Contemporary Issues Syllabus

I) Ecological system and Economics of Environmental

Protection
(a) Climate Change:
1) HIPPO Effect
2) Ozone Depletion
3) Pollution
4) Deforestation, Desertification and Dereliction
5) Global Warming Carbon Credits
6) Coastal Regulatory Zone (CRZ)
(b) Renewable and Non-renewable resources
Consumption and Sustainable Development
(c) Environmental Movements and Summits
Initiatives by Government and Private Organisations
(With relevant case studies on the above issue (such as Sunderbans, Maldives,
Artic Region etc.)

II) 1) Concepts of Human Rights and Civil Liberties

(a) Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Summits
(b)CRC and CEDAW
(c) DRD (Declaration for the Right to Development)
2) Human Concerns and Legislative Measures in the
Indian Context
(a) Education
(b) Health
(c) Women
(d) Children
(e) Gays
3) Political Rights:
(a) Rule of Law: Police Reforms
(b) Corruption and Politicisation of Crime
4) Accountability Government and Corporate
Accountability
(Relevant Case Studies)

III) Regional Issues Economic, Social, Political

An Introduction to Maharashtra Economy chief agriculture
patterns, nature and extent of Industrial Growth with specific
reference to MIDC and SEZ, Co-operative Banks Movement, the Textile
Industry

Economic Movements:
Introduction to Sugar, Milk and Cotton Co-operatives, Peasant and
Workers Party, Shetkari Dindi of Sharad Pawar, Sharad Joshis Shetkari
Sanghatana, the Trade Union Movement with special reference to
 Mumbai Textiles and Engineering Industry, SSKKMS (Shoshit Shetkari
Kashtakari Kamgar Mukti Sanghatana)

IV)
Sugar Lobby, Operation Flood
Self-determination, secession
Migration and Displacement, Resettlement and Identity Vision
Terrorism, Tribal Movement, Naxalism

HIPPO EFFECT

Hippo Effect refers to

H Habitat destruction
I Invasive Species
P Pollution
P Population
O Over grazing

Habitat Destruction : Habit Destruction is the process by which natural habitat is destroyed
making it unable to support species. In the process the species which used the site are displaced
or destroyed and made extinct. 89% of bird species, 83% of mammals and 91% of plant species
have become extinct due to habitat destruction. Habitat destruction has been mainly caused by
human activities, such as agricultural, mining , harvesting, deforesting, rapid industrialization and
the so on. habitat destruction is ranked as the most important casue of extinction of species.

Invasive Species: Invasive species are newly entering species which may cause the
disappearance of native species through altered biotic interactions. Invasive species are non-
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 native plants or animals that adversely affect the habitats of native species. These species are
widely distributed in all kinds of ecosystems or habitat . Invasive Species significantly disturbs the
natural biodiversity.

The alien or invasive species may kill or eat the native species to the degree of extinction.
Introduction of goats and rabbits in pacific and Indian region has resulted in the destruction of
habitats of several plants. Pathogenic micro organisms if introduced to new virgin areas may
cause epidemics resulting in total elimination of native species.

Rabbits were introduced in Australia for sport shooting. Their population exploded and they
destroyed vast area of rangeland, native wildlife and land used for sheep ranching

Pollution: Environmental pollution is the most subtle form of habitat destruction leading to loss of
biodiversity. Pollution can cause reduction and elimination of sensitive species. Excessive use of
pesticides, get mixed with the water of the aquatic ecosystem reducing the population of fish
eating birds and falcons. Toxic wastes entering the fresh water bodies, coastal ecosystems are
injurious to the biotic components of these systems. Coral reefs are in danger by pollution and
industrialization. Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen dioxide, Suspended particles cause negative effect on
plants and animal species.

Population: Increase in human population and human activities are chiefly responsible for
destruction of biodiversity. The ever increasing human settlement have been causing destruction
of natural ecosystem to meet their demands for food, clothing and shelter. Millions of forests have
been cleared, along with grass lands. Worst damage has been done to wet lands as they were
considered to be useless in the ecosystems. Today the rich biodiversity of wetlands, estuaries and
mangroves with unique species are under threat. As a result of human activities, marine
biodiversity is also under serious threat.

Overharvesting: Forest lands are cleared to convert it to grazing land for cattle. Overgrazing leads
to degradation. India has a large population but grazing land is limited to only 13 million hectares.
The animals trample the seedlings and cause compaction to the soil so that its water storing
capacity is decreased. Food has been the most priority for humans. Most of the nutrients are used
up by Overharvesting and overgrazing.

OZONE DEPLETION:

The earths atmosphere is composed of several layers. The layer, stratosphere occurs between
10-40 km above the earths surface. It absorbs the UV radiation in sunlight which is harmful to
living organisms . It contains ozone, a form of oxygen ( O3 ) . Ozone is a life savior if present in
the stratosphere but a pollutant if present in our troposphere. When the UV radiation hits the
ozone molecule, it breaks the chemical bond and splits the molecule . the UV rays then lose their
strength and are prevented from penetrating the earths atmosphere. The ozone layer thus
protects the Earth from the ultraviolet rays sent down by the sun. If the ozone layer is depleted by
human action, it can have adverse effect on the planet.

OZONE Depletion was first discovered in the mid-1980s in Antarctica. . Scientists noticed a
decrease in ozone level in the stratosphere, which caused a massive hole in the ozone layer right

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 above Antarctica . The discovery of this hole would mean more UV rays of sun reaching the
earth . It could cause skin cancer, affect human immune system and crop growth, Ozone at the
lower level is responsible for the urban smog but in the upper atmosphere absorbs UV radiation
from the sun preventing it from reaching the earth where it could cause harm to humans, crops and
other problems

Ozone depletion is expected to touch 10% by the middle of the century

Causes of Ozone depletion: & Effects

The most leading cause of ozone depletion is the production and emission of CFCs,
chlorofluorocarbons. CFCs are used in industry in a variety of ways and have been amazingly
useful in many products. Discovered in the 1930s CFCs came to be used in refrigerators,
aerosols, home insulation, plastic foam, and throwaway food containers.

Accumulation of CFCs in the atmosphere could destroy the protective layer of ozone in the upper
atmosphere . CFCs float to the upper atmosphere where the suns heat breaks them releasing
chlorine atoms. Chlorine destroys ozone . With more and more CFC use, chlorine level in
atmosphere is double the natural levels. The worst contributors of CFCs are refrigerators, aerosol
cans . CFCs act as greenhouse gases

Researchers in 1974, proved that CFCs were entering the atmosphere, and they concluded that
99% of all CFC molecules would end up in the stratosphere. Only in 1984, when the ozone layer
hole was discovered over Antarctica, it was convincingly proved that CFC caused ozone depletion.

Ozone depletion will cause climate change , change in wind pattern , and exposure to UV light will
cause skin cancer, cataracts, change in life cycle of plants disrupting the food chain.

Solution :

Many countries have called for the end of CFC production because only a few produce the
chemical. However, those industries that do use CFCs do not want to discontinue usage of this
highly valuable industrial chemical.

Despite the difficulties, international action has been taken to limit CFCs. In 1987, the first global
agreement to limit the production of ozone depleting CFCs was signed in Montreal. 30 nations
worldwide agreed to reduce usage of CFCs and encouraged other countries to do so as well.

However, many environmentalists felt the treaty did "too little, too late", The treaty asked for CFC
makers to only eliminate half of their CFC production, making some people feel it was inadequate.

By the year 2000, the US and twelve nations in Europe agreed to ban all use and production of
CFCs. Many other countries have signed treaties and written laws restricting the use of CFCs. In
2002 the European Union introduced legislation aimed at safe disposal of ozone depletion
substances in fridge and other equipment.

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 Can Ozone depletion be reversed? - Even if CFCs were banned, problems would remain. There
would still be no way to remove the CFCs that are now present in the environment. Clearly
though, something must be done to limit this international problem in the future. The abundance of
ozone depleting compounds in the lower atmosphere is now slowly declining.

Companies are finding substitutes for CFCs, and people in general are becoming more aware of
the dangers of ozone depletion.

POLLUTION

Pollution is undesirable change in the physical , chemical and biological characteristics of air,
water, and soil. It is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes
instability, harm or damage to the ecosystem . Pollution can be due to natural phenomena like
volcanic actions, forest fires, floods etc or it can be due to human activities like vehicular pollution,
oil spills, excessive use of plastics, factory effluents etc. Pollution can be bio-degradable or non-
biodegradable(i.e Non-decomposable)

There are different types of pollutions

1. Air Pollution is the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common
gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Air pollution comes both from
natural source and human activities. Globally however, man made pollutants from combustion,
construction , mining, agriculture and warfare are significantly important .

One of the leading causes of air pollution is motor vehicle emission. US , China, Russia,
Mexico , Japan are world leaders in air pollution

Increased use of fossil fuels cause increase in CO2 level in atmosphere. Rising
atmospheric levels of Carbon dioxide and other green house gases cause global warming .

Other pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,
petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, large livestock farms , PVC factories,
metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air
pollution comes from clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of
pesticides and herbicides
2. Water pollution,- caused by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface runoff
into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills, oil leaks , wastewater
discharges and littering.
3. Soil contamination - occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage.
Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides,
pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
4. Noise pollution,- Roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise
5. Radioactive contamination - nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research,
manufacture and deployment.
6. Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence,
such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.

Pollution exists in our environment for a long time. The industrial revolution gave birth to
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 environmental pollution as we know it today. The emergence of great factories and consumption of
immense quantities of coal and other fossil fuels gave rise to air pollution.

Pollution started becoming an environment issue with more and more industrial wastes and
harmful chemicals being dumped into our water system , poor management of solid waste and air
pollution through various human activities.

Effects of pollution on plant and animal life

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans.

Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination
of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries.

Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes.

Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance.

Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms.

Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or
lung disorders are under additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk.

Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical
and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.

Effects of pollution on environment

Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of
this:

Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification,

The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in
many ways.

Growing evidence of global pollution and public education and awareness have given rise to a
number of environmental movements to check pollution. Environmental education, mass
communication , strict laws and efficient management of environmental pollution is very
essential.

DEFORESTATION:

Deforestation is cutting down of trees or removal of forests where the land is converted to a non-
forest use. It is the destruction of forest. Example of deforestation includes conversion of
forestland to agriculture or urban use. Deforestation refers only to removal of trees without the
intention of reforesting it.

Deforestation occurs for many reasons :

Increase in population results in demand for more and more land for both agriculture and
other uses. Subsistence farming is responsible for 48% deforestation, commercial
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 agriculture 32%, logging 14% and fuel wood 5%.

Shifting cultivation is a more specific cause of deforestation. 50% in S.E Asia including
India practice this type of agriculture. Some forest land is cleared , cultivated for 2 or 3
seasons. The abandoned forest patches may revert back to forest but due to population
pressure it is not allowed to revert back,.

Demand for fuel wood: 1.5 billion people depend upon wood for fuel for their cooking needs
and energy. Industrial demand for wood has also considerably increased with growing
population and urbanization.

Development projects : A lot of forest land is cleared for construction dams, Reservoirs,
Hydro electric projects , highways, Roads, rails etc.

Overgrazing; Forest lands are cleared to convert them into grazing land for livestock

Quarrying and mining operations: In India large forest lands are cleared and made barren
as a result of quarrying and mining.

Forest fires

Environmental effect of Deforestation:

Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is often cited as one of the major
causes of the increased greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for
approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions.

Although Deforestation may not significantly affect the net oxygen level the incineration
and burning of forest plants to clear land, releases large amounts of CO2, which
contributes to global warming.

Deforestation affects soil cohesion : can cause floods , land slide and soil erosion

Forests are habitats for wild life. Deforestation threatens many wild life species causing
loss of biodiversity and mass extinction of wild life

Deforestation affects the water cycle. Trees extract groundwater through their roots and
release it into the atmosphere. When part of a forest is removed, the trees no longer
evaporate away this water, resulting in a much drier climate. Deforestation reduces the
content of water in the soil and groundwater as well as atmospheric moisture.

The solution lies in

Reforestation

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 Legislation to stop cutting trees
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Managing Cities, curtailing expansions at the cost of forest land

Another initiative is to reduce emissions from the tropical deforestation and forest
degradation (REDD) The idea consists in providing financial compensations for the
reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation

DESERTIFICATION:

Desertification refers to the land degradation in arid, semi-arid areas caused by climatic changes
and human activities. It is the combined effect of accelerated erosion ( wind and water) woodland
destruction, soil water logging, overgrazing in dry land.

Desertification became well known in the 1930's, when parts of the Great Plains in the United
States turned into the "Dust Bowl" as a result of drought and poor practices in farming, although
the term itself was not used until almost 1950.

Desertification occurs slowly but covers large areas as different degraded lands start merging . As
a result of desertification, the productive potential of arid and semi-arid lands fall by 10% or more.
Desertification results in conversion of irrigated lands to become deserted. It results in loss of
vegetation cover, loss of ground water and severe soil erosion.

Causes of desertification are many. The amount of evaporation of moisture is greater than the
rainfall. The low humidity allows 90% of solar energy to penetrate in the atmosphere and heat the
earth resulting in high temperatures. Dust storms erode the soil as it is not unprotected by
vegetation.

Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In
some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate
of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use
practices, they are bringing the desert with them.

Other causes of desertification are deforestation, overgrazing , climatic factors, over exploitation of
land for short term gain etc.

The effects of desertification are visible all over the world especially Asia, Africa, , parts of South
and Central America, Australia and along the Mediterranean. In the World Atlas of Desertification,
1475 million hectares of land is shown to be in Asia in which India figures prominently.

In the last 50 years human activities have been a major cause of desertification of the land area of
about 900 hectares . If sincere efforts are not made, 63% of range lands, 60% of rain fed crop
land, and 30% of irrigated cropland will suffer from desertification . Even land occupied by human
population will be affected. Desertification has affected 33% of earths surface and over a billion
people. It is one of the worlds most alarming process of environmental degradation.

In the last 25 years, satellites have begun to provide the global monitoring necessary for improving
our understanding of desertification. But a lot more is necessary to stop desertification.

To prevent desertification it is necessary to prevent soil erosion , improve water resource

management, sustained vegetation , afforestation and reforestation, wind breaks and shelter
breaks for live plants.

DERELICTION :
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 Dereliction means conscious and willful neglect. Various human activities create various
environmental problems resulting in the imbalance in the eco system an undesirable change in
the characteristics of air, water and soil. .

We neglect to protect the environment willfully introducing pollutants.

We dump solid wastes ( industrial, domestic, sewage, agricultural) , liquid wastes , gaseous
wastes and radioactive wastes etc
Air gets polluted by burning fuels, coal, petroleum , emission from vehicles etc All industries
that produce chemicals release effluent gases into the atmosphere causing pollution. Air
pollution affects human health, plants, animals , climate and causes acid rain and also
damage of monuments. Air pollution can be controlled by
o Use of purified petrol
o Modernizing industries
o Installing air treatment plants
o Using alternative energy source
o Treating emissions
Water pollution is caused by effluents from industries, dumping of wastes, domestic and
industrial, use of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides etc. it can be controlled by
o Proper water treatment measures to remove contaminants
o Controlled of pesticides and other chemicals

Solid pollutants due to mans activities are industrial wastes, solid waste from home and
commercial places, radioactive waste, detergents, pesticides agrochemicals ,
herbicides,etc. Soil pollution decreases soil fertility and makes it inhabitable for plants and
animals.

GLOBAL WARMING - CARBON CREDIT

The world climate is changing. Temperatures are rising and so are natural disasters. All this is the
result of global warming due to the excessive accumulation of green house gases in the
atmosphere.

There has been almost 40% increase in Carbon dioxide levels since the Industrial revolution. The
earth is losing its ability to soak up billions of tons of CO2 each year. If more of our carbon pollution
stays in the atmosphere, emissions will have to be cut much more to prevent global warming
reaching a dangerous level.

The recent surge in CO2 level is due to

o Growth in the world economy

o Heavy use of Coal in China

o Weakening of natural Sinks forests, seas and soil that can absorb carbon,

Carbon credit:

The UN adopted the UNFCCC ( UN Framework Convention of Climate change) in 1992 to address
this issue of increase in CO2 emission.

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 The industrialized nations agreed to a non-building commitment to bring down emissions of CO2
and other greenhouse gases to 1990 levels. However most failed in their commitment. This was
followed by the Kyoto protocol 1997 , an international treaty to reduce greenhouse gases. As of
September 2005, a total of 156 countries have ratified the agreement . Developing countries like
India, China and Brazil do not have any obligations of this Protocol beyond monitoring and
reporting emission

What is Carbon Credit:

Countries are given fixed limits for emission of CO2. This emission permission is known as Carbon
Credit. Supposing a country emitted 100 carbon-equivalent green house gases, it has to reduce its
emission level by 52 carbon equivalent greenhouse gases. This means the country has 48 units of
carbon credit in its possession. Countries can trade in carbon credit. If the above country has
reduced its emission by more than 52 units , it can exchange/sell this excess carbon units to
another country which has exceeded its emission limit. Carbon credits have a monetary value and
can be exchanged or bought and sold in international market at the prevailing market price. A
tonne of carbon credit is sold at Euro 12-15

As the Kyoto Protocol permits carbon credits, a number of exchanges have been made and Banks
too have entered this lucrative market. Such banks are known as Carbon Banks.

Carbon Credit provides a way to reduce green house emissions. India has generated
approximately 30 Million carbon credits and approximately 140 million in run, the second highest
transacted volumes in the world. Indias carbon market is growing faster. 850 projects with a huge
investment of Rs 650,000 million are in pipeline. The revenue from 200 projects is estimated at
Rs. 97 billion till 2012.

India has been able to register approximately 350 projects spread across various sectors with
major dominance of renewable energy, energy efficiency and biomass energy projects. Some
examples are:

The government has already energy conservation norms for commercial buildings

It has launched CFL lamps to reduce energy consumption by 60% . Himachal Pradesh has
given one CFL free to each household.. Delhi provides subsidy on CFLs sold in the city

In Uttarkhand, Rajaiv singh and friends have planted thousands of trees and have turned
barren mountains into green belt it helped the government earn valuable carbon credit

Trees have been planted on Yamuna belt

Delhi Metro Rail have already claimed over 40000 carbon credits for using innovative braking
systems.
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 RENEWABLE ENERGY - NON CONVENTIONAL SOURCE OF ENERGY

Fossil fuels are non-renewable i.e they draw on finite resources that will eventually dwindle,
becoming too expensive or too environmentally damaging. On the contrary renewable sources of
energy like Wind and solar energy are constantly replenished and will never run out.

Importance of Renewable Energy

Clean sources of energy and have a lower environmental impact than conventional energy
It is energy for the future. Renewable sources will not run out
Most renewable energy investments are spent on materials and infra structure rather than
costly energy imports
Energy Security It helps to decrease depends on foreign oil supplies

Some of the renewable sources of energy are solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy,
ocean energy, biomass, Hydrogen etc.

a. Wind Energy :

Wind energy is a clean and renewable source of electric power and is the worlds fastest growing
energy source. For hundreds of years we have been using wind energy for pumping water or
grinding grains. Modern wind turbines (like windmills) can generate electricity. The wind turbines
can be used as stand alone applications which are typically used for water pumping or
communications. Or they can be connected to a utility power grid or connected to solar cell
system.

