14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

PES University/PES Institute of Technology, Bangalore

Department of Mechanical Engineering
14ME353 Mechanical Vibrations
(4-0-04)
Faculty: Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, Design Domain Lead
Dr. Shrikanth V
Ms. Jyothsna K M
Mr. B K Karthik

Unit I Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Day Topic
1 Introduction, importance of vibration, basic concepts of vibration, classification of
Vibration
2 Vibration analysis procedure, Mathematical modeling of a forging hammer,
Mathematical model of a motorcycle
Problem: C1
3 Spring elements, Combination of springs, Springs in parallel and springs in series,
Problem: C2, C3 and C4
4 Problem: C5 and C6
Spring constant associated with restoring force due to gravity
Problem: C7
5 Mass or inertia elements, Combination of masses, Case 1: Translational Masses Connected
by a Rigid Bar, Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together,
Problem: C8
Damping elements, types of model and combination dampers
6 Harmonic motion and definitions and terminology only theory, Harmonic analysis,
Fourier series expansion
Problem: C9 and C10

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore 1

14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Equivalent Masses

SN Cases and Configurations Formula

1 Mass M attached at end of spring of mass m

m

M

= +

2 Cantilever beam of mass m carrying an end

mass M
m M
= + .

3 Simply supported beam of mass m carrying a

mass M at the middle
m M
= + .

4 Coupled translational and rotational masses

= +
J0

R
m = +

5 Masses on a pivoted rigid bar

m2 m3

m1

= +

l1
l2
l3

+

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Equivalent Stiffness (Springs)

SN Cases and Configurations Formula

1 Rod under axial load

=

2 Helical spring under axial load

=
8

3 Cantilever beam with end load

3
=

4 Fixed-fixed beam with load at the middle

48
=

5 Fixed-fixed beam with load at the middle

192
=

6 Springs in series
1 1 1 1
= + ++
k1 k2 kn

7 Springs in parallel
k1
k2 = + + +

kn

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Fundamentals of Vibrations
Introduction

Statics
Statics deals with the effect of forces on bodies at rest
Kinematics
It is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points, bodies (objects) and
systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion.
Dynamics
Dynamics deals with the motion of rigid bodies. It is a branch of physics (specifically classical
mechanics) concerned with the study of forces and torques and their effect on motion.
Structural Dynamics
The term structural dynamics implies that, in addition to having motion, the bodies are non-rigid,
i.e. elastic. Structural dynamics is slightly wider in meaning than vibration, which implies
only oscillatory behavior.
Importance of the Study of Vibration
Bad effects
1. The Vibrations in vehicles, locomotives, aircrafts and marine vehicles cause discomfort
to occupants and results in discomfort and loss of efficiency.
2. In turbines, vibrations cause spectacular mechanical failures. Engineers have not yet been
able to prevent the failures that result from blade and disk vibrations in turbines.
3. The Vibrations in various structures supporting heavy centrifugal machines (motors and
turbines), reciprocating machines (steam engine, engines and reciprocating pumps),
causes failure of structures because of material fatigue resulting from the cyclic variation
of the induced stresses.
4. The Vibrations in Diesel engines can cause ground waves sufficiently powerful to create
a nuisance in urban areas.
5. The vibration causes more rapid wear of machine parts such as bearings and gears and
also creates excessive noise.
6. In metal cutting processes, vibration can cause chatter, which leads to a poor surface
finish.
7. Instrument panels subjected to vibrations can cause their malfunctioning or difficulty in
reading the meters.
Thus one of the important purposes of vibration study is to reduce vibration through proper
design of machines, supporting and their mountings.

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore 4

14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Good effects
The natural vibration in human beings and animals helps in proper functioning of various organs
and sensory parts. In spite of its detrimental effects, vibration can be utilized profitably in several
consumer and industrial applications.
1. In human beings and animals, the vibration helps in hearing due to ear drum vibrations,
seeing due to light waves undergo vibrations, breathing due to vibration of lungs, walking
due to oscillatory motion of legs( and/or hands), speech or creating sound due to
oscillatory motion of larynges (and tongues).
2. Conveyors, hoppers, sieves, compactors, washing machines, electric toothbrushes,
dentists drills, clocks, and electric massaging units, works on the principle of vibrations.
3. The vibration is employed to simulate earthquakes for geological research and also to
conduct studies in the design of nuclear reactors.
4. Almost all musical instruments works on the principle of vibrations.

