3

Planning a research
project and
formulating
research questions
Chapter outline
Introduction 66

Getting to know what is expected of you by your institution 66

Thinking about your research area 67

Using your supervisor 67

Managing time and resources 68

Formulating suitable research questions 69

Writing your research proposal 75

Preparing for your research 76

Doing your research and analysing your results 76

Checklist 78
Key points 78
Questions for review 79
66 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

Chapter guide

The goal of this chapter is to provide advice to students on some of the issues that they need to consider
if they have to prepare a dissertation based upon a relatively small-scale project. Increasingly, social
science students are required to produce such a dissertation as part of the requirements for their
degrees. In addition to help with the conduct of research, which will be the aim of the chapters that
come later in this book, more specific advice on tactics in carrying out and writing up social research for
a dissertation can be useful. It is against this background that this chapter has been written. The chapter
explores a wide variety of issues, such as:

advice on timing;

advice on generating research questions;

advice on conducting a project;

advice on writing a research proposal.

Introduction
This chapter has been written to provide some advice for the requirement to write a dissertation often of around
readers who might be carrying out a research project of 8,000 to 15,000 words. In particular, I have in mind the
your own. The chapters that follow in Parts Two, Three, needs of undergraduate students, but it may be that stu-
and Four of this book will then provide more detailed dents on postgraduate degree programmes will also find
information about the choices available to you and how some of the observations I make helpful. Also, the advice
to implement them. But beyond this, how might you go is really concerned with students conducting projects
about conducting a small project of your own? I have with a component of empirical research in which they col-
in mind here the kind of situation that is increasingly lect new data or perhaps conduct a secondary analysis of
common among degree programmes in the social sciences existing data.

Getting to know what is expected of you

by your institution
Your institution or department will have specific require- required; plagiarism; deadlines; how much (if any) finan-
ments concerning a wide variety of different features that cial assistance you can expect; and so on.
your dissertation should comprise and a range of other The advice here is simple: follow the requirements,
matters relating to it. These include such things as: the instructions, and information you are given. If anything
form of binding; how it is to be presented; whether an in this book conflicts with your institutions guidelines
abstract is required; how big the page margins should be; and requirements, ignore this book! I very much hope
the format for referencing; number of words; perhaps the this is not something that will occur very much, but
structure of the dissertation; how much advice you can if it does, keep to the guidelines your institution gives
get from your supervisor; whether or not a proposal is you.
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 67

Thinking about your research area

The chances are that you will be asked to start thinking various modules, begin to think about whether there are
about what you want to do research on well before you any topics that might interest you and that might provide
are due to start work on your dissertation. It is worth giv- you with a researchable area.
ing yourself a good deal of time. As you are doing your

Using your supervisor

Most institutions that require a dissertation or similar or she provides, since the criticisms will invariably be
component allocate students to supervisors. Institutions accompanied by reasons for the criticisms and sugges-
vary quite a lot in what can be expected of supervisors; in tions for revision. It is not a personal attack. Supervisors
other words, they vary in terms of what kinds of and how regularly have to go through the same process themselves
much assistance supervisors will give to students allo- when they submit an article to a peer-refereed journal or
cated to them. Equally, students vary a great deal in how apply for a research grant or give a conference paper.
frequently they see their supervisors and in their use of So respond to criticisms and suggestions positively and be
them. My advice here is simple: use your supervisor to the glad that you are being given the opportunity to address
fullest extent that you are allowed and follow the pointers deficiencies in your work before it is formally examined.
you are given by him or her. Your supervisor will almost A further point is that students who get stuck at the start
certainly be someone who is well versed in the research of their dissertations or who get behind with their work
process and who will be able to provide you with help and sometimes respond to the situation by avoiding their super-
feedback at all stages of your research, subject to your visors. They then get caught up in a vicious circle that
institutions strictures in this regard. If your supervisor results in their work being neglected and perhaps rushed
is critical of your research questions, your interview at the end. Try to avoid this situation by confronting the fact
schedule, drafts of your dissertation, or whatever, try that you are experiencing difficulties in getting going or are
to respond positively. Follow the suggestions that he getting behind and seek out your supervisor for advice.

