ACCESS to decision making

141

process thus giving them, if they have sufficient support, guaranteed influence to
parliament. For example, THIS IS ANFIELD has succeeded in persuading the
government to release documents relating to the HILLSBOROUGH DISASTER, while
MIGRATION WATCH UKs PETITION is generating a debate in the Commons on
limiting immigration. In this ways pressure groups now have a guaranteed access to
Westminster that did not previously have.
However, we should beware of arguing that pressure groups are more important than
they have been before since they have always been highly significant in our
democracy. SLAVERY was abolished by parliament in 1833 as a result of campaigns
by WILLLIAM WILBERFORCE and the ANTI SLAVERY LEAGUE, while the ANTI CORN
LAW LEAGUE helped persuade the government of ROBERT PEEL to repeal the CORN
LAWS in 1846; in particular because it had vocal support from a new free trade
magazine, THE ECONOMIST. Arguably, too, TRADE UNIONS had greater power in
the 1970s, when their economic coercive power was considerably greater and
economic decisions were much more dependent on national governments than global
markets. For example, the MINERS STRIKE led to the collapse of EDWARD HEATHS
government in FEBRUARY 1974, while the WINTER OF DISCONTENT helped lead to
the defeat of JAMES CALLAGHANS government in 1979. Ed Miliband has recently
said he wants to break the financial link between the trade unions and Labour which
will further weaken their influence, while the GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS since 2008
has significantly reduced the NEGOTIATING POWER of TRADE UNIONS, while
GLOBALISATION means that employers are able to relocate their factories anywhere
in the world if trade unions demand too many rights for their workers.
There are also plenty of examples, still, of pressure groups failing to achieve their
objectives; such as the ANTI WAR COALITION; while, so far, neither the STUDENT
MARCHES or SIT-INS or the TUC PUBLIC SECTOR STRIKES have succeeded in changing
the governments policy on TOP UP FEES or PENSION REFORM. The OCCUPY
MOVEMENT is certainly highly vocal, as were FATHERS FOR JUSTICE, but neither has
had an obvious impact on government policy. A number of pressure groups such as
the NATIONAL TRUST and the RSPB have also been termed CHEQUE BOOK
PRESSURE GROUPS since, although they have a large membership, their members
simply pay a subscription and do not really engage with political issues.
Thus, it is probably truest to say that, in spite of the communications revolution, the
success of pressure group activity has remained fairly constant; for example, while the
power of sectional pressure groups, like the TUC, has declined, the influence of cause
pressure groups like Liberty has probably increased. As in all periods though pressure
group influence depends upon whether it wins the support of the public and the
government and that depends on specific circumstances rather than any particular
long term trends in political development.

TO WHAT EXTENT ARE THE LARGEST PRESSURE GROUPS THE MOST

SUCCESSFUL? [25]

142

There are many ways in which the size of a pressure group can help to determine
whether or not it is successful. For example, a pressure group with a large
membership, such as MAKE POVERTY HISTORY is more likely to be able to generate
effective MEDIA COVERAGE, while a large membership, as both FRIENDS OF THE
EARTH and GREENPEACE have will also ensure that they are able to use
SUBSCRIPTIONS to generate ADVERTISING CAMPAIGNS as well as RESEARCH
PROJECTS that can be used to support its policies. CHRISTIAN AID also has a very large
membership which has sponsored a number of important research projects which
have advised the government on how best it can combat overseas poverty. The huge
popular support for the LIVE EIGHT concerts, as well as the subsequent LIVE
EARTH concerts also persuaded all political parties that overseas aid and
environmentalism were issues that the public now felt so strongly about that they
would have to put it at the top of their agendas.
In the past the huge membership of TRADE UNIONS also gave them a great deal of
ECONOMIC COERCIVE POWER over governments and STRIKE ACTION in 1974 helped
to being down the government of EDWARD HEATH, while the WINTER OF
DISCONTENT in 1979 was crucial in the defeat of JAMES CALLAGHAN at the polls.
The larger the membership of a pressure group the more electoral influence it can
wield and the key reason why the coalition decided not to sell off BRITISH FORESTS in
2011 was because the opponents of the sale were, not only numerous, but were
generally middle class Tory voters concentrated in some very significant SWING
MARGINAL SEATS. In a similar fashion, when the Labour leaning DAILY MIRROR also
lent its support to JUSTICE FOR GURKHAS then the BROWN GOVERNMENT
appreciated that it would be electorally disastrous to further oppose Gurkha
Residency Rights.
At the same time a large membership also makes it easier for you to gain the 100,000
SIGNATURES necessary to provoke a DEBATE AT WESTMINSTER. The popular
pressure group MIGRATION WATCH UK was thus very successful in generating
120,000 signatures, thereby provoking a debate in the Commons on limiting
immigration.
However size alone will not guarantee the success of a pressure group and there are,
in fact, many examples of numerically large pressure groups failing to achieve their
objectives because a STRONG GOVERNMENT was resolutely opposed to their
demands. For example, in the 1980s the CAMPAIGN FOR NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT
had a huge membership and yet there was no way that MARGARET THATCHER would
ever have negotiated with them, such was her grip on power and right wing
convictions. Similarly, in 2003, confident in the support of the Tory opposition, TONY
BLAIR faced down the ANTI WAR COALITION even though it had organised the biggest
demonstration in Londons history. The STUDENT PROTESTS have also been very big,
but being marred by violence, they have not generated favourable media publicity,
while, even though the TUC estimates 2 MILLION PUBLIC SECTOR WORKERS went on
strike on 30th November 2011 it seems as though the government is confident that it