For utility scale sources of wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are built close together to
form a wind plant. Several electricity providers today use wind plants to supply power to their
customers

India has made considerable progress in utilizing wind energy - We have the worlds largest wind
resource assessment program, and expansion of the resources base. Large private and public
sector units are being motivated to set up wind power projects.

India now has the 5th largest wind power installed capacity in the world 1870 MW

b. Energy from the Ocean:

Ocean can produce thermal energy from the suns heat and mechanical energy from the tides and
waves. Oceans cover more than 70% of earths surface and are the worlds largest solar
collectors. The suns heat heats up the ocean surface more than the deep ocean water . the
temperature difference creates thermal energy. This can be used for many applications including
electricity generation.

Closed cycle system ; Oceans warm surface water is used to vaporize a low boiling fluid
like ammonia, The vapors expand and turn a turbine which activates a generator to
produce electricity
Open system Actually boils the surface water by operating at low pressures to produce
steam that drives a turbine and generator

Mechanical energy from ocean is generated by tides and waves activity . Tides are driven by
gravitational pull of the moon and waves are driven by wind. As a result tides and wives are
intermittent sources of energy. A dam is usually used to convert tidal energy into electrical energy
by forcing the water through turbines . For wave energy, there are different systems.
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 Ocean thermal energy conversion have many uses to generate electricity , desalinate water, and
various other industrial applications . I

c Geo Thermal energy

Geo thermal energy comes from the natural heat of the earth. This heat is stored in rock and
water within the earth and can be extracted by drilling wells . This energy can be used for heating
purposes , district heating , horticulture and recreational uses such as spas. It can also be used for
electricity production. Geo thermal power plants use steam produced from hot water found below
the earths surface .

d. Solar energy:

Solar energy can be directly used for heating and lighting homes, for generating electricity , solar
cooking, and a variety of industrial uses.

Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity . Solar cells are used to power calculator
and watches.
New Power plants use solar power systems- solar energy is used to generate steam
which rotates a large turbine that activates a generator that produced electricity.
Solar hot water Sunlight can be used to heat water used in buildings and swimming
pools. The solar heating system for buildings have a solar collector where the solar heat is
absorbed and the water is heated. The storage tank holds the hot water.
India has a potential for 35 MW per Sq Km solar thermal power generation. A 140MW
solar power project is being set up at Mathania near Jodhpur in Rajasthan . It is the first of
its kind and among the largest such projects in the world.

e Biomass Energy:

All organic matter is known as biomass and the energy released from biomass when eaten or burnt
or converted into fuels is called Biomass Energy. Biomass can be broken down by anaerobic
digestion using bacteria in oxygen free atmosphere that produces biogas containing methane .
Biogas can be used to generate heat/electricity Biomass can also be used to produce heat and
/or electricity by combustion.

Biomass includes straws, stalks, stems, agro industrial products residues like shells, husks,
forestry residues etc.

Biomass power/co-generation programs are used in sugar mills, paper mills and rice mills where
biomass resources are generated or consumed in their main production processes.

Use of Biomass energy as an alternate source of energy is being encouraged through favorable
government policies . India has the largest cogeneration program in the sugar mills . the sugar
mills has an established potential of 3500MW of power generation using bagasse

f Small hydropower program

It refers to hydro energy plants producing less than 10 MW electricity. Hydro power is produced by
movement of water streams, rising and fall of tides , wave energy . This is a major thrust area in
our program for non conventional source of energy. It is recognized that small hydro power plants
have a critical role in improving the overall energy scenario of the country and specially for remote
areas. It has an estimated potential of 15000 MW . There are over 8 manufacturers in the country
in this field,

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 g Hydrogen as the Future Fuel

Hydrogen is available only in combined form in water and hydrocarbons and many organic
compounds. Hydrogen can be separated from hydrocarbons through the application of heat.
Electrical current can be sued to separate hydrogen from water. Some algae and bacteria using
sunlight, can give out hydrogen under certain conditions.

Hydrogen is high in energy and does not produce pollutants when burnt. Space shuttles use
hydrogen . In future hydrogen can be used as energy carrier like electricity.

Renewable sources of energy are fast becoming important to contributing to the economy of the
country . Effort is on and but there is a greater potential for this development . Equally important is
energy efficiency using less energy to accomplish the same task. Less energy also means less
pollution

10 . NON RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY:

It includes fossil fuels, including petroleum products, coal, natural gas and nuclear energy. Nuclear
energy is mainly obtained from nuclear fission of radioactive materials like uranium and thorium.
The global resources of fossil fuels , uranium and thorium are limited and eventually be depleted.
Use of fossil fuels has negative impact on environment such as air pollution, global warming and
acid rains. Thus it has become necessary to restrict the use of fossil fuels and replace them with
renewable sources.

Natural gas is the cleanest source among fossil fuels. It can be easily transported through
pipelines. It burns without smoke and can be used for domestic and industrial purposes. It can
also be used for power generation and as a raw material for petrochemical industries and fertilizer
plants.

Nuclear energy has a tremendous potential but any leakage may cause devastating nuclear
pollution . eg. the worlds worst Chernobyl disaster. Disposal of nuclear waste is also a problem.

Man has over exploited natural resources to serve his primary need as well as his comfort needs.
The continued and careless use of these resources will result in degradation of these resources. It
has therefore become necessary to use these natural resources in such a way that they can be
saved for future use and are not lost. Both management and conservation are important as some
of the natural resources are getting depleted very fast.

11. CONSUMPTION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Population, consumption, environment

The impact of humans on the environment is related to the population, the per capita
consumption and the environmental damage caused by the technology used to produce what is
consumed. With the rise in population, there is a pressure on economic development and a rise in
income level could result in increased consumption . A major aspect of economic growth is
industrialization and agriculture. There is high consumption of resources like land, water,
minerals, energy etc. This leads to environmental problems.

Economic growth without harming environment is impossible. The impact of population growth and
consumption has already caused severe ecological damage and imbalance . Also there are many
threats to human health, such as emergence of infectious diseases and antibiotic resistance to
medication etc. Some pointers to this are:

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 Approximately 2 billion of 6 billion inhabiting the world today are mal nourished. . Ensuring
that people are fed directly depends upon the agricultural productivity which again relies
upon availability of land, energy and water resources as well as bio diversity
Increase in soil erosion is a great threat to productivity . About 30% of worlds arable land is
lost due to soil erosion
Use of fossil fuel is on the rise. . As population grows, energy needs also increase . Once
these non-renewable source of energy is spent, they are gone for good .
Water quality and quantity are also under threat due to population growth. Non availability
of fresh drinking water causes an estimated 4 million deaths annually mainly of children, .

Population Consumption Trends

One important cause of environmental destruction is inequitable consumption of resources , Over

population in 3rd world countries is often cited as

the root cause of environmental degradation . However an average American consumes 40 times
more resources than an Average Somalian. Similarly the richest 5% of Indian society probably
cause more ecological damage than the poorest 25%. There is a vast gap between the poor and
the rich . Once there is a balance between both, sustainable pattern of consumption and economic
growth will go hand in hand.

The co relation between population, consumption and environmental degradation can be due to
various factors

1. If the purpose of life is to carry on the family name through larger family then the
consumption patterns are different
2. Process of liberalization has only intensified the environmental crisis. It has resulted in free
for all atmosphere with industries increasingly ignoring environmental standards and state
governments sacrificing natural habitats to make way for industries
3. The drive towards growth through export is rapidly depleting natural resources
4. Pressure on Reducing government expenditures results in cuts in social and environmental
projects
5. Opening up the economy in bringing in companies with a notorious track record on
environment and wasteful consumer goods and toxins
6. Educating people about family planning and environmental problems

Sustainable Development

In this context , what we need is sustainable development . The goal is to achieve economic
growth in such a way that there is reasonable and equitable distribution of the benefits and
economic well-being , not only for the present but also for generations to come. It is maintaining a
balance between exploitation and conservation.

Sustainable Development is

the pattern of social and economic development which optimizes the societal benefits
available in the present, without compromising on the likely potential for similar benefits in
the future

Solution:

Sustainable development would mean undertaking developmental activities and projects which
would work closely in harmony with nature and without disrupting local social system now and in
future. In order to be sustainable, the development has to improve the well being of societies,
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 enable everyone to participate in the developmental process and the benefits of development
should be shared by all the people . Besides, these improvements will have to be extended to the
future generation as well over many generations. Some actions recommended are

Government policies to reduce population growth, provision of health care

Reducing consumption per person
Reducing pollution, cleaner technologies, less waste, waste disposal , eco-labelling
Government measures for Energy conservation and preservation of natural resources
Education on population control and environmental protection
Reducing poverty and social instability

ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS & SUMMITS

Our environment is facing grave dangers today due to several reasons and threats. Most of the
threat is caused by indiscriminate exploitation of the natural sources and a host of human activities.
One of the main challenges today is to integrate economic considerations with social responsibility,
and environmental protection for global sustainability. Global sustainability here refers to optimum
utilization of scarce resources to fulfil the needs of the present generation in such a way that it
does not compromise on the needs of future generation.

Some of the Global environmental challenges we are facing today are Climate change and global
warming, Population explosion, industrial pollution, ozone depletion , deforestation, environmental
mismanagement and so on. The natural resources upon which people depend for sustainable
development are being degraded, depleted and misused in many parts of the developing world.

World over people have realized that something must be done to stop this environmental
degradation if man has to survive. Public awareness is on the increase and there are many efforts,
national and international to save the environment and to manage it in such a way that there will be
sustainable development. Public interest in environmental issues was inspired largely by 3 books
published in the 1970s - . Silent Spring, The Population Bomb and the Closing Circle. Silent spring
made people aware of the dangers of over use of pesticides on birds and wildlife. The Population
Bomb alerted people to dangers posed by rapidly increasingly population on natural resources
and the Closing circle explained the ecological Cycle in easy terms. Worldwide a number of
environment movements have started and are working towards saving the environment .

There are government organizations, inter governmental organizations and private organizations
that monitor or preserve the environment in different ways. These organizations and
environmental movements are working towards reversing the process.

A GOVERNMENTAL & INTER GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS

1. Inter governmental Organisation - UNEP United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)

In 1972, the UN established a separate program known as the UNEP ( United Nations
Environment Program) . UNEP provides leadership and encourages partnership in caring for the
environment Its Head quarters is at Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP coordinates the UN environmental
activities. Its activities cover a wide range of environmental issues - atmosphere and terrestrial
ecosystems , the promotion of environmental science and information, early warning and guidance
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 in dealing with the environmental disaster and emergencies

i.1972 Stockholm Summit : .In 1972, at Stockholm, the UN had its first Earth Summit. The 1972
Stockholm conference focused international attention on environmental issues , specially to related
to environmental degradation. It highlighted the fact that pollution does not recognize geographical
boundaries but affects the whole world. The Earth Summit produced an action plan which laid out
clearly the educational, informational, social and cultural aspects of environmental issues

To provide countries the necessary technical and financial assistance

Preparing national report on environment, monitoring environmental development
Support and encourage projects for social, educational and cultural programs
To encourage exchange of information on methods and work in progress
To establish a common methodology for assessing environmental development and
preparing reports

ii. 1992 Rio DE Janeiro Conference (UNCED UN conference on Environment and

Development )

172 governments participated and some 2400 representatives of NGOs attended the 1992
conference. The conference outlined the way the various social economic and environmental
factors are interdependent and change together. The aim of the conference was to produce a new
plan for international action on environmental and developmental issues .

The issues addressed included

Systematic scrutiny of patterns pf production particularly production of toxic

components, such as lead in petrol, poisonous waste, radioactive chemicals etc
Replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels which are linked to climate change
Reduce vehicular emissions, congestion in cities and health problems related to
pollution
Growing scarcity of water

An important achievement of the UNCED was an agreement on the Climate change Convention
( UNFCCC) which in turn led to the Kyoto Protocol. Another agreement was not to carry out
activities on the lands of indigenous people that would cause environmental damage. Other
achievements were Agenda 21 , a thorough program of actions for global sustainable development
and conventions on biological diversity

iii. Johannesburg Summit - 2002

Efforts to promote sustainable development received a major boost at the Johannesburg summit
2002 , the World summit on sustainable Development . The summit drew worlds attention to the

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 challenges of improving the lives and conserving our resources .

The overriding theme of the Summit was to promote action. Issues and concerns of poverty and the
environment were discussed and commitments were made to increase access to clean water and
proper sanitation, to increase access to energy services, to improve health conditions and agriculture,
particularly in drylands, and to better protect the world's biodiversity and ecosystems.

iv. Kyoto protocol

The world climate is changing. Temperatures are rising and so are natural disasters. All this is the
result of global warming due to the excessive accumulation of green house gases in the
atmosphere. The largest contributor to the problem is carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil
fuels, factories , cars and other sources.

The UN adopted the UNFCCC ( UN Framework Convention of Climate change) in 1992 to address
this issue of increase in CO2 emission. Reducing greenhouse gases became the key to tackling
global warming .

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC (United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions which causes
global warming.

From December 1 -11, December 1997, more than 160 nations met in Kyoto, Japan to set targets
on greenhouse gas emissions for developed nations. Developed nations agreed to limit their
emissions relative to the levels emitted in 1990.

December 1977 - The treaty was negotiated in Kyoto

March 1998 opened for signature
March 1999 closed for signature
Nov 2004 Russia ratified the treaty
Feb 2005 Treaty came into force.

As of September 2005, 156 countries have ratified the agreement . Notable exceptions are US and
Australia

Objectives of the Protocol:

The Kyoto protocol aims to tackle global warming by setting targets for nations to reduce
greenhouse gases emission worldwide. The protocol sets the emissions limits and reduction
obligations with respect to CO2, methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofurocarbons, Perflurocarbons &
Sulphur hexafluoride. Of these CO2 is the most important which is emitted by fossil fuels.

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 These targets vary between countries and regions but globally the initial target is to reduce to 5%
percent below 1990 levels by 2012. The individual target ranges from 7 % for US, 8% for EU &
others, 10% for Iceland.

Kyoto protocol provides Carbon Credit . Countries are given fixed limits for emission of CO2.
This emission permission is known as Carbon Credit. Supposing a country emitted 100 units of
green house gases, it has to reduce its emission level by 52 units. This means the country has 48
units of carbon credit in its possession. Countries can trade in carbon credit. If the above country
has reduced its emission by more than 52 units , it can exchange/sell this excess carbon units to
another country which has exceeded its emission limit. Carbon credits have a monetary value and
can be exchanged or bought and sold in international market at the prevailing market price. A
tonne of carbon credit is sold at Euro 12-15

Eg Russia today easily meets its targets and can sell off its credits for millions fo dollars to other
countries that dont yet meet their targets.

Benefits:

Reduced Rate of global warming

Better climate and environmental conditions
Better health conditions
Long term economic benefit
Flexibility in meeting emission targets

Drawbacks

Limited participation
Short term economic cost
Rise in cost of living

India signed and ratified the protocol in August 2002 . Developing countries like India, China and
Brazil do not have any obligations of this Protocol beyond monitoring and reporting emission. Since
India is exempted from the framework of the treaty, it is expected to gain from the protocol in terms
of transfer of techno logy and related foreign investments.

2. Governmental organizations - Environmental protection Agency EPA ( USA)

The mission of EPA is to protect human health and protect environment air, water and land. EPA
provides leadership in the nations environmental science, research, education and assessment
efforts. EPA works closely with other federal agencies, state and local governments and native
American tribes to develop and enforce environmental laws. EPA is responsible for researching
and setting national standards for a variety of environmental programs . Where national standards
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 are not met EPA can issue sanctions and take other steps to assist the states and tribes in
reaching the desired levels of environmental standard. The agency also works with industries and
all levels of governments in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs and energy
conservation efforts

3. Non Governmental Organsiations (NGOs)

WWF World Wild Life was founded in 1961 . it is the worlds largest independent conservation
organization with around 5 million supporters and a global network of 27 national organizations.
WWF promotes public awareness of conservation problems and raises funds for protection of
threatened species and environments.

Greenpeace : organizes public campaigns for

Protection of oceans and ancient forests

The phase out of fossil fuels
Promotion of renewable energy
Prevention of genetically modified organisms being released into nature
End to nuclear threat, nuclear contamination
Safe and sustainable trade

Greenpeace does not solicit or accept funds from government corporations or political parties. It
relies on voluntary donations of individual supporters and on grant support from foundations .
Green peace is committed to the principles of non-violence, political independence and
internationalism . Greenpeace has been campaigning against environmental degradation since
1971 when a small boat of volunteers an journalists sailed to Alaska where the US was conducting
nuclear tests

B. ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS , AWARENESS

1. Silent Spring - (Bringing public awareness)

Silent Spring is a book published in the US in the mid 1960s warning people about the disastrous
effects of pesticides and particularly DDT. It warned that indiscriminate use of the pesticide could
kill hundreds of species of insects and harm human beings. The author Rachel Carson was an
environmentalist .

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 DDT was the most powerful pesticide the world had ever known , was capable of killing hundreds
of different kinds of insects at once.

The book describes how the pesticide enters the food chain and accumulates in fatty tissues of
humans and animals and causes cancer and genetic disorders. It remains toxic even after it is
diluted by rainwater. The book describes how a courageous woman took on the chemical industry
and raised important questions about the impact of human activities on nature .

Silent Spring was named the most influential book in the last 50 years . The book challenged the
widely accepted notion that man was destined to control nature. As a result of the book and its
reception, the Environmental protection Agency was established in 1970. DDT and other pesticides
have been completely banned in the US. Several birds including eagles were thus saved from
extinction.

The main theme of silent Springs was Man as a part of nature has a duty to protect nature from
destruction. The silent Spring launched the environmental movement world wide. Although there
were critics who challenged her initially and launched a negative propaganda about the book,
Silent Spring remained the best seller and world began to take note of what the book wanted to
say.

2. Environment movements in India

Control over natural resources is an important reason for emergence of environmental movement
in India. Some good examples of these kinds of movements are like Chipko and Narmada Bachao
Andolan .

1. Chipko Movement

The Chipko Movement of the villagers was a movement to save trees from being cut by embracing
them. The movement started in the Garhwal Himalaya in April 1973. The local people demanded
the use of forest produce, but instead the government allowed outside contractors to fell trees. In
protest, illiterate peasants, men, women and children- threatened to hug forest trees rather than
allow them to be logged for export. Notably the peasants were not interested in saving the trees
per se, but they were interested in using their produce for agricultural and household requirements.
In later years, however the movement turned its attention to broader ecological concerns, and the
collective protection and management of forest, .

The first Chipko action took place spontaneously in 1973 and over the next five years spread to
many districts of the Himalaya in Uttar Pradesh. The movement shifted from demand for forest
produce for local small industries to a new demand for ecological control of forest resources .
They resisted to commercial felling and excessive tapping of resin from pine trees. They protested
against forest auctions. The Chipko demand for declaration of Himalayan forests as protection
forests and not for commercial exploitation was recognized by the government . The Chipko
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 protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on green felling in
the Himalayan forests of that State .

A similar ban was later also implemented in the states of Uttaranchal and Himachal Pradesh.

The movement spread to Himachal Pradesh in the north, Karnataka in the south, Rajasthan in the
west, Bihar in the east and to the Vindhyans in central India. In addition to the ban in Uttar
Pradesh, the movement succeeded in halting clear felling in the Western Ghats and the Vindhyas,
as well as generating pressure for a natural resources policy more sensitive to people's needs and
environmental factors.