Student experience
Using supervisors
Several students wrote about the role that their supervisors played in their research projects. Isabella Robbins
mentions that her supervisor played an important role in relation to her analysis of her qualitative data.
The emerging themes were strong and in that sense the analysis was not problematic, but I guess the
problems came in mapping the analysis onto the theory. My way of dealing with this was to talk about the
analysis at supervisions and to incorporate the ideas that came of these discussions.
Cornelius Grebe provided the following advice about relationships with supervisors:
I have learned to be very clear about my expectations of my supervisors: what kind of professional and
personal relationship I thrive in and what form of support exactly I need from them.

To read more about Isabellas and Corneliuss research experiences, go to the Online Resource Centre that
accompanies this book at http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/.
68 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

Managing time and resources

All research is constrained by time and resources. There is 2. Find out what, if any, resources can be put at your
no point in working on research questions and plans that disposal for carrying out your research. For example, will
cannot be seen through because of time pressure or be- you receive help from your institution with such things
cause of the costs involved. Two points are relevant here. as travel costs, photocopying, secretarial assistance, post-
age, stationery, and so on? Will the institution be able to
1. Work out a timetablepreferably in conjunction with
loan you hardware such as recording equipment and
your supervisordetailing the different stages of your
transcription machines if you need to record and tran-
research (including the review of the literature and writ-
scribe your interviews? Has it got the software you need,
ing up). The timetable should specify the different stages
such as SPSS or a qualitative data analysis package like
and the calendar points at which you should start and
NVivo? This kind of information will help you to establish
finish them. Some stages are likely to be ongoing
how far your research design and methods are finan-
for example, searching the literature for new references
cially feasible and practical. The imaginary gym study
(see below)but that should not prove an obstacle to
used in Chapter 15 is an example of an investigation that
developing a timetable.

Student experience
Managing time
One of the most difficult aspects of doing a research project for many students is managing their time.
Sarah Hanson was explicit on this point:

Never underestimate how long it will take you to complete a large project like a dissertation. Choose a
topic you have passion about. The more you enjoy your research the more interesting it will be to read.
Be organized: post-it notes, folders, wall planners, anything that keeps you on track from day to day will
help you not to be distracted from the purpose of your study.

Both Hannah Creane and Lily Taylor felt that, unless your time is managed well, the analysis phase tends
to be squeezedoften with undesirable consequences. Indeed, it is my experience too from supervising
students dissertations that they allow far too little time for data analysis and writing up. Here is what
Hannah and Lily respectively wrote in response to a question asking what one single bit of advice they
would give to others.

Get your research done as soon as possible. The process of analysis is pretty much an ongoing one and can
take a very long time, so the sooner you have all your data compiled the better. It also means that you have
more time to make more extensive analysis rather than just noticing the surface emergent trends.
Make sure you give yourself enough time to carry out the project, dont underestimate the amount of time
data analysis can take!

Similarly, Rebeccca Barnes wrote that, if she was doing her research again:

I would also allocate more time for data analysis and writing, as largely because of the long period of time
which it took to recruit participants, these phases of my research were subject to considerable time pressures.

To read more about Sarahs, Hannahs, Lilys, and Rebeccas research experiences, go to the Online Resource
Centre that accompanies this book at http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/.
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 69

would be feasible within the kind of time frame usually programs; photocopying covering letters and question-
allocated to undergraduate and postgraduate disserta- naires; postage for sending the questionnaires out and for
tions. However, it would require such facilities as: typing any follow-up letters to non-respondents; return postage
up the questionnaire, which nowadays students can usu- for the questionnaires; and the availability of a quantita-
ally do for themselves with the help of word-processing tive data analysis package like SPSS.

Student experience
Devising a timetable for writing up
Lily Taylor found it helpful to have a timetable of deadlines for the different sections of the report she had
to write.