143

can continue with its reforms and ignore the strikes; especially since the media and
the weight of public opinion still seems to support the government and the strikes
have not even managed to generate support from the Labour leadership.
Indeed, a numerically small pressure group can wield significantly more political
influence than a numerically large pressure group if it achieves close insider status
with the government. The TAX PAYERS ALLIANCE and the CONSERVATIVE FRIENDS
OF ISRAEL are neither very large, but both have huge influence over the government;
the first in the way it generates right wing political ideas and the second in the huge
significant power it wields. LOBBYING FIRMS, like LUTHER PENDRAGON, are similarly
numerically small, but their SPECIALIST KNOWLEDGE and EXTENSIVE POLITICAL
CONTACTS enable them to punch considerably above their weight. Governments
listen carefully to groups such as the ENERGY COMPANIES, the BANKERS
ASSOCIATION and the INSTITUTE OF DIRECTORS because they represent financially
highly influential groups who governments see the need to co-operate with in a free
market economy.
Equally, the membership of the BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION is not especially
numerous, but it has great influence since no government in its policy-making towards
the NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE will be prepared to ignore its SPECIALIST
KNOWLEDGE. There is even evidence that a One Man Band pressure group can
achieve success; if that celebrity is sufficiently popular and well known to make a
difference. The huge enthusiasm that JAMIE OLIVERS FEED ME BETTER campaign
generated, especially over school meals, is a case in point.
Thus, to conclude, a large pressure group can have opportunities for influence that a
smaller pressure group may lack. However, it would be simplistic, to argue that the
size of a pressure group is the single most important factor in guaranteeing its success;
if that was the case we would never have gone to war with Iraq and even now the
government would be reversing many of its public sector reforms!

SUMMARY
5 marks
Define the term pressure group
Why is it sometimes difficult to distinguish between political parties and pressure
groups?
Distinguish between promotional and sectional groups
Distinguish between insider and outsider groups
Outline two methods typically used by insider pressure groups
Outline two methods typically used by outsider pressure groups
How do pressure groups differ from political parties?
Explain the term direct action
Explain the term pluralism
Explain the term elitism

144

10 marks
Distinguish between insider and outsider pressure groups
How and why do promotional groups typically use different methods from sectional
groups?
Why are some pressure groups associated with pluralism?
Why are some pressure groups associated with elitism?
Explain how and why pressure groups now use social media to promote their aims?
25 marks
Explain why some pressure groups are more successful than others
How and why have the methods used by pressure groups changed in recent years?
To what extent do pressure groups enhance democracy?
Assess the extent to which pressure groups promote pluralism or elitism
Assess the extent to which pressure groups are now more significant than political
parties
Assess the extent to which the UK is a pluralist democracy

AND FOR MORE IDEAS AND DETAIL USE PRE

CHEWED
Log in using:
[email protected]
yellow195

145