The Chipko Movement was the result of a number of initiatives .Its leaders and activists have
primarily been village women, acting to save their means of subsistence and their communities.
Men have been involved, too, however, and some of them have given wider leadership to the
movement. One of the most prominent leaders has been Sunderlal Bahuguna, a Gandhian activist
and philosopher, whose appeal to Mrs Gandhi resulted in the green-felling ban and whose 5,000-
kilometre foot march in 1981-83 was crucial in spreading the Chipko message.

The Chipko movement, though primarily a livelihood movement rather than a forest conservation
movement, went on to inspire many future environmentalists and , non-violent protests and
movements the world over . It occurred at a time when there was hardly any environmental
movement in the developing world, and its success meant that the world immediately took notice of
this non-violent Tree hugging movement.

Chipko Movement inspired many such eco-groups, helped in slowing down the rapid deforestation,
exposed vested interests, increased ecological awareness, and demonstrated the strength of
people power. Above all, it stirred up existing civil society in India which started looking towards
tribal, and marginalized people and their issues more seriously .

It has been made to appear that Chipko is against development . On the contrary, Chipko is for
ecologically sound development and against unsustainable destructive economic growth. Chipkos
demand is conservation of not merely local forest resources but the entire life support system and
human survival.

2. Narmada bachao andolan

Narmada Bachao Andolan is the most powerful mass movement started in 1985 against the
construction of huge dam on the Narmada River. The proposed Sardar Sarovar Dam will displace
more than 250000 people. The big fight is over the resettlement of these people.. The movement
soon took the shape of an NGO that brought together the tribal, the farmers, the environmental
activists and the human rights activists against the Sardar Sarovar Dam.

Initially, the focus of the movement was on saving the trees and the forest that would be
submerged under the water, if the dam would be constructed. Recently, the NBA included a focus
on the issue of rehabilitation of the poor people living around the area and this to be facilitated by
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 the government

The government and the authorities have their own interest in the project. This multi-core project
will generate considerable revenue for the government. The project is expected to produce 1450
mega watts of electricity as well as supply pure drinking water to millions of people.

The protests do not seem to have achieved much. The construction of the some of these dams
such as the Tawa Dam and the Bargi Dam are already complete.. Those protesting against further
construction say that these construction will adversely affect the lives of human as well as the
biodiversity as acres of agricultural as well as forests land will be taken away. Also it will displace
thousands of people from their livelihood. These activists have been demanding that the
government look at alternative means to meet the water and energy needs that are also
ecologically beneficial or at least, do not harm the ecology.

Led by Medha Parker, NBA has now been turned into international protest gaining support from
NGOs all around the globe. There is large scale protest in media , hunger strikes, mass protest
marches , rallies etc . The NBA movement has been pressurizing the World Bank to withdraw its
loan from the project. Famous celebrity like Amir Khan made open support to the cause of NBA.
The intensity of the movement has in fact thrown light on other similar issues as well.

In 1984, the supreme Court gave orders to stop the dam construction.

OR

NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN

NBA is a peoples movement forward from local peoples movements in Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Gujarat.

Though peaceful means, the NBA has brought much media attention to the plight of
the native people along the river. Medha Patkar is a prominent leader of the group.

Organization :-

In 1985, Medha Patkar and others formed the Narmada Ghati Dharangrast Samiti in
Maharashtra, working with some thirty-three tribal villages at risk from the Sardar
Sarovar dam.

They demanded proper rehabilitation and the right to be informed about which areas
were to be submerged.

There was also a Gandhian group called the Narmada Ghati Nav Nirman Samiti that
worked in the villages of the Nimad plains in Madhya Pradesh.

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 Issue:-

It involves construction of 30 large dams, 35 medium sized dams and 3000 small
dams.

It will submerge 900000 hectares of land, including 300000 hectares of forest land
and 200000 hectares of farm land.

Most of which are from Nimar an ancient and a very fertile agricultural belt in the
country

In addition to these about 140000 peasants, are likely to be affected by the

construction of canals etc., (the 75000 Km. long canal network alone will require
about 73000 hectares of land).

Several thousands of fishermen living downsteam will also be adversely affected

It will submerge 245 villages (19 in Gujarat, 33 in Maharashtra, and 193 in Madhya
Pradesh). It will result into displacement of over a lakh people, mostly tribals.

The overwhelming majority of them are tribal people

Most of them are dependent on primitive agriculture, gathering forest produce and
grazing livestock in the forests. The degree of commcialization is very minimal.
These people (mostly Bhils and Bhilalas) have waged an incessant struggle
throughout history to retain hold over these forests and hills. This struggle has
both shaped their identity and formed a strong attachment to their lands.

Perhaps none understand the land and the forests, its potentials and products and
methods of using them on a sustainable basis better than these people.

The dam first threatens to submerge the forests, i.e., the home of the adivasis and
when it reaches its full projected height will submerge the lands of the peasant villages
further upstream.

There have been suggestions for reducing the height of the dam so as to reduce the
submergence area.

But that might only save the peasant villages and whatever the height of the darn the
adivasi settlements will be submerged

Over a lakh of people, mostly tribals, being in the submergence area, were not
adequately and properly resettled and rehabilitated.

That environmental damages of constructing such huge dams would be huge

Baba Amte and the noted writer Arundhati Roy, among others, became involved and
associated with the NBA.
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 Tactics:-

The NBA organized mass public meetings, hunger strikes, rallies, and intellectual
debates and thereby created environmental public awareness against the project.
The matter was ultimately resolved by the intervention of the Supreme Court of
India.

Role of Media

The media has a tremendous influence in shaping public attitudes and beliefs, The media
in any democratic country play an important public service function by providing a platform
for advocacy and for awareness generation.

Issues such as the Narmada Bachao Andolan have remained in focus because the mass
media continue to cover them prominently.

Groups and their problems remain invisible beyond their immediate geographies unless
they are talked about in the media.

When the media take note, opinion makers take note, and they in turn influence
communities and policy makers and implementers. We need very strong advocacy effort
to influence people to make changes, and advocacy cannot work without the support of the
mass media.

Three basic problems have hampered advocacy efforts in this grea

General invisibility in the media

Reporting without real understanding of the issues

Stereotyping

To chronicle the history of the resistance movement against the dams through press
release, images, interviews, film, books, reports and other media By organizing art
performances such as skits, plays, and dance dramas

To record art including creative writing, poetry, painting and songs

Books on Narmada Straggle:-

In 1999, writer Arundhati Roy wrote a celebrated essay, Greater Common Good in which
she brilliantly vivisects the politics behind the Sardar Sarovar Project.

The essay resulted in a great deal of discussion in the media

3. Silent Valley Movement :
It is a social movement aimed at the protection of Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical forest in
Kerala. It was started in 1973 to save the Silent Valley Reserve forest from being flooded by a
hydroelectric project. The Valley was declared as Silent Valley national Park in 1985.

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 4. Project Tiger:

India contains 60% of the worlds tigers. The tiger population in India, at the turn of the century,
was estimated at 40,000. Subsequently, the first ever all India tiger census was conducted in 1972
which revealed the existence of only 1827 tigers. Various human activities in the last century had
led to the disturbance of wildlife habitats. Serious concern was voiced about the threat to several
species of wildlife and the shrinkage of habitats in the country. Till 1960 hunting and exporting of
tiger skin was legal. In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed and in 1972 the Wildlife
Protection Act came into force. A 'Task Force' was then set up to formulate a project for tiger
conservation with an ecological approach

The project was launched in 1973, and various tiger reserves were created in the country .
Management plans were drawn up for each tiger reserve, .. Initially 9 tiger reserves were created.
Now there are 27 reserves. The aim of the project is to stop poaching, to stop destruction of their
habitats, provide them adequate food, and not to use them for entertainment like circus.

Mangroves movement:

Mangroves are indispensable part of the ecological system. They act as a natural shield and
guard against natural calamities and disasters. They protect the coastline and prevent erosion.
The areas with mangrove was less damaged by the 2004 tsunami than areas without mangroves .

Mangroves are various types of plants and shrubs that grow in saline coastal areas of tropical and
sub-tropical regions. The specific regions where these plants occur are termed as mangrove
ecosystem. These are highly productive but highly sensitive and fragile plants. They are important
in maintaining the marine ecological balance. They also have tremendous economic value .

Mangrove forests are home to a large variety of commercially important fish, crab, shrimp and
mollusks . Mangrove forests have been commercially exploited for pulp, wood and the bark is
used in tanning industry, etc. .

Relentless clearing of mangrove has been going on to give way for industrialization.
Environmentalists maintain that the major threat to mangroves arise from indiscriminate tree felling
for food, fodder and timber and the thoughtless conversion of mangroves into aquacultural ponds
along the coast. The local fishermen already are resisting it as it threatens their traditional
livelihood. Mangrove destruction has reduced the fish catch since Mangrove cover is vital for fish
to lay eggs. Other negative factors threatening mangroves include collection of fruits and discharge
of industrial and domestic effluents. Mangroves are facing an overdose of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides .

Significantly, the violent tidal storms that affect the low lying areas of Bangladesh around
Chittagong, year after year, are traced to the unchecked and massive destruction of mangroves. .
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 In India 38 mangroves areas have been identified, of which Sunderbans in West Bengal are most
prominent . Over the last two centuries, the Sunderbans have been exploited to make room for
human settlement and expansion of farming activities. Between 1985-2000 India has lost about
half of its mangroves. In 1987, the national committee on mangrove and Coral Reef launched a
program of intensive conservation and management

CONCEPTS OF HUMAN RIGHTS & CIVIL LIBERTIES

1. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Human Rights :

Human Rights are generally defined as those rights which are inherent in our nature and without
which we cannot live as human beings. These are rights an individual possesses by virtue of being
a human being .

Human rights are derived from the principles of natural law and have been identified as those
rights that are important, moral and universal. Humans are born free and equal in dignity and right.

Human rights allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and
talent.
They also satisfy our spiritual and other needs
It respects and protects basic dignity and human worth
Respect for human rights is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.

These rights are also called Fundamental Rights when guaranteed by a written constitution.
Fundamental rights are legally enforceable. These rights are also called Basic rights or natural
rights.

In our constitution food, clothing, shelter, employment , health, education and right against
exploitation are not included as fundamental rights and some of these have been included in our
Directive Principles but are not enforceable.

Evolution of Human Rights:

One finds the roots of human rights in ancient times and scriptures eg., Veda, the 10
commandments, Teachings of Buddhism .

Human rights originated from the idea of mercy, kindness, fairness and humanity. The ancient
Greeks and Romans voiced human rights concerns through their natural law theory.- Equality
before law, equal respect for all, equal freedom of speech, the Right to vote , the right to justice,
etc. Magna Carta, issued in 1215 dealt with the rights of different sections of the society and
justice for all

Human rights came to focus with black slavery, American freedom Revolution, French Revolution.
The middle and late 19th century saw a number of issues like child labor, slavery, brutal working
conditions etc. At the end of the Second World war, the UN was formed to bring about world peace.
The UN attempted to make human rights universal . In 1945 the UN made a general declaration
that no one in the world can be discriminated against on the basis of race, religion, language or
sex.

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 UDHR ( Universal Declaration of human Rights)

On 10th December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights . The UN has since then committed itself to the promotion and protection of human rights.

The UDHR consists of a Preamble and 30 articles covering civil, political, economic, social and
cultural rights. Yet in itself the declaration has no legal force. It is a set of moral rules and has
found widespread acceptance .

Importance :

Human rights are universal - binding for all member nations

Serves as a common standard for all
Makes violation an international concern
Influenced constitution of many countries. Fundamental Rights in our constitution is
based on UDHR.

Classification

Human rights can be broadly classified into

1. The Right to Physical and Mental Integrity The right to life, liberty, security, freedom from
torture, cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery, forced labor, arbitrary arrest etc

2. Freedom of conscience and Action Freedom of opinion, religion, expression, Freedom of

information, freedom to form associations, trade unions, freedom of movement etc

3. Right to Legal justice Fair trial in courts, the Right to defend

4. Privacy and Family Rights
5. Political Rights The right to vote and stand in election
6. Economic and social rights- The right to work, adequate standard of living, social security,
the right to health services
7. Equality and non-discrimination

Right to Development , was adopted by the UN in 1986.

2. RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT

Development refers to the comprehensive social, economic, cultural and political process which
aims at the constant improvement of the well being of all the people on the basis of their active
participation

The right to Development is an inalienable human right by which every individual and all
people are entitled to participate in, contribute to , and enjoy social, economic, cultural and
political development in which all human rights and fundamental freedoms can be fully
satisfied.

The UN adopted the declaration on the right to Development in 1986. Every human being wants to
develop, improve their standard of living and enhance quality of life. However, it is seen that only a
section of society benefits from the development process and others remain deprived of the fruits
of development and often become victims of it. i.e development of some takes place at the cost of
others.

Now it is universally accepted that Right to Development is everybodys right. Weaker sections of
society like women, children and tribals have a higher claim over this right because their
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 development is yet to take place. Similarly certain regions within a country are under developed as
compared to other regions. .

Provision of the Declaration of the Right to Development

Right to Development is inalienable human right. Every one has a right to participate and
contribute to development and enjoy the benefits of development
States have the primary responsibility for the creation of national and international
conditions favourable for development States should formulate appropriate development
policies, undertake all measures and encourage all people to participate in all spheres of
development
States should eliminate all obstacles to development
Sustained action is required to promote rapid development
States should ensure that massive violations of human rights are eliminated resulting
from racial discrimination, apartheid, foreign domination etc.
Equal opportunity should be provided for all for development . Women should play an
active role in the development process. Ensure that equal opportunities are provided to all
sections of the community access to basic resources ( education, health services, food,
housing, employment and fair distribution of income)

The process of development should be transparent and accountable.

Rights to Development is often treated as a collective right. It is not logical to treat it as collective
right as every human is entitled to the Right to development . The human person is the active
participant and beneficiary of the development .

The Right to Development is generally accepted but not legally binding.

3. CEDAW Convention on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women

International instruments such as UDHR and ICCPR have all recognized the basic equality of men
and women. However there was a need for a specific instrument addressing the problems of
violation of Womens rights. The UN adapted the CEDAW to ensure protection of womens rights in
1979. It is a landmark agreement that affirms fundamental human rights and equality for women all
over the world.

It Consists of a preamble and 30 articles, and it defines what constitutes discrimination against
women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.

Discrimination is

Any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which affects the women
from exercising their human rights and fundamental freedom in any field

To achieve the goal of CEDAW , the state should

o Condemn discrimination against women

to take actions to end discrimination against women in all forms
to incorporate this principle of equality of men and women in their legal system,
modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which are discriminatory
against women.
Establish competent national tribunals and other public institutions to protect women.

to take appropriate measures against all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of

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 women.

In countries that have ratified CEDAW, women are working with their governments to improve the
status of women and girls, and as a result have changed laws and policies to create greater safety
and opportunity for women and their families. CEDAW can make a difference for women and girls,
specifically to:

Reduce sex trafficking & domestic violence

Provide access to education & vocational training

Ensure the right to vote

India and womens rights - CEDAW

The constitution of India provides the legal framework for protecting human rights of women. The
constitution guarantees Right to Equality, Right to freedom of speech, Right to exploitation , Right
to religion, property, Constitutional remedies etc. . India has several other specific laws to protect
the interests of women.

Factories Act regulates working conditions and working hours. . Rest room , crches for
children, separate toilets for women . Maximum Weights that can be carried by women etc
Contract Labor Act Separate provision of utilities for women and fixed working hours
Maternity benefit Act
Equal Remuneration Act prohibits wage discrimination
Domestic Violence Act
Dowry Prohibition Act
Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act
Sexual Harassment and Sexual harassment at the workplace
Hindu Succession Act - assures women of her share in property both as daughter and wife

The incorporation of CEDAW principles have been evident in the judgments by the Supreme Court.
Various Commissions have been set up for better protection of womens rights

4. Childrens Rights and CRC: ( Convention on the Rights of the Child)

The UN convention on the Rights of Child affirms that Children are born with fundamental
freedoms and the inherent rights of all human beings.

CRC is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human
rightscivil, cultural, economic, political and social rights for the child. . In 1989, world leaders
decided that children needed a special convention just for them because people under 18 years
old often need special care and protection that adults do not. The leaders also wanted to make
sure that the world recognized that children have human rights too. The whole hearted support of
the world community to the UNs efforts in promoting and protecting rights of the child received
tremendous support of the world community.

A child means anyone below the age of 18 years. The Convention sets out these rights in 54
articles and two Optional Protocols. It spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere
have: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to protection from harmful influences, abuse
and exploitation; and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life. The convention provides
for

Protection against all forms of discrimination

devotion to the best interests of the child;
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 right to preserve his identity including nationality, name and family relations
the right to life, survival and development; and
respect for the views of the child.
Right to freedom of expression, thought and religion
Access to information
Neither capital punishment nor life imprisonment may be imposed on a child

By agreeing to the Convention, national governments have committed themselves to protecting

and ensuring children's rights and are obliged to take all actions in the light of the best interests of
the child.

India Human Rights of Child - Child Labor

UN Convention on the rights of the child proclaimed that childhood is entitled to special care and
assistance and the child should grow up in family environment for the development of his or her
personality.

However child Labor is a big issue. It is a complex issue and multi-dimensional problem,. It is a
social evil and the violation of human rights and should be universally abolished. In India the
constitution prohibits the employment of children in factories . No child below 14 should be
employed in any factory or mine or hazardous work. The law provides for free and compulsory
education for children,. Child labor is prohibited in any sphere of activity .

However violations continue as children are employed for long working hours in factories, hotels,
and households and even in hazardous industries. The Child Labor (Prohibition and Regulation)
act was therefore adopted and yet there are millions of child labor in India. UNESCO reported that
20% of Indian GNP is contributed by child labor.

In addition to child labor there are several other issues related to child abuse, neglect, malnutrition,
child kidnap, lack of education, growing number of street children, children crime etc

India has yet to fully implement US convention on child right. What is needed is a Code of Child
Right and political leadership and commitment to protect childrens rights.

HUMAN CONCERNS & LEGISLATIVE MEASURES IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

1. Health

The National Health Policy was endorsed by the Parliament of India in 1983 and updated in 2002.
The National Health policy was to provide health for all by the year 2001 AD. However the
management of health program has posed a serious threat and unless health management is
given priority that it deserves, health plans will not yield the desired results.

The health profile of India is quite depressing

Communicable and Infectious diseases are in the rise,

Malnutrition continues to be exceptionally high

Chronic illnesses disable people during their economically productive period of their lives

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 waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid and hepatitis affect millions killing at least one
million every year

No. of leprosy cases are increasing,

Blindness, leprosy and TB continue to be on the rise.

Mortality rate of women and children are still high 1/3rd of the total deaths is among
children below 5

Only 31% of rural population has access to potable water supply and 0.5 % enjoy basic
sanitation

Reasons

High rate of population growth has an adverse effect on the health of the people and the
quality of their lives

Health development policies aimed at curing ailment rather than preventive approach has
enhanced dependency instead of creating awareness and building up self reliance

Various health programs have failed to involve individuals and families in establishing a self
reliant community . Ultimate goal of achieving a satisfactory health status for all people
cannot be achieved without their involvement in identifying their health needs and
priorities as well as in implementation of the programs

Other problems are

The government sector is understaffed and underfinanced, resulting in poor services at

government hospitals

80% of our doctors work in urban areas whereas 80% of our population live in rural areas.