Basic Concepts of Vibration

Vibration
Whenever an elastic body subjected to an initial or continuous disturbance, then the body
undergo a periodical motion (i.e., motion that repeats itself after an interval of time) is called
vibration or oscillation.
Natural frequency and Resonance
If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the frequency with which it
oscillates without external forces is known as its natural frequency. A vibratory system having n
degrees of freedom will have, in general, n distinct natural frequencies of vibration.
Whenever the natural frequency of vibration of a machine or structure coincides with the
frequency of the external excitation, there occur a phenomenon known as resonance, which
leads to excessive deflections and failure.
Example: Failure Tacoma Narrows bridge during wind-induced vibration. The bridge opened on
July 1, 1940, and collapsed on November 7, 1940 due to resonance occurred due to wind-
induced vibrations. (Videos are available on Google, those who are interested may watch)

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore 5

14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Elementary Parts of Vibrating Systems

A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing Kinetic Energy (mass or inertia-
denoted by m), a means for storing Potential Energy (spring or elasticity or stiffness denoted
by k) and a means by which energy is gradually lost or dissipated (damper-denoted by c).
The vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to kinetic energy and of
kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately. If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated
in each cycle of vibration.
Number of Degrees of Freedom
Number of degrees of freedom of the system is defined as the Minimum number of independent
coordinates required to determine completely the positions of all parts of a vibratory system at
any instant of time.
Examples:

Fig. 1 Single-degree-of-freedom systems

Fig. 2 Two-degree-of-freedom systems

Fig. 3 Three degree-of-freedom systems

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Discrete and Continuous Systems

A large number of practical systems can be described using a finite number of degrees of
freedom, such as the simple systems shown in Fig 1 to 3. Some systems, especially those
involving continuous elastic members, have an infinite number of degrees of freedom such as
a cantilever beam shown in Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Cantilever beam (an infinite-number-of-degrees-of-freedom system)

Systems with a finite number-of-degrees-of freedom are called discrete or lumped parameter
systems (Examples Fig. 1 to 3), and those with an infinite number-of-degrees-of-freedom are
called continuous or distributed systems (Example Fig. 4).
In practice, continuous systems are approximated as discrete systems, and solutions are obtained
in a simpler manner. Although treatment of a system as continuous gives exact results, the
analytical methods available for dealing with continuous systems are limited to a narrow
selection of problems, such as uniform beams, slender rods, and thin plates. Hence most of the
practical systems are studied by treating them as finite lumped masses, springs, and dampers.
More accurate results are obtained by increasing the number of masses, springs, and dampers
that is, by increasing the number-of-degrees-of-freedom.
Classification of Vibration
Vibration can be classified in several ways. Some of the important classifications are as follows.
1. Free and Forced Vibration
Free Vibration:
If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the ensuing vibration is
known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system. The oscillation of a simple
pendulum is an example of free vibration.
Forced Vibration:
If a system is subjected to an external force (excitation), the resulting vibration is known as
forced vibration. The oscillation that arises in machines such as diesel engines is an example of
forced vibration.

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

If the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the system,
a condition known as resonance occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously large
oscillations. Failures of such structures as buildings, bridges, turbines, and airplane wings have
been associated with the occurrence of resonance.
2. Undamped and Damped Vibration
If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during oscillation, the vibration is
known as undamped vibration. If any energy is lost in this way, however, it is called damped
vibration. In many physical systems, the amount of damping is so small that it can be
disregarded for most engineering purposes. However, consideration of damping becomes
extremely important in analyzing vibratory systems near resonance.
3. Linear and Nonlinear Vibration
If all the basic components of a vibratory system the spring, the mass, and the damper behave
linearly, the resulting vibration is known as linear vibration. If, however, any of the basic
components behave nonlinearly, the vibration is called nonlinear vibration. If the vibration is
linear, the principle of superposition holds, and the mathematical techniques of analysis are well
developed. For nonlinear vibration, the superposition principle is not valid, and techniques of
analysis are less well known.
4. Deterministic and Random Vibration
If the value or magnitude of the excitation (force or motion) acting on a vibratory system is
known at any given time, the excitation is called deterministic. The resulting vibration is known
as deterministic vibration.
If the excitation is random, the resulting vibration is called random vibration. In this case the
vibratory response of the system is also random; it can be described only in terms of statistical
quantities. Figure 5 shows examples of deterministic and random excitations.

