CERTIFICATE COURSE ON PIPNG ENGNEERING

-
.

May 11 -27,2005

May 25,2005

Dear Participant,

The thirty-sixth course is nearing completion and except for the few topics to be covered in the remaining
sessions, most core topics have been covered. Piping Engineering has a mind-boggling scope. When we started
off to design this course, there were quite a few who believed that such a course couldn't be designed'and
taught. We also had our doubts about the success that we would achieve when we set out to design what was
perhaps the first formal training programme in Piping Engineering, anywhere in the world. The rest is now
history. The course has not only been reasonably succtssful. it has led to a few other teaching institutions to
start similar programmes. Piping Engineering has become a 'teachable' subject. -

You people have come to this course with varied expectations. Your perceptions of what is central to piping
engineering and what is peripheral may have been diffaent fiom ours. It would be unreasonable on our part to
expect or claim that we have fulfilled all your expectations. But we made a sincere attempt. We would now like
you to spend some time this evening, although the test is staring you in your face, for the benefit of this course
and ponder over the last fifttca days. Please fill up the feedback form attached with this letta and return it
tomorrow, just before the commencement of the test You shall get your question papa in exchange of the filled
up feedback form. We attach a lot of importance to your opinion, constructive criticism and suggestions.

The consolidated opinion is conveyed to various speakers. If it is flattering, they feel encouraged. If it is not;
like good professionals; they would vow to do better given a chance next time. That is the way the course has
come to its present form and +at is the way it shall be.

So, considering it as your duty, give us your feedback. You need not mention your name on the form if you so
like. Names do not matter, opinions do.

Thank you and good luck for the test!

8

.p.-Y*-. . . . . .
.
[ A. S. Moharir ] . .
.

Course Coordinator
 Certificate Course
on
PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005

. A

Organized by '

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Powai, Mumbai 400 076-
 ...
.
.

Friday,.20.05.2005"'
0730 : !OW
1030: 1300
1400 : 1630
1700 : 1930
.. ..
Practicals 1 Derxonmtjon
Flexibility .4nalysis (RIG)
Flexibility Andysis (Contd ...)
Practicals / Demonstntion

. :
. .
I All
1 ,411
I Ail
1
. .
CAW
Creativity Hall,ChE Dept
Creativity Hall, ChE
CADC
..

....
. . . ..
. .
-
. . . . .. . ..

: '073.0 : 1000. . . Practicals / Qemonstration . . . M . CADC,cpJR. N& 240, &E.Dept. :

'. . 1030':'I300 ' - : ':.PipeStrisses (ASM) All .: Creativity Hal\ Wt. ?:.;i:::.:. . . .
,:-' ' 1 4 0 0 f . 1 6 3 0 ' .. Nozzle Reinforcement (ASM) , . . . . . Creativity Hall, C ~ ~E ~ i -
:. ,;
:::i
i . . .

. . . .
. . . ' 1700 : 1930 . . ' . Practicals 7 Dems&ntion
. . . . ...
. . .
E . . CADC, cpc/R. NO..240, ChE-Dept. . . .
. . . . . ,. . . . . . . .
'

9
, '

..
'- '-07301'. 1000 \: -Practicals
.
. .:..
.-
. M . CADC, cpc/R. No;- 240, ChE. Dept.
All : Creativity-Hall, ChE Dcpt . .:..
k 1030 : 1300'::;;' Flexibility Analysis (Contd.:.)
-3. :
. 14m.,.. 1415'....: 'GroupPh&topPh.'
:. : ' : . . .
.:. . . . . . d l . . ... . .. .. . . . . . .. .
I

I 1415 : 1630,-:: Tmisimt Fluid Flow (ASM) ' , '

' .Ail ': . Creativity Halt.(=hE.Dcpt . .-.: ...: . .

All .. : CreatiityHa, ~ ' D c p C ~ . .. ':..:::~

All Creativity Ha1l;Cl-E Dept .: : :-.'
. . . .. ..
. , . . .. ' . . . . . . .
Monday, 23.05.2005 ,.
. .
.
. .:
.
.. . .
. . . . . . . . .. .
.
. . .

. . . .
..
. .
I . 1 . . . 1 . :.
.
. .. .. . . . . . . . .: . .
. . . . ....
- ..:

. : TUeSdOY, ;24,05.2'005
. . . . . . .. . . . .
' . '
. .
. . .
.
.,
. .
. . ...
.
.
. .. . . ..
.
.

.
.
. . .. . . . .. . .. . . . . ..
. . . . -
, . -
.
.. ...-
j . . : :.. .; . .
. . : . . . . . . \ .. .> . . .. .. . .
. . i
. . . . . . . *. ...... . . . . . . ...:.....
07.30 .
.. .. . . . .

.iooo :; meticals . : :
.. - - -.
. . . . .. . . . . . . . .
'M . . . CADC,
. .
N02240, &hE. Dept. . .
. .

: . ''1030: 1300 . DynamicAnalysis (ASM) ~ v a y ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ c p t ~. , . : . : .: . : ~ ~ ; : , .

. . .
-~ .14w:.163O:..pr~~&~(ASM) . .. .. . . . . . .- . .m., , : ,f-&ty,~~.&,&I;~I,$>~<
. . . .
:. ,:
-::..:.,:j
' . . . E .-CAM=.
cpdR
1 7 ~ : 1 9 3 o i ! . i ' - p r ~ i # l s -. ' . .. . . . ' , ::
:..... ... - . . :
,. . . '.. . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . . .. . . . . . .
. . . . .. . . .9 . .
.. -: ,.... . ,:,,
. '.'.
.
. .. . . . . . . .. .. ,./
. . . . . .
Wednejda?li,'::25,
05~~2'O05
.
.; +,;: ;.,
.;
.
' .
~ , . : ... ... .. . ....
. . ?

. .. .
..
: . < : . - .
. .. .. .. ... ..... ...... . . :.. . ... ... . .. . . . . . .
:. >..
,
;

. . . . . .
i:.

. ... . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . .
.
- . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .
i . .

. . ,, ..... . . '

.. ..
....:. a - : .
. . . . .:..
:. i

.
' .
.073Q:looo::.. Case study .M . CFe&vityHd,.mDepi-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1030 : 1300' . ' . Cryogenic Systems V G h i All -: Dcpt .' . . '

'

. ' 1400 :1639 ::. Miscellaneous . .

' : . .
Ail' . . . Creativity Hall, Dcpt 1 . : . . . . . :

. ' . 1700 : 1936 , Case Study

. .
. , .. . . . . ' . 1a ... . .f i e. ; i t. i .v..i t. y. ~. ~. l l , .~.. .~. . .: . .. :. .,.. ;. ' .. ;, ;: ..~..

Thursday, 26.05.2005 ., . . . . . .

. .- 1400
. . : 1615. . . .:
. .
. Quiz All Creativity.. Halt . ChE :;. Depl-118,
. . . . .
. . .
. Integrity Hall, ChE Dept-130, H d t y
Hall, ChE Dept-149- : - . .
' '

'

' 1700 : 1930 . Practicals, Journal Submission E ' .' . . CADC, cpc
. . . . . .
. . '... .
-
. .. .
. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .. .. . . .. . . . . . . . .
Friday, 2 27.05.2005~ . . . , . . . .......
. . . . . . . . . .
. . ;.: . . . . ..
. .. .
...
-

1 All I Creativity ~dl.ChE

1
-2
1
1
0800 : 1000
1000 :1030
1030 : 1200
( Counselling and conclusion
1 Announcement of Results
1 Guest Lecture/ Film Show
I All
I All
I Crcativitv Hall. ChE h
1 Creativity HaU. fii~epc
t - I
1 1200 : 1300 ( Va!edictcry Function I All 1 Creativity Hall, ChE Dept
-2
3 i.
3
3 1
3 3

3 I
3 Certificate Course
I
9 on
1 PIPING ENGINEERING
9
0 I -
May 11 27,2005

INTRODUCTION

Prof. A. S. Moharir .
IlT Bombay

. -

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
-
Powai, Mumbai 400 076
 .I
>-
,
'PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

INTRODUCTION

About two decades . ago, in India, the In almost all chemical industries, the
design procedure for piping systems for installed capital cost of piping is a major
Refineries, Petrochemicals and Fertilizer factor in plant investment. Figs. 1 and
Plants, in magnitude, depth and 2 show a chart based on oil refineries,
complexities were not hlly evolved. Only chemical and petrochemical complexes.
in the recent past, we were exposed in Fig. 1 shows that, excluding major
detail to this field. Now we are self- equipment costs, piping is the largest plant
sufficient in the field of piping technology cost component. It exceeds the next
and design. largest component by a factor of two. It is
also observed h m Fig. 3 that piping
Piping systems in a chemical plant are exceeds all other field costs by a
comparable to the vanes and arteries substantial amount. Fig. 2 indicates &at
&ugh which fldds, vapors, slurries, design engineering utilizes approximately
solids, etc. flow under various conditions, 45% of engineering man-hours and 50%
as imposed by the process design 'of the of th'ese hours are used in piping design.
plant. Piping network is subjected to
almost all the sewerest conditions of the In addition to the above, the lost time in
plant such as high temperature, brissure, piping has au effect, which goes well.
flpw 'and combination of these. In beyond' its h t cast, as it involves
addition to the above, corrosion, erosion, financial loss in some pmportion to the
toxic conditions and radioactivity add to total plant inves.hnent. The delay in and
more problems and difficulties in piping during start up meam idle capital and
design. With the process conditions losses in plant earning capacity.
becoming more and more severe by the
advanccmcnt in process development, a
In the recent years, the &end is to develop
better techniques so as to save timt in
continuous e B r t is required to be carried
piping activities. Computer is being used
on simultaneously to cope .up with the
demands of process. This makes the job-of extensively to obtain rapid solutions to the
more complex problems of plant design
a piping engineer more complex and
and, in so for as piping is concerned, to
~ ~ i b l e .
. .
. . .. : . .
. . . . .. . .
.
.the solving of piioblems of pipe stressing.
,,Pip'& . , ; b h Cof .its m,rrq-
', '

a More recently, .it is being employed

. n&b&of day to jlay decisidns onn
. ..
mahers .. fbr prodz1ction of piping detail drawings,
.of d&l, *ich, in ways a e often piping isometrics, bill of materials, cost.
more"difficult to solve than major .issues estimation and control. Piping engineer
connected with the project It is-this same has therefore a furtherresponsiility in
detail which can cause expensive delays in understanding and application of
design and construction and consequently continually growing techniques of this
in commissioning. All too often in the nature.
past, piping h i been regarded as an
unimportant job in the overall project
engineering instead of being treated as a
h c t i o n requiring as wide a knowledge,
experience and variety skills as any other
branch of engineering.
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Piping engineer requires not only wide sufficiently to discuss rationally, any
-
engheahg knowledge not necessarily particular subject with specialists
in depth, but certainly in understanding - concerned. More importantly, he must
but he must also have an understanding of have sufficient broad knowledge b h o w
engineering economics and costs, of that certain conditions can arise at the
metallurgy, of methods of pipe fabrication early stages of plant design, where lack of
and erection He must have some awareness can cause difficulties and even
knowledge of industrial chemistry and disasters.
chemical engineering in addition to a
sufficient knowledge of mechanical, civil, A fairly good knowledge of structural
electrical and instrument engineering so as engineering is a must. Piping in op&on
to discuss requirements and problems with is always in movement and subjected to
specialists in these fields. This will be pressure k d forces with consequent
more clear with the data piping reactions on mechanisms such as pumps,
department requires from other disciplines compressors and equipment ih general,
.-- as given in Annexure k He should be co- and on structures and related piping. .Lack
operative, able to communicate of knowledge can cause errors mflicient
effectively, lead or take part in teamwork, to cause machine or eqyiprnent
'

be alive to the application of new breakdown or to overstress and even cause

methods, materials and designs. He must collapse of structures.
be aware of standards, codes and
practices. A good knowledge of safety codes and
practices is also essential.
There are several aspects of e n g h d g ..
technology, which the piping engineer ' a piping engineer khollld be
~ b o v eall,
must know something about at- very well conversant w ith drafting
least pro&- d. practices. ..
'
.
> . .
-I.-

The size and scale of a company or design organization in a small office of say, ten
office do not change 'either the basic men, and a large company with hundreds .
piping design ~ ~ e n ort sthe of pipimg men, as indicated in Figs. 4 and
underlying design principles and practices. 5, but the job performed in both cases is
As the volume of piping design work and i d d d and has the same degree of
the number of projects executed relative importance to the whob project
increases, so also does the degree of design organization. The real
speciaIization increase. Functions such as diffz~encelies in rate of projects, passing
pip* layout, piping specifications, detail through the design office. In the small
drafting and material listing begin to ' office, the flow of projects is such that
emerge as separate departments within the each project is substantially completed
design office. There is little apparent before the succeeding project commences.
similarity between piping design This demands flexible organization of a
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

small group, who have responsibility for In both cases, piping design is the most
all aspects of design: In the large lengthy and complex part of the whole
company, however, projects are much design procedure and almost always on
more Grequent. Thus the greater volume of the critical path of the project plan.
work handled by a large group makes a
high degree of specialization necessary for
economic and administrative reasons.