I produced a first draft of my report and made sure that I got it done in plenty of time before the deadline.
I was then able to go over my work and make the necessary changes. I made sure that I had a check list with
mini deadlines for each section, this made sure that I kept on top of my work and progressed at a steady rate.

Isabella Robbins writes that she devised a writing up timetable with a plan of the thesis. Cornelius Grebe
adopted a similar approach to his writing up. He writes: I agreed submission dates for individual draft
chapters with my supervisors.

To read more about Lilys, Isabellas, and Corneliuss research experiences, go to the Online Resource
Centre that accompanies this book at http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/.

Formulating suitable research questions

Many students want to conduct research into areas that Research questions are, therefore, important. No re-
are of personal interest to them. This is not a bad thing at search questions or poorly formulated research questions
all and, as I noted in Chapter 1, many social researchers will lead to poor research. If you do not specify clear
start from this point as well (see also Lofland and Lofland research questions, there is a great risk that your research
1995: 1114). However, you must move on to develop will be unfocused and that you will be unsure about what
research questions. This recommendation applies to your research is about and what you are collecting data
qualitative research as well as quantitative research. for. It does not matter how well you design a question-
As is explained in Chapter 16, qualitative research is more naire or how skilled an interviewer you are; you must be
open-ended than quantitative research, and in Chapter clear about your research questions. Equally, it does not
17 I refer to some notable studies that appear not to have matter whether your research is for a research grant of
been driven by specific research questions. However, very 250,000, a doctoral thesis, or a small mini-project.
open-ended research is risky and can lead to the collec- Research questions are crucial because they will:
tion of too much data and, when it comes to writing up, to
guide your literature search;
confusion about your focus. So, unless your supervisor
advises you to the contrary, I would definitely formulate guide you in deciding what data you need to collect;

some research questions, even if they turn out to be some- guide your analysis of your data;
what less specific than the kinds we often find in quantit- guide your writing-up of your data;
ative research. In other words, what is it about your area stop you from going off in unnecessary directions and
of interest that you want to know? tangents.
70 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

Therefore, research questions have many uses and you research questions must have a clear social scientific (for
should resist the temptation of not formulating them or example, sociological) angle.
delaying their formulation. But do remember that your

Thinking deeply 3.1

Marxs sources of research questions
Marx (1997) suggests the following as possible sources of research questions.

Intellectual puzzles and contradictions.

The existing literature.

Replication.

Structures and functions. For example, if you point to a structure such as a type of organization, you can ask
questions about the reasons why there are different types and the implications of the differences.

Opposition. Marx identifies the sensation of feeling that a certain theoretical perspective or notable piece of
work is misguided and of exploring the reasons for your opposition.

A social problem. But remember that this is just the source of a research question; you still have to identify
social scientific (e.g. sociological) issues in relation to a social problem.

Gaps between official versions of reality and the facts on the ground (Marx 1997: 113). An example here is
something like Delbridges (1998) fascinating ethnographic account of company rhetoric about Japanized
work practices and how they operate in practice.

The counter-intuitive. For example, when common sense seems to fly in the face of social scientific truths.

Empirical examples that trigger amazement (Marx 1997: 114). Marx gives, as examples, deviant cases and
atypical events.

New methods and theories. How might they be applied in new settings?

New social and technical developments and social trends (Marx 1997: 114).

Personal experience.

Sponsors and teachers. But do not expect your teachers to provide you with detailed research questions.

Marx (1997) has suggested a wide range of possible As Figure 3.1 implies, we usually start out with a gen-
sources of research questions (see Thinking deeply 3.1). eral research area that interests us. It may derive from any
As this list makes clear, research questions can derive of several sources:
from a wide variety of contexts. Figure 3.1 brings out the
main steps in developing research questions. Research Personal interest/experience. As I pointed out in Chap-
ter 1, my interest in theme parks can be traced back to a
questions in quantitative research are sometimes more
visit to Disney World in Orlando in 1991 and my inter-
specific than in qualitative research. Indeed, some quali-
est in the representation of social science research in
tative researchers advocate a very open approach with no
the mass media to a wounding encounter with the press.
research questions. This is a very risky approach and can
result in collecting lots of data without a clear sense of Theory. Someone might be interested in testing or
what to observe or what to ask your interviewees. There is exploring aspects of labour process theory or in the
a growing tendency for qualitative researchers to advo- theory of the risk society.
cate a somewhat more focused approach to their craft The research literature. Studies relating to a research
(e.g. Hammersley and Atkinson 1995: 249). area like modern consumerism might stimulate an
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 71