Fig. 5 Deterministic and random excitation

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Vibration Analysis Procedure:

A vibratory system is a dynamic one for which the variables such as the excitations (inputs) and
responses (outputs) are time dependent. The response of a vibrating system generally depends on
the initial conditions as well as the external excitations. The most important features are
considered in the analysis to predict the behavior of the system under specified input conditions.
Often the overall behavior of the system can be determined by considering even a simple model
of the complex physical system. Thus, the analysis of a vibrating system involves the following
four steps.
Step 1: Mathematical Modeling
The mathematical model includes enough details to allow describing the system in terms of
equations without making it too complex. The mathematical model is gradually improved to
obtain more accurate results. First a very crude or elementary model is used to get a quick insight
into the overall behavior of the system. Subsequently, the model is refined by including more
components and/or details so that the behavior of the system can be observed more closely.
Step 2: Derivation of Governing Equations
Use the principles of dynamics and equations are derived that describe the vibration of the
system. The equations of motion can be derived conveniently by drawing the free-body diagrams
of all the masses involved. The equations of motion of a vibrating system are usually in the form
of a set of ordinary differential equations for a discrete system and partial differential equations
for a continuous system. Several approaches are commonly used to derive the governing
equations. Among them are Newtons Second Law of Motion, D Alemberts Principle, and the
Principle of Conservation of Energy.
Step 3: Solution of the Governing Equations
The equations of motion must be solved to find the response of the vibrating system. Standard
methods of solving differential equations or Laplace transform methods or matrix methods or
numerical methods are used to solve the differential equations.
If the governing equations are nonlinear, they can seldom be solved in closed form. Furthermore,
the solution of partial differential equations is far more involved than that of ordinary differential
equations. Numerical methods involving computers can be used to solve the equations. However,
it will be difficult to draw general conclusions about the behavior of the system using computer
results.

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Step 4: Interpretation of the Results

The solution of the governing equations gives the displacements, velocities, and accelerations of
the various masses of the system. These results must be interpreted with a clear view of the
purpose of the analysis and the possible design implications of the results.

C1: Mathematical model (Vibration model or Dynamic model) of a forging hammer

Figure C1 shows a forging hammer. Develop a sequence of two mathematical models of the
system for investigating vibration in the vertical direction. Consider the elasticity and damping of
the soil, elasticity and damping of the pad, masses of the foundation block and anvil.

Fig. C1 Forging hammer

Solutions:
The mathematical model is gradually improved to obtain more accurate results. In this approach,
first a very crude or elementary model is used to get a quick insight into the overall behavior of
the system. Subsequently, the model is refined by including more components and/or details so
that the behavior of the system can be observed more closely.
In the given problem, It consists of a frame, a falling weight known as the tup, an anvil, and a
foundation block. The anvil is a massive steel block on which material is forged into desired
shape by the repeated blows of the tup. The anvil is usually mounted on an elastic pad to reduce
the transmission of vibration to the foundation block and the frame. For a first approximation,
the frame, anvil, elastic pad, foundation block, and soil are modeled as a single degree of
freedom system as shown below:

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

For a refined approximation, the weights of the frame and anvil and the foundation block are
represented separately with a two-degree-of-freedom model as shown below:

Mathematical modeling (Vibration modeling or Dynamic modeling) is a one of the challenging

job for a designer (Vibration Analyst). It comes from practice and experience. You can try to
model the following structures for self-learning:
1. Car
2. Aeroplane
3. Lathe
4. Drilling machine etc.,

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Spring Elements
A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most applications is assumed to have negligible
mass and damping. Any elastic or deformable body or member, such as a cable, bar, beam, shaft
or plate, can be represented as a spring element to indicate the stiffness of the member. A spring
is said to be linear if the elongation or reduction in length x is related to the applied force F as
F=kx (1)
where k is a constant, known as the spring constant or spring stiffness or spring rate. The spring
constant k is always positive and denotes the force (positive or negative) required causing a unit
deflection (elongation or reduction in length) in the spring.
When the spring is stretched (or compressed) under a tensile (or compressive) force F, according
to Newtons third law of motion, a restoring force or reaction of magnitude F or +F is
developed opposite to the applied force. This restoring force tries to bring the stretched (or
compressed) spring back to its original unstretched or free length. The work done (U) in
deforming a spring is stored as strain or potential energy in the spring, and it is given by
U = kx2 (2)
Spring Constants of Elastic Elements
C2: Spring Constant of a uniform rod
Find the equivalent spring constant of a uniform rod of length l, cross-sectional area A, and
Youngs modulus E subjected to an axial tensile (or compressive) force F as shown in
Figure C2.