. 1

stage. It illustrates the unifying role

Piping is an important element of every
stage of project design, purchasing and by the piping engineer in acting as
Ol construction. It is intimately linked to the a clearinghouse for data provided from
9
q-3 : 3
i other project work on equipment,
electrical, instrument
engineering. Work on piping is
and civil
other specialist engineers. It also indicates
the last stage of the project, when piping
erection is being carried out and when one
1 proceeding at every stage of the project, faces the difficulties of correcting the
partly because of the sheer volume of desigd errors without delaying project
3 , 7 design and erection work, but mainly completion. Since the quantum of work
3 because of the need to rdate .other involved in piping is very extensive, the
project activities to the piping design. A d e s i ~and
, erection activities of piping
f, appear on the critical path of this network,
3 ' typical activity network and bar chart for a
b
: process plant project are shown in Figs. 6 The 'criti~alpath planning helps in proper
. .
and 7. allocation and utilization of manpower for
critical activities, thus avoiding
1
-E
The activity network shows dearly the uneconomic and wastehl allocation of
?3 , ' intmlated activities of piping and other
bmohes of projeet, partiedarly at design
resources.

"Fhe efficiency with which the entire P i p i i engineer is responsible for a

systems of any particular projects work substantial part of total project &st.
depends upon initial phase and is in the Achievement of his program things is
hands of piping analytical engineer. critical to the completion of project in
Every change the engineer makes h m his time. In addition to his own h c t i o n as a
base design is compounded ten folds specialist design engineer, he must
down stream as so many other operations provide a considerable amount of
depend on his design. The analytical information and design continuity inside
design is the 'BIBLE' and must be correct the project design organization.
in the f b t inst&. The correctness,
thoroughness and efficiencyof the design
released by the analytical engineer
determines the efficiency of the piping
design and influences, significantly, the-
efficiency and quality of overall plant."
 I

PIPING ENGISEERING CELL

Adequacy The piping engineer has, therefore,

considerable responsibility for economic
'% Piping design must be adequate to and accurate design. Much development
meet the process specification and of design methods and organization has
physical conditions in which the plant taken pl.ace over the years. In large design
is to operate. . organizations, techniques have emerged,
Economy whereby procedures for producing simple
symbolic data conveying maximum
'% Adequate design must be achieved at information at minimum cost can be
an economic cost within the project
budget. Design cost must be
employed. The basic elements of these
procedures are:
I
minimized by maximiiing the use of

.
standardized methods of detailing and
&ta presentation.
3 Rapid data retrieval 1.
3 Standardization of engineering
Clarity
design methods for stressing,
material selection etc. .
i
b Much of the piping data is derived
fiom and used by other engineeting
3 Maxknum use of standards I
departments and must be clear, 3 Symbolic drawing procedures
consistent and reliable. I
I .

3 Standarilization of document format

for issue of piping i n f o d o n .
Accuracy I1 .
b Details of piping and materials must A responsible piping engineer would try
to take the maximum use of such methods
be complete and accurate.
RcctXcation of mistakes in these
activities at a later stage may prove to
and procedures. I.
be very costly and can delay project
completion
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Major Equipment - 50%

Material Costs Major

FIG. 1 . .

FIG. 2
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

EII
Design Depts.

Piping layouts
Flow Sheet & Plant layout &
Piping Details
Process Data> E a ~ tlayout
.
Material List & Summary
Purchase Requisitions
v Fabrications

Programme Target Erection

Pipe System
Cost Control
Construction
FIG. 4 PIPING DESIGN IN SMALL
ORGANIZATION
Project Dept

Utilities

Equipment
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

piping Activity Shaded)

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

PIPING SECTION

I 1
INPUTS TO PIPING
Data as per project design basis such as indicative
I

- 1.
OUTPUTS FROM PIPING
Overall plot plan showing location of various units,
I
Plot Plan, PFDs, P&XDs, FDS, Process Process tankfarms, offsite, package units, non-plant buildings, roads,
description, Equipment list, Line list, Site data, licensor culverts, piperacks, sleepers, etc.
etc. . . . .
. ,
. .
. ,

2 . Electrical tray , width . .,

.

requirements on -- ~ l e c t . 2. Piping matetia1pecifications.

., : piperacklpipe sleepers and cable trench width in
. . . . .
. .
. .
, ,

;.unitdoffsites , ,. . ., . . . . ..
. . .
.. . . . . .

3 Instr. cable tray size requirement on -- Instr.' 3. Equipment layouts (1 :200), (1:1OO), & (1 :50).
piperack/sleepers

4 Engineering data sheets of equipments like -- Mech. 4. TOG Elevations and loads with anchor bolt size, no., and
columns, vessels, tanks, etc. bolt locations for all equipment.
. . .

5 , . ~ n ~ data
. g . sheets, giving o v d dimensions, -- 5. GGeneralarrange&nt of piperack and equipment supports
. supporting m g e r n e n t with no. of anchor bolis. Process s,tructures
. .
including
.
loads.
. .
.. . :, ', . size, location and bolt circle dia.. All. nozzles
.
'
,
.
location, size, rating, etc.
. .
for hh'exchangers. .
. .

6 HVAC-ducting layouts preliminary and final. -- Utility 6. Piping general arrangement drgs. including platforms,
ladders, overhead cranes elevation, location, loads and
layout of monorail, cutouts, inserts and sleeves, required for
piping, etc.
 .. 4

PIPlWG ENGINEERING CELL

7 Layouts of various emuent & drain sewers and -- Civil 7. BOM & technical evaluation and technical bidding analysis.
location of manholes.

8 System preliminaxy and final layout drawings of --Utility 8. Stress analysis

the packaged units including auxiliary
equipments.

-- Civil
'

Architectural drgs. . o f : insh control mom,

-
9' , ,, ~ o i orientation
c drgs. including location of davits.
.. .
. . -electrical sub-station, laboratory and,othet offices
. . . ' inside the unit-plans and eievatigns.
, . . .
. .

. , : 10, G A drgs., overall dGkmions, base plate and --

' . 1 0 .vessel clcats lacation drgs. for pipe supports, platforms and
. : anchor bolt locations, ndzzle locd-, size,type, . process
. . ladders.
.. . rating, type of drive, permissible n~zzle~loads,
etc.
' for pu+s. , .. . .. .

. . . . . .. . .

: . . 11 . Foundation and super strucpue drgs. of. piperacks

'.
.
-- Civil 11 undergriund piping layout.
. .
1 and process/technolkgical,
... .
$truchrr:ea. . . .
. . .
. .

. .. . . . .
1 2 Overall f?undat'ion
.
layout.. . .
'.

. .
' .
.
. . ' ,
. -- Civil . ,12 Isometrics of piping including system ISOs

13 Platfixm drgs. and special pipe structure support -- Civil 13 Support drgs. of piping and special support details.
structure drgs.

14 G e n d arrangements drgs. of electrical cable -- Elect. 14 Tender for fabrication S.O.Q.

hyltrench layouts.

IS Tank settlement data. -- Civil 15 Tender for insulation S.0.Q

 1 i
. -
PIPING ENGINEERlNG CELL
.-..

PIPING ENGINEERING:A MAJOR PHASE IN THE LIFE CYCLE OF

PROCESS PLANTS

't I . Indian Institute of Technology

--?-I
7 INTRODUCTION because ignoring these may lead to penalties
>
1 The life of a chemical process, from in future as harsh as having to top the
' > concept to commissioning and beyond, activity. So, economics remains the guiding
.- involves almost all disciplines of principle. There is nothing to wrong with it
I . engineering. So wide is the knowledge base because such a profit motive has led to great
53 requirement and so intricately integrated technological innovations.
these inputs from various specializations are For new products, technical
3 that they make the conventional e n g i p e e ~ g feasibility is an important first aspect to -
1 disciplines such as chemical engineering, study. This can comprise of .
-t3 mechanical engineering, metallurgical Chemical Path Feasibility
4? -
I engineering, civil engineering, etc. look
artificial. A good chemical process engineer
Engineerin~echnological
Feasibility
1.
needs to have a v a y broad howledge For the first part, especially in the
I derived &om these diseiphes.
P area of organic synthesis, reaction path
3 !
The idea of this paper is to take a
b i d s eye view of the activities during the
synthesis algorithms are available. These
would short-list a few routes for synthesis
-3 I
. Me cycle of a process, especially those that which are thermodynamically feasible. Every
-)
concern a piping engineer. thermodynamically feasible reaction need -

i I
not necessarily be practical because for
fh MATORPHASES practicality, it is essential that the reaction
'i
'.

7 The major phases in the fife cycle of takes ,place at a suitable rate. Too fast
a c h d c a l process can be identified as: ,. .. reactions may lead to op&ation/control
I
4 1. Determination of Techno-aonomic problems while too slow reactions may
.> 's feasibility .
requke huge quipment to be able to process
2. . Design Phase commercial quantities. Means of
? '

.I,
ir - 3. Comtmc'iionPhase
, promoting/inhibiting reaction rates(catalysts)
>; ; . , .4. Commissionkig P k c srs ~ftcfirquircd. A major portion of
'-) 5. ~pmtibn/Produ~tion Phase . .. . ' . '

reactions in chemical industry are catalytic

Y
J ,! , .
- A piping engineer h e an.important role'to in nature. A general view of any chemical
2
I) . .
p I a y d ~ g p b w 2 - 5 , .. . .. .
.
.. .
.
', ' . . -.

process plant can be a reactor at the heart and

'TECHNO-ECON'O~C
2 d
"' 1, . . 1..
. . .
.

.li"EMIBILI[TY. . - --::
:
- .
. -.
. .
.- , .
-, . . .

. . .. . .
..
.
..
other units necessary to prepare feed for the
reactor or process output from the reactor.
.I,> ' . . ' Except perhaps hithe early days of., ' Once a chemical route which is
L
.
l . metallurgical industry, economic. gain has thermodynamically and kinetically feasible
)
. i
'
: been a.major .considerationin the choice and is chosen, a block flow diagram(BFD),
;i > ..
scale of .a production activity. Risk factor
and pollution considerations seem to be
'
.

'
which can be said to be the first engineering
diagram in the life cycle of a process, can be
d. :
,
)
.' i
gaining importa+e, but these are also due to prepared. It simply shows the operations that
CP economic considerations .
to. a large extent, are involved in the feed prepmtion section
1, ii
:..:+ . .
. .

1
1 -: . . . .
i I . ' . . . ,
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL 1
and product treatment section of a process total mass is obviously conserved in any
and the general sequence of events. The process including the chemical processes.
operations could be heat removal or addition, All operations in chemical processes wherein
. mixing or separation, purnpinglcompressing, the masses of individual components are also
etc. For a given scale of operation and conserved are termed as unit operations. This
estimated or expected performance levels of would necessitate that no chemical
the equipment to be later selected for these transformations take place during these
operations, one can put fust estimates of operations. Phase change, is however, not
stream characteristics such as flow rates, excluded. Pipe flow, pumping, compression,
composition, temperatures, pressure etc. on mixing, evaporation, distillation, extraction,
the BFD. With this, the process can be said etc. are unit operations in this sense.
to be born in two dimensions. The heart of any chemical process, a
The chemically feasible route is yet reactor, is however, an operation where the
to be tested for its technical and economic total mass is conserved but the species mass
viability. is not. Some or all the species undergo
,4t a broad level, a decision as to the chemical transformations. These are called
desirability of batch operation, continuous unit processes. For example, nitration,
operation or a combination has to be taken. oxidation, hydrogenation, chlorination,
Scale is an important issue here, but not the esterification are called unit processes.
only one. Some operations are inherently The. operations in a process as
batcwsemibatch in nature, e.g. adsorption. identified in the BFD may be carried out by
The poition of the flowsheet involving batch on< or more candidate unit operations. For
operation must operate in that mode. It can example, a component from a mixture may
suitably coexist with upstream/downstream be separated by distillation or crystallization
continuous operation through provision of or adsorption. Which choice is the best ( h m
suitably sized storage tanks which do the job economic point of view)? Is a parallel or
of isolating the batch operation section from series combination of alternatives a better
the continuous one. solution?
Some operations are feasible in batch Even after selecting the appropriate
as well as continuous mode but strict quality unit operation, one may have to converge on
control (absence of byproducts due to side the appropriate implementation strategies.
reactions etc.) or variations in feed/products For example, a four component mixture may
specifications etc. may tilt the scale in favour be separated by multiple distillation columns
of bztch operation. Foi !3c siuae scale oC iu several possibk ways. W'hichone of t h e
operation, batch process equipment result in options is the best for a given situation?
much larger process fluid inventory in the - . -... la -.case .of...reactors, choice. of -
plant at any time. If the fluids being handled equipment is equally important A fluid
are hazardous, it would mean that potential phase reaction, for example may be carried
hazards are higher in batch operation vis-A- out in a tubular reactor with or without
vis continuous operation. This aspect is recycle, a stirred pot or a combination. A
. assuming more and more importance in the reaction involving solid catalyst may be
emerging zero-risk scenario. carried out in a packet bed, moving bed,
Once tlic operations and the mode in basket type reactor, a flllidized bed reactor, a
which these are to be carried out are riser reactor, etc. Which one of these options
determined, the actual methods of achieving is the best for a given situation?
results of an operation are to be decided. The
i
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Plant cost and operating cost are two to carry out rigorous engineering
components to be considered in the choice of calculations for the chemical engineering
equipment. It is possible to pose the problem aspects as well as mechanical engineering
as an optimization problem (cost aspects and come out with rigorous
minimization), the solution of which gives documents (text, drawings) so that the
cost optimal flowsheet configuration. This implementation details can be passed on to -