There is a huge gap between the need and the availability of no. of hospital beds per 1000
population. World average is 3.96 hospital beds per 1000 population but India has just a
little over 0.7 hospital beds per 1000 population. Moreover, India faces a shortage of
doctors, nurses and paramedics that are needed to serve the growing healthcare industry.

Need for a Revised health policy

To achieve health for all , we need a revised health policy which should take into account the
following strategies

1. Population stabilization no progress in healthcare is possible unless there is awareness

and voluntary efforts in controlling population . A national population policy is required for
population stabilization

2. Medical and health education The medical and health education, should be reviewed in
terms of national needs and priorities and the curriculum and training programmes

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 restructured to produce professionally trained personnel .

3. A rural health care system based on a combination of preventive, promotive and curative
health care services should be started right from the village.

4. Infra structure for rural health care should consist of primary health centres and sub
centres. Facilities for treatment in basic specialities should be available at all centres

5. Adequate medical, paramedical manpower should be made available and trained for
meeting the requirements of each program

International community has committed to health for all . Except for USA, Canada and Western
Europe, the world is still trapped in ill health , poverty , malnutrition and diseases . Unicef, WHO
and FAO are actively involved in education for rural and urban poor about health issues and
nutrition .

Although there are efforts to improve the national health many more economic and social support
measures a have to be taken. Financial allocation have to be increased. Many agencies,
voluntary and non-governmental and private organizations have to be involved if we have to make
the dream of Health for all come true.

2. Children -

Children are the future of any country. They bring development and prosperity. But they are also
the most vulnerable part of the society and can be easily targeted. In India there are a number of
laws related to children in order to protect them and to give them a better and sound development.

The Constitution provides the children

Equality before law

Free compulsory education for children in the age group 6-14
Total ban on Forced labor
prohibits employment of children in hazardous factories below the age of 14yrs.; e.g.: mine,
match industries etc.

There are several other Acts in order to protect children rights: eg The Factories Act, 1948.The
Child Labour Act, 1986. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1986. The Juvenile Justice Act, 2000,
(Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 2002 and many others.

The Issues:

About 36 % of the population of India is under the age of 14. The Factory Act was passed to
regulate the use of children and fixing their hours of work. The child labor (Prohibition and
Regulation ) Act was enacted to prohibit employment of children below 14 and in some jobs and
hazardous factories.

In spite of various regulations, Millions of these children are employed in carpet industry, glass
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 factory, Zari industry , lock industries , brass industries and fireworks factories . Children are
employed for long working hours in factories, hotels, and households . Children are being forced in
many labour works, domestic works, bonded labour, rag picking, forced to work in roadside
eateries, prostitution, in factories etc.

In addition to child labor, there are also issues of child trafficking, sexual exploitation and many
other forms of violence and abuse. Act of neglect, mal treatment of children , physical violence are
all too common. There is a growing number of street children who are more vulnerable to abuse
and crime. Girl child suffers more from discrimination infantile foeticide, rape, dowry and in some
cases even sati.

The reason for above state of affairs is Poverty, ignorance of parents, discrimination of gender
and , children are easily targeted only for the reason that they cannot raise their voice as adults

Government initiative

The government of India has set up the Department of Women and Children Development under
the Ministry of HRD with the following objectives

To improve the nutritional and health status of children below

To lay the foundation for the proper psychological, physical and social development of the
child
To reduce mortality, morbidity , malnutrition and school dropouts
To achieve effective coordination of policy and implementation among various departments
to promote child development.

The government is taking up several other measures like the National Policy for Children. The
government has a special cell to help children in exploitive circumstances. These cells comprise of
social inspectors, as well as other administrative personnel, employed specifically to deal with child
labour issues.
Child labour in domestic work has been strictly banned by the Government, because of the
increased cases of child abuse and sexual abuse of children especially girl child. To stop child
labour is not only governments but each individuals social responsibility, as children are assets of
a nation.
Balika Samridhi Yojana is set up specially for encouraging enrolling and retention of girl child in
school

UNICEF Programs are being implemented in India to

Educate and Empower families with knowledge and skill to care and protect children

Reduction of infant mortality

Improvement in children nutrition

Ensuring universal elementary education

What is required is a proper Code of Child Rights in India . along with various laws, it is also our

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 social responsibility to take care of the children & to protect their rights.

3. Women & Law

The social status of women in India is considerably low and miserable as they continue to be the
victims of a number of social evils and different forms of discrimination . Some of the problems
faced by women are

Low participation of women in active politics and employment

Mass illiteracy and traditional outlook
Sexual harassment at workplace
Domestic violence
Bride burning and dowry deaths
Rape and women trafficking
Inequality in wages

To protect women against any forms of discrimination we have constitutional rights eg

Right to Equality Equality before law , equal protection to both men and women,
no discrimination on grounds of sex, no discrimination in public employment on grounds of
gender, equal pay for equal work
Right against exploitation etc

India has several other specific laws to protect the interests of women eg

Factories Act
Hindu Succession Act
Widow Remarriage Act etc.
Domestic Violence Act etc
Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act
Indecent Representation of Women (Prevention) Act
Dowry prohibition Act
Sati Act etc.

Unfortunately all the above laws have improved the status of women only marginally. Dowry
deaths, domestic violence and sexual harassment at workplace are still on the increase.

Women have been exploited, tortured and humiliated in India from ancient times and the crime
continues even today. Violence in women can be criminal violence ( rape, kidnap, murder) ,
domestic Violence ( physical and mental torture, sexual abuse, ill treatment of widows, elderly)
and social violence ( forced female foeticide, eve teasing, sexual harassment at work place, dowry
deaths etc)

Women in urban areas enjoy better status in society than women in rural areas. They are better
educated and are more aware of their rights and privileges. Many of them are also working women.
However at the workplace, the women are still discriminated . They get lower pay than men, and
are offered a limited range of employment like teaching, nursing, clerical jobs, telephone operators,
etc . There are several cases of sexual harassment at workplace. After marriage , they save to
sacrifice their jobs . In India women are still dependent on men even though their status has
improved since independence ..

Government of India has been making efforts to improve the condition of women . In 1985, the
Department of Women and Child Development was created for the welfare of women. In 1992, the

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 National Commission for women was established to promote and guarantee womens rights. In
addition to this several organizations have been set up specially for the social & economic
upliftment and self employment of women - A number of programs are conducted by these
organizations -

to provide training and employment to women

to form self help groups
for rural womens development and empowerment
Working womens hostels

Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a common occurrence in both rural and urban areas. 22-60% of women
surveyed suffered physical violence.. Domestic violence is recognized by law as a criminal
offence . 4 types of cruelty are dealt with by this law

Any conduct that drives a woman to suicide

Conduct that causes grave injury to life or health
Harassment for property from woman or her relatives
Harassment because the woman or relatives are unable to fulfil demand for money or property

The punishment is imprisonment upto 3 years and a fine

Womens organizations have helped in creating awareness about domestic violence and have
urged changes in the perception of police and the criminal procedure.

Domestic violence takes different forms physical abuse, sexual abuse, financial and
psychological abuse, mental and physical torture etc. Female foeticide, dowry harassment , ill
treatment , are also various forms of domestic violence. The lack of awareness among women
about their rights, non availability of professional help, illiteracy, dependence on male, traditional
upbringing are some of the reasons for increase in domestic violence

Domestic violence Act 2005

Domestic Violence Act 2005 is the first significant attempt in India to recognise domestic violence
as a punishable crime. This act is a follow up of CEDAW UN Convention on elimination of all
forms of Discrimination against women.

This is the first law in India specifically addressing domestic violence - targeting husbands, live-in
partners and family members who abuse or threaten women verbally, physically, sexually,
emotionally and economically including dowry harassment.

The most important features of this Act are the womens right to reside in the matrimonial and
shared household, appointment of protection officers and counselors for the affected women. The
Bill came under criticism , mainly from men who argued that it can be manipulated as it provides
wide-ranging power to women and the bill was passed after a lot of struggle.

However implementation of the law has lot of issues. Most state governments have yet to appoint
protection officers, overburdened judiciary, indifferent attitudes of police, inability of women to
speak out as they still depend on their husbands etc.

In order to implement the law, NGOs and activists will have to work closely with the judges.
Women are also slowly becoming aware and stepping out slowly for building their independent
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 career and raising their voice for equality and against discrimination. Today there are women who
are flying aircrafts, running autos or buses and trains. More and more women are seen in offices
in senior positions. In many fields women are successful and establishing their equal rights ,
earning their due respect in society. What is required is mass awareness about the legal rights of
women and empowerment.

The government has to play a crucial role in ensuring that women enjoy the fruits of development
in equal measure as men. In this context, the Womens Reservation Bill ensuring 33% reservation
to women in Parliament and State legislatures( which was passed by the Rajya Sabha) is a
welcome step towards women empowerment .

WOMENS MOVEMENT

Issues:- Atrocities against women in the forms of

Violence against women:-

Domestic Violence

Dowry Harassment & murder

Widowhood

Sati

Child Marriage

Physical Torture and Mental Torture

Criminal Violence

Rape

Abduction

Prostitution

Social Violence

Female Infanticide

Eve Teasing

Burning of witches

Other Issues:-

Alcoholism and wife beating

Problems of working women Sexual harassment, improper wages, long-hours of

work

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 Oppression and exploitation of Dalit and minority women

Communalism

Obscene posters

Problems of maid-servants

System of temple prostitution

Deforestations

Harassment of women under trials and prisoners

Health issues of women suffer from ill health and mal-nutrition

Cultural oppression of women tribal and problems of women in slums

Right to decision making:-

Women has no choice in relation to important events in her life such as marriage,
parenthood, family planning, participation in community activities and divorce

Right to knowledge:-

Women are generally ignorant about functioning of their bodies especially, the
reproductive system.

Lack of sex education and the consequent faulty attitude towards sex

Sexuality increases morbidity rate in women

Awareness of legal rights:-

Dowry Prohibition Act 1961

Hindu Marriage Act of 1955

Suppression of immoral traffic act (SITA)

Uniform civil court

Minimum wages act

Equal remuneration act

Insurance state insurance act

Right for the adoption

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 Property inheritance act

Medical termination of pregnancy act

Political rights

30% reservation

Women has also entered into the political aspects as voters, legislators and leaders

Other rights

Right to survival Female Feticide & Female Infanticide

Right to education

Right to liberty and security of the person

Exploitation at the work place

Selection of a career

Choice of a partner in marriage

Problem of dowry - Violence due to dowry

Current situation as regards dowry

Patterns of Mobilizations:- To mobilize public opinion for womens rights and against
innumerable forms of womens oppression, they issue

Leaflets

Pamphlets,

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 Collect signatures in support of their demands

Write articles in various journals and newspapers

Try to get media coverage,

Organize protest rallies

Sit-ins and demonstrations

Role of Media :- The women group have discovered narrating and acting the violence in
the form of

story form,

Reciting poetry

Involving songs

Slide shows

In the context of rising religious chauvinism

Exhibitions

Documentary films and Dramas on selective abortion of female fetuses, bride

burning, sexual assault, sati and coercion in family planning programs have
sensitized large sections of society

Several campaigns were launched against the degrading portrayal of women in

films and against newspapers for reports on victims of violence which concentrated
on their looks, dress on nature

Dialogues with media persons through letters to the editors of national newspapers,
through lectures initiated by the mass communication institutes and through panel
discussions have helped to create an atmosphere of trust and many suggestions of
the womens movement have been incorporated in the unwritten code of conduct of
the communication media

Street-corner meetings

Street plays

Skits and songs

Poster exhibitions and tours

Started non-commercial journals

Magazines and news letters in various regional languages like

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 Gujarati, Marati, Kannada, Bengali, Hindi etc.,

To focus on specific problems of women, they have evolved special interest groups
working in the field of

health, media, law, violence against women, women squatters etc.,

4. Gay Rights Movement - India

India is a very traditional country and the law also remains very traditional especially in the area of
human relationships. Our society legally recognizes only one form of sexual relationship that which
helps in procreation.

Homosexuality is generally considered a taboo subject by both Indian civil society and the
government. Public discussion of homosexuality in India has been inhibited by the fact that
sexuality in any form is rarely discussed openly. Homosexuality has been treated by Indian society
as a sin, against law, sexual perversion , a mental imbalance which needs to be treated , a
disease and a crime to be punished. People deny homosexuality exists in India and label
homosexuality as an upper class western phenomenon.

The laws regarding homosexuality around the world are different in different countries . In some
countries like Bangladesh, Singapore ,Malaysia etc it is strictly forbidden, punishable upto 10-14
years imprisonment. Others like South Africa, Australia, Greece etc permit even gay marriages.
However homosexual rights in even progressive countries are not fully equal.

In India, Section 377 of the Indian penal Code makes all kinds of unnatural sex, including
homosexuality a punishable crime. While the Indian constitution prohibits discrimination on
grounds of sex, race, caste and creed it does not take into account sexual orientation.

Since homosexuality is a crime under section 377, organisations of homosexuals are not permitted
as legal bodies. Homosexual couples are not recognised in India. Tolerance towards homosexuals
is also very limited . It is more tolerated in cities than in small towns.

In recent years, however, attitudes towards homosexuality have shifted slightly. In particular, there
have been more depictions and discussions of homosexuality in the Indian news media and by
Bollywood.

Many gay activists and supporters have been working for the rights of the homosexuals. Several
organisations like the Naz Foundation (India) Trust, the National AIDS Control Organisation, Law
Commission of India, Union Health Ministry, National Human Rights Commission have supported
decriminalising homosexuality in India, and promoted tolerance and social equality for
homosexuals.

On 2 July 2009, the Delhi High Court decriminalised homosexual behavior between consenting
2
 adults, throughout India i.e homosexual act is not a crime and not punishable under law.. There
were however a lot of opposition specially from religious groups. Their argument is , it is against
Indian culture.

With this court ruling, Gays can now lead a life like normal human beings and not as criminals.
They can hope to get legal equality. This is a sort of victory for the gay rights. However it is to be
recognised that Indian society is still at large anti gay and same sex marriage may not get social
or legal approval. The most important task is to educate the public and raise awareness about the
sexual minorities and their rights.

5.. Education & India

Right to Education has received considerable focus during the last decade. Many groups and
agencies made determined efforts to ensure that all children in India receive at least the minimum
of education irrespective of their socio-economic status and their ability to pay for education.
Education is an essential human right and achieving this for all children is one of the biggest moral
challenges of our times. The right to education is included in the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, and the Convention on the rights of children.

The National policy on education was a significant step in the history of education but has not
achieved much due to lack of strategy for implementation

Problems

Despite various government efforts, one thirds of the population till remains illiterate
Of the nearly 200 million children in the age group between 6 and 14 years, more than half do
not complete eight years of elementary education; they either never enroll or they drop out of
schools.
Percentage of children enrolling in secondary schools in the age group 14-17 is much less
when compared to developed countries and other developing countries ,
In higher education less than 10% are enrolled.
Gender and spatial disparities are high.
Rural populations are at a higher disadvantage & schooling among women are less than that of
women in all states
Lack of facilities, proximity to schools discourage children from joining schools
Poor quality of education and teachers
The Revised policy on education (1992) suggested provisions of adequate classrooms and
teachers . But still many schools are being run in the open, in tents and kutcha buildings.

Efforts are on to improve school environment and facilities. The Education guarantee scheme
(2000) is viewed as an effective way to improve enrolment. National policies lay stress on
eradicating illiteracy altogether and to provide universal elementary education to all in the shortest
possible time.
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 India has made a concrete effort to address the issue of education by amending its Constitution to
make quality elementary education the right of every child. Elementary education has been made a
fundamental right . With the amendment to the constitution, elementary education is made free
and compulsory for all the countrys children.

Right to Education Act 2010

The Right of children to Free and Compulsory Education Act come into force from April 1, 2010.
Some of the features of this Act are

Every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years of elementary education in
an appropriate classroom in the vicinity of his/her neighbourhood.
The state has the responsibility of enrolling the child as well as ensuring attendance and
completion of 8 years of schooling
. No child shall be denied admission for want of documents;
no child shall be turned away if the admission cycle in the school is over and no child shall be
asked to take an admission test.
Children with disabilities will also be educated in the mainstream schools
All private schools shall be required to enroll children from weaker sections and disadvantaged
communities to the extent of 25% of their enrolment, by simple random selection. No seats in
this quota can be left vacant.

While this Act is a welcome development , it should be noted that this act covers only upto age 14.
As a signatory to the United Nations Child Rights Convention, India has accepted the international
definition of a child as someone under the age of 18 years. The Act therefore does not cover the
rights of 0-6 and 14-18 age group.

Also it can be argued that since the right to education in the Indian Constitution is limited to
elementary education, there is a need for a regular review of our policy and make changes to
promote access to higher education and early childhood care and education. While primary
education should be compulsory and free, secondary and higher education should also be equally
accessible

IV. POLITICAL RIGHTS

1.RULE OF LAW & POLICE REFORMS

The rule of law means no person is above law. The rule of law has been considered as one of
the key dimensions that determine the quality and good governance of a country.

The principle behind the Rule of Law is- Law should be equally enforced and should be consistent
with international human rights norms and standards. It also implies supremacy of law, an
independent impartial judiciary , the right to fair trial without delay, rational approach to punishment
and legal transparency.

Accordingly, arbitrary arrests; secret trials; indefinite detention without trial; cruel or degrading
treatment or punishment; corruption in the electoral process, are all unacceptable.
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 The Rule of Law is the foundation of a civilised society. However in reality, Rule of Law is
weakened - Police atrocities, custodial deaths, discrimination, harassment and , delays in justice
are common features of our society.

Reasons : .

Corruption and interference of politicians in the smooth working of the police force.
Nexus between police & criminals and the judiciary & politicians . Some are connected with
antisocial elements, .
They abuse their power and authority

Police is ineffective & inefficient and there is no accountability

Outdated police Act and Police system

o Common police for all investigations crime, riot, protection ,security, intelligence etc

o Outdated technology & weapons procedure , inadequate resources

Police reforms :

Several committees and commissions have put forth their recommendations for reforms but these
have been pending for a long time. Laws relating to investigations and trial of criminals are
governed by 3 laws framed in the late nineteenth century

o The Indian Penal Code

o The Criminal procedure Act
o The Evidence Act

The need for reform has long been recognized . The lack of political will remains the greatest
obstacle to police reform. it suits the politicians to have subordinate police to become partners
in their corrupt dealings .

The Supreme court has issued several directives to reform the existing police system. The
supreme Court recommended that the Chiefs of Police be selected through a transparent process
and they should be in office only for a fixed duration . This is necessary for accountability and
independent functioning . The police must be responsible for not only the service they provide, but
also must be answerable for each and every action of theirs and also for the money that they
spend. Misconduct of police staff should be severely dealt.

Reforms must be addressed by well thought out laws . A good model for Police Reforms would be
the Model Police Act drafted by Sorabjee Committee.

Some of the recommendations for Police reforms made by the committee include,

State Police Complaint Authority to look after the complaints of misconduct against the
Police officers of the rank of SP and above.

criminal penalties for some of the common neglects like non-registration of FIR, unlawful
arrest and detentions.

National Security Commission headed by the union home minister for the selection and
placement of chiefs of central police organizations.. In states the State Security
Commission would act as a watchdog and be headed by the Chief minister.

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 Fixed tenure for senior officers so that they are free of "political transfers".

Separation of investigation and law and order duties. This, if implemented, will definitely
help improve the quality of investigation and hence the conviction rate.