Fig. C2 Spring constant of a rod

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Solution:
The elongation (or shortening) of the rod under the axial tensile (or compressive) force F can
be expressed as,

= = = = 3

Using the definition of the spring constant k, we obtain from Eq. (4),

= =


= 4

The significance of the equivalent spring constant of the rod is shown in Figure C2
Combination of springs
In many practical applications, several linear springs are used in combination. These springs can
be combined into a single equivalent spring as indicated below.
Case 1: Springs in Parallel
Consider two springs are connected in parallel as shown in Figure 6 (a). When a load W is
applied, the system undergoes a static deflection st as shown in Figure 6 (b). Then the free-body
diagram, shown in Figure 6 (c), gives the equilibrium equation
= + 7

Fig. 6 Springs in parallel

If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant of the combination of the two springs, then for the
same static deflection st, we get,
= 8
From equation (7) and (8), we have,

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

= + 9
In general, if we have n springs with spring constants k1, k2, kn in parallel, then the
equivalent spring constant keq is given by,
keq = k1+ k2+ + kn (10)
Case 2: Springs in Series.
Consider two springs are connected in series as shown in Figure 7 (a).

Fig. 7 Springs in series

Under the action of a load W, springs 1 and 2 undergo elongations (deflection) 1 and 2
respectively, as shown in Fig. 10 (b). The total elongation (or static deflection) of the system, st
is given by
= + 11
Since both the springs are subjected to the same force W, equilibrium of the system is as shown
in Fig. 10 (c):
= = 12
If keq denotes the equivalent spring constant, then for the same static deflection, then
= 13
From equation (12) and (13), we get,
= = 14

or = = 15

Substituting the values of 1 and 2 into equation (11), we get,

= + 16

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

or = + 17

Equation (17) can be written in a generalized form for n number of springs in series:
1 1 1 1
= + + + 18

Spring Constant Associated with the Restoring Force due to Gravity
In some applications, a restoring force or moment due to gravity is developed when a mass
undergoes a displacement. In such cases, an equivalent spring constant can be associated with the
restoring force or moment of gravity. The following example illustrates the procedure.
Figure 8 shows a simple pendulum of length l with a bob of mass m. considering an angular
displacement of the pendulum; determine the equivalent spring constant associated with the
restoring force (or moment).

Fig. 8 Simple Pendulum System

Solution: When the pendulum undergoes an angular displacement, the mass m moves by a
distance l sin along the horizontal (x) direction. The restoring moment or torque (T) created by
the weight of the mass (mg) about the pivot point O is given by,
= sin 19
For small angular displacements can be approximated as sin and equation (1) becomes,
= 20
By expressing equation (2) as,
= 21
The desired equivalent torsional spring constant kt can be identified as,
= 22

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Mass or Inertia Elements:

The mass or inertia element is assumed to be a rigid body; it can gain or lose kinetic energy
whenever the velocity of the body changes. From Newtons second law of motion, the product of
the mass and its acceleration is equal to the force applied to the mass. Work is equal to the force
multiplied by the displacement in the direction of the force, and the work done on a mass is
stored in the form of the mass s kinetic energy.
In most cases, a mathematical model is used to represent the actual vibrating system, and there
are often several possible models. The purpose of the analysis often determines which
mathematical model is appropriate. Once the model is chosen, the mass or inertia elements of the
system can be easily identified.
Combination of Masses

Case 1: Translational Masses Connected by a Rigid Bar.

Let the masses be attached to a rigid bar that is pivoted at one end, as shown in Figure 9 (a). The
equivalent mass can be assumed to be located at any point along the bar. To be specific, let us
assume the location of the equivalent mass to be that of mass m1. The velocities of masses
and can be expressed in terms of the velocity of mass ,by assuming small
angular displacements for the bar, as

= =


= = 23

= 24

Fig. 9 Translational masses connected by a rigid bar

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

By equating the kinetic energy of the three-mass system to that of the equivalent mass system,
we obtain
1 1 1 1
+ + =
25
2 2 2 2
From equation (1) and (2), equation (3) becomes,

= + + 26

Case 2: Translational and Rotational Masses Coupled Together. Let a mass m having a
translational velocity be coupled to another mass (of mass moment of inertia ) having a
rotational velocity ,as in the rack-and-pinion arrangement as shown in Figure 10.