phase of flowsheet development is called the subsequent phases in the life cycle.
Trocess Synthesis" and widely accepted It must be remembered that just as it
CAD tool in chemical engineering. is important to know what is happening
Mathematically, these are MILP (Mixed inside a particular piece of
Integer Linear Programming) or MINLP equipment(chernica1 engineering), it is
(Mixed Integer Non-Linear Programming) equally important to know whether the
problems. mechanical design and metallurgy of the
Selection of other pieces of confining vessel are adequate to allow this to
equipment such as pumps, reboilers, heat happen without risks to the other flowsheet
exchangers can be taken up at and components and to the external world. The -
considered as a part of process synthesis issues are inseparably involved and chemical
stage or postponed to a later stage. and mechanical engineering have to hand-
Chemical processes are generally in-hand. Unfortunately, that is normally not
energy intensive. With the rising energy cost, the case.
attention has recently turned to minimization The design phase has essentially two
of external energy requirement. These u e components; the process design and the
cooling water, steam, heating oil etc., the so mechanical design.
called utility steams. It is essential to Process is the detailed material and
minimize utility requirement by encouraging energy balance calculation across the process
as much process stream to process stream flowsheet. It would also establish the
heat transfer as possible within operational operating conditions, equipnents size(not
and layout constraints. These problems are necfessarily shape), utility requirements, ete.
also mathematically posed as MILP and With this idonnation appended to the BFD,
Ml.NL,P and are called as HEN (Heat one gets a Process Flow Diagrams(PFD).
Exchanger Network) Synthesis problem. For example, process design of a
With these process synthesis tasks distillation column would mean calculating
accomplished, conceptual design stage of the the number of trays, feed tray locations,
process is over. The equipxnt have been draw locati~ns,draw locations, condenser
selected and roughly their capacities are and reboiler duties, reflux ratio, etc. The heat
known. The capital cost and the operating exchanger process design would mean
,

costs can be estimated. This information calculating the operating temperature,

coupled with the raw material availability pressure, reactor volume, reactor heat
and cost and the demand and market prices removaVaddition requirements, etc. These
of products and byproducts would help in operatingldesign conditions can be
establishing the economic feasibility of the calculated to satisfy some criterion such as
process. A techno-economically feasible minimum operating cost or minimum
process is now ready to enter the design impurities or minimum pollution or
phase. maximum conversion to desired cproduct or
2. DESIGN PHASE a combination of these.
The objective of the design phase is
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

These decisions which help to zarrive require the knowledge of dynamics of a

at optimal design and not only workable process. Dynamic process simulators are
designs are possible only by creating and being developed and slowly getting
answering what-if situations around each acceptance as decision making tools in these
equipment or part or whole of the flowsheet. areas.
For sxample, we need to try different feed Although designed for steady state
locations for a distillation column, different operations, truly speaking, no process
reflw ratios etc. and see how the steady state operates at a steady state. This is because
performance(top or bottom composition) there could be disturbances (may be with
changes. A feed location andlor reflux ratio zero mean) beyond the control of operators.
which gives the desired performance is one Even if we have a tight hold on everything,
of the candidate designs. There may be the ambient' conditions (temperature, wind
several such designs. The one which is velocity) change fiom time to time. This
optimum in some sense is then chosen. changes the amount of heat ingress or egress
Prediction of performance for inputed fiom the equipment and pipelines which
design and operating conditions by solving affect the energy balance of the whole
phenomenological equations of any system and system performance would vary
operation on computer is called simulation. if no counter measures are taken. This is the
Programs which can do it for the whole job of suitably chosen controllers.
flowsheet simultaneously are flowsheeting Control system design is an
. programmes. They are also termed as steady important area.. System identification,
state simulators because they simulate only modeling, manipulated-controlled variable
the steady state performance of a process pair selection, controller selection,
flow sheet. controllability evaluation are important
Simulation based process design areas. Dynamic simulation packages need to
completes one very important phase in the be used for this purpose so that CSSD can be
life cycle of a chemical process. The done at process design stage.
equipment types and sizes, all stream HAZOP is another important and
specifications (Flow rate, composition, now mandatory activity. It is a qualitative,
temperature, pressure), operating conditions experience intensive exercise as of now. It is
are known at this stage. This, when in the form of deviation analysis. After the
incorporated in Bfd, converts it to it PFD, an process design, the steady state
$portant engineering diagram. It is still 2- specifications of each stream in the
D, but since it has sigmficantly more tlowsheet are known. The M O P team
information content, let us call it a 2114-D - exhaustively asks itself questions as to what
drawing. This is often cbnsidereh as-anend- %

@ -ill if these specification deviate

happen
- -- product of a conventional chemical engineer. from the expected steady state value. It
Although widely used in process debates the possible causes and
design, steady state stimulators do not help consequences of each such eventuality.
in decision making during several important Anything wbich appears to them as likely to
stages of a chemical process. The important lead to hazardous situation is debated further
ones start up and shut down, transition phase and possible means of avoiding the same or
during fecixrock and p r o d ~ ~chayeover,
t rai.sing alarm if it ha~pensso that remedid
relief and blow down, control systems action can be taken etc. are r,ecommended.
synthesis and design, Hazard and Operability This may lead to recommendation of
(HAZOP) studies, etc. These situations additional instrumentation on lines and
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

equipment, high-low alarms and trips etc. To make sure that a batch or semi-
which may be required to be provided. batch operation can coexist with upstream -

The idea of HAZOP is to foresee andlor downstream continuous units, storage

hazardous situation and take measures and tanks need to be provided as was mentioned
abundant precaution to avoid them and earlier.
increase process safety. Sometime, a particular requirement of an
The requirement of monitoring equipment may call for such a provision, for
instruments for providing signals to example, to ensure that the pump suction
controllers or also to continuously monitor does not run dry in the event of upstream
process performance is identified. process upsets. Start-up or shut-down
'

. The PFD shows the flow rates, conditions may also call for intermediate
composition, temp-erature and pressure of all storage tanks.
feed, product and intermediate streams. The A PFD modified further to indicate
properties of these streams such as density stand-by equipment, storage tanks,
and velocity can therefore be calculated. instrumentation and control, pipe sizes,
Hydraulic calculations to decide the pressure valves, etc. becomes a P&ID. It may also -

drop due to flow fiom one unit to another show relative elevation of various
can be done at this stage. Pipe sizing which equipment, number of trays and feed tray
is a balance between operating cost (energy location in a distillation column, etc.
lost due to flow in pipes) and capital cost P & D is a very important schematic
(function of pipe diameter, thickness and during the design stage process. In fact this
pipe run) can be canied out. is what is stored and updated throughout the
The pressure drop correlation to be life of a process. It is considered as a
used depends on the nature of flowing cardinal drawing for various sections in a
medium: incompressible, compressible, design organization. It also is the basic
slurry, two-phase, three-phase, etc. drawing for subsequent equipment design,
Reasonably good correlation are plant layout, piping layout, bill of
available for calculating pressure drop for material(BOM), insulation calculations, etc.
single phase compressible or incompressible Project engineering literally begins with this
fluid flow. or t w ~ - ~ h &flow,
e correlations mother drawing in hand.
are available but their predictive power is Piping Engineer must be thoroughly
. doubhl. Possibility of various flow regimes, conversant with P&ID. Each organization
uncertainties regarding regime transition may have its own nomenclature and
boundaries and lack of datt make przdictian prxtices for making P&Ds. But the
flow hydraulics very difficult for two and differences are mostly in representation and
multiphase flow. All one can do is to use the *.
not in the Sonnation content.
best available correlation. U$ortunately, a P&ID also shows the other details of
large percentage of flow situations in the pipe lines such as material of
industry are atleast two-phase flows. construction, service, etc. The material of
The HAZOP findings, process construction can be decided based on the
requirement or the available reliability data fluid that a pipeline is supposed to carry and
may require a standby unit provision in the the temperature-pressure conditions. The
flowsheet. This is quite often the case with materials of construction for equipment
pumps. These call for appropriate piping similarly are service dependent.
also. Although a piping engineer begins
with P&ID, it would be desirable if he has
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

some knowledge of the process background surface, which act as channels for leakage.
which led to P&ID. These channels need to be blocked by
At this stage, the capacity of each providing a softer material which is squeezed
equipment, the temperature- pressure that it between the two flanges so as to flow and
needs to withstand, the material of seal the irregularities on the flange surface.
construction, the inlet-outlet ports and their The gasket must flow but not be squeezed
sizes that need to be provided, the necessary out of flanges during bolting up conditions.
details of other intemals/externals(such as Also during operation, some of the bolt
trays in a distillation column, packing in an tension and pressure on gasket is reduced.
absorber, stirrer in a reactor, jacket around The gasket should still not leak.
kettle etc.) are available. The detailed The pressure vessel design would
mechanical design of each equipment involve calculating the shell wall thickness,
leading of fabrication drawing can be taken closure type selection and thickness
UP. calculations, selection of suitable gasket
The equipment design falls in the material with adequate yield stress and
area of pressure vessel design. The pressure gasket factor, choice of gasket location(mean
vessels are classified as fired and unired gasket diameter), gasket thichess, gasket
depending on whether they come in contact width, placement of bolts (bolt circle
with naked flame or not. Vessels subjected to diameter), bolt material selection, number of
inside pressure higher than the arnbient(eg. bolts, diameter of bolts etc. But this is not
vacuum service) are to be designed all.
'separately. There are separate design A vessel needs to have openings to
formulae for vessels subjected to internal and serve as inlet, outlet ports as well as for
external pressure. drainage, hand holes, man holes, etc. these
Typical vessel shapes ased in process could be on the shell or closures. The shell
industry are cylindrical and spherical. and closure wall thickness have been
Spherical shells are selficlosing while two designed to enswe that the stresses in the
ends of a cylindrical shell need to be closed walls even at the weakest ports (along
using closures of appropriate sbapes. welding, dong longitudinal seam or gizth
Depending on shell dimensions and service seam) do not cross the allowable stress value
conditions, the closures may be even aft61corrosion or inspite of nonudbrm
hemispherical, ellipsoidal, torrisperical, plate thickness (mill tolerance), etc. Whcb
conical or flat. openings are cut, stresses concentrate along
The ciosures need to be tightly fixed the edges of the opening and may exceed
to the shell, Flanges -are provided on the allowable stress value. Provision ef extra---
closure and the sheli for this purpose., thickness to counter this may be expensive.
Various .tyDes of flanges are possible and The theoretical finding that the stress
appropriate choice is important. Ingress of concentration is confined to a circle double
ambient air in the vessel or egress of inside the opening diameter is used to strengthen
fluid to the atmosphere must be avoided. the shell wall only in that region by welding
Apart from loss of material and/or off-spec a pad around the opening. The thickness
product, such a leakage could be hazardous. calculation of such a reinforcing pad is a part
If flange surfaces were pressed against each of pressure vessel calculation.
other, no matter how well they are machined, Not every opening need to be
the flanges would leak. This is so because of compensated. In the pressure vessels
the microscopic irregularities on the flange subjected to internal pressure, tensile stresses
 are developed in the wall. In case of vessels thickness may have to amended to take care
subjected to external pressure, compressive of seismisity.
stresses are developed. The vessel wall It is assllmed that highest wind load
would have a tendency to buckle. To avoid and worst seismic effects do not occur
this, stiffening rings may be provided. simultaneously.
Spacing between stiffening rings and cross- The vibration period and deflection
section geometry of the stiffening ring are to of tall columns also need to be kept within
be designed using appropriate design tolerable limits. This can be done by
procedures. providing a suitably thick skirt.
Stiffening rings may be provided Eccentric loads on the column due to
externally or internally. Internal stiffening side connection also cause bending moment
rings may also be used as tray supports in at the skirt column connection and need to be
distillation columns, etc. considered.
Above design procedures may . After attention is paid to each and
normally be adequate for not so tall vessels. every aspect, a pressure vessel fabrication
For tall vessels which may most adequately drawing is issued for fabrication to begin at
be called towers, several other considerations an early stage. Equipment fabrication is time
come into picture. consuming. Also, in the field work,
Tougher distillations require lot of equipment need' to be in place quite early
trays in the column requiring to install very because only then the pipe routing job
tall columns. Tall column design is thus begins.
important. Pipe wall thickness design is
. ,- The wind velocities increase as one similarly carried out by treatin6 pipes as
goes away from ground level. A tall column cylindrical vessels. Flange calculations need
with its insulation, platforms and ladders not be done in the case of pipes as these are
.i provide obstruction to wind which i n turn provided by the codes in most cases. Once
.* -2 exerts force on the column. The column the nominal diameter and schedule of all
firmly supported at the skirt top bends as a pipes in a plant are known, a first bill of
result. This induces tensile stresses along the material for pipe length requirement can be
longitudinal seam on the leeward side. These prepared. This is even before the actual
additional stresses along with the stresses routing and isometrics are frozen. Additional
due to internal pressure should not cross the quantities can be procured once the 3-D
allowable value. This may have to be layout is finalized
ensured by provision of arlditiorlal shell wall In all the above calculations, design
thickness. The thickness requirement is pressure and design temperatun have to be
lowest at the top. To- minimize metal suitably chosen. For the equipment,
requirement, the tower may be divided into hydrostatic test pressures are .also to be
sections with the bottommost section having recommended.
highest thickness and the top just enough to With the completion of these
withstand internal pressure. calculations and the design documents: the
Tall tower design also needs to be design phase can be said to be over. The
checked for seismic effects which induce pipeline routing is however not yet decided.
additional stresses along longitudinal seam.
The seismic zone and the period of vibration' 3. CONSTRUCTION PHASE
decide the seismic coefficient. Wall Further analytical work needs to be
 I