Figure 3.1
Steps in selecting research questions

Research area
Concerns about risk

Select aspect of research area

Variations in concerns about risk

Research questions
What areas of risk are of greatest concern among people? Does concern about risk vary by age,
gender, social class, and education? Do parents tend to worry about risk more than non-parents?
What is the main source of peoples knowledge about issues relating to risk (newspapers,
television, family)? Do concerns about risk have an impact on how people conduct their
daily lives and if so in what ways? Do worries about risk result in fatalism?

Select research questions

What areas of risk are of greatest concern among people? Does concern about risk vary by age,
gender, social class, and education? Do parents tend to worry about risk more than non-parents?

Student experience
Theory as an influence on research questions
Rebecca Barness interest in feminist theories relating to patriarchy influenced her selection of woman-to-
woman partner abuse as a focus for her enquiries.

I became interested in the topic of woman-to-woman partner abuse as an undergraduate. My first encounter
with this subject area took the form of a theoretical engagement with feminist explanations for domestic
violenceprimarily emphasizing patriarchyand the ways in which emerging knowledge about violence
and abuse in female same-sex relationships challenges this understanding. It was as a result of this first
encounter that I became aware of the scarcity of research in this area, particularly in the UK, where this
subject was virtually uncharted territory. I was at this point interested in pursuing postgraduate study,
and thus decided to conduct my own UK-based study of woman-to-woman partner abuse for my Ph.D.

Theoretical ideas stimulated Gareth Matthewss interest in migrant labour. In his case, it was labour process
theory that was the focus of his theoretical enquiry.

Primarily, my interest stems from a more general interest in Marxist labour process theory, which I believe to
be highly relevant to an understanding of the content of modern work-forms as well as the claims that are
72 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

made by academics about these. Since Braverman published Labour and Monopoly Capital in 1974, the
labour process debate has taken many twists and turns, and the core elements of the theory are now
somewhat different from those expounded by Braverman. I do not seek simply to reiterate the importance
of Bravermans formulation, but instead have attempted to explore the space between this and more
modern theoretical propositionsin the light of real and perceived changes in the world of work and
workers. . . . Essentially, my approach stems from the belief that the employment relation cannot simply be
read off from analyses of the content of jobs, and that it must instead be examined through an analysis of
forces that operate at various levels (i.e. the workplace, the labour market, the state, etc.), and from the
interaction between these forces and employers necessarily contradictory aims and pressures.

To read more about Rebeccas and Gareths research experiences, go to the Online Resource Centre that
accompanies this book at http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/.

interest in the nature of the shopping experience in structured interview data on street robbers in the UK
contemporary society. to shed light on two different views of the motivation
for engaging in this crime. One view, which draws on
Puzzles. An interesting example of this can be found
in a research article by Hodson (2004) in which rational choice theory, depicts street robbery as motiv-
he employs data from the Workplace Ethnography ated by a trade-off between the desire for financial
Project (see Research in focus 12.4). In this article he gain against the necessity to reduce the likelihood of
notes that writings on modern work imply two rather detection. The other view of street robbery portrays it
inconsistent views concerning the extent to which as a cultural activity from which perpetrators derived
workplaces today are a source of social fulfilment. an emotional thrill and which helped to sustain a par-
Some writers construe modern workplaces as intrinsi- ticular lifestyle.
cally attractive environments to which people are New developments in society. Examples might include
drawn; others writers view peoples commitment to the rise of the Internet and the diffusion of new models
social life at the workplace as stemming from job and of organization, e.g. call centres.
career insecurities. Hodson set up these two different Social problem. An example might be the impact of
points of view explicitly as essentially rival hypo- asylum-seekers being viewed as a social problem by
theses. Similarly, Wright et al. (2006) collected semi- some sectors of society. This seems to have been one

Student experience
New developments in society as a spur to
research questions
Lily Taylor was interested in the role of debt on the student experience. What, in other words, is the impact
of top-up fees on students experiences of higher education?