Fig. 10 Translational and rotational masses in a rack-and-pinion arrangement

These two masses can be combined to obtain either (1) a single equivalent translational mass
or (2) a single equivalent rotational mass ,as shown below:
1. Equivalent translational mass:
The kinetic energy of the two masses is given by,
1 1
= + 27
2 2
And the kinetic energy of the equivalent mass can be expressed as,
1
= 28
2

Since = and = , the equation (1) and (2) becomes,

1 1 1

= +
2 2 2

= + 29

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore
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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

2. Equivalent rotational mass:

Here, = and = , and the equation (1) and (2) becomes,
1 1 1
= +
2 2 2
= + 30
Damping elements:
In many practical systems, the vibrational energy is gradually converted to heat or sound. Due to
the reduction in the energy, the response, such as the displacement of the system, gradually
decreases. The mechanism by which the vibrational energy is gradually converted into heat or
sound is known as damping. Although the amount of energy converted into heat or sound is
relatively small, the consideration of damping becomes important for an accurate prediction of
the vibration response of a system. A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity, and
damping force exists only if there is relative velocity between the two ends of the damper. It is
difficult to determine the causes of damping in practical systems. Hence damping is modeled as
one or more of the following types.
Viscous Damping:
Viscous damping is the most commonly used damping mechanism in vibration analysis. When
mechanical systems vibrate in a fluid medium such as air, gas, water, or oil the resistance offered
by the fluid to the moving body causes energy to be dissipated. In such case, the amount of
dissipated energy depends on many factors, such as the size and shape of the vibrating body, the
viscosity of the fluid, the frequency of vibration, and the velocity of the vibrating body. In
viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body. Typical
examples of viscous damping includes,
(a) Fluid film between sliding surfaces Refer Figure 11
(b) Fluid film around a journal in a bearing Refer Figure 12
(c) Fluid flow through an orificeand
(d) Fluid flow around a piston in a cylinder Refer Figure 13

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Other types of damping are,
Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping:
Here the damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the motion of
the vibrating body. It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that either are dry or have
insufficient lubrication.
Material or Solid or Hysteretic Damping:
When a material is deformed, energy is absorbed and dissipated by the material. The effect is due
to friction between the internal planes, which slip or slide as the deformations take place.

Combination of Dampers:
In some dynamic systems, multiple dampers are used. In such cases, all the dampers are replaced
by a single equivalent damper. When dampers appear in combination, we can use procedures
similar to those used in finding the equivalent spring constant of multiple springs to find a single
equivalent damper. For example, when two translational dampers, with damping constants c1 and
c2 appear in combination, the equivalent damping constant ceq can be found as,

For Parallel dampers:

= +
For Series dampers:
1 1 1
= +

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Harmonic Motion:
The motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion. The simplest
type of periodic motion is harmonic motion.
The mass m of the spring-mass system are displaced from their middle positions by an amount x
(in time t) given by,
= sin = sin
The velocity of the mass m at time t is given by,

= = cos

And the acceleration is given by,

= = sin =

It can be seen that the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement. Such a vibration,
with the acceleration proportional to the displacement and directed toward the mean position, is
known as simple harmonic motion.
The motion given by = cos is another example of a simple harmonic motion.
Definitions and Terminology
The following definitions and terminology are useful in dealing with harmonic motion and other
periodic functions.
Cycle
The movement of a vibrating body from its undisturbed or equilibrium position to its extreme
position in one direction, then to the equilibrium position, then to its extreme position in the
other direction, and back to equilibrium position is called a cycle of vibration.
One revolution is equivalent to angular displacement of 2
Amplitude
The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium position is called the
amplitude of vibration.
Period of oscillation
The time taken to complete one cycle of motion is known as the period of oscillation or time
period and is denoted by .
2
= .

, is called the circular frequency.
Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore
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14ME 353 Mechanical Vibrations Unit I, Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Vibrations

Frequency of oscillation
The number of cycles per unit time is called the frequency of oscillation or simply the frequency
and is denoted by f. Thus
1
= = / sec .
2
Here is called the circular frequency to distinguish it from the linear frequency = /2. The
variable denotes the angular velocity of the cyclic motion; f is measured in cycles per second
(hertz Hz) while is measured in radians per second.
Harmonic Analysis:
Although harmonic motion is simplest to handle, the motion of many vibratory systems is not
harmonic. In many cases the vibrations are periodic, for example, the type shown in Figure 14.

Fig. 14 A periodic functions

Any periodic function of time can be represented by Fourier series as an infinite sum of sine and
cosine terms.
If x (t) is a periodic function with period its Fourier series representation is given by,

= + cos + cos 2 + . + sin + sin 2 + . 31
2


= + cos + sin 32
2

= 2/ is the fundamental frequency and a0, a1, a2, .. b1, b2, ..are constant
coefficients.

Dr. C V Chandrashekara, Professor, PESU/PESIT, Bangalore

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