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL j

I
done before the final blue print of 3-D plant have to be laid out. It is not as simple as i
layout is finalized and construction begins. connecting the outlet of one equipment to the
Some of the activities given here may well inlet of the next in operational sequence by I
be considered as belonging to the design the shortest possible route. In fact, such I
phase itself. They are given here mainly direct connections are exceptional. And with
because,plant site details are a part of inputs reason! I
to the decision making. Most industrial hazards originate I
The choice of plant location, with failure of the piping system. The
if such a choice exists, is governed by I
equipment are fairly rigid and have strong
politico-socio-economic considerations. The foundation. During the cold assembly, all 1
basic approach is to assign weight factors to pieces are in place. When the operation
various considerations and to select a site
which scores maximum points.
begins, the high pressure temperature
conditions inside the equipment induce I
Knowing the site and its stresses and things literally move. Pipelines
neighborhood, a plant layout c a be worked I
being the most delicate elements in the plant,
out. Sites of the major equipment have to be bear the brunt of these operational loads, It is
decided on the site map. Apart firom the therefore essential that each pipeline routing,
I
equipment and offsites, other requirements especially the critical long ones, is properly
such as control room, fie station, hospital designed so that the pipe can sustain the
etc. are decided at this stage. The road map operational load. The load due to the weight I
of the site also emerges. Certain rules for of the fluid carrying pipe, vibrations in the
inter-unit distance which emerged fiom past equipment to which it is connected, thermal
experiences, certain guidelines for dusty, expansion etc. collectively and should not I

fire-prone, noisy, hazardous equipment lead to stresses in the pipe exceeding the
location are adhered to. allowable limitsoduringoperation.
A piping engineer is deeply . Weight analysis and stress analysis 1 :
involved in plant layout as it is one of the need to be carried out on pipeline. It may
most important factor which 'governs the lead to the requirement of rerouting the
piping layout and piping costs. pipeline, or provision of supports, hangars, I

It is important to orient the expansion bellows, etc. stress analysis is now

unit properly at it's assigned site. This facilitated by computer packages. Howcver,
activity is called unit layout or equipment analysis of the stress distribution churned out I
layout. Accessibility, ease of maintenance, by these packages for a complex pipe routing
impticatiolrs on pipkg iayout, ck. are the is the job of a piping engineer. Piping layout
considerations here. Each equipment has to is ant exclusive domain of a piping. engineer. I

be given individual attentiofi" by always Not 'miiny gk exposure to it during their -

keeping in mind that it is a member of the career as piping engineer.
whole. Guidelines' have emerged based on A software model of 3-D layout of a I '

past practices and experiences. plant is gaining imporatnce. Unlike P&ID

A piping engineer is again deeply which is schematic, a 3-D model is a
iavolvcd in unit layout as it has more direct dimensional graphics and can be made in all- I

influence on the piping layout, which is the details of the envisaged plant. It offers easy
next activity. visualization of Lbe plant structure. It allows
After the units have been located and checks on ergonomics. In conjunction with
r .
appropriately oriented on paper, the layout of stress analysis software, each pipeline can be
the veins and arteries of the plant, the pipes, checked for adequate flexibility and its route
I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

if called for. Details of civil structure can be Another reason why c~mrnissionin~
checked and corrected. Isometric drawings is tough is that the start-up conditions are
of each pipeline can' be derived from 3-D significantly different than steady state.
drawings with ease. Orthographic drawings conditions for which the plant has been
in different views can be created. designed.
The 3-D software model has all the Dynamic simulation is a good tool to
details of plant including actual pipe routing. evolve a good start-up policy. It is, however,
Bill of material for pipes and piping not used much of today. Start-up procedures
elements (pipe run,piping elements such a s for common unit operations such as
elbows, tees, specialties, flanges, valves etc.) distillation are fairly' well tested, though not
procured equipments (pumps etc.) can be necessarily optimal:
easily extracted. A piping engineer may be involved in
The progress of project star-up to take care of mechanical design
implementation can be monitored using 3-D problems that may crop up. Some process
drawings and field information. knowledge would be desirable.
Specification sheet for piping
elements can be prepared using a 3-D model. 5. NORMAL OPERATION PHASE
3-D model of the plant is complete The problems during the production
database and visual of the plant that would phase of plant are mostly operational if it
be. Its use would increase in coming years. has been designed well. The need to
The construction phase involves the debottleneck and optimize on throughput,
actual placement of equipment and routing however, calls for minor/major changes
pipelines. Welding and fabrication, painting involving installation of additional
for corrosion prevention, thermal insulation equipment or bypassing an existing
to prevent heat ingress or egress are the field equipment and related changes in pipe
activities that a piping engineer need to be routing. These changes may be trivial fiom
familiar with. process point of view but not necessarily
4. COMMISSIONING fiom the mechanical design implications
If the entire design has been done of view. A tritrially simple change may
scientifically, if design intentions are lead to stresses crossing failure limits and
reflected in various design documents causing disaster. A healthy operating
conectly, if fabrication, erecfion and practice would require a piping engineer to
assembly have been done as. per design be associated with any hardware change or
intai"Uons, then commis;ia&g which operaAhgpoint shift during productive piui
involves taking the cold-assembled plant to of the life cycle of a plant.
go on-stream and produce design capicity A piping engineer is also a
should be srnooth affair. This is normally not part of M O P team. He is also involved in
the case because lots of adhoc decisions need accident review.
to be taken on field during erection to take IN CONCLUSION.A PIPING
care of fabrication errors, iate or non- ENGMEER IS INYOLVED I A
delivery of items or design errors which are MAJOR PORTION OF THE LJFE
made at early stages of project engineering CYCLE OF A PROCESS. HIS
or even late second thoughts. The project is RESPOSIBILITIES AND SCOPE OF
normally on the critical path during field A CTNITIES MAKE THE
work and not all these decisions and their NOMENCLATURE "PIPING
implications are thoroughly probed. ENGINEER "A MISNOMER.
 Certificate Course

PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005

CODES AND STANDARDS

Consultant

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
\ Powai, Mumbai - 400 076
 i
- \ PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

CODES AND STANDARDS

T.N. GOPINATH
For scientific design of Piping Systems, selection of proper material of
construction and to detail out the material specifications, knowledge of Codes and
Standards is essential. Standardization can, and does, reduce cost, inconvenience, and
confusion that result from unnecessary and undesirable differences in systems,
components and procedures. Industry standards.are published by professional societies,
committees and trade organization;. A code is basically a standard that has been
generally accepted by the government. The objective of each code is to ensure public and
industrial safety in a particular activity or equipment. Codes are often developed by the
same organization that develop standards. These organizations also develop good
engineering practices and publish as Recommended Practices. The intent of these
documents is misunderstood since definition of Codes, Standards and Recommended -

Practices are not always correctly understood. The following definitions are generally
accepted. .

CODE
A group of general rules or systematic procedures for design, fabrication,
installation and inspection prepared in such a manner that it can be adopted by legal
jurisdiction and made into law.

STANDARDS
Documents prepared by a professional group or committee who are believed to be
good and proper engineering practice and which contain mandatory requirements. The
users are responsible for the correct application of the same. CompIiance with a standard
does not itself confer immunity from legal obligation. .

RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
Documents prepared by professional group or committee indicating good
engineering practices but which are optional.

Companies' also develop Guides in order to have consistency in the

documentation. These cover various engineering methods, which are considered good
practices, without specific recommendation or requirements.

Codes and Standards as we11 as being regulations, might be considered as "design

aids" since they provide guidance fiom experts.

Each country has its own Codes and Standards. On global basis, American
National standards are undoubtedly the most widely used and compliance with those
requirements are accepted world over. In India, other than American standards, British
standards and Indian standards are also used for the design and selection of equipment
and piping systems. The major organizations for standards are;

Codes and Standards I

 PIPING ENGINEERING C E L L

MAJOR ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDS

S. No. Country Organization Abbreviation

1 United States American National ANSI
Standards Institute
2 Canada Standard Council of Canada SCC
3 France Association Francaise AFNOR
. 4 United British Standards BSI
Kingdom Institute
5 Europe Committee of European CEN
Normalization
6 Germany Deutsches Institute Fur DIN
Normung
7 Japan Japanese Industrial JISC
Standards Committee
8 -
India Bureau Of Indian Standards BIS
. 9 Worldwide International Organization I S 0
for Standards
IS0 is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies from some
100 countries, one from each country.

1.0 AMERICAN STAPiDARDS

Not all American standards are issued directly by American National Standards
Institute. The material standards are covered under ASTM (American Society for Testing
and Materials) and dimensional standards under ANSI (American National Standards
Institute). Most of these standards are adapted by AS& (American Society -of
Mechanical Engineers). %

The American Standards referred by Piping Engineers are mainly the standards by: I 4
i c:, 3
1.1 The American Petroleum Institute (API) 3
I '
(3
-
1:
I
1.3 The American National SLmdardsInstitute (ANSI) I ' 3
1.4 The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

1.5 The American Welding Society.(AWS).

'

. .

1.6 The American Water Works Association (AWWA).

-4

1.7 The Manufacturers Standardization Society of VaIves and Fitting Industry -

Standard Practices (MSS-SP) 1 , ; I
1 j -

Codes and Standards 2 I ' 1

..
i
 !

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

'1.8 The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)

1.1 API STANDARDS

The generally referred API standards by the Piping Engineers are :
,,

1) M I 5L - Specification for Line Pipe

- b 1
6

:-
\
2) MI6D - Pipe line Valves, End closures, Connectors and Swivels.
' I
3) API 6F - Recommended Practice for Fire Test for valves.
'r 4) API593 - Ductile Iron Plug Valves - flanged ends.
!

Valve Inspection and Test.

Steel ate Valves

~etallic'Gasketfor Refinery piping

MI602 - Compact Design carbon steel Gate.

API 603 - Corrosion Resistant Gate Valves

API 604 - . Ductile Iron Gate Valves - flanged ends.

API 607 Fire test for soft-seated ball valves

h'+\ 60%
'-

- . 'b&\dn%
API.609 - Butteffly valves

13) API 1104 - Standard for welding pipeline andl facilities.

1.2 AISI STANDARDS

The American Iron and Steel Institute Standards specifies the material by its
chemical and physical properties. When specific mode of rna<facturt of the element is
not the concern, then the material can be identified by the AlSI standards. The most
commonly used AISI specifications are:

1) AISI 410 - 13% Chromium Alloy Steel

2) AISI 304 - 18/8 Austenitic Stainless Steel

3) AISI316 - 18/8/3 Austenitic Stainless Steel

Codes and Standards

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL I

1.3 ANSI STANDARDS I

The American National Standards Institute's standards used in the design of the
Piping Systems are as listed. In 1978,ANSI B31 committee was reorganized as ASME 1 -
Code for Pressure Piping B3 1 committee. Subsequently the code designation was i
changed. ASME B31 Code for pressure piping is at present a non-mandatory code in
USA, though they are adopted as legal requirement.
I '
-

1) ASME B 31.1 - Power Piping

I '

2) ASMEB31.2 - Fuel Gas Piping

I
3) ASME B 31.3 , - Process Piping
. .
.. .

4) ASME B 31.4 - Pipeline Transportation System for liquid

\ I '
hydrocarbon and other Li ~ i d s ~ ~( (!, Q, ~U
- taus c a m % y f r g
)
~
II

-
5) ASME B31.5 - Refrigeration Piping I '

6) ASMEB31.8 - Gas Transmi sion d Distributor Piping Systems.