Increasingly today more students are put off university because of the amount of debt most students will
leave with. Particularly with the topical debate at the time over the tuition fee system and top-up fees, I
believed it was an interesting area to look at. Students are supposed to be concerned and worried about
essay deadlines and attending lectures and seminars, yet finance today seems to be the main anxiety for
most university students.

To read more about Lilys research experiences, go to the Online Resource Centre that accompanies this
book at http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/.
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 73

of the main factors behind the work of Lynn and Lea We cannot answer all the research questions that
(2003), who examined the discourses surrounding the occur to us. This is not just to do with issues of time and
notion of the asylum-seeker in the UK. the cost of doing research. It is very much to do with
the fact that we must keep a clear focus so that our
These sources of interest are not mutually exclusive.
research questions must relate to each other and form
For example, the investigation reported in Research in
a coherent set of issues.
focus 1.1 was motivated by at least two of the above
sources: an interest in exploring the concept of social We therefore have to select from the possible research
capital (theory) and understanding the process of gen- questions that we arrive at.
trification (a new development in society). In making our selection, we should be guided by the
As these types of source suggest, in research we often principle that the research questions we choose should
start out with a general research area that interests us. be related to one another. If they are not, our research
This research area has to be narrowed down so that we will probably lack focus and we may not make as clear
can develop a tighter focus out of which research ques- a contribution to understanding as would be the case if
tions can be developed. We can depict the process of gen- research questions were connected. Thus, in the exam-
erating research questions as a series of steps that are ple in Figure 3.1, the research questions relating to risk
suggested in Figure 3.1. The series of stages is meant to are closely connected.
indicate that, when developing research questions, the
researcher is involved in a process of progressive focusing In Tips and skills Criteria for evaluating research ques-
down so that we move from a general research area down tions some suggestions are presented about the kinds of
to specific research questions. In making this movement, considerations that should be taken into account when
we have to recognize that: developing your own research questions.

Student experience
The nature of research questions
Some of the students worked with quite explicit and narrowly formulated research questions. For example,
Rebecca Barnes writes:

My research questions were: What forms and dynamics of abuse do women experience in same-sex
relationships? What opportunities and challenges do women experience with respect to seeking support for
woman-to-woman partner abuse? What impacts does being abused by a female partner have upon womens
identities and biographies? How are womens accounts of woman-to-woman partner abuse similar to and
different from heterosexual womens accounts of partner abuse?

Isabella Robbins was similarly explicit about her research questions:

1. How do mothers frame their decisions regarding childhood vaccination? In particular, do they present this
as a matter of moral obligation (to their child/to the community)?
2. Do mothers consider they have a choice regarding childhood vaccination? If so, in what sense do they see
this as a choice and what, if any, constraints do they identify as they seek to exercise that choice?
3. How do women place themselves and their decisions about childhood vaccination, in terms of the discourse
of risk, responsibility, autonomy, and expertise?
4. What role do women accord to partners, mothers, siblings, and professionals in their decision-making about
childhood vaccination?

Others opted for research questions that were somewhat more general and wider in focus. Erin Sanders
writes of her research questions for her study:
74 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

What are the policy goals of womens NGOs in Thailand? How do these goals relate to the needs of women
in the sex industry?

In a similar vein, Gareth Matthews writes:

My research questions were quite general. (i) what is the role of migrant workers in the UKs hospitality
sector? (ii) What can this tell us about the relevance and usefulness of Marxist labour process theory?