The recommendations made by Soli Sorabjee committee have a far reaching implications and it is
only hoped that these are implemented at the earliest and in letter and spirit.

2. CORRUPTION & POLITICIZATION OF CRIME

It has been an accepted fact that corruption is universal. Corruption in India is a phenomenon that
one can face practically at every level and in every walk of life.- Government departments, police,
municipal authorities, or educational institutions like schools or colleges. Today bribing is a way of
life- even to get legitimate things done from public servants.

Corruption is defined as the use of public office for private gain, or in other words, use of official
position, rank or status for own personal benefit.

Bribery, Extortion, Fraud, Favoritism to friends, relatives, using influence , using public property for
private use are all corrupt behavior. Fraud and embezzlement can be done by an official alone but
others such as bribery, extortion and influence peddling involve two parties the giver and taker in
a corrupt deal.

Corruption takes place at all levels: At high level and at the top - leading politicians who are well
off, have lots of privileges, yet become corrupt due to greed for wealth and power to retain
their positions whereas at Low levels corruption ( eg money paid for traffic violations ) is due to
low income levels.

Corruption has led to deteriorating Law and order situation in the country. Democratic principles
have been discarded. Today the number of politicians with clean image can be counted on fingers.

1. The following cases highlight how corrupt politicians misuse their power and position and
interfere with the judicial system.

46 cases were registered against Jayalalitha, Before becoming CM, her assets were only 6
crores, which grew to 67 crores after she became CM. Attempt was made to move Supreme
Court to withdraw all pending cases against her. In spite of all the cases she was once again
elected to power.
Refusal of permission to the CBI to prosecute Balram Yadav, former SP Health minister in the
Ayurveda Scam

2, Equally dangerous is the rapid rise in influence and authority of regional political leaders in
national affairs. eg

The riots after Babri Masjid demolition- Muslim groups protesting violently against the
demolition and Shiv Sena s planned attack on Muslims. The Maharashtra government and the
police did very little to stop the riots

3. A no. of cases have come to light where financial irregularities have been found in government
transactions

In purchase of weapons during the Kargil war and contract for coffins. The total loss to the
government was about 20000 million
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 950 crore fodder scam in Bihar, shows the nexus between corrupt officials , politicians and
mafia.
The case of Telgi Fake stamp paper Despite knowing the scam, the crime branch did not do
much to stop . Only when Telgi was arrested by Karnataka Police, the scam came to light
Commonwealth Games Scandal- India was shamed by Corruption involved in construction
of the Games infrastructure, & Management of the games. A number of corruption charges
have been levelled against Suresh Kalmadi, a politician and President of Indian Olympic
Association
Adarsh Society Scam - Flats meant for the wives of the martyrs in Kargil War, were grabbed by
Ministers, powerful politicians and some big Army officers. Ashok Chavan had to resign as the
Chief Minister of Maharashtra
2G Spectrum case - Several Irregularities were found in allocation of 2G Telecom Spectrum. It
cost about Rs. 1,90,000 crores to the government. The man behind the scam, Telecom
Minister of India, A. Raja, had to resign

4. Along with corruption, Criminalization of Indian politics is a major threat to democracy. People
with criminal records manage to become MPs and MLAs . Nearly 1/4th of Indian Parliament
members face criminal charges, "including human trafficking, immigration rackets, embezzlement,
rape and even murder". At state level , specially Bihar and UP it is worse. eg

Shibu Soren , Papu Kalani, Mohammad Shahabuddin all involved in murder cases and
facing trials are elected as MP
Senior Haryana IPS officer R K Sharma, ordered elimination of Indian Express journalist
Shivani Bhatnagar when he felt her blackmailing can cost him his job.
The trial of Nitish Katara murder case and Jessica Lal murder cases showed how money,
power and politics were used to tamper with evidence & cover up the crime
Satyendra Dubey , an engineer, working for government of India was murdered when he tried
to expose the corruption within the National Highway Authoritys Road project in Bihar.

5. Our Police have become more and more corrupt and inefficient . They commit atrocities, and
violate human rights. Their nexus with the politicians is all the more serious. Politicians want
subordinate inefficient police so that they can become their partners in crime. Eg

Various communal riots across India has shown how political interference in the functioning of
the police can lead to loss of life and property but how police misconduct goes unpunished
The involvement of Gujarat police in 2002 Godhra riots is well known. The police refused to
register complaints, conducted shoddy investigations and fudged evidences. Those officers
who tried to stop the attack on minorities were transferred . One police superintendent who
stopped an attack on school , rescued 400 students and registered criminal cases against the
attackers was transferred while the Police Commissioner who supported the riots was
promoted.
How the Bhagalpur police gauged out the eyes of 31 under trials in 1980 haunt the crime scene
in Bihar
Police nexus with the underworld , and drug smugglers

The net effect of politicization of crime is

An ineffective state
Failure of police in enforcing law and order
Increase in crime rate
Countrys progress gets hindered

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 The above are the big names . But we all know that many police take bribes, as do telephone
linesmen, various officials in municipal corporation and in income tax departments. People in
general have become disgusted with the decline in law . But the crime is growing because people
are not raising their voice and even tolerating corruption. The laws have many loopholes and
procedures for investigation are complicated. What we need is honest politicians, and reforms in
our judicial and police system and general public awareness .

CORRUPTION

Definition :-

Corruption in simple terms may be described as an act of Bribery.

It has also been described as the use of public power for private profits in a way that
constitutes a breach of law or a deviation from the norms of society.

Corruption is spread over in the society in several forms. Of these, the major ones are :

Bribe ( money offered in cash or kind or gift as inducement to procure illegal or

dishonest action in favour of the giver )

Nepotism ( undue favour from holder of patronage to relatives )

Misappropriation (Using others money for ones own use )

Patronage ( Wrong support / encouragement given by patron and thus misusing the
position )

Favouritism ( Unduly preferring one to other )

Corruption can be among public servants. For example:-

Sanctioning of contracts

Passing bills

Issuing of cheques etc.,

The 4 major ministries in union government. They are:-

Defence

Petroleum

Power and Communication which are regarded as gold mine for making money

The other departments are :-

Public work

Police

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 Excise

Revenue

Causes of Corruption can be categorized as :-

Economic

Social

Political

Legislative

Judicial

Causes of Corruption :-

Emergence of political elite who believe in interest oriented rather than nation
oriented programs and policies

Economic policy of the government

Corruption is caused by scarcity

Corruption is caused as well as increased because of the change in value system

and ethical qualities of men who administer.

Corruption can be traced to ineffective administrative organization. Lack of

vigilance, enormous powers to the ministerial staff, unaccountability, defective
information system etc., give scope to officials not only to be corrupt but remain
unaffected even after following corrupt practices

THE BOFORS PAYOFF SCANDAL in 1986 involved a total amount of Rs.1750

crore in the purchase of guns from the Swedish firm for the military. It was said that
a sum of Rs.64 crore has been paid as kickbacks.

THE CEMENT SCANDAL of 1982 involved the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, who was
accused of allocating scarce cement for donations worth five crore rupees to one of his
charitable trusts.

THE PLOT SCANDAL in 1988-89 involved another Chief Minister of Maharashtra, who later
became the Defence Minister at Centre, in which he offered plots to builders for
consideration of money worth hundreds of crores of rupees

THE BROWN BEVERI LOCOMOTIVE DEAL SCANDAL involved in the Central Railway
Minister who was accused of having acquired vast properties in Karnataka without his
every trying to reveal how he acquired the resources

THE SECURITIES SCANDAL in Maharashtra involved the share brokers, directors and
managers of several reputed banks

THE PAY OFF SCANDAL in 1993 involved the then Prime Minister who was charged for
having received a bag containing Rs.1.00 crore from one share broker

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 THE SUGAR SCANDAL in 1994 involved a Union Minister of State for Food, who earlier
was also involved in molasses decontrol scandal.

THE TREASURY FRAUD SCANDAL involving Rs.200 crore was unearthed in Assam in
June, 1995.

THE HAWALA SCANDAL of 1991 not only rocked the political circles but in fact the whole
society

THE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SCAM took place in Bihar in which a large number of public
officials of Animal Husbandry Department are accused of purchasing fodder beyond the
sanctioned amount and of illegally withdrawing about Rs.950 crore from the government
treasuries between 1990 and 1995.

THE UREA SCAM is a scandal which is different from other scandals not because of the
size of the kickback (Rs.133 crore) but because of the transaction was essentially
fraudulent

In the TELECOMMUNICATIONS DEPARTMENT SCAM, the former telecommunications

Minister and his bureaucrats involvement came to light in July, 96.

JMM SCANDAL is a bribery scan involving four MPs of Jharkand Mukti Morcha (JMM) party
and three MPs of Janata Dal for receiving Rs.40 lakh early in July, 93 for exercising their
vote to defeat the no-confidence motion in the parliament against Narasimha Raos
ministry.

THE INDIAN BANK SCAM involves financial irregularities by the Bank between 1991 and
1995 resulting in a loss of Rs.2,358 crore to the public sector bank

A MAJOR MINING SCANDAL (July 2005) in Rajasthans Jodhpur and Jaisalmer districts
has been exposed in the past few months. Several cases have come to light of upper
caste influential people fraudulently getting quarry licences issued or renewed in the names
of individuals belonging to the scheduled casts (SCs) and scheduled tribes (STs) and other
backward casts (OBCs). Many actual leaseholders are completely ignorant that they are
official owners of quarries, and continue living in penury. Some know about it but can do
little to change the situation.

Corruption is antinational, anti-economic development and anti-poor.

Corruption is also anti-economic development

Corruption is anti-national as was revealed by the fact that the terrorists in Kashmir were
getting funds funds through Hawala route

The corruption can be tackled by adopting following strategies :-

Simplification of rules and procedures so that the scope of corruption is reduced

Transparency and empowerment of public i.e Right to information act by using information
technology

Checking corruption is prompt punishment

CRIME

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 Crime refers to those activities that break the law of the land and are subject to official
punishment.

Delinquency refers to acts that are criminal or are considered anti-social, which are
committed by young people

Types of Crime :-

White Collar Crime

The term covers many types of criminal activity, including tax frauds, embezzlement,
the manufacture or sale of dangerous products as well as straight forward theft.

White collar crime mainly involves the use of a middle class or professional position
to engage in illegal activities.

Crimes of the powerful are those in which the authority conferred by a position is used in
criminal ways as when an official accepts a bribe to favour a particular policy

Corporate Crime

These are the offences which are committed by large corporations in society.

Pollution, mis-labelling and violations of health and safety regulations affect much
larger numbers of people than does small criminality

Laureen Snider argues that many of the most serious antisocial and predatory acts
committed in modern industrial societies are corporate crimes

Garry Slapper and Steve Tombs have conducted studies and revealed six types of
violations linked to large corporations :-

Administrative

Environmental (Pollution)

Financial (Tax violations)

Labour (Working conditions)

Manufacturing (product safety, labelling)

Government Crime

Victimless Crime

By contrast Victimless crimes the term is used by sociologists to describe

the willing exchange among adults of widely desired but illegal goods and
services.

Organized Crime

Organized crime is the work of a group that regulate relations between

various criminal enterprises involved in smuggling and sale of drugs,

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 prostitution and gambling and other activities

Professional Crime

Cyber Crimes

POLITICAL APATHY

In India, political participation is characterized by political apathy.

Political apathy reflects the vanishing point of political participation

Some people develop no interest in political activity and become apathetic. Decline in
electoral turnout, party membership and civic activism are signs or manifestations of
political apathy

People take democracy for granted. In the words of Pericles, a Greek statesman, we
consider a man who takes no interest in the state, not as harmless but as useless; and
although only a few men originate a policy, we are all able to judge it.

In a democracy, one comes across two types of apathetic:

Deliberate

Non-Deliberate

There are those who fail to participate because of

Lack of information

Lack of opportunity

Incapacity

fear

These non-deliberate causes is seen more amongst the uneducated, poor, helpless and
weaker sections of society

The other type of political apathy is deliberate due to

Lack of interest

Indifference

Political involvement perceived to be less rewarding than other kinds of human

activity

Lack of political efficacy capacity to influence outcome

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 Satisfaction with the current political system

Total frustration with the system

Ideological stereotype eg. Naxalites

Cynicism Rich and Intellectuals

CRIMINALISATION OF POLITICS IN INDIA

Meaning:-

The word criminal means a person, who has committed a crime, or, an act relating
to, or, involving a crime.

Criminalization of politics, therefore, means two things :-

Entry of criminals, or, anti-social elements, into legislative assemblies

through elections by anti-democratic means and consequent, frequent
breakdown of law and order within the country ; and

Commission of criminal acts, or, practices in public offices for personal and /
or private gains

Entry of Criminals or Anti-social elements in legislative assemblies in India:-

Increasing criminalization of Politics and Breakdown of Law and Order

Role of money power and muscle power in representative bodies

Some politicians are seen as Rogues and Scoundrels

Why criminals and criminal elements enter into Politics?

Weak police force and inefficient legal system

Lots of money with dons

Remedies to cure maladies

Public funding for election

Casting of votes by middle class and upper class voters

Blanket ban on defections

Day-to-Day hearing of criminal cases against legislators

3. ACCOUNTABILITY ( Corporate Accountability) Bhopal Tragedy

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 Accountability means being answerable and responsible to someone or to some event. It means
giving an explanation for what you have done . Corporate accountability is the set of principles to
ensure that corporates protect human rights, and promote clean and sustainable development .

These principles include responsibility for damages arising from their activities both to human
beings and the environment, Protection of human rights, providing information , implementation of
safe principles, promoting clean and sustainable development, avoiding corporate influence over
governance etc.

Growing industries always cause much environmental pollution. Industries using lead, silica,
asbestos, plastics are the worst. Industrial effluents are discharged into the rivers causing water
pollution . Violation of pollution norms have occurred in many industrialized nations. The worst
case in India is the Bhopal Gas tragedy.

Bhopal Tragedy:

In 1984, the Union Carbides pesticide plant at Bhopal leaked out a cloud of poisonous gas
( Methyl Isocyanate MIC and other lethal gases) Six safety systems which were meant to contain
the leak were not functioning. Nobody outside the factory was warned because the safety siren
was turned off. Over half a million people were exposed to the deadly gas .the number of deaths
to date is 20000. More than 120000 people are still in need of medical attention.

The plant was owned at that time by the US company Union Carbide. It was a case of gross
negligence . 20 years after the worlds worst industrial disaster, survivors and their children are still
fighting for justice against the corporation . There had been delays in their compensation for
damages and medical care.

Union Carbide negotiated a settlement with the Indian government in 1989 for 470 million US
dollars. Union carbide later merged with Dow. Dow, since its merger with union Carbide has
refused to accept this liability in India.

Even after 20 years, the Centre and the MP government have not appointed a full time welfare
commissioner to look into the claims of 16000 victims

Corporate accountability- Environmental liability

Union Carbide fled India leaving behind toxic gases which have leached into the groundwater. The
disaster shocked the world and raised questions about government and corporate responsibility for
industrial accidents that damage human life and local environments. Yet 20 years later, the
survivors and various organisations are still fighting for justice.

Issues of plant site, toxic wastes and contaminated water have not been resolved. And no one has
been held responsible for the leak and its consequences. Bhopal is not just an issue of industrial
disaster and human suffering. It is very much an issue of corporate accountability, peoples rights
and government responsibility.

The lack of mandatory laws and norms governing multinationals, legal complexities, and
government failures are serious obstacles in ensuring justice for the people of Bhopal, and for the
victims. Bhopal tragedy is a Corporate crime against environment, peoples lives and safety.

Since profit is the main motive of corporations, safety measures are provided only when there are
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 pressures of activists and strong regulations. The Indian government has welcomed polluting
industries partly because of the pressure to attract foreign investment. Industries often use
outdated processes and equipment banned in the West for their environment and health damage.

In spite of having no adequate infrastructure to protect public health or the environment, the Indian
Government continues to allow more investment in polluting industries.

The question is - Should the government in the first place have allowed a MNC to set up a
subsidiary in India to manufacture product which is a highly toxic substance- that too in a
backward area like Bhopal?

Union Carbide managed to escape its obligations for the Bhopal disaster by passing the
responsibility to the Indian government .The biggest factor in the tragedy is the failure of
Union Carbide to provide the right information to the people and the government regarding
the nature of the gas and the extent of danger . Because of this the doctors could not treat
the victims properly.

What happened in Bhopal is not unique. There are also many other cases around the country for
which critical information is needed , in order to protect the environment and the lives of workers.
We now have the Right to Information Act, but this law does not apply to the private sector.

The present conditions call for more public disclosure, more transparency, and more accountability
on the part of the companies. Without information, local communities live in the dark, employees
unknowingly work in hazardous ways, and shareholders make uninformed investments.

There is thus a strong case for corporate accountability and the application of the Right to
Information in the private sector.

REGIONAL ISSUES

1. MAHARASHTRA ECONOMY ,

A.Maharashtra economy, Agricultural patterns

Industry is the backbone of Maharashtras economy. The State alone contributes to 23% of the
countrys entire income. Mumbai, the capital of Maharashtra is the hub of countrys textile mills.

Sugar industry has a significant contribution to the economy. There are other industries like the
pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, automobiles, engineering and others which constitute a
considerable share of the states economy.

Though largely an industrial state, agriculture also continues to be a part of the gross income. The
black soil prevents cultivation of food crops and the principal crops include jowar, bajra, whet and
pulses and several oilseeds like groundnut, soyabean, sunflower etc. Irrigation facilities are

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 extensively available to reduce dependence on rain

Agriculture pattern

Nearly 55% population depend on agriculture . Agriculture provides employment to a large number
of rural people. However contribution of agriculture is reducing in spite of huge expenditure on
irrigation because of unfavorable agro climatic conditions and faster growth of industrial sector.
Failure of rainfall at critical stage of plant growth results in crop failure. The yield per hectare is
much below the national average.

The growth of agriculture is important for sustaining food security and improving rural standard of
living. Both the Central and State governments are helping with resources , creating
infrastructure, facilitating easy availability of inputs, research & technology improvements.

1. Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana has been set up by the government in 2007 to benefit the farming
community and to achieve 4% growth rate. Areas of focus under the scheme are

Preparation of agricultural and allied industry plans for the entire state
Setting up micro irrigation system
Increase production of cereals, pulses and oilseeds
Enhance farmers income by adopting allied activities like animal rearing, dairy
development, fishing etc along with agriculture
Help farmers in marketing their produce at fair price

2. The National bank for Agriculture performs a key role in the development of agriculture . The
public and private sector play a significant role in distributing the hybrid, and improved quality
seeds of various crops.

3. Organic farming a new movement in Maharashtra and it is a welcome alternative. It reduces the
use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides and reduces the cost of cultivation

4. A number of major, medium and minor irrigation projects have been taken up by the State.

5. The Bharat Nirman Yojana is another initiative by the government of India for developing rural
infrastructure irrigation, rural housing , water supply, roads, rural electrification and rural
telecommunication

6. Food Security Mission was launched to increase the production of rice, wheat and pulses from
Rabi season

7. The State government has announced a special package of s 1075 crores for 3 years and
established Vasantrao Naik Shti Swavlamban Mission to deal with the problem of farmers suicides
in the Vidarbha region. The PM also has announced special rehabilitation package fo 3750 crores
for the region

B Maharashtra Industrial growth , SEZ and MIDC

The Annual Survey of Industries has revealed that the Maharashtra State has contributed 21% of
gross value of output. The composition of organized industrial sector has undergone considerable
change over the decade. The value of consumer goods industry has declined but the share of
intermediate goods industry has increased

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 According to the Central industrial policy, Maharashtra state has taken steps to attract more and
more investments in the industrial sector and implementing policies with respect to Special
Economic Zones(SEZ) , MIDC and MSMEs . The Industrial Policy has facilitated access to foreign
direct investment and foreign technology.