-c b-% cpQ> I '

7) AShlEB31.9 - Building Services Piping

8) ASME B 31.11 - Slurry Transpiration Piping Systems I -

9) ASME B31.G- Manual for determining the remaining strength of
corroded piping - A supplement to ASME B3 1. 1 '

Of the above, the most commonly used code is ASME B 3 1.3: Refineries and chemical
plants are designed based on the same. All power plants are designed as per ASME I ' --
B31.1.
*_.
SELECTION OF DESIGN CODE I .
.r
1
Unless agreement is specifically made between the contracting parties to use another I.
5

issue or the regulatory body having jurisdiction imposes the use of another issue, the < \'
. .
. 'j :
,
latest edition and addenda issued 6 monthsprior .to the original contract date,will h ~. l .d ., . .
.
, . .. . :. . .-

go&i for the first phase of the completion of work and h i t i d opirntion.
. . . . J ...-,
. :!
... $ .

. .
. . :.:. . . . . . . . ' ?
. .
1 .
f
It is the responsibility i f the user to seleci the code, Section,. which most nearl'yapplie3
.
.
. .. . to . .
. . :
. .

a proposed piping installation. A 1

Factors to be considered include:
Technical limitations of the Code Section, jurisdictional requirements and the
applicability of otherqCodesand Standards. All applicable requirements of the selected
Code shall be met. For some installations, more than one Code Section may apply to
different parts of the installation. The user is responsible for imposing requirements

Codes and Standards 4

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

supplementary to those of the Code if necessary to assure safe piping for the proposed
I installation.

-1
9 When no section of the Code specifically covers proposed installation, the user has the
discretion to select any section determined to be'generally applicable. However, it i s
-3 / cautioned that supplementary requirements to the section chosen may be necessary t o
, x provide for safe piping system for the intended application.
/

The Code sets forth engineering requirements deemed necessary for the safe design and
construction of pressure piping. While safety is the basic consideration, this factor aione
will not necessarily govern the final specification for any piping installation.

The Code prohibits designs and practices h o r n to be unsafe and contains warnings
-%
, where caution, but not prohibition., is warranted. The designer is cautioned that the
. J I
Code is not a design handbook; it does not do away with the need for the engineer or
9 ) competent engineering judgement.

Other major ANSI I ASME dimensional standards referred for the piping elements are:

1)' ASMEB1.l - Unified Inch Screw Threads

2) ASME B 1.20.1 . - Pipe Threads general purpose -

(EXANSIB2.1)

Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings

4) ASME B 16.3 - Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings.

5) ASME B 16.4 - Cast Iron Threaadd Fittings

Steel Pipe flanges and Flanged Fittings

> 7) ASME B 16.9 - Stee1 Butt welding Fittings

-
i 5 8) ASME B 16.10 - Face to face and end to end dimensions'of
>,
<>
Valves
p' . -
b: I
)> 4
9) ASME B 16.1 1 - Forged steel Socket welding and Threaded
fittings
), I
10) ASME B 16.20 - Metallic Gaskets for pipe flanges - ring
joint, spiral wound and jacketed flanges

11) ASMEB 16.21 Non Metallic Gasket for pipe flanges

. .
Codes and Standards . . .
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

12) ASME B 16.25 - Butt Welding Ends

13) ASME B 16.28 - Short Radius Elbows and Returns -.

14) ASME B 16.34 - Steel Valves, flanged and butt weldbg ends.

15) ASME B 16.42 - Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges & Flanged

Fittings -Class 150 and 300

16) ASME B 16.47 - Large Diameter Steel Flanges - NPS 26-60

17) ASME B 16.49 - Buttwelding Induction Bends for Transportation

and Distribution System

18) ASME B 18.2 1 & 2 - Square and hexagonal head Bolts and Nuts -
(in & mm)

19) ASME B 36.10 - Welded and seamless Wrought steel Pipes

20) ASME B 36.19 - Welded and Seamless Austenitic Stainless

Steel Pipes.

1.4 ASTM STANDARDS

ASTM standards consist of 16 sections on definitions and classifications of
materials of construction and test methods. Most of the ASTM standards are adapted by
ASME and are specified in ASME Section 11. The Section 11has four parts.
1.4.1 Part-A - Ferrous materials specifications
1.4.2 Part-B - Non-ferrous metals specification
1.4.3 Part-C - Specification for welding materials
1.4.4 Part-D - Properties of materials.

In Part-II, the materials are listed in the Index based on the available forms such as plates,
castings, tubes, etc. and also on the numerical index.
The selection of S T M specification depends upon the type of manufacture, form
of material, its mechanic$ strength and the corrosion properties.
The specification number is given on Alphabetical prefix, 'Ai for Ferrous materials
and 'B' for Non-ferrous materials.
ASTM also specifies standard practice for numbering metal and all;$ as Unified
N-mb&g System.

UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM (UNS)

The UNS number itself is not a specification, since it establishes no requirements
for form, condition, quality etc. It is a unified identification of metals and alloys for
which controlling limits have been established in specification elsewhere.

A
1
Codes and Standards 6 I .
---
..

I '
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The UNS provides means of correlating many naturally used numbering systems
currently administered by Societies, trade associations, individual users and producers of
metals and alloys, thereby av&ding confusion caused by use of more than one
identification number for the same material and by the opposite situation of having the
same number assigned to two different materials.
UNS establishes 18 series numbers of metals and alloys. Each UNS number
consists of a single letter prefix followed by five digits. In most cases the alphabet is
suggestive of the family of the metal identified.
. . . .

1. ~ 0 0 0 0 1 A
- 99999 - ~ l k i n i u r nand ~lumi'niurnalloys

Copper and Copper alloys

3. EOOOOl - E 99999 - Rare earth and rare earth like metals and
alloys
- Low melting metals and alloys
- Miscellaheous nonferrous metals and alloys
- Nickel and Nickel alloys

- Precious metals and alloys

- Reactive and Refractory metals and alloys

- Zinc and Zinc alloys

- Specified mechanical properties of Steels

- Cast Iron and Cast Steels
- AISI and SAE Carbon and Alloy steels
AISI H Steels
- Cast Steels

15. KO000 1 - K 99999 Miscellaneous Steels and Ferrous alloys

Stainless Steels
- Tool Steels

- Welding Filler Metals and Electrodes

Codes and Standards 7

 I
! ...,
1
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I
1.5 AWS STANDARDS
The American Welding Society (AWS) standards provide information on welding
hndamentals; weld design, welders' training qualification, testing and inspection of !
welds and guidance on the application and use of welds. Individual electrode
manufacturers have given their own brand names for the various electrodes and are sold
h d e r these names. I

1.6 AWWA STANDARDS

I
The American Water Works Association (AWWA) standards refer to the piping
elements required for low-pressure water services. These are less stringent than other
standards. Valves, flanges, etc. required for large diameter' water pipelines are covered
under this standard and are referred rarely by CPI Piping Engineers. 1 :

Gate Valves for water & sewage system

2)C-510 - Cast Iron Sluice Gates

3) C-504 - Rubber Seated Butterfly Valves

4) C-507
. . - . . Ball valves 6'" - 48" . . 11

5) C-508 - Swing Check Valves 2" - 24"

I
6) C-509 - Resilient Seated Gate Valves for water & sewage

1.7 MSS-SP STANDARDS

In addition to the above standards and material codes, there are standard practices I '
followed by manufacturers. These are published as advisory standards and are widely
followed. A large number of MSS Practices have been approved by the ANSI & ANSI
Standards published by others. In order to maintain a single source of authoritative 1
information, the MSS withdraws those Standard Practices in such cases. The most
common MSS-SP standards referred for piping are:
I '

1) MSS-SP-6 - ~tandard~inishes
for Contact Surface for Flanges ,
. .
2) MSS-SP-25 - Standard Marking System for Valves, Fittings I

Flanges

- . Class 1SO Corrosion Resistant Gate, Globe and

Check Valves.
- Wrought Stainless Steel Buttweld Fittings
- Steel Pipeline Flanges

Codes and Standards

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

6) MSS-SP-56 Pipe Hanger Supports: Materials, Design and

Manufacture . . .

7) MSS-SP-61 Pressure testing of Steel Valves

8) MSS-SP-67 Butterfly Valves '

9) MSS-SP-68 High Pressure Offseat Design Butterfly Valves

10) MSS-SP-69 Pipe Hangers and Supports: Selection and

application

11) MSS-SP-70 Cast Iron Gate Valves

-
12) MSS-SP-7 1 Cast Iron Check Valves

13) MSS-SP-72 Ball Valves

---+ . .
!

a'
14) MSS-SP-78 Cast Iron Plug Valves
.

fB
4
I
15) MSS-SP-80 - Bronze Gate, Globe and heckv valves . .

16) MSS-SP-8 1 Stainless Steel Bdnnetless 'Knife Gate Valves

17) MSS-SP-83- Pipe Unions

.l8) MSS-SP-85 Cast Iron Globe Valves

19) MSS-SP-88 - Diaphragm Type Valves

: )
20) MSS-SP-89 - Pipe Hangers and Supports: Fabrication and
installation practices.
:I .
b'
3 21) MSS-SP-90 - Pipe Hangers and Supports: Guidelines on
," i terminology
- k I

22) MSS-SP-92 - MSS Valve user >pide

23) MSS-SP-108 - Resilient Seated Eccentric CI Plug Valves.

'
24) MSS-SP- 115 Excess Flow Valves for Natural Gas Service.

25) MSS-SP-152 - Plastic Industrial Ball Valves

Codes and Standards

 I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

i
2.0 BRITISH STANDPLRDS I

In many instances, it is possible to find a British Standard, which may be

substituted for American Standards. Now the Community for European Normalization is
issuing standards replacing different standards in force in the European countries. ir

Accordingly lot of BS and DIN standards are getting replaced by CEN standards. I
\ -

There are certain British Standards referred by Indian Manufacturers for the
construction of piping elements such as valves. The most commonly referred British
I' *-.

standards in the Piping Industry xe:

1 :
1) BSlO Flanges i

2) BS 806 - Pipes a n d ~ i t t i n ~fors boilers . , . I .:-

. . i ,

3) BS916 - . . Black Bolts, Nuts and Screws (obsolescent) . ,

I :
4) BS 970 - . Steel for forging, bars, rods, valve steel, etc.
1

f-

Specification for float operated Valves

. I

6) BS 1306 - Copper and Copper alloy pressure piping system

I '
1

7) BS 1414 - Gate Valves for Petroleum Industry

8) BS 1560 - Steel Pipe Flanges (class designated) I -.

/

.z >
.
9) BS 1600 - Dimensions of Steel Pipes '
I ,' c. -.
,

1
- .-.
L < 4

.lo) BS 1640 - Butt Welding Fittings +

.

- ,
-., i
11) BS 1868 - Steel Check Valves for Petroleum Industry I
-3
,-?
zL:
1

12) BS 1873 . . .
- . . . Steel Globe & Check Valves for Petroleum Industry . . I :
., i
<I
.
. .
.. . . ..
. . . .
. . -
13) BS 1965 . . - Butt welding pipe fittings ; .
. . . .
. .
. .
. . .
. .
.
. . ,'
. .
.
-;.,..;, 1
. -. 4.
. . .. .
. . . .. . . . . , . . . . . .
.' I -
14) BS2080 '.,.... .' - ' . .. F& t o .~ a c IeEnd t o ~ n d d i m k s i o n of
. s Valves. . . . '
, '. ' ..
: : -.:.

. . - - ,(obsolescent) . . - .. .
. .
, '

I
;
-1 ...,'
. . . . . . . '1 I
15) BS 2598 - Glass Pipelines and Fittings
i
16) BS 3059 - Boiler and Super Heater tubes i '
I
17) BS 3063 - Dimensions of Gaskets for pipe flanges
' (obsolescent)
. .

Codes and Standards

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
i

18) BS 3293 C.S. Flanges 26748" NB.

19) BS 3381 Metallic'Spiral Wound Gaskets

20) BS 3600 Dimensions of Welded and Seamless Pipes &

Tubes.

21) BS 3601 C.S. Pipes & Tubes for pressure purposes at room
temperature

C.S. Pipes & Tubes for pressure purposes at high

I temperature
L
-- -
I
-.f 23) BS 3603 - C.S. and Alloy steel Pipes & Tubes for pressure
I 1
purposes at low temperature.
- Alloy steel Pipes & Tubes for high temperature

25) BS 3605 - S.S. Pipes & Tubes for pressure purposes

- SWIScrewed Fittings
i
i.
!i
: . 27) B S 3974 - Pipe hangers, Slides & Roller type Supports.
- PVC pressure Pipe -joints & Fittings
- Steel, CI & Copper alloy Flanges (PNdesignated).
- CI Wedge and Double Disc Gate. Valves for general

:> ? \
J

! 31) BS5t51 -
Purposes

CI Gate (parallel slide) valves for general purposes

?- I - , 32) BS 5 152 - CI Globe & Check valves for general purposes.

>:
i*
!
ii
33) BS 5153
34) BS5154
- CI Check valves for generalp-oses.