Gareth went on to write:

These questions stem from my theoretical concerns, and a desire for the thesis to be guided by the findings
and theoretical developments in relation to these findings during the course of the research. I did not want to
begin with a specific hypothesis, and then to proceed by attempting to prove or disprove this, but sought
instead to start with a general theoretical belief about work, and then to remain open-minded so as to allow
the direction of research to be guided by the qualitative findings as they unfolded.

To read more about Rebeccas, Isabellas, Erins, and Gareths research experiences, go to the Online
Resource Centre that accompanies this book at http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/.

Tips and skills

Criteria for evaluating research questions
Research questions for a dissertation or project exhibit the following characteristics.

They should be clear, in the sense of being intelligible.

They should be researchablethat is, they should allow you to do research in relation to them. This means
that they should not be formulated in terms that are so abstract that they cannot be converted into
researchable terms.

They should have some connection(s) with established theory and research. This means that there should be
a literature on which you can draw to help illuminate how your research questions should be approached.
Even if you find a topic that has been scarcely addressed by social scientists, it is unlikely that there will be
no relevant literature (e.g. on related or parallel topics).

Your research questions should be linked to each other. Unrelated research questions are unlikely to be
acceptable, since you should be developing an argument in your dissertation. You could not very readily
construct a single argument in relation to unrelated research questions.

They should at the very least hold out the prospect of being able to make an original contributionhowever
smallto the topic.

The research questions should be neither too broad (so that you would need a massive grant to study them)
nor too narrow (so that you cannot make a reasonably significant contribution to your area of study).

If you are stuck about how to formulate research questions (or indeed other phases of your research), it is
always a good idea to look at journal articles or research monographs to see how other researchers have
formulated them. Also, look at past dissertations for ideas as well. Marx (1997) has suggested a wide range of
sources of research questions (see Thinking deeply 3.1).
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 75

Writing your research proposal

In preparation for your dissertation you may be required What is your research question or what are your
to write a short proposal or plan outlining what your research questions?
research project will be about and how you intend to
What does the literature have to say about your
go about it. This is a useful way of preparing for your research topic/objectives and research question(s)?
research and it will encourage you to think about many of
the issues that are covered in the next section. In addition How are you going to go about collecting data relevant
to your research question(s)? In other words, what
to outlining your proposed research design and methods,
research methods are you intending to use?
the topic area in which your study is going to be located,
and the research questions that you intend to address, the Why are the research methods/sources you have selected
proposal will ask you to demonstrate some knowledge of the appropriate ones for your research question?
the literature in your chosen field, for example by identify- What resources will you need to conduct your research
ing several key authors or important research studies. (e.g. postage, travel costs, software) and how will
This information may be used as the basis for allocat- those resources be funded?
ing a supervisor who is knowledgeable in your area of
What is your timetable for the different stages of the
research interest or who has experience with your pro- project?
posed research approach. The proposal is also a useful
basis for discussion of your research project with your What problems do you anticipate in doing the research
(e.g. access to organizations)?
supervisor, and, if it includes a timetable for the project,
this can provide a basis for planning regular meetings What are the possible ethical problems associated with
with your supervisor to review your progress. Developing your research?
a timetable can be very important in making you think How will you analyse your data?
about aspects of the overall research process like the
Writing a proposal is therefore useful in getting you
different stages of your research and their timing and in
started on your research project and encouraging you to
giving you a series of ongoing goals to aim for. Even if you
set realistic objectives for your research project. In some
are not required to produce a research proposal, it is
higher education institutions, the research proposal may
worthwhile constructing a timetable for your research
form part (albeit a small one) of the overall assessment
and asking your supervisor to look at it, so that you can
of the dissertation or report that is produced out of the
assess how (un)realistic your goals are and whether you
project. While the research proposal is a working docu-
are allowing enough time for each of the components of
ment and the ideas that you set out in it can be refined and
the research process.
developed as your research progresses, it is important to
When writing a research proposal, there are a number
bear in mind that if you keep changing your mind about
of issues that you will probably need to cover.
your area of research interest and research design you
What is your research topic or, alternatively, what are will be using up valuable time needed to complete the
your research objectives? dissertation within the deadline.
Why is your research topic (or why are those research
objectives) important?
76 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