1. Special Economic Zones (SEZ) Govt. of Maharashtra SEZ Policy is development oriented in
order to encourage industrial growth in the state. The SEZ is the tax-free territory and the policies
are targeted at propagating fast growth of the industrial sector. The main objective of SEZ Act are

Promote exports

Promote domestic and foreign Direct investments

Creation of employment opportunities

Development of infrastructure facilities

The SEZ scheme seeks to create a simple and transparent system and procedures for increasing
productivity and the ease of doing business in Maharashtra. The Maharashtra State SEZ policy
provides exemption of different kinds of state duties, taxes, time saving procedures for providing
permits and land acquisitions etc

2.. The government introduced the MSMED ( Micro, small and Medium Enterprise Development)
Bill in 2006 to address the issues faced by it. The Bill handles issues related to labor laws that
affect daily operations of micro units and suggest measures to check delayed payment and
encourage flow of credits by banks and financial institutions

3. In order to encourage balanced industrial development , the Government has set up a

scheme known as the Package Scheme of Incentives 2007 (amended) .

4. Maharashtra State has taken a number of initiatives to develop IT and IT enabled service (ITES)
sectors in the State . 369 private IT parks are being established in Maharashtra. 55 have been
already set up generating employment for more than a lakh of people. The growth rate of FDI in IT
sector has been the highest in the country . Maharashtra is among the top 3 states in IT export

5. MIDC the Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation has set up IT parks. It is

developing industrial areas with essential infrastructure like internal roads, water, electricity etc for
faster industrial development . Also, with a view to arresting pollution, it has started hazardous
waste management and common effluent plants on a joint venture basis with the help of local
industrial associations.

With both the State government and the MIDC taking a proactive role in supporting diversified
industrial development, Maharashtra manages to retain its status as the leader of Indian industrial
growth.
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 C SEZ issues

The purpose of setting up Special Economic Zones by the government are

Faster industrial growth

To offer good investment climate for export oriented industries
Earning foreign exchange
Providing modern infra structure
Good governance
Location specific advantages
Tax incentives
Employment generation
Technological improvement

High tech industries that have come up due to SEZs:

Electronics Manufacturing Services, Semiconductor, Aerospace,

Other industries benefited : Biotech, Pharmaceutical, automobile, textile.

The issue :

Over 500 SEZs have been proposed in India of which 200 have been created already. World Bank
is already thinking about the sustainability of such large number of SEZs . SEZ may also create
environmental problems.

SEZ provides special privileges for exporters and business ventures. The only requirement is the
investor to be a Net Foreign exchange earner. SEZ offers maximum benefits with minimum
formalities eg.

Tax incentives , duty exemption

Permit Off-shore banking units
Time saving procedures for clearance and minimum inspection
Exemption for routine inspection of export and import cargo
Considered as foreign territories for trade operations and duties and tariffs etc

Shortcomings

Dilutes the power of local self government

The SEZ Act 2005 does not call for Environment impact assessment
It permits facilities like Golf Course, Desalination plants, hotels and non-polluting service
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 industries within the coastal Zone Regulation area
It isolates the Fisheries act 2005 besides others

There is a threat to the ecological system from many of the negative activities in SEZ, such as
unregulated fishing activities, blast fishing , port development etc. Port developments tend to
damage coral reefs, marine life and disturb the ecology of the region. Mundra Port has already
been accused of violating Coastal Regulation Zone and destroying mangroves.

Maharashtra Government has already initiated programs for Mangrove conservation and protection
. The Project mangrove carried out a variety of events in Maharashtra and Gujarat to create
awareness of the people living along the coast about the importance of mangrove and their
conservation

D Cooperative Banks Movements:

The co-operative movement has a great role in influencing the economic set-up in the rural
country side. It has played a significant role in changing the economic conditions in the fields of
rural credit, agricultural marketing, small-scale and village industries, farming, housing and
consumers societies. The co-operative movement has brought about a number of benefits to
the economically weaker sections of the people.

The first co-operative bank was organised in 1912 . In the past , the co-operative movement
was mainly involved with credit activities..Cooperative banks finance rural areas for farming,
cattle, hatchery and personal finance. Subsequently it expanded to marketing, supply of
agricultural inputs, small and village industries, irrigation, fishing, cattle breeding, forest labour,
housing, etc. The District Central Co-operative Bank with 25 branches in the district has played
an important role in giving short-term and medium-term loans to agricultural credit societies,
agricultural marketing societies and industrial co-operatives. Besides financial loans, , it
provides guidance and direction to the co-operative movement in the district.

The co-operative movement has not made much progress in the field of marketing of
agricultural produce due to lack of regulation of agricultural marketing.

The co-operative movement, however, has made significant progress in the fields of processing
industries, village industries, crafts and forest labour.

2. SUGAR COOPERATIVES ( & Sugar Lobby)

Sugar cooperatives play a vital role and produce over 60% of the sugar requirement of the
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 country. Sugar Cooperatives developed after independence. The Parvana Cooperative Sugar
factory of Ahmednagar has been an outstanding success.

The objective of the sugar cooperatives are

To cut and process the sugarcane and produce of members and non- members
Manufacture of sugar and supply to the government as per government directives
Enable modernization of farming and processing techniques,
empower farmers to produce better quality sugarcane by providing them with various
techniques to increase yield.
Conduct research and development to produce better quality of sugarcane and thus higher
productivity for sugar
Carry out various welfare and social activities such as health, credit , education , cultural
activities etc

A group of farmers come together and form a sugar cooperative because sugarcane requires
processing. All farmers pool their money from their personal funds and invest in the construction of
sugar mills. The managing committee usually consists of 18 people and 9 board of directors

The government encourages cooperative sugar factories by giving preferential treatment to them
over private factories while issuing licences. The state government assists the cooperative sugar
factories by contributing to their share capital. Sugar cooperatives are considered successful in
rural development just like the Anand Dairy cooperative of Gujarat

The Sugar factories are facing many problems although the output of sugar has increased. The
problems have led to the closure of many cooperatives in Maharashtra. The reasons for the
closure are both natural as well as created. The problems are

Political influence and interference in the functioning of the cooperatives and using the
cooperatives for personal motives . Cooperatives have become victims of political rivalry
Earlier the government was providing a lot of finance to the cooperative but withdrew the
support forcing the cooperatives to shut down
Corruption at alarming rates among the top level management led to closure of many sugar
mills. Funds were taken away for personal use and even day to day operations were not
possible
Earlier a farmer had to sell and supply sugarcane to a specific factory. So the factory
procured sugarcane regularly from the farmer at a fixed rate. Government later removed
the system of zoning. Farmers then could sell the sugarcane to any one who gave the
highest price. many cooperatives had to close down due to dezoning.
Sugarcane supply was not uniform and when there was no supply the factories had huge
loss due to idle time
A large no. of sugar cooperatives have been declared sick units. Many are not functioning
to their full capacity .
Government policy regarding sugar results in fluctuation in area under sugarcane . when
cane prices are fixed low, area under cultivation decreases . This in turn affects availability
of sugarcane
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 Export import policy of sugar , licencing of sugar units, irrigation policies , loan financing all
have an impact on sugar production .

Careful planning, revival of sick units and long term policy is required to tide over these problems.

Sugar lobby:

The origin of powerful sugar lobby in Maharashtra dates back to the 1950s. Post Independence,
sugar cooperatives became integral part of rural development and a special status was given to
the sugar cooperatives. The government assumed the role of a mentor by acting as a stakeholder,
guarantor and regulator

Sugar Cooperatives were star performers in the first decade after independence the fifties An
important factor which contributed to the success of sugar co-operatives was the encouragement
provided by the ruling Congress party to the formation of these co-operatives. Slowly there became
a nexus between the politicians and the sugar cooperatives.

Some cooperatives were favoured with financial subsidies on the basis of caste. The sugar lobby
became stronger with regulation policies such as cash subsidy, control over entry by rivals, and
price fixing . Almost all powerful politicians in Maharashtra have been highly benefited by floating
sugar cooperatives as it is ensures a huge vote bank. Since sugar barons have been ruling the
state , the state have always rolled out subsidies and tax benefits to the sugar cooperatives.

Important positions in sugar cooperatives began to be held by members of state and local
governments, Policy decisions like development of irrigation facilities and greater financial support
from the government have all gone in favour of the politically stronger western Maharashtra at the
expense of eastern Maharashtra .

Cane price has become a potent weapon that factory owners have used to lure voters and win
mass support. Cane prices are found to be higher in western Maharashtra .

The financial assistance and the existing regulatory framework initiated in the fifties, are still.
continuing due to vested interest of the sugar barons.

The special status and assured government support, irrespective of performance have led to
poor performance, both in technical and in financial terms.
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 What is required to get the sugar cooperatives out of trouble is a fresh start with minimal
regulations. In keeping with the current trend competition from private sector must be allowed.

4. MILK COOPERATIVES (& Operation flood) :

Since independence Cooperative movements have been growing in all fields such as agriculture
credit, sugar , handloom etc. . However, the contribution of cooperatives to Indias dairy industry is
enormous. Milk cooperatives have created a revolution in the country.

India is the leading producer of milk in the world. Dairy cooperatives are the backbone of Indian
dairy industry. . When the cooperative dairy movement was started, the daily per capita milk
consumption was 106ml. Today, it is 250ml or 90 kg per year. Milk is the country's number one
agricultural commodity.

The success of milk cooperatives is due to empowerment of the farmers. These cooperatives are
not controlled by the government. The farmers own and manage them based upon the needs and
demands of the community.

The Milk cooperative started in 1946 in a small town called Anand in Western India.
Tired of exploitation by traders and local private dairy, the milk producers organized themselves
into village dairy cooperatives. These cooperatives formed the the Kaira Milk Producers Union.
Soon it had its first dairy plant. It started producing and marketing milk products under the brand
name Amul. Under the charismatic leadership of V. Kurien, the father of milk revolution, the Amul
model of cooperatives soon became an example for others to follow . The government wanted the
Amul model to be replicated in other parts of the country.

Operation Flood:

Operation Flood ( also called the White Revolution ) is the largest dairy development program ever
launched in the world. It was financed by an initial investment of Rs 1164 million . Operation
Flood, inspired by the Amul model and implemented by National Dairy Development Board- was
implemented in three phases in the country between 1970 and 1996. The objective of Operation
Flood was to set up 18 Milk cooperative Union on the Anand Model and link them with the 4
metros i.e to create a nationwide milk grid. The national milk grid links all milk producers through
out India.

The objectives of the program are

To increase milk production

to make available wholesome milk at stable and reasonable price to consumers
To improve productivity of dairy farming in rural areas,
self sufficiency in milk

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 improve the income of small farmers
To remove dairy farming cattle from cities due to growing problem of generating waste,
social cost and public health

The program included use of professional management and high technology and building up
cooperatives at village level. Every milk producer can become a member of the cooperative. Each
milk producer is paid on the basis of the quality of milk.

Operation flood can be classified under 3 activities

Capacity & production increase

Transportation
Manpower planning and storing

With Operation Flood, India became the leading producer of milk pushing USA to second place.. Milk
production in 1950s was only 17 million tonnes and went upto 78 million tonnes in 50 years. Today
India makes several milk products, milk cheese, condensed milk, chocolates, ice creams etc. The
increase in per capita consumption of milk indicates the impact of operation flood.

When Operation flood was launched, it required substantial equipment for the new and upgrading
existing ones. Therefore small enterprise and private industries were encouraged to develop local
equipment.

Although there had been criticisms of Operation flood, the fact remains that Operation Flood
Program has benefited small farmers and landless cattle holders and also the country

Today Amul has overtaken others in the ice-cream market. The biggest strength of dairy
cooperatives is their labour intensiveness. Cost effectiveness is another important factor. Dairy
cooperatives have effectively used the strength of farmers to develop self-reliance. It is unique.
The future is indeed bright for dairy cooperatives.

TRADE UNION MOVEMENT

Trade Union or labor union is an organization of workers. The trade union through its leadership
bargains with the employer on behalf of union members , negotiates wages, work rules,
promotions, benefits , workplace safety and various other policy matters.

Trade Union Movement is organized activities of workers to improve their working conditions. In
the early stages of industrial revolution when there were personal contacts between employers and
the workers, there was no need for any organization to resolve disputes. But with more and more
modernization , the personal touch became absent and the relations between employer and the
employee came under stress.

Trade union movements started due to modern industrialization which brought in unfair labor
practices low wages, long working hours , unsafe working conditions, hire and fire policy etc.
Workers reacted to these unfair practices by strikes, hunger strikes, bandhs, gheraos,
demonstrations , mass casual leave etc.

For the first time in India the Bombay Mill Hands Association was formed in 1890. This was the
beginning of the Indian trade union movement .

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 In the early stages, the trade union movement was influenced by communists, who were inspired
by the Russian Revolution.

International Labor Organisation (ILO) set up in 1919 provided inspiration and encouragement to
formation of trade unions. ILO also inspired the formation of AITUC (( All India Trade Union
Congress ) in 1920 for the purpose of conducting and coordinating the activities of the labor
organizations.

Trade Unions in India

1. INTUC ( Indian National Trade Union Congress ) Founded in 1947, INTUC is the trade
union wing of the Indian National Congress. Its aim is to establish an order of society which
is free from hindrance in the way of all round development of its members, and eliminate
social, political and economical exploitation and inequality
2. HMS (Hind Mazdoor Sabha) HMS is a centre of Trade Unions who believe in
independence from political parties and the government in Trade union activities. It does
not mean that HMS is apolitical, but its aim is freedom from political control. HMS presently
has 16 industrial federations
3. AITUC ( All India Trade Union Congress) founded in 1919 , AITUC is the oldest trade
union federation in India and one of the 5 largest. It is associated with the Communist
Party of India.
4. Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh is the largest central trade union organization in India.
Founded in 1955, has over 8 million members. It has around 5860 unions .

The Indian Trade Union Act gives legal protection to the Indian trade Unions.

Trade Union Movement with reference to Mumbai textile Industry

The communists organized a no. of trade unions and in 1926-27 organised a no,. of strikes, some
which were successful. The communist leaders organized the textile workers and formed Girni
Kamgar Union and in 1928 organised a big strike for the textile workers and also for workers of
workshop of eastern India Railways.

Post 1960, after the Chinese aggression, there were splits in communist Party of India CPI and
CPI (M) . Initially both however remained with AITUC. In 1970 CPI(M )decided to set up CITU
which took away a no. of unions from AITUC specially in W Bengal and Kerala . In Mumbai , Shiv
Sena established the Bharatiya Kamgar Sena and started dividing the working class on regional
lines which eventually started the decline of the labor movement,. In mid 70s Dr Datta Samant
came in the textile mills scene , who contributed to the Great Bombay Strike of 1982. The defeat of
the textile mill strike was the end of trade union movements in the city.

The history of textile union movement reveals the struggle on the part of mill workers and
opposition union movements against state intervention. The textile mills in Bombay were
controlled by large business houses eg Tatas, Birlas and Mafatlals. Workers were dissatisfied with
the low wages, work pressures due to modernization, insecurity of employment , poor living
conditions etc

Rashtriya Mill Mazdoor Sangh (RMSS) had represented the mill workers for decades but with
deterioration of workers conditions, the millworkers became dissatisfied with RMMS.

In late 1981, a large group of Bombay mill workers rejected the RMSS and chose Dutta Samant as
their leader to settle disputes with the Bombay Millowners Associations. This led to the Great
Bombay Textile Strike (1982)
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 Samant formed his Maharashtra Girni Kamgar Union (MGKU) .The purpose of the strike was to
obtain bonus and wage increases. Nearly 250,000 workers and more than 50 textile mills went on
strike in Bombay.

Samant planned a massive strike forcing the entire industry of the city to be shut down for over a
year. It was estimated that nearly 250,000 workers went on strike and more than 50 textile mills
were shut in Bombay. Samant had full control of the Bombay textile mills. While fighting for greater
pay and better conditions for workers, Samant and his allies also tried to establish their power on
the trade union scene in Mumbai.

The central government considered Samant a serious political threat since his influence would
spread to the port and dock workers and make him the most powerful union leader in Bombay .
Thus the government rejected Samant's demands despite the severe economic losses suffered by
the city and the industry.

The strike continued and there was no settlement for long , and many textile mill owners began
moving their plants outside the city. After a long time, the strike collapsed and the workers did not
gain anything by the long strike. The closure of textile mills across the city left tens of thousands of
mill workers unemployed and, in the succeeding years, most of the industry moved away from
Bombay. Although Samant remained popular with a large block of union activists, his control over
Bombay trade unions disappeared.

Consequences

The majority of the over 80 mills in Central Mumbai closed during and after the strike, leaving more
than 150,000 workers unemployed. Textile industry in Mumbai has largely disappeared,

However this is not the end . Even today there is a trade organization called Girni Kamgar
Sangarsh Samiti (GKSS) and others who are fighting for the rights of the retrenched mill workers.

MIGRATION & DISPLACEMENT & RESETTLEMENT

Migration is physical movement of people from one place to another. It could be voluntary or
forced.

Displacement and Resettlement

Infrastructural development projects carried out by states, frequently result in the displacement of
peoples from homes that stand in the way of dams, highways, or other large-scale construction
projects. In the past, poor rural farmers have been victims of large scale development projects in
developing countries. Development projects like dams and road building have displaced a large
number of people from their place.

Among the many cases of forced displacement in India, Narmada River Dam project is the most
widely discussed, criticized and publicized.

Displacement results in

Loss of land, job and home

Food insecurity
Social disintegration
Loss of access to common property
Marginalization

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 In India, there are roughly 60 million displaced persons and project-affected persons from various
states . As more and more land is required for industrial growth, the number of displaced persons
are in the increase. 50-60 million project affected persons (PAP) have been deprived of a
livelihood without physical relocation .

The majority of the PAP are tribals, rural poor communities like fisherfolk, quarry workers and
landless dalits and scarcely 20% have been rehabilitated. The rest are left to fend for themselves.
The situation has worsened with the onset of globalisation.. A number of Special Economic
Zones (SEZs) are being planned all over India. The coal sector has been told to triple its
production ,and massive dams are planned in several states. The outcome is more land and
more displacement.

Issues

PAPs have not received enough land and also face acute problems of fuel and fodder
Lack of facilities in the new site, primary health centre, school, dispensary
PAPs are finding it difficult to adapt to new sites
Quality of land given is poor
There have been cases of human rights violation
Income in the new sites lower than the income of farmers in their old village

Although relocation has been done in some cases, the rehabilitation is not satisfactory. There is
family partition, unproductive land, loss of income , cut off from socio-cultural network, etc.

There has been several protests against project related displacements and the SEZ. . What is
required a comprehensive rehabilitation policy

On October 11, 2007, the central government announced the National Policy for Rehabilitation and
Resettlement 2007 (NPRR 2007), replacing the National Policy of 2003. The policy addresses
some of the issues of rehabilitation and minimizing displacement, with the objective of striking a
balance between the need for development and protecting the interests of the farmers and the
landless. However there are criticisms about the policy and its implementation.