T=S
Copper alloy Gate, Globe, Check valves
)
I 35) BS 5156 Diaphragm valves for general purposes
l- L

36) BS5158 CI and CS Plug valves for general purposes

1 fI
4
37) BS 5159 CI and CS Ball valves for general purposes

Codes and Standards

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Flanged steel Globe and Check vaives for general

purposes

Double flanged Cast Iron wedge gate valves for

water works purposes.

Steel Ball Valves for petroleum industries

Steel Gate, Globe, Check Valves < 2" NB.

Specification for Plug Valves

Specification for ABS Pressure Pipes

Specification for ABS Fittings

Specification for underground Stop Valves for

water services

Specification for GRP Pipes and Fittings

Specification for Valves for cryogenic services

Testing of valves

3.0 INDIAN STANDARDS .-

1 '
-
..Ai.
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)have so far not developed an Indian standard for
the design of Piping Systems. Hence, ANSI standards ASME B 3 1.113 1.3 are widely 1
ci
I ,
referred for the design. These standards also accept materiaIs covered in other standards. I
2
Unlike American Standards. Indian Standards cover dimensions and material ?J
specifications under the same &dad. There are also no groupings done based on the
I '
' I1
series/branch of engine&g as well. Some of the most commorJy referred Indian 'L
...

Standards by the Piping Engineers are: -- .I

- I.
. . . . :. . . . . .

1) IS -210 ; - G & IronCastings

~
. .
. . . .
. .
1. . , ., . . . .
. . 3
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
i
' 2) ' IS - 22'6 . -
Structural steel (superseded by IS 2062)
. . *;;
1.
,

i
- Dimensions of Pipe Threads

IS-778 - Specification for Copper Alloy Gate, Globe and

I --
4)
*
1
Check Valves.

Codes and Standards

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

5) IS 1239 Part I - Specification for Mild Steel Tubes and Fittings.

& Part I1 I

Hexagonal bolts, screws and nuts - Grade C

Hexagonal bolts, screws and nuts - Grade A & B

Technical supply conditions for threaded steel

fasteners

Centrifugally Cast Iron Pipes

. . .
I .
.- .
1 18) IS 1537. - . Vertically Cast Iron Pipes
- Cast Iron Fittings

- Comparison of Indian and Overseas Standards

- Malleable Iron Pipe Fittings

- . ' Line Pipe . .

- High Test Line Pipe

- Steel Plates - Boiler Quality. - .

- Plain Washers

- Steel Plates for pressure vessel used at moderate

and low temperature

- Steel for general structural purposes

i 20) IS 2379 - Colour code for identification of pipelines

. .
. . . . . . . . . .
. .

-21) IS2712 : - Asbeitos Fibre jointing .

c&m@ressed . .

) i 23) IS 3076 - Specification for LDPE Pipes

- Code of Practice for laying CI Pipes

- CI Flanges and Flanged Fittings for Petroleum
Industry

Seainless or ERW Pipes (1 50 NB to 2540 NB)

Coder and Standards

PIPING ENGISEERING CELL

i
27) ,IS 4038 Specification for Foot Valves

28) IS4179 Sizes for Pressure Vessels and leading dimensions

I
29) IS 4853 Radiographic examination of butt weld joints in
pipes. I
30) IS 4864 to IS 4870 - Shell Flanges for vessels and equipment / '
i

Specification for HDPE Pipes for water supply

Specification for PVC Pipes

Specification for Swing Check Valves

Classification of hazardous area for electrical

installation

Code of practice for laying welded steel pipes

Valve Inspection and Test

Seamless and Welded Pipe for subzero temperature

Steel Pipe Flanges

- I -.
39) IS 6630 Seamless Alloy Steel Pipes,for high temperature
services I ' -. -
% , r

40) IS 6913 - Stainless steel tubes for food and beverage industry
!
.
,
4
!

41) IS7181 - Horizontally Cast iron pipes

- Metallic spiral wound gaskets .
5'3 .
-
43) IS 7806 - SS Castings I

44) IS 7899 - Alloy steel castings for pressure services

?
1
45) IS 8008 - Specification for moulded HDPE Fittings f. .
J
I

46) IS 8360 - Specification for fabricated HDPE Fittings

t -

47) IS 9890 - Ball Valves for general purposes -1

.J

Codes and Standards 14 1

-
-
- -
-,
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

48) IS 10221 Code of practice for coating and wrapping of

underground MS pipelines

49) IS 10592 Eye wash and safety showers

50) IS 10605 . Steel Globe Valves for Petroleum Industries

51) IS 10611 Steel Gate Valves for Petroleum Industries

52) IS 10711 Size of drawing sheets

53) IS 10805 Foot Valves, Reflux valves for Agricultural

Pumping system
-
54) IS 10989 CastIForged Steel Check Valves for petroleum
industries

55) IS 10990 Technical drawings - Simplified representation of

pipelines.

56) IS 11790 Code of practice for preparation of Butt welding

ends for valves, flanges and fittings.

57) IS 11791 Diaphragm Valves for general purposes

58) IS 11792 - Steel Ball Valves for Petroleum Industries

59) IS 13049 - Specification for Diaphragm type float operated

Valves.

60) IS 13095 - Butterfly Valves

61) IS 14164 - Code ofpractice for insulation

62) IS 14333 - - HDPE pipes for sewerage purposes

63) IS 14846 . - Sluice valves for water works 50-1200 mm

There are certain other international standards also referred in the piping industry. They
are the DM standards of Gemany and the nSC standards of Japan. DIN standards are
more popular and equivalent British and Indian standards are also available for certain
piping elements.

Periodic review of the standards by the committee is held and these arc revised to
incorporate the modified features based on the results of research and feedback from the
industry. Although some technological lags are unavoidable, these are kept minimum by

Codes and Standards 15

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

those updations. Hence, it is necessary that the latest editions of the codes and standards
are referred for the design and year of publication also to be indicated along with.

f-
I

I..
i

Codes and Standards

 Certificate Course
on
PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005

T. N. Gopinath
Consultant

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
-
Powai, Mumbai 400 076
. .
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

PIPING ELEMENTS
T. N. GOPINATH

One of the major tasks in any MATERIAL SELECTION OF PIPING

process industry is the transportation of COMPONENTS
materials often in fluid form from one place The fust thing to be considered is the
to another. The most commonly adopted selection of suitable material for the senice.
method for the same is to force the fluid The selection of piping material requires
through the piping system. The piping knowledge of corrosion properties, strength
system is the inter-connected piping subject and engineering characteristics, relative cost .
to the same set of design conditions. The and availability.
piping system involves not only pipes but The main process considerations i n
also the fittings, valves and other specialties. the material selection are the corrosion
These items are known as piping properties of the fluid, the pressure
components. Code specifies the piping temperature conditions of the service and the
components as mechanical elements suitable nature of the service.
for joining or assembly into pressure-tight
fluid-containing piping systems. The Piping Designer selectddesigns the
Components include piping components based on the mechanical
1.0 Pipes properties such a s the following.
2.0* Fittings a. Yield strength
3.0 Flanges b. Ultimate strength
4.0 Gaskets c. Percentage elongation
5.0 Bolting d. Impact strength
6.0 Valves e. Creep-rupture strength
7.0 Specialties f. Fatigue endurance strength
Piping element is defined as any Based on the material of construction piping
material or work required to plan and install elements' could be classified as. shown in
the piping system. Elements of piping Fig.1. 1
include design specifications, materials, The basic material or the generic
components, supports, fabrication, material of construction is specified by the
inspection and testing. Process Licenser for the process fluids. The
Piping elements should, so far as Piping Engineer is expected to detail out the
practicable, conform to the specification and same based on the Codes and Standards.
standards listed in the code referred for The material of construction for the utilities
design. Unapproved elements may also be will be selected by .the Piping Engineer
used provided they are qualified for use as based on the service conditions.
set forth in applicable chapters of the code. The Piping Design Criteria originates .
Piping specification is a document fiom the Line List, which specifies design
specifying each of the components. conditions with respect to pressure and
Different material specifications are temperature.
segregated in different "Piping Class". In absence of this data, the Piping
Identification of the "Piping Classes" Engineer considers the following for
depends on each Designer, and the logic strength calculations.
hdshe adopts.

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Piping Elmmu
PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL

a) Design Pressure as 10% higher outside diameter of tubes is numerically

than the maximum anticipated operating identical to the size number for all sizes.
pressure. 1.2 Size
b) Design Temperature as 25" above The size of the pipe is identified by the
the maximum anticipated operating NOMINAL BORE or the N O W A L
temperature. PIPE SIZE. The manufacture of pipe i s
c) When operating temperature is based on outside diameter, which is
15C and below, the design temperature as standardized. The 0 D was originally
the anticipated minimum operating selected so that pipe with standard wall
temperature. thickness, which was typical of that
period, would have an internal diameter
The design should meet the approximately equal to the nominal size.
requirements of the relevant code. In American standard, the pipes are
The material used shall be in covered under
accordance with latest revision of a) ASME B 36.10 - Welded and
standards. If ASTM materials are used, Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
then the materials adapted by ASME b) ASME B 36.19 - Stainless Steel Pipe
should be preferred. The nominal bore and the
The selection of materials in corresponding outside diameters specified
general shall follow the norms below: therein are as given in the accompanying
(The basis in the design code governs.) table. American standards have not
metricated the pipe sizes and the
a) Carbon steel shall be used up to equivalent metric sizes widely followed
8WF (425OC). are also noted along with. However, the
b) Low temperature steel shall be latest revisions of these standards include
used below - ZO'F (- 2 9 ' ~ ) the SI metric dimensions for OD, -
c) Alloy carbon steel shall be used thickness and unit weight.
above 8000F (425OC).
d) For corrosive fluids, As regards the non-metallic and
'

recommendations from the Process lined piping systems, the thickness of pipe
Licensor to be followed. and/or lining are not covered under any of
the above standards. These are as per the
1.0 PIPES relevant ASTM standards. For certain
1.1 General plastic pipes, Indian Standards am also
available.
Pipe can be defmed as a pressure tight
cylindcr used to convey a fluid.
The word "pipe" is used as distinguished
from "tube" to apply to tubular products of
dimensions commonly used for piping
systems. Tht pipe dimensions of sizes 12
inch (300 mm) and smalkr have outside
diameter numerically larger than
corresponding sizes, In contrast, the

Piping Elements . . .
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Pipe Size Eq. Metric Outside Outside

NB (Inch) ! Pipe Size Dia (Inch) Dia (m)
NB (mm) I
I

118 6 0.405 10.3 ( -.T

114
318
8
10
0.540
0.675
13.7
17.1
j .
-

112 15 0.840 21.3

314 20 1.050 26.7
i :-
1 25 1.315 33.4 .
->

*l% 32 1.660 42.2 ' ,

1% 40 1.900 48.3 I

2 50 2.375 60.3
*2% 65 2.875 73.0 ,I .

3 80 3.500 88.9 I -

' *3K 90 4.000 101.6

4 100 4.500 114.3 i
*5 125 5.563 141.3 . .
6 150 6.625 168.3 3
8 200 8.625 219.1 I
1
10 250 10.750 273.0 ' >
I 12 300 12.750 323.9 1
14 350 . 14.000 355.6 I
16 400' 16.000 406.4 ,'
18 450 18.000 457.2 '
7 -

Y.)