Preparing for your research

Do not begin your data collection until you have lead you into sampling considerations, such as the
identified your research questions reasonably clearly. following.
Develop your data-collection instruments with these
research questions at the forefront of your thinking. If Who do you need to study in order to investigate your
research questions?
you do not do this, there is the risk that your results will
not allow you to illuminate the research questions. If at How easily can you gain access to a sampling frame?
all possible, conduct a small pilot study to determine What kind of sampling strategy will you employ (e.g.
how well your research instruments work. probability sampling, quota sampling, theoretical
You will also need to think about access and sam- sampling, convenience sampling)?
pling issues. If your research requires you to gain access
to or the cooperation of one or more closed settings
Can you justify your choice of sampling method?

like an organization, you need to confirm at the earli- Also, while preparing for your data collection, you
est opportunity that you have the necessary permission should consider whether there are any possible ethical
to conduct your work. You also need to consider how problems associated with your research methods or your
you will go about gaining access to people. These issues approach to contacting people (see Chapter 5).

Doing your research and analysing

your results
Since doing your research and analysing your results are conducting a questionnaire survey, begin coding
what the bulk of this book will be about, it is not necessary your data and entering them into SPSS or whatever
at this stage to go into detail, but here are some useful package you are using after you have put together a
hints about practicalities. reasonably sized batch of completed questionnaires.
In the case of qualitative data, such as interview
Keep good records of what you do. A research diary
transcripts, the same point applies, and, indeed, it
can be helpful here, but there are several other things
is a specific recommendation of the proponents of
to bear in mind. For example, if you are doing a survey
grounded theory that data collection and analysis
by postal questionnaire, keep good records of who
should be intertwined.
has replied, so that you know who should be sent
reminders. If participant observation is a component Remember that the transcription of recorded inter-
of your research, remember to keep good field notes views takes a long time. Allow at least six hours tran-
and not to rely on your memory. scription for every one hour of recorded interview talk,
at least in the early stages of transcription.
Make sure that you are thoroughly familiar with any
hardware you are using in collecting your data, such as Become familiar with any data analysis packages as
tape recorders for interviewing, and make sure it is in soon as possible. This familiarity will help you to estab-
good working order (e.g. batteries that are not flat or lish whether you definitely need them and will ensure
close to being flat). that you do not need to learn everything about them at
the very time you need to use them for your analysis.
Do not wait until all your data have been collected to
begin coding. This recommendation applies to both Do not at any time take risks with your personal safety
quantitative and qualitative research. If you are (see Tips and skills Safety in research).
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 77

Tips and skills

Safety in research
In the middle of December 2002 a 19-year-old female student who had just started a degree course in sociology
and community studies at Manchester Metropolitan University went missing. It was believed that, in order to
complete a coursework assignment, she had gone to conduct a life history interview with a person aged over
50. Since she was interested in the homeless, it was thought that she had gone to interview a homeless person.
Because of concerns about her safety, her tutor had advised her to take a friend and to conduct the interview in
a public place. In fact, she had not gone to conduct the interview and to everyones relief turned up in Dublin.
There is an important lesson in this incident: you must bear in mind that social research may on occasions place
you in potentially dangerous situations. You should avoid taking personal risks at all costs and you should resist
any attempts to place yourself in situations where personal harm is a real possibility. Just as you should ensure
that no harm comes to research participants (as prescribed in the discussion of ethical principles in Chapter 5),
individuals involved in directing others research should not place students and researchers in situations in
which they might come to harm. Equally, lone researchers should avoid such situations. Sometimes, as with
the interviews with the homeless, there is some possibility of being in a hazardous situation, in which case, if
the researcher feels confident about going ahead with the interview, he or she needs to take precautions
before going ahead with the interview. The advice given by the students tutorto take someone with her and
to conduct the interview in a public placewas very sensible for a potentially dangerous interview. If you have
a mobile telephone, keep it with you and keep it switched on. Personal attack alarms may also be useful. You
should also make sure that, if your interviews or your periods of observation are part of a programme of work,
you establish a routine whereby you keep in regular contact with others. However, there are situations in
which there is no obvious reason to think that a situation may be dangerous, but where the researcher is
faced with a sudden outburst of abuse or threatening behaviour. This can arise when people react relatively
unpredictably to an interview question or to being observed. If there are signs that such behaviour is imminent
(e.g. through body language), begin a withdrawal from the research situation. Further guidelines on these
issues can be found in Craig et al. (2000).