PEASANT MOVEMENTS

Innumerable peasant movements have come up widely over the years throughout the country.
Peasant movements refer to the united actions of various sections of the peasant population either
led by a leader or by peasants themselves to raise the voice against exploitation and for achieving
the common interest of the peasant community.

The rise of peasant movement is often based on socio-political factors.- landless farmers,
exploitation by landlords and poor wages of agricultural laborers. . The growth of commerce &
agriculture and change from a consumption oriented economy to a market economy is one of
the major causes of peasant revolts.

Two major peasant movements were the Tebhaga movement in Bengal and the Telengana uprising
in Andhra Pradesh . Both were under the leadership of Marxist parties and were predominantly
among the tribals.

The second pattern of peasant movement focused on interests of small holders and landless
laborers

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 These movements focused on demands like tenancy reforms, implementation of land ceiling
legislations, redistribution of land among landless, increasing wages of agricultural laborers..

A new type of peasant movements also emerged in India commonly called farmers movements.
These movements focused on lowering the prices of inputs, and increasing prices of agricultural
outputs.

Most of these movements were outbursts of exploited masses and some of them w ere short lived.

Economic exploitation was the prime motivating factor of peasant movements . Some of them also
raised political challenges. Rebels in many cases demanded both land and liberation

All India Workers and Peasants Party (WPP) had been formed in 1928 with communists playing an
important role . Regional peasant organizations also emerged in Bihar , AP and Bengal .

Tebhaga movement was a militant struggle by the share croppers to get two thirds of the
produce. At its peak the movement involved 60 lakh sharecroppers who had to face stiff resistance
and violent actions by the police. It did not last long due to leadership failure

Telengana Movement started as a resistance movement of the peasants and landless laborers
against feudal exploitation but in course of time became seizure of state power. The demands were
abolition of forced labor, prevention of eviction, increase in agricultural wages of laborers and
occupancy rights of the tenants. . After independence, the Telengana uprising was directed against
the much stronger Indian state and turned into a struggle for the seizure of land . When the
movement became an armed struggle against the Indian state, its mass appeal declined. Forced
labor discontinued. Daily wages of agricultural laborers increased.

Anti Levy movement , West Bengal: The west Bengal government ordered that those owning or
cultivating 10 acres of land or more will have to sell their surplus stocks of foodgrains to the
government. Krishak Sabha opposed the policy and demanded exemption of peasants from
compulsory levy. It failed however to bring about any change in the procurement policy of the
government

Land Seizure movement , West Bengal : : Groups of peasants went in large numbers to
disputed lands ( Benami lands) and occupied it. Immediately after possession the lands were
distributed among the peasants. Harvesting in such lands became a group activity . Unfortunately
in some cases land belonging to the middle and even poor peasants were seized

Naxalbari uprising: This movement originated in the Naxalbari region of North Bengal. The United
Front government openly supported the movements of the landless who began seizure of land and
also forcible harvesting. Many students from urban areas also joined the peasants in their struggle.
With the fall of the second United Front government the police action against the peasant
movements intensified and the first phase of Naxalbari movement fizzled out

The Naxalbari uprising also created a stir among the oppressed peasants in other parts of India
specially Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, UP and MP.

Movement for Enhancement of Agricultural Laborers Wage : (1974-75) though landless

laborers were participating in almost all peasant movements, separate movement for the khet
majdoors was first started in 1970. The peasants needed both land and higher wages. The wage
movement spread over 6000 villages and many poor peasants benefited by the rise in wages.

There have been discussions at the national level since 1990s about the .conditions of

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 agricultural laborers but yet there has been no comprehensive legislation,. For years peasant
organizations are demanding participation in framing and implementation of laws pertaining to
peasants.

Short note on Naxalite Movement

The Naxalite movement erupted violently in 1967. It started as a spark in a small village ,
Naxalbari and within a few years spread to distant parts of India. The United Front government
openly supported the movements of the landless who began seizure of land and also forcible
harvesting. Many students from urban areas also joined the peasants in their struggle. With the fall
of the second United Front government the police action against the peasant movements
intensified and the first phase of Naxalbari movement fizzled out

Naxalism arose from certain basic factors social injustice, economic inequality and the failure of
the system to redress the grievances of the suffering people .

The Naxalbari uprising lasted just 52 days. The failure of the movement in Naxalbari was due to
lack of strong party organization, powerful mass base , ignorance of military affairs and a formal
attitude towards land reforms.

But it left a far reaching impact on many other parts of India specially Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, UP
and MP.

The Naxalite violence was at a peak from about mid 1970 to mid 1971. Terrorist activities were
on the increase .

Naxalite leaders like Charu Mazumdar, influenced people to create hundreds of Naxalbaris
throughout India. and called for revolutionary struggle . He even set the target for
liberation of India by 1975. A large no. of West Bengal youth responded to his call. He
called upon the youth to join the poor and landless peasants and go to villages in large
numbers instead of wasting their energy in passing exams.
There were raids on government offices damaging property and brutal attacks on
policemen
In the atmosphere of violence anti social elements infliltrated into the Naxalite ranks which
had a bad effect on the organisations discipline and ideology. The anti social elements
used the Naxalite umbrella to settle their own scores.
The government took joint operations by the army and the police to tackle the violence.
Suspected Naxalites were arrested, illicit weapons , ammunition and explosives were
seized resulting in drop in violent activities
Internal differences were building up within the organization which had a disintegrating
effect. Also the Government pressure on Naxalites was building up and by 1972 almost all
top Naxalite leaders were arrested. Charus death marked the end of a phase in the
Naxalite movement. Emergency declared in 1975 led to banning of almost all Naxalite
groups in the country
New opportunities for Naxalites again grew in 1977 with the defeat of Mrs Indira Gandhi . 4
Naxalite groups demanded the release of all political workers and withdrawal of cases
against them . The then Home Minister agreed to release the Naxalite prisoners.
The movement again touched a peak in 1991 and today it is in a fragmented state. There
are about 40 odd groups operating in different parts of the country.

The origin and growth of Naxalite movement is due to a no. of complex economic, social and
political factors extreme poverty, economic inequalities and exploitation , unemployment ,
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 income inequalities . The factors which gave rise to Naxalism in the country still persist even
today. The Movement has its ups and down but it continues to have a large support base
because of the intellectual appeal of its ideology. The movement has developed an inherent
strength .

Self Determination and Secession (Separatist movements)

Self Determination

Self determination is the principle by which the people of a country exercises its right to choose its
own government. It allows the people to live under laws of their own making or choice. Democracy
enhances chances for self determination. There have been agitations for self determination (and
sometimes secession) from various parts of the country.

Some of the self determination movements are

1. The Naga Movement:

The Nagas are a tribe in the N E of India. Before independence Nagas demanded a
separate Naga State and wanted to be under the British dominion rather than to be a part
of India. They thought that India would introduce their laws and customs and replace
Nagas customary laws.
There were about 20 Naga groups but there was no unity or cooperation among them
The increasing violence by the extremist Nagas troubled peace loving nationalist leaders
In 1963 Nagaland State was set up. Underground Naga leaders were divided into 2
groups, and one group continued its insurgent activities in 1968
In 1975, the Shillong Accord was signed. The underground leaders accepted the Indian
Constitution and accepted Nagaland as inalienable part of the Indian Union

2. Bodo and Assam Movement :

Bodos are one of the earliest settlers of Assam and are the largest tribes of Assam. They
ruled over Assam till 1825. Bodos are ethnic and linguistic community .
47% of population of Assam were Bodos in 1947 but they declined to 27% in 1971.
Even after independence,the area had been facing neglect in the area of development. It
soon became a centre of dissent and demands for secession.
The Bodos wanted more autonomy for the Bodo tribes and the Assamese were concerned
with the expulsion of foreigners
The Assam Government passed the Illegal Migrants Detection Tribunal Act . This further
irritated the Bodos since for the rest of the country only the Foreigners Registration Act was
applicable. They felt there should be a single law regarding foreigners throughout the
country
Language was another problem. The Assamese language was imposed on Bodos.
The Bodos were facing a loss of identity and culture.
They demanded an autonomous status for tribals in the district , stop eviction of tribals who
are landless and a separate Directorate for tribal education

3. Punjab Movement :

In 1976, several terrorist and secessionist movements were growing in Punjab. The reason
was the feeling of discrimination perceived by certain sections of the Sikh community and a
feeling of alienation
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 Sikh fundamentalists were on the rise . There was threat of militancy in the State. Sikh
militant groups under Bindranwala demanded creation of a separate state for Sikhs,
Khalistan. In 1981, they entered the Golden Temple . The Temple was converted into a
military camp with highly sophisticated weapons. Bindranwala started preaching from
within the Golden Temple to spread hatred against Hindus. Killer squads were set up who
committed ghastly crimes like murder of bus passengers and prominent persons who were
opposed to separatism.
When Bindranwala went out of control, Indira Gandhi, ordered Operation Bluestar, military
operation to expel the militants from the temple. The militants were successfully removed.
The call for separate Khalistan died out

Secession

Secession is the act of withdrawing from political unity. There are several separatist movements in
India mainly in the North East and the North west.

Indian constitution does not allow Indian States to separate from the Indian Union. Secession
movements in Nagaland and Sikkim have been suppressed by Military. However separation
sentiments still run high in these states.

Secession movements were also active in Mizoram, Punjab ( as Khalistan) , Tripura and Tamil
Nadu. They have died down due to military action and political agreements like the Mizo accord
and the Assam Accord.

Secession is considered justified only if secessionists can create a viable state . Many feel that
secession could be considered only to rectify grave injustice or in cases of oppression of ethnic or
racial groups.

Major secessionist movements are currently ongoing in Russia, Spain, Canada, Nigeria, India, and
Sri Lanka, among others, and these movements have had a strong impact on international
security. The ongoing secessionist movement in Kashmir, for example, is a major threat to security
in South Asia .

Kashmir secession

For long time, Kashmiris want to secede from India. This desire comes mostly from the Muslim
dominated Kashmir Valley , one of the 3 regions of the J & K.

Kashmiri Pandits (Hindus) who were driven out of their homes in the valley and who continue to
live in exile in Jammu or other parts of India want a separate homeland within Kashmir under
Indian sovereignty.

Jammu, a Hindu majority region that feels discriminated by the Kashmiri Muslim-led state
governments is seeking a separate state within the Indian set up.

Buddhist dominated Ladakh, economically the most backward region, has also been aspiring to
have a Union Territory status within India.

The Indian government has been against the idea of secession as well as demands for any sort of

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 territorial division for 2 reasons - J&Ks secession will weaken Indias secular principles and if
India grants independence to Kashmir, it will set a precedent for secession movements in other
states like Assam, Nagaland and Punjab..

Supporters in Kashmir argue that if superpowers like the Soviet Union could break-up in the past,
then India, which is only a developing country, can certainly suffer a similar fate.

Given these arguments, it is very unlikely that J&K will be able to secede or achieve territorial re-
organization or division .

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

In India there are a number of tribes specially in Northeastern part of India Orissa, Nagaland,
Arunchal Pradesh , Manipur , Assam, Bihar and in some parts of Southern India. Tribal peoples
constitute roughly 8 percent of the nation's total population. Tribals are drawn from a variety of
races

Most tribes are concentrated in heavily forested areas . Historically, the economy of most tribes
was subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering. Tribal members traded with outsiders for the
few necessities they lacked, such as salt and iron.

. Problems

Tribes live in secluded and largely inaccesible regions of the country. They live in harmony with
nature but are deprived and poor..
Tribes largely engage in shifting agriculture. However there has been large scale
encroachments on their already limited land.The government has declared a large part of the
land as forest area for conservation. The traditional food security is thus being threatened.

In some areas due to the communication revolution, the tribals are linked to urban industrial
centres, non-tribals migrate to tribal homelands reducing the % of tribal population . Tribal
population is also reducing due to natural calamities, lower fertility rate, high mortality rate etc.
Many tribes have become extinct.

Tribals have also been evicted from their land by governmentss macro development plans. Eg
5 factories were set up in tribal areas of Bihar .

Education is not encouraged by parents.There are different dialects for several communities
which makes educating even more difficult.

Tribal Movement:

Although tribal societies are considered to be rigid, changes are taking place from within as well
as due to political interventions. There have been rapid changes over the years that have caused
a serious disintegration of the tribal societies.

They have started raising their demands before the political authorities. There are also certain

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 organizations , non-tribal like the Christian Missionaries that act on their behalf. These give rise to
movements sometimes of a violent nature. At the end of 1960s there were 36 ongoing
movements of which 14 were concentrated in North east. The movements were for

Political autonomy Demand for Separate state within Indian union ( Nagaland, Mizoram
and Meghalaya became separate states in 1960s) and also for complete secession from
Indian Union

Forest biased movements

Cultural movements (demand for preservation of tribal language)

Jharkhand Movement:

Jharkhand literally means the land of the jungles. And the Jharkhands are the original inhabitants
(adivasis) of the region. They consist of tribes such as mundas, santhals, Savaras etc

After independence outsiders kept pouring in and the tribals were reduced to minority. Also a lot of
tribals moved out to far of states like Gujarat, Maharashtra , Karnataka , Assam. It was felt that
Jharkand was developing but not the Jharkhandis. Of the 7 industries set up in the region, the
tribal representation was low.

A small tribal educated group emerged in these societies by the western education introduced by
Christian Missionaries. These educated tribals showed concern for modernizing tribal societies
and for conservation of traditional values. Tribal politics gradually developed into a struggle for
freedom.

The Jharkhand Mukti Morcha ( 1972) was established and the all-India Jharkhand Students Union
(1986) went through a lot of ups and downs. Jharkhand state was created in 2000 by carving out
18 districts of Bihar but some Tribal dominated districts are still not part of Jharkhand.

Bodo Movement:

Bodos are one of the earliest settlers of Assam and are the largest tribes of Assam. They
ruled over Assam till 1825. Bodos are ethnic and linguistic community .
47% of population of Assam were Bodos in 1947 but they declined to 27% in 1971.
Even after independence, the area had been facing neglect in the area of development. It
soon became a centre of dissent and demands for secession.
The Bodos wanted more autonomy for the Bodo tribes and the Assamese were concerned
with the expulsion of foreigners
The Assam Government passed the Illegal Migrants Detection Tribunal Act . This further
irritated the Bodos since for the rest of the country only the Foreigners Registration Act was
applicable. They felt there should be a single law regarding foreigners throughout the
country
Language was another problem. The Assamese language was imposed on Bodos.
The Bodos were facing a loss of identity and culture.
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 In 1968 all Bodo Students Union raised the slogan of Divide Assam Fifty- Fifty.
The tribals were agitated by the rise of Assamese nationalism which protected the
Assamese speaking population. In 1984, all BOdo students Union gave a call for a
separate state of Bodoland.
Following the riots for 8 years a settlement provided for creation of Bodoland Autonomous
Council.

The policies of the government towards the tribals have changed over the years. They are
working towards encouraging traditional arts and culture, respecting tribal rights to land and
forest rights and providing support and training

Eg., The Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest rights) bill 2005 was passed by the
government. The Bill allows tribals and non-tribals living in forests (upto 2005) rights to use
their forest land for livelihood since it is their ancestral land and they need the land to sustain
their culture.

Q. Communalism is a threat to national integration discuss

What

Communalism means placing ones own community before others even before the nation. .
Communal feelings trigger communal tension, spreads hatred and leads to communal violence
and riots. When a person places his religion and community even above the nation, there is a
threat to national integrity

Communalism is usually associated with religion . It refers to militant approach of a religious

community against other communities and using religion for political ends.. A communalist is
basically interested in using and exploiting religion and that too for political, electoral and economic
gains. A communalist is not a truly religious person, he may believe in religion but he is more
interested in exploiting religion for gaining political power , personal interest or dividing the people ,
achieving cheap popularity .

Communalism can take two forms:

Communal tension communalism takes the form of violent expression of religion by which the
religious sentiments of other religions are badly hurt. It can happen on small issues like when a
cow is slaughtered, or music is played in front of the mosque, Communal tension is like letting out
emotions and generally involves the lower classes of people and anti-social elements. It is short
lived and disappears after things become normal . But every time there is communal tension there
is more enmity developed and it leads to communal riots at a later stage.

Communal politics - Communal tension leads to communal politics. Political parties use communal
sentiments - it takes the form of emotional speeches, accusations, propaganda , baseless
rumours, . This creates mass frenzy and ends in violence,. Political parties use these
opportunities for their gain.

Various dimensions : There are many dimensions of communalism

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 Small religious groups integrating into a bigger group eg Jains, Sikhs,
Work towards welfare of a particular community and protect the interests of one particular
community eg Parsis and Christians
Small community keeping away from politics eg., Jain, Parsi Community
Seeking a separate cultural identity and also a separate territorial identity like the Nagas,
Bodos
Seeking a separate state ( secessionist) eg Khalistan movement
Attack, harm , hurt or injure the members of opposed religious community eg., Hindus and
Muslims or the MNS

India is a secular country and every citizen is free to practice his own religion and support his own
community.. Although we are a secular country, Communal tension exists between various
religious groups. In Kashmir ,it is Islam against Hindu , in Gujarat ,it is Hindutva forces against
Muslims and in Punjab it is Sikhs against Hindus .These tensions are not conflicts of different
cultures; each one of them is actually a political movement

Effects:

Communal tension and communal politics go together. Some political parties like Muslim
League, Hindu Maha Sabha, and RSS involve the masses in generating communal tension on
a large scale to achieve certain political advantage. Communal politics is against the principle
of secularism and hence a threat to national unity and integrity.
Communal violence based on religious differences are exploited by political forces for their own
benefit. Also anti social elements take advantage of such communal violence. At the national
level, politicians use communal sentiments for votes during elections.
Communal conflicts not only create bitterness and a sense of insecurity but also can badly
affect economic development . Communal riots can cause huge loss of public property and loss
of lives
Politically , they weaken the forces of democracy and damage the nations image outside the
country.
Socially, it threatens the unity of the country. If the people of a country are not united, it
becomes easy for external forces to take advantage of communal forces. eg., Cross border
terrorist attacks on India

Incidence of communal violence : Unfortunately our country has witnessed ugly scenes of
communal riots, on many occasions

Massive communal riots took place between the Hindus and the Muslims at the time of
partition of India in 1947 ,
There were Hindu Sikh riots in 1984 after the assassination of Indira Gandhi by a Sikh body
guard.
Again there was the communal riot after the demolition of Babri Masjid in 1992. The Ram
Janmabhoomi - Babri issue has created a nationwide communal divide and threatens the unity
and integrity of the country .
The recent Gujarat riots after the Godhra issue has damaged our secular image . It also shows
how communal sentiments are being exploited by the politicians.
There are various attacks on churches by fanatic Hindus in Orissa
MNS attacks on North Indians and Biharis stirring the sentiments of regionalism Maratha
Manoos
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 Causes of Communal Conflict:

British Policy of Divide and Rule - Seeds of communalism were sown by the British by their
Divide and Rule policy. They encouraged communal politics and voters were classified on the
basis of their religion
Economic Deprivation, insecurity If a section of the society fail to achieve their goal or feel
that they are discriminated and deprived of equal opportunities , they indulge in violent
behavior eg., MNS violence against the North Indians, Biharis.