20 500 20.000 508.0 1 '

- 3
*22 550 22.000 558.8 .
24 600 24.000 609.6 --.
-I
1 . <--

13 Wall Thickness 10, 20, 30, 40,60,80,100,120,140,160, , . .f

- ,
PriorbASMEB36.10&ASMEB36.19
became effective, the pipes were
STD,XS,XXS.
I );2
-3
a u f a c t u r e d Per the Iron Pipe standard ~ h i standard ~ h and ~ s c h d u k 40 1 ,G
WS) with wall thickness
identical for nominal pipe sizes upto 10 inch '-1
d ~ i ~ t Standard i o ~ (ST'), Extra Sb'g 1
(250 -1 inclusive. largCTsizes o f ~ ~ D .,
(XS) and Double Extra Strong (XXS). 3
have 318-inch (10 mm) wall thickness. Extra
Subsequently schedule numbers were added
Stmng and Schedule 80 an of %*

as convenient designations. The pipe

nominal pipe sizes upto 8 inch (200 mm) ' 1
. t;
thickness is designated by Schedule Number inclusive^ All largm sizes of Extra mng
and the corresponding thickness is specified I $
have '/z inch (12.7 mm) wall thickness. The I ' -

standard 36'10 for thickness Double Extra Strong is more than b

stet1 pipes & ASME B 36.19 for stainless
Schedule 160 in pipe sizes upto 6 inch (150
_ J

steeI pipes. B.
mm) NB. This thickness is specified for pipe I ' -
Stainless steel pipes are available in
schedule 5s. 10s. 40s and 80s w h e m up to 12 inch (300 mrn) NB. For 12 inch - -3
(300 -1 hethichcJJ
- match*, to mat
carbon steel pipes are available in schedule ! P-
.J

P i p a Elements 4 I '
. -
. -

I
 Ii -
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I of Schedule120 and for 10 inch (250 mm) 1.4.6 Buttress ends

I
xi 1 NB it is Schedule 140.
The figures indicated in these standards are Beveled ends are specified when pipe
- f the nominal thickness and mill tolerance of to pipe andlor pipe to fittings joints are done
j
--. f 12.5% is applicable to those values. by bun welding.
Plain ends are specified when pipe t o
i pipe andfor pipe to fittings joints are done by
I
7 i Generally the thickness specified by fillet welding.
schedule numbers of B36.10 and B36.19 Screwed joints are specified when pipe

Fj i match except in the followings: to pipe andlor pipe to fittings joints are done
by threaded connections.
-. 10" SCH80lSCH80S Flanged ends are specified to
.3 1 12" SCH~OISCH~OS provide bolted connections between pipes
",i 12" SCH80lSCH80S and between pipes andlor fittings.
I 14" SCHlOISCHlOS Spigot/ Socket ends are specified when -
? i -1 16" SCHlOISCHlOS
lead caulked/cemented joints are provided
between pipes and between pipes and
3 I
18" SCHlOISCHlOS fittings.
,
J
%

i 20" SCHlOISCHlOS Buttress ends are used in glass piping

i
22" SCHlOISCHlOS and are joined by bolting with the use of
3I

; backing flanges.
' 1
1 In Indian Standard IS 1239s the 1.4.1 BUIT WELD PIPE JOINTS
3' thicknesses of pipes are specified as Light,
I Medium and Heavy. The medium and
f
':
: heavy pipes are only used for f l ~ handling.
d
In IS 3589, the thicknesses are specified in
)i
)
[ actual dimensions in rnm.
As regards the non-metallic and
lined piping systems, the thickness of pipe
7 1 and/or lining are not covered under any of
-9 f the above standards. These are as per fhe
1
.-
< ) r j relevant ASTM standards. For certain plastic
pipes, Indian Standards are also available. Advantages
)
3 The pipes are available in standard a) Most practical way of joining big bore
) - lengths of 20 feet (6 m). piping
=
-=,
;5
I
, - b) Reliable leak proof joint
c) Joint can be radiographed
-
I 1
9 1.4 Pipe Ends
-?, i
i
Based On the matel"kl of ~ 0 n ~ t r U ~ t and
i0n
the pipe to pipe joint, the ends of the pipes
Disadvantages
1 ' a) . Weld i n m i o n will affect flow
.
\ I
are specified as follows. b) End preparation is necessary
Beveled ends
Plain ends
Screwid ends
Flanged ends
Spigot/Socket ends

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.4.2 SOCKET WELD PIPE JOINTS e) Code specifies that seal welding shall
not be considered to contribute for
EXPANSIONJOINT strength of joint
TO PRNENT WELD
FROM CRACKING UNDER
THERMAL STRESS 1.4.4 FLANGED PIPE J O N I S

CH.160

Advantages
a) Easier Alignment than butt welding
b) No weld metal intrusion into bore
Disadvantages
a) The 1/16"(1.5 rnm) recess pockets Advantages
liquid a) Can be easily made at site
b) Use not permitted by code if Severe b) Can be used where welding is not
Erosion or Crevice Corrosion is permitted due to material properties or
anticipated. fire hazard.

*, r
c) Dismantling is very easy
1.4.3 SCREWED PIPE JOINTS

t
Disadvantages
THREAD ENGAGEMENT' a) It is a point of potential leakage
b) Cannot be used when piping is
subjected to high bending moment.

1.4.5 SPIGOT SOCKET PIPE J O ~ S

Advantages
a) Easily made at site
b) Can be used where welding is not
permitted due to fire hazard Advantages
. .
a) Can be easily made at site.
Disadvantages
b) Can accept misalignment upto 100 at
a) Joint may leak when not properly pipe joints.
sealed
b) Use not permitted by code if severe
erosion, crevice corrosion, shock or Disadvantages
vibration are anticipated. a) Suitable for low pressure application
c) Skength of pipe is reduced as b) Special configuration at pipe ends
reduce wall thickness
d) Seal welding may be required required.

Piping Elements 6
 i
I PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1
i 1.4.6 BUTTRESS END PIPE JOINTS e) Spiral Welded
Pipes having helical seam with
- -+;
either a butt, lap, lock-seam joint which is '
? 1 welded using either an electric resistance,
electric hsion or double submerged arc
-,
I
welding process.

1.5.2 Seamless
Pipes produced by piercing a billet
followed by rolling or drawing or both.

Used only for glass piping and not capable The most commonly used material
'-'
to hold high pressure. standards for the pipes are listed below:
1
1.5 Types Of Pipes
1.6 Pipe Materials
Based on the method of manufacture pipes
1. ASTM A 53 Welded and Seamless
could be classified as
Steel Pipe, Black and
'

1.5.1 Welded
Galvanized
a) Electric Resistance Welded (ERW)
2. ASTM A106 Seamless CS Pipe for
Pipes having longitudinal butt joint High Temp. Services
wherein coalescence is produced by the heat
3. ASTh4 A120 Black and Hot Dipped
'
obtained h m resistance of the pipe to flow
Zinc coated
of electric current in a circuit of which the (Galvanized) welded
pipe is a part, and by application of pressure.
and seamless pipe for
b) Furnace Butt Welded, Continuous ordinary use
Welded 4. ASTM A134 Electric h i o n welded
Pipes having longitudinal weld
steel plate pipe
joints forge welded by mechanical pressure
(Sizes 1 16"NB)
developed in passing the hot-formed and
5. ASTM A135 Electric resistance
edge-heated skelp through round pass weld
welded pipe
rolls.
6. ASTh4 A155 Electric fusion welded
c) Electric Fusion Welded (EFW)
s-1 pipe for high
Pipes having longitudinal butt joint
wherein coalescence is produced in the temperature service
preformed tube by manual or automatic
7. ASTM A312 Seamless and welded
gusfcnitic stainless sfeel
electric arc welding. Weld may be single or
double.
- pi?=
8. ASTM A333 Seamless and welded
d) Double Submerged-Arc Welded
steel pipe for low
Pipes having longitudinal butt joint
produced by at least two passes, one of temperature service
9. ASTM A335 Seamless ferritic alloy
which is on the inside of the pipe.
steel pipe for high
Coalescence is produced by heating with an
temperature service
electric arc or arcs between the bare metal
10. ASTM A358 Electric h i o n welded
electrode or electrodes and the pipe.
austenitic chrome-
Pressure is not used and filler material is
nickel steel pipe for
obtained fi-om electrode.

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL I
high , temperature 22. ASTM A672 Electric fusion welded
service steel pipe for high
11. ASTM. A369 Carbon and fenitic pressure service at
.
alloy steel forged and moderate temperature
bored for high services
temperature service (Sizes 2 16" NB)
12. ASTM A376 Seamless austenitic 23. ASTM A691 Carbon and aIloy steel
steel pipe for high pipe, electric h i o n
temperature central welded for high
station service pressure service at high
A409 Welded large diameter temperatures
austenitic steel pipe for (Sizes 2 16" NB)
corrosive or high 24. ASTM A731 Seamless and welded
temperature service ferritic stainless steel
A426 Centrifugally cast pipe
ferritic alloy steel pipe 25. ASTM A790 Seamless and. welded
for high temperature ferritid austenitic
service stairrless steel pipe
15. ASTM A430 Austenitic steel forged 26. ASTM A813 Single or double welded
and bored pipe for high austenitic stainless steel
tempsrature service P~PC
16.' ASTM A45 1 Centrifugally cast 27. ASTM A8 14 . Cold worked welded
austenitic steel pipe for austenitic stainless steel
high temperature pipe
service 28. ASTM F1545 Plastic Lined Ferrous
17. ASTM A452 Centrifugally cast Pipe
austenitic steel cold 29. API 5L Line pipe
wrought pipe for high 30. IS 1239 Steel pipes for general
temperature service PWs=
(Sizes< 6" NB)
18. ASTM A524 Seamless carbon steel 31. IS 1536 C e n ~ g a l l ycast iron
pipe for atmosphen~ P~PC
and low temperature 32. IS 1537 Vertically cast iron pipe
services 33. IS 1978 Line pipe
19. ASTM A587 Electric welded low 34. -IS 1979 High test line pipe - -
carbon steel pipe for the 35. IS 3589 Steel pipe for general
chemical industry senrices
20. ASTM A660 Centrifugally cast 36. IS 4984 HDPE pipe for water
carbon steel pipe for service
high temperature 37. IS 4985 PVC pipe
senrice
21. ASTM A67 1 Electric fusion welded
steel pipe for
atmospheric and low
temperature service
(Sizes2 16" NB)

Piping Elements
I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.7 Pressure Design (used only upto 1%" NB)

Codes specify the formula to amve at
the required thickness for the pipes to . The calculated thickness to be corrected
withstand intemaYexterna1 pressure to to consider the mill tolerance of - 12.5% as
which the system is subjected to. Unlike
pressure vessels, the pipes and fittings are
manufactured to certain standard
dimensions.
Hence, it is necessary for the Piping
Engineer to select the best suited thickness The use of the above equation is best
of the element. illustrated by means of the following
Corrosion allowance, depending on the example.
service to which the system is subjected'to Example:
and the material of construction, is to be A 12" (300 mrn) NB pipe has an internal
added to the calculated minimum thickness. maximum operating pressure of 500 psig
The thickness arrived thus is to be (3 5 kg/cmZg)and temperature of 675%. The
-)
compared with the available standard material of construction of the pipe is
thickness after allowing for the mill seamless carbon steel to ASTM A106 Gr B.
tolerance of *12.5% on the nominal The recommended corrosion allowance is
thickness. . 118" (3mm). Calculate the thickness of pipe
as per ASME B 31.3 and select the proper
1.7.1. THICKNESS OF STRAIGHT PIPE schedule.
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE
ASME B 3 1.3, the Process Piping Code, PD
in clause 304.1.1 gives minimum thickness Tm = +C
as follows: 2 (SE + PY)
Tm=T+C
PD P = 10% higher than the MWP
where T = = 1.1 x 500 = 550 psig
2 (SE + PY) D = 12.75" (OD of 12" NB
where pipe)
P = Internal Desi gauge pressure Design temperature = 675 + 25
. j psig (kd- g)
P
D = Outside Diameter of pipe = 700' F
inch (mm)
S = Allowable Stress fiom S = 16500 psi
Appendix A 1- psi (kg/cm2) (Refer ASME B 31.3 Appendix 'A'
E = Joint Quality factor fiom Table A- 1)
Table A - 1B E = 1 (Joint Quality factor.
Y = Coefficient fiom 304.1.1 Refer ASME B31.3, Appendix
C =Cl+C2 'A' Table A-1B)
C1 = Corrosion Allowance Y = 0.4 (Refer Table 304.1.1)
= 1.6 mrn in general for carbon C = 0.125" (Specified)
steel. 500 x 12.75
= 0 for stainless steel Tm = + 0.125
C2 = Depth of thread 2(16500xl + 550~0.4)

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Consider, L
-= 50
Do.
since L is unspecified.

Hence, considering the mill tolerance of

12.5%- the. nominal thickness for a
minimum thickness of &335"will be
From Graph (Fig. G) in ASME Section II
Part D,
Factor A = 0.000225
From Graph (Fig. HA-3) in ASME Section
In practice we will specify SCH 40 pipe, II Part D,
which has a nominal wall thickness of Factor B = 2750 for the above factor A and
0.406" and minimum 0.355" (0.406x0.875). for 7 5 0 ' ~
Allowable pressure
1.7.2 THICKNESS OF STRAIGHT PIPE 4 B
UNDER EXTERNAL PRESSURE Pa =
- -
The pipe with a large ratio of diameter 3 Do/t
to wall thicbess will collapse under an 4 x 2750
external pressure which is only a small - = 52.6 psig
fiaction of internal pressure which it is 3 x 69.7
capable of withstanding. This is less than the Desiga Pressure.
To determine the wall thickness under Therefore, assume higher thickness.
external pressure, the procedure outlined in Consider SCH 80 S pipe.
the BPV Code ASME Section VIII Div. 1 Nominal thickness = 0.432"
UG-28 through UG-30 shall be followed. Minimum thickness = 0.875 x 0.432
. . = 0.378"
Example: Do 6.625
A 6" (1 50 mm)NB pipe has an external - = - . . = 17.5,
Design Pressure of 400 psigat 750' F. The t 0.378 - .
mat&al of construction-ofpipe is seamless Do.
austenitic stainless steel to *TM A 312 TP Factor A for the new value of -is 0.0038
304L. The corrosion allowance is nil. . . .
t .
..
Calculate thickness and select -.proper . '....~arr,ewnd'j d'hdOof
, B -s-55'm., . .
. .
.

schedule. -
Refer ASME Section VIII Div. 1. UG 28 - ...=.
'~ll.owablePressure;.. .. .' . .