Lee (2004) draws an important distinction between two kinds of danger in fieldwork: ambient and situational.
The former refers to situations that are avoidable and in which danger is an ingredient of the context.
Fieldwork in conflict situations of the kind encountered by the researcher who took on the role of a bouncer
(Hobbs et al. 2003) would be an example of this kind of danger. Situational danger occurs when the
researchers presence or activities evoke aggression, hostility or violence from those within the setting
(Lee 2004: 1285). While problems surrounding safety may be easier to anticipate in the case of ambient danger,
they are less easy to foresee in connection with situational danger. However, that is not to say that ambient
danger is entirely predictable. It was only some time after she began her research in a hospital laboratory that
Lankshear (2000) realized that there was a possibility of her being exposed to dangerous pathogens.

Sources: P. Barkham and R. Jenkins, Fears for Fresher who Vanished on Mission to talk to the Homeless, The Times,
13 Dec. 2002; S. McIntyre, How did Vicky Vanish?, Daily Mail, 13 Dec. 2002; R. Jenkins, Wasteland Search for Missing
Student, The Times, 14 Dec. 2002.
78 Planning a research project and formulating research questions

Checklist
Planning a research project

_ Do you know what the requirements for your dissertation are, as set out by your university or
department?

_ Have you made contact with your supervisor?

_ Have you allowed enough time for planning, doing, and writing up your research project?

_ Do you have a clear timetable for your research project with clearly identifiable milestones for the
achievement of specific tasks?

_ Have you got sufficient financial and practical resources (e.g. money to enable travel to research site,
recording device) to enable you to carry out your research project?

_ Have you formulated some research questions and discussed these with your supervisor?

_ Are the research questions you have identified capable of being answered through your research
project?

_ Do you have the access that you require in order to carry out your research?

_ Are you familiar with the data analysis software that you will be using to analyse your data?

_ Have you allowed others to comment on your work so far and responded to their feedback?

_ Have you checked out whether there are likely to be any ethical issues that might be raised in
connection with your research?

_ Have you allowed enough time for getting clearance through an ethics committee, if that is required
for your research?

Key points

l Follow the dissertation guidelines provided by your institution.

l Thinking about your research subject can be time consuming, so allow plenty of time for this aspect
of the dissertation process.
l Use your supervisor to the fullest extent allowed and follow the advice offered by him or her.
l Plan your time carefully and be realistic about what you can achieve in the time available.
l Formulate some research questions to express what it is about your area of interest that you want to
know.
l Writing a research proposal is a good way of getting started on your research project and
encouraging you to set realistic objectives.
l Consider access and sampling issues at an early stage and consider testing your research methods by
conducting a pilot study.
l Keep good records of what you do in your research as you go along and dont wait until all your data
have been collected before you start coding.
 Planning a research project and formulating research questions 79

Questions for review

Managing time and resources

l Why is it important to devise a timetable for your research project?

Formulating suitable research questions

l What are the main sources of research questions?

l What are the main steps involved in developing research questions?
l What criteria can be used to evaluate research questions?

Writing your research proposal

l What is the purpose of the research proposal and how can it be useful?

Online Resource Centre

http://www.oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/brymansrm3e/

Visit the Online Resource Centre that accompanies this book to enrich your understanding of
planning a research project and formulating research questions. Consult web links, test yourself
using multiple choice questions, and gain further guidance and inspiration from the Student
Researchers Toolkit.