Struggle for power- Politicians use communal sentiments for retaining their power.
Religion Communalism is a weapon of religious fundamentalists

Regional organisations : After Independence , many communal organisations like RSS, VHP,
Bajrang Dal , Jamat-i-islam and Akali Dal have contributed to increasing communal feelings in
the minds of people. In recent times Hindu communalism is on the rise, with BJP, VHP,
Bajrang Dal, Shiv Sena propagating Hindutva -

Political Rivalry- The Mandir Masjid controversy is a symbolic expression of the political
rivalry between two communities. The Muslim Hindu rivalry has a long history

Remedial Measures

Several measures have been proposed to tackle communalism and its effect on society

Removal of social inequality, economic exploitation and discrimination against minorities

Strengthening secular values
Effective control of religious tensions
Easy and quick settlement of inter communal disputes.

An awareness and awakening among the people

Derecognise political parties which use religion for political purposes

Punishment to Govt officers who are guilty of neglecting their duty to stop communal
violence

Media has an important role to play in reporting communal news and events with a sense
of responsibility

The government, the political parties, the media and Indian citizens all must play their effective role
in the fight against the challenge of communalism. There is no doubt that with the efforts of
younger generation India can look forward to emerging as a great secular Nation.

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 Q. Human Rights : ( discuss the significance of UDHR in the context of Universal Human
Rights)

Human Rights are generally defined as those rights which are inherent in our nature and without
which we cannot live as human beings. These are rights an individual possesses by virtue of being
a human being . Humans are born free and equal in dignity and right.

Evolution of Human Rights:

The roots of human rights can be seen in ancient times and scriptures eg., Veda, the Ten
commandments, Teachings of Buddhism . Human rights originated from the idea of mercy,
kindness, fairness and humanity. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in Equality before
law, equal respect for all, equal freedom of speech, the Right to vote , the right to justice, etc.
Magna Carta, issued in 1215 included the rights of different sections of the society and justice for
all

Human rights came to focus with black slavery, American freedom Revolution, French Revolution.
A number of human rights violations like child labor, slavery, brutal working conditions etc were
seen in the 19th century . There were horrible incidents of Human rights violations during the
Second World War by the Nazis. The United Nations formed after the War attempted to make
human rights universal . In 1945 the UN made a general declaration that no one in the world can
be discriminated against on the basis of race, religion, language or sex.

UDHR ( Universal Declaration of human Rights)

On 10th December 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights . The UN has since then committed itself to the promotion and protection of human rights.

Human rights can be broadly classified into

8. The Right to Physical and Mental Integrity The right to life, liberty, security, freedom from
torture, cruel and inhuman treatment, freedom from slavery, forced labor, arbitrary arrest etc

9. Freedom of conscience and Action Freedom of opinion, religion, expression, Freedom of

information, freedom to form associations, trade unions, freedom of movement etc

10. Right to Legal justice Fair trial in courts, the Right to defend
11. Privacy and Family Rights
12. Political Rights The right to vote and stand in election
13. Economic and social rights- The right to work, adequate standard of living, social security,
the right to health services
14. Equality and non-discrimination

Right to Development , was adopted by the UN in 1986

Importance of UDHR :

Human rights are moral , universal. It is a set of moral rules and it is binding on all the nations
to follow the UDHR although it is not legal
Serves as a common standard for all
Makes violation an international concern
Human rights allow us to fully develop and use our human qualities, our intelligence and talent.
They also satisfy our spiritual and other needs
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 It respects and protects basic dignity and human worth
Respect for human rights is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.
It has Influenced constitution of many countries. Fundamental Rights in our constitution is
based on UDHR.

Significance of UDHR with reference to India

Our constitution provides for fundamental rights which are based on and inspired by UDHR.
However there are several issues in the past and in the present which signifies the importance of
UDHR

Mass arrests of opposition leaders and mass sterilization program during the emergency period

Even today women are victim of dowry, domestic violence, liquor, rape . Discrimination in work
place, sexual harassment at work place violate the womens right to dignity and freedom. The
low status of women in India is visible in cases of female foeticide.

Discrimination based on caste and class exist in our society . Untouchability is still practiced in
our society specially the rural India and there are cases of increased violence against the
Dalits.
Several projects have resulted in displacing people from their region and deprived them of their
livelihood. eg Narmada Dam project , Although they may be resettled in other areas, there are
issues of human rights

Torture in Custody and custodial deaths , fake encounters, custodial rapes are reported from
various states.
Conditions in our prisons and the inhuman treatment of prisoners is a serious violation of
human rights.

Several farmers committing suicide raises question of Right to Live.

Child labor is still prevalent in India. Children employed in homes and in commercial
workplaces, are subjected to ill-treatment. The chaining of bonded child labour in the carpet
industry near Varanasi so that they could not escape was reported. There are reports of
Domestic child workers being tortured sometimes resulting in death.

There has been increasing cases of child abuse, and more particularly child sexual abuse

20 years after Bhopal tragedy, victims are still waiting for justice.

In the light of the above it is significant to note that we as a nation should understand the principles
of UDHR. NHRC, and many human rights activists have been taking action on human rights
issues as and when they are reported But a lot more needs to be done by all concerned . What is
required is mass awareness and self regulation

Q Trace the Growth and Development of Womens Movement in India

Women in India have been discriminated since ages.

At one time in India - in the ancient Vedic period - there were equal rights between men and
women. But in the later Vedic period , males oppressed females and treated them as their
subordinates or similar to a lower caste. Women were considered lacking intellectual capacity ,

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 reasoning and rationality . Women were portrayed under the control and power of man as a girl
under the control of father, as a wife under the control of husband and as a widow under the
control of son.

Issues of Women
India is a patriarchal society, in which Indian women face oppressive gender bias.
Discrimination against women exists even today either in society or at home or in work place,
although the government and the women activists are continuously trying to improve the
status of woman .
personal laws of each specific religion, often conflict with the Indian Constitution, and goes
against womens rights and power.
Womens participation in politics also is less

The female-to-male ratio in India is 933 to 1000, due to female foeticides,

No. of women working outside their home in offices is considerably less. Women take up lower
paying, unskilled jobs with less job security than men. Even in agricultural jobs where the work
of men and women are highly similar, women are still paid less for the same amount and type
of work as men.

Dropout rates of females from middle and primary schools is high and literacy levels are lower
than men.

Growth of womens movement

1. Reform movements; The first phase of womens movement were initiated by men, and later
joined by women. Some of the most influential men involved were: Dr Ambedkar, Raja Ram Mohan
Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Keshav Karve etc The efforts of these men were to abolish
social evils like sati, the custom of child marriage, the disfiguring of widows, promoting womens
education and widow remarriage , obtaining legal rights for women to own property,

2. During the freedom struggle, Gandhiji encouraged women to join the freedom movement.
Women-only organizations like All India Women's Conference (AIWC) emerged. Women were
involved in issues relating to the womens political participation, womens voting rights, and
leadership roles in political parties, . After independence in 1947, women were granted
constitutional equality . There was provision for womens upliftment through maternal health and
child care provision (crches), equal pay for equal work etc. The state adopted a supporting role
towards women.

3. Women & personal Laws: In India, , the Hindu, Islamic, and other religious communities have
their own personal laws. Some of the aspects of these laws are divorces, adoption, guardianship ,
inheritance etc. which are different in different personal laws. Women are differentiated depending
on the personal laws:

Although Indian law considers all men and women equal , Muslim societies in some places do not
treat women as equals.. The majority of Muslim women are never employed outside the home. The

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 Muslim Personal Law overrides even the Indian Constitution.

A uniform civil code was proposed in the Constitution (Article 44 )for all citizens of India, However it
has not yet been implemented by the states.

4. Women & Social Issues: The feminist movements highlighted aspects of womens oppression
such as inequality, dowry, rape, female foeticide , domestic violence , girl prostitution, etc .A no.
of Activists, NGOs and researchers started highlighting issues like stereotype portrayal of women
in media and indecent portrayal of women . Organization like Stree Mukti Sangharsh (Women's
Liberation Struggle) started promoting equality between men and women

The Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA), a union of women working as street vendors
and rag-pickers and in home-based industries, established the first women's bank for poor women

These movements resulted in creating awareness about the issues. A no. of laws were formulated
to prohibit female foeticide and indecent portrayal of women, against dowry deaths and domestic
violence. Rape laws have been amended to include marital rape by the husband In 1986, the
National Policy on Education (NPE) was created in India. The focus was on the empowerment of
women through education

5. Women and Workplace: The National Commission for women is fighting for the cause of women
at their workplace. i.e exploitation in terms of long working hours, low wages and sexual
exploitation

6. Conclusion: These movements have created a lot of awareness among the women about their
rights. Womens organizations and the government are working towards educating and
empowering women in society and encouraging them to fight for their rights. Today women have
started coming out of their homes and participating in politics, taking up professions which were
earlier meant only for the men. ( flying planes, running buses, autos, trains etc) Womens
Reservation Bill reserving 33% seats in parliament and state Assembly for women is a great step
towards womens empowerment. But a lot is still to be done.
CONCEPT TESTING
1. Secularism: Secularism is a concept of separating the State from religion. It is something
that has nothing to with religion. It means that government should exist separately from
religion and religious beliefs. When we say we are secular it means we have the right to be
free from religious rule and teachings, and freedom from government imposing religion
upon the people.
India is a secular country. The preamble to our constitution makes it clear that India is a
socialist, secular democratic Republic it implies that every citizen of India has the freedom
to practice their own religion and government policies and programs are never related to
religion.. It means the government will not interfere with religious beliefs or activities of the
citizens. In secular societies, political parties or religious orders are not expected to use
their religion for political gains.
2. Silent Spring: Silent Spring is a book published in the US in the mid 1960s warning
people about the disastrous effects of pesticides and particularly DDT. It warned that
indiscriminate use of the pesticide could kill hundreds of species of insects and harm
human beings. The author Rachel Carson was an environmentalist .

DDT was the most powerful pesticide the world had ever known , was capable of killing
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 hundreds of different kinds of insects at once.

The book describes how the pesticide enters the food chain and causes cancer and genetic
disorders. The book describes how a courageous woman took on the chemical industry
and raised important questions about the impact of human activities on nature .

As a result of the book and its reception, the Environmental protection Agency was
established in 1970. DDT and other pesticides have been completely banned in the US.
Several birds including eagles were thus saved from extinction.

The main theme of silent Springs was Man as a part of nature has a duty to protect nature
from destruction. The silent Spring launched the environmental movement world wide.

3. Concept of Secession: Secession is the act of withdrawing from political unity. Eg., one of
the states of India demanding separation from the Indian Union . There are several
separatist movements in India mainly in the North East and the North west. The cause for
secession is generally the discontent of the people with the existing government. They feel
neglected and hence want to separate or due to military oppression as in the case of East
Pakistan wanting to separate from Pakistan and formed Bangla desh.

Indian constitution does not allow Indian States to separate from the Indian Union.
Secession movements in Nagaland and Sikkim have been suppressed by Military. However
separation sentiments still run high in these states.

Secession movements were also active in Mizoram, Punjab ( as Khalistan) , Tripura and
Tamil Nadu. They have died down due to military action and political agreements like the
Mizo accord and the Assam Accord.

Secession is considered justified only if secessionists can create a viable state . Many feel
that secession could be considered only to rectify grave injustice or in cases of oppression
of ethnic or racial groups.

Major secessionist movements are currently ongoing in Russia, Spain, Canada, Nigeria,
India, and Sri Lanka, among others, and these movements have had a strong impact on
international security. The ongoing secessionist movement in Kashmir, for example, is a
major threat to security in South Asia .

4. P O T A: POTA is Prevention of Terrorist Activities .POTA was an anti-terrorism law

introduced by the government in 2002. The Act replaced previous laws , TADA and POTO.

The act was introduced to fight terrorism within the country of India and was to be applied
against any person involved in terrorist activities. The act defined what a terrorist act and a
terrorist is and grants special powers to the investigating authorities to deal with terrorism
and terrorists.

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 To ensure certain powers were not misused and there are no human rights violations,
specific safeguards were built into the act. Under the new law

a suspect can be detained upto 180 days without the filing of charges in court

the identities of witnesses need not be disclosed

a confession made to the police can be treated as an admission of guilt. Under

regular Indian law, a person can deny such confessions in court, but not under
POTA.

5. Right to Information The Government runs on the money paid by the people as taxes.
Therefore people have a right to know how the money is being used. In a democracy,
people are the masters. Governments responsibility is to serve the people. People have
a right to know how they are being governed and how the tax payers money is spent . We
have a representative democracy . We elect our representatives who then rule us. We
therefore should have a right to question them on what decisions they take on our behalf
and why such decisions are made.

The Right to information Act came into force in India on 12th October 2005. The Act
extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir.

The law grants a right to the citizens

To question their governments

Inspect government records

Take copies

Participate in day-to-day governance

Government decisions, actions are no longer a secret. However any information which can
affect the sovereignty and integrity of India and security of the State, foreign relations or
lead to offence need not be disclosed by the Government under this Act.

6. Trade Union Trade Union or labor union is an organization of workers. The trade union
through its leadership bargains with the employer on behalf of union members , negotiates
wages, work rules, promotions, benefits , workplace safety and various other policy
matters. Trade Union Movement is organized activities of workers to improve their working
conditions.

In the early stages of industrial revolution when there were personal contacts between
employers and the workers, there was no need for any organization to resolve disputes.
But with more and more modernization , the personal touch was absent and the relations
between employer and the employee came under stress. There were unfair labor practices
low wages, long working hours , unsafe working conditions, hire and fire policy etc.
Workers reacted to these unfair practices by strikes, hunger strikes, bandhs, gheraos,
demonstrations , mass casual leave etc.

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 Workers join the union because they believe that they can negotiate better pay, better
working conditions, provide training for new skills and give general advice and support.
There is a regular membership fee to be paid to the union . The union decides who may be
a member of the union and elect their leader. Employer is generally not permitted to seek
out another labor union .

7. Ozone Depletion; Ozone depletion is reduction of ozone layer in the earths stratosphere.
Ozone layer protects the earth from suns ultraviolet rays . If the ozone layer is depleted by
human action, it can have adverse effect on the planet.

OZONE Depletion was first discovered in the mid-1980s in Antarctica. . Scientists noticed a
decrease in ozone level in the stratosphere, which caused a massive hole in the ozone layer
right above Antarctica . The discovery of this hole would mean more UV rays of sun reaching
the earth . It could cause skin cancer, affect human immune system and crop growth, Ozone in
the upper atmosphere absorbs UV radiation from the sun preventing it from reaching the earth
where it could cause harm to humans, crops and other problems. Ozone depletion will cause
climate change , change in wind pattern , and exposure to UV light will cause skin cancer,
cataracts, change in life cycle of plants disrupting the food chain.

The most leading cause of ozone depletion is the production and emission of CFCs,
chlorofluorocarbons.. CFCs float to the upper atmosphere where the suns heat breaks
them releasing chlorine atoms. Chlorine destroys ozone.

Many countries have called for the end of CFC production Companies are finding substitutes
for CFCs, and people in general are becoming more aware of the dangers of ozone depletion.

8. Positive discrimination

Positive discrimination means treating one person more favourably than another on the ground
of that individuals sex, race, age, marital status or sexual orientation. While, in this situation,
the individuals characteristic is being taken into account to benefit that individual, typically
because that individual belongs to a group that is often treated unfairly or under-represented in
the workforce, this is nevertheless unlawful discrimination. An exception to this principle is in
the context of disability discrimination where it is permissible and, in some circumstances even
necessary, to treat disabled employees more favourably than non-disabled staff. Another
exception is where positive discrimination can be justified as a genuine occupational
requirement or qualification.

In India places are reserved for those of the lowest castes under the Ninth Schedule of the
Indian constitution in state-supported employment, and in educational and political institutions
at all levels. Supporters of the system see this as the dominant groups in society paying off a
historical debt, and as an enabling process that will lead to more integrated societies. Critics
point out that the system negates the principles of both equality and merit, and further, that it
permits whole sections of society to avoid competition, which in turn reinforces prejudices.

9. Right to development
The declaration for the right to development is the outcome of the study of developmental
levels of states all over the world. Studies conducted by the UN have shown that there are
imbalances in the levels of development between and within nations and hence it is

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 necessary to uplift the weaker and deprived sections of society such as women, children,
tribals, and those affected by social practices and norms.

Relevant recent issue: Aaja Nachale lyrics

In India every issue gets politicized

Previously it was degrading to make handbags and shoes today it is hi fi

Every individual has a natural urge to maintain self respect and improve the standard of living.
Life is worth living not only when a person hats access to the basic necessities of life but it also
implies living with dignity. This requires opportunities for every individual to actualize his or her
own potential and enhance the quality of life.
The DRD was adopted on December 4 1986 by the UN General Assembly and became a
more contemporary right in the List of human rights. It added a new dimension to human
rights both for the individual and society and made it obligatory for every state to develop
the life of people within in the Nation.

All projects and programmes should take steps to eliminate the massive violations of human rights
of people affected by racial discrimination, foreign domination, displacement, and threats against
national unity. Development must become an inseparable part of every individuals life by
eradicating social injustice and promoting peace and security. The right to development therefore
includes:
1) The Right to Self Determination (Kashmir? Khalistan? Nandigram?)
2) Education
3) A pollution free environment
4) Rehabilitation
The World Conference on Human Rights at Vienna in 1993 reaffirmed the Right to
Development as an integral part of Universal Human Rights and stated that All Countries
must co operate to bring about equitable economic relations and create a social
climate that will enable every person to have an active role in Development and enjoy
Human Rights.

10. Organized crime

"Organized Crime" means crime which is of a conspiratorial nature and that is either of an
organized nature and which seeks to supply illegal goods and services such as narcotics,
prostitution, loan sharking, gambling, and pornography, or that, through planning and
coordination of individual efforts, seeks to conduct the illegal activities of arson for profit,
hijacking, insurance fraud, smuggling, operating vehicle theft rings, or systematically
encumering the assets of a business for the purpose of defrauding creditors.

Organized crime:
1. Has no political goals
2. Is hierarchical
3. Has a limited or exclusive membership
4. Constitutes a unique subculture
5. Perpetuates itself
6. Exhibits a willingness to use illegal violence
7. Is monopolistic
8. Is governed by explicit rules and regulations

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 11. CEDAW (Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination
Against Women):
The concept of Human Rights was subjected to criticism with regard to its universality by feminist
thinkers specially in Asian Countries. The feminist thinkers point out that many cultural practices in
different parts of he World are oppressive to Women and as such the UDHR has ignored gender
related issues in a patriarchal society. Article 16 denies Women the right to Walk out of violent
homes and in fact negates Article 3, which is Right to Life, Article 4 Right against Servitude and
Article 5 Right against Torcher.
Article 16 almost legally enforces the confinement of Women to the house in order to protect the
family. The UN Commission on the status of Women was established in 1946 to monitor the
situation of Women and protect their rights. It submitted its report after 30 years.
The convention was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1979 on December 18th and became
an International treaty in 1981. More than 40 countries objected to some of the articles of the
convention due to Political, Cultural or Religious reasons. The CEWDO basically emphasizes the
equality of sexes and seeks to remove Gender Bias. Political and Civil Right of Women are
enumerated in great detail and due respect is given to Cultural Factors which affect gender
relations. It states that the role of Women in Pro Creation should not be a basis for discrimination
and that the responsibility for bringing up children should be shared by both parents.

Issue: Videocon does not appoint Women at higher levels at all!

Socio economic factors should not restrain the life and liberty of Women and the Girl Child
should be educated. The media must play an important role in eliminating stereo typed
concepts of Women and create awareness that Womens issues are actually Human Rights
Issues.