4x'550(- : . ' .
. .
Assume value of 't' and determine ratios Pa =
. . . .
= . 4 1 .9 p s i g : - . . , .
_
.
L Do 3x173 :
- and - .

More thanDesign Pressure .

. "

',

Do t Hence select SCH 80s pipe..

Do for 6" NB pipe = 6.625"
Assume SCN 5 S pipe
Nominal thickness = 0.109"
Minimum thickness considering negative
mill tolerance of 12.5%
t = 0.875 x 0.109 = 0.095"

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.7.3 THICKNESS OF BEND connections. The dimensional standards

ASME B31.3, in it the 1999Edition, referred for the fittings are as follows:
has added the formula as below for DIhlENSIONAL S T A N D m S
establishing the minimum thickness of bend. 1. ASMEB16.1
The minimum thickness t, of a bend - Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged
after bending, in its finished form, shall be Fittings
2. ASME B 16.3
- Malleable-Iron Threaded Fittings
3. ASMEB 16.4
- Grey Iron Threaded fittings
Where at the intrados (inside bend radius) 4. ASME B 16.5
- Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
5. ASME B 16.9
- Factory-Made Wrought Steel Butt
welding
6. ASME B 16.1 1
and at -cxtrados
-Forged Fittings, Socket welding and
Threaded
7. ASME B 16.28
- Wrought Steel Butt welding Short
Radius Elbows and Retums
8. ASME B 16.42
- Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and
Flanged Fittings
9. ASME B 16.49
and at side wall the bend centre line radius - Buttwelding Induction Bends for
I = 1. The thickness apply at mid span y12. Transportation and Distribution
System
10. BS 1640
- Butt weld FittiDgs
11. BS 3799 -
- Socket weld and Screwed end fittings
12. BS 2598
- Glass Pipelines and Fittings
-
13. IS 1239 Part-II M.S.Fittings
.
14. IS 1538 - Cast Iron Fittings
.
15. MSS-SP-43
Extrados - Stainless Steel Fittings
2.0 PIPE FITTINGS 2.1 Classification Based On End
Connections
The branching tree shown (refer Fig.2.1) 2.1.1 SOCKET WELDISCREWED END
indicates the various types of fittings. FITTINGS
These fittings can have various types of end
connections or can have combination of end For Socket Weldscrewed end fittings are
covered under ASME B 16.1 1/BS 3799. For

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

these fittings, four pressure classes are SWISCRD FITTING MATERIALS

available. 1 ASTM A105 - Forged Carbon Steel
They are; 2 ASTM A1 8 1 - Forged Carbon Steel
1 2000 # Class for General Purposes
2 3000 # Class 3 ASTM A182 - Forged Alloy ~ t e e i
3 6000 # Class and stainless Steel
4 9000 # Class 4 ASTM A234 - Wrought Carbon Steel
These designations represent the and Alloy Steel pipe
maximum cold non-shock working pressure fittings for moderate
of the fitting in pounds per square inch. and elevated
1. 2000 # Class temperatures -
This class is applicable only to screwed 5 ASTM A350 - Forged Alloy Steel
fittings and is covered only in ASME B for Low Ternperatwe
16.1 1. The corresponding pipe thickness for Services
this class is SCH 80 or XS.
2. 3000 # Class 2.1.2 BEVELED END FITIWGS
This class is applicable to both screwed and These types of fittings are connected by
socket weld fittings. The corresponding pipe means of butt welding. The thickness of
thickness for this class is SCH 80 or XS for these fittings is to be specified the same as
socket weld end co~ectionand SCH 160 that of pipes because the bore of the pipes
for screwed end connections. and the attached fittings should match. That
3. 6000 # Class means both the items should have the same
. This class is also applicable to both screwed schedule number. There are certain
and socket weld fittings. The socket weld exceptional cases where fittings of higher
fittings under this class are normally used thickness are used.
with SCH 160 pipes and screwed fittings The beveled end fittings could be of
with XXS pipes. seamless or welded construction.
4. 9000 # Class The material of construction specified in
This class is applicable only to socket weld the American Standards for the beveled
fittings, which are normally, used with XXS weld fittings are;
pipes. BW FITTING MATERIALS
The screwed end fittings can be with 1. ASTM A 234 - Carbon Steel fittings for
parallel threads or with taper threads. Taper Moderate & High temperature
'

threads are preferred for the W g s . These Service

could be to NPT as covered in American -
2. ASTM A 403 Austenitic Stainless
-

Standards or to BSPT as covered in British St91 Pipefittings

standards or to relevant Indian Standard 3. ASTM Pi 410 - Carbon Steel & Alloy
specifications. Steel Pipe. Fittings for low
The dimensional standard ASME B temperature services.
16.11fBS 3799 cover the sizes upto 4" (100 4. ASTM A 815 - Ferritic,
mm) NB only. FerritidAustenitic and Martensitic
The socket weld /screwed fittings are Steel Pipe Fittings
manufactured by forging. The materials of Beveled end fittings are covered under
construction used for the same are as ASMEB 16.9,B 16.28 andBS 1640.
follows:

Piping Elements 12
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

2.1.3 FLANGED END FITTINGS or to branch off from main run of pipe. The
Fittings with both ends flanged are used special features of these are as below.
where welding is not possible or not
~ermitted. Normally these are made by 2.2.1 ELBOWS
casting. Classification of these fittings, Elbows are used to make 90 deg. or 45
based on the pressure temperature ratinzs, is deg. changes in the direction of run pipe.
same as that of flanges. There are two types of 90 deg. butt-welding
Flanged fittings fabricated from elbows available for use. These are the
standard butt-welded or socket welded long radius and short radius elbows. The
fittings are not covered under this standard. long radius elbows have a bend radius of
The material specification is the same as that 1.5D, where D is the nominal size, whereas
for castings. the short radius elbows have a bend radius
FLANGED END FITTING of ID. The 45 deg. elbows are of 1.5D
MATERIALS radius. Any bend with more than 1.5D
1. ASTM A 216 - Carbon Steel Castings bending radius has to be specially made as
2. ASTM A 351 - Stainless Steel Castings per requirements. For large diameter piping,
3. ASTM A 352 - Alloy Steel Castings bends are fabricated by profile cutting of
4. ASTM F 1545 - Plastic Lined Fittings pipes and are called mitre bends. Mitre
5.1s 1538 - C I Fittings bends with two piece, three piece or four
These fittings are covered under ASME B piece cocstruction can be made. These are
16.5 and BS 1650 for carbon and alloy steel normally not used in critical services. 22.5
piping and ASME B 16.1 for cast iron deg. elbows are also available in cast iron
fittings. B
construction. .\ 6 4

2.1.4 SPIGOT SOCKET FITTMGS

Spigot Socket fittings are used in Cast 4 SnPJ *c$l\b
\ b "\ L ~a&d
Iron piping for low-pressure services. The
joints are sealed by Lead caulking. This \6 -2L - " 4w-Sld .

type of connection has the advantage that it

can take misalignment to a certain extent.
Flanged socketsand flanged spigots are used
for connection to flanged equipments and
valves. These fittings are covered under IS
1538.

2.1.5 BUTTRESS END FITTINGS - . -.

Buttress ends fittings are used in glass

piping. These Sttings are bolted together
with the help of backing flanges and PTFE
inserts. These fittings are covered under
BS 2598.

2.2 Types Of Fittings

There are various types of fittings used
to complete the piping system. These are
used to change direction, change diameter

Piping Elements 14
, . PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
I

Fig. 2.5: Elbows - Socket weld

Fig. 2.2: Short Radius Elbow
(R=1 D) I

Fig. 2.6: Mitre Bend 90'

Fig. 23: Long Radius Elbow

(R=l.5D)

Fig. 2.7: Mitre Bend 45'

I
Fig. 2.4: Elbows - 45'

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

2.2.2 RETURNS
Returns change the direction through
180 deg. This is mainly used in heating
coils, heat exchangers, etc. Returns with
1.5Dradius and 1D radius are available.

Fig. 2.10: Tees - Socket weld I'

I s
2.2.4 CROSS
This is a fitting very rarely used in
Fig. 2.8: Long Radius Return piping system. There are two types of I:
I
crosses, the straight and reducing. To reduce
2.2.3 TEES- the inventory, it is prefmed to use tees r *
Tees are used' for branching off. For except where space is restricted as in marine I
-
low pressure services, branching off is done piping.
by direct welding of branch pipe to run pipe I I :
instead of using a standard Tee. In certain
cases, reinforcing pads are used for
structural stability of such connections.
Design code gives the calculation by which
the requirement of reinforcement pad can be
established and provided for branch
connection (Refer Appendix H of ASME B Y
31.3). The branching schedule specified Fig. 2.11: Cross
along with piping specification explains
what sort of a branch connection is to 2.2.5 REDUCERS,
be used for that particular piping class. There are two types of reducers
The. manufacturing restrictions do not available, the concentric reducers and the
allow reducing tees of 2 1 size combinations. Eccentric reducers.
To arrive at available sizes of reducing tees
in the standard, use the thumb rule of
dividing the major diameter by 2 and
consider the next lower size.
For example, the minimum size of
reducing tee available for 4" NB size is 4" x
1W (next lower size of 412 = 2").
Fig. 2.12: Concentric Reducer

Fig. 2.9: Tees - Butt weld

Fig.2.13: Eccentric Reducer
. ..
f :
. .

... . . . . .

Piping Elements
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

considered long pattern as the standard when

nothing is specified in this respect.

Fig 2.14: Cap

Fig. 2.15: Stub End - Class A
When the center lines of the larger pipe
and smaller pipe are to be maintained
same, then concentric reducers are used.
When one of the outside surfaces of the
pipelines are to be maintained same, then
eccentric reducers are required. There are no
eccentric reducers in socket weld fitting and
Swage nipples are used for such senrice. The Fig. 2.16: Stub End - Class B
size restrictions for manufacture as
explained in Tees is also applicable to 2.2.7 COUPLINGS
.reducers.. Couplings are of three types:
-; t 1.Full Coupling
2.2.6 STUB ENDS
i' To reduce the cost of piping, stub ends
2.Half Coupling
3.Reducing Coupling
i
are used with backing flanges for flange
? i
,3
joints when exotic materials are used in
i piping. MME B16.9 specifies two types of
- 1 r
+ , stub ends, the long stub ends and the short
>\ i
- - stub ends. The length of stub ends as per
MSS-SP-43 is the same as that of short stub
1,
.j
I
1 ends. MSS-SP-43 specifies two classes,
I

:'t I Class A with radius and Class B without

radius at the comer. Class B can be used
Fig. 2.17: Full Coupling
. .

PP
1 ' J :
with slip-on flanges. Designer selects stub
d (longlshort) ensuring the weld of pipe to
.Ir,
%,-
-
, stub end not get covered by flange. When
Class A stub ends are used, the inner
)>.
.,, diameter of backing flange is chamfered for
). better seating.
,A I
The minimum lap thickness should Fig. 2.18: Half - Coupling
1 ' be the same as that of the pipe wall. When
<

1, i special facings such as tongue and groove, Full couplings are used to connect small
.- a male and female etc. are employed
bore pipes as projection of welding inside
) additional lap thickness shall be provided.
-, the pipe bore, when butt welding is used,
The gasket face finish shall be provided with
.
,-I I serrations as required. ASME B 16.9
reduce the flow area. Half couplings are
. used for branch connections and reducing
1 couplings for size reduction. Reducing
)
.-'
1
f Piping Eleraents
i
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

couplings maintain the pipe centerlines same Unions can be with threaded end or with
and eccentric swage nipples are used to
' socket weld ends. There are three pieces in
maintain the outside surface same for such a union, two end pieces to attach to the run
systems. pipe and the third threaded piece to connect
these two. The ball type metal seating ensure
2.2.8 SWAGE NIPPLES sealing.
Swage Nippies are like reducers but are
used to connect butt welded pipe to smaller
screwed or socket welded pipe. There are
two types of swage nipples, tlre concentric
and the eccentric. Various conlbinations of
end connections are possible in swage
nipples. These are designated as
-
PBE Plain Both Ends
PLE - Plain Large End
-
PSE Plain Small End
-
BLE Beveled Large End
-
TSE Threaded Small End
'ig. 2.21: Union
These are covered under the regulatory Code . .
BS 3799.
2.2.10 SPECIAL FITTINGS
The items referred under special fittings are;
* Weldolet
* Sockolet
* Threadolet
* Elbolet
* Sweepolet
* Nipolet
* Latmlet
Fig, 2.19: Concentric Swage Nipple

Fig. 2.22: Weldolet Fig. 2.23:Sweepolet , ..3

,

I
-1
.
%>

$
I ..
Fig. 2.20: Eccentric Swage Nipple B
A I %
2.2.9 UNIONS
Unions are used in low pressure piping Fig. 2.24: Sockolet Fig. 2.25: Thredolet
where dismantling of the pipe is required
more often, as an alternative to flanges.

Piping Elements
 1
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

acceptable leak tightness. Classification o f

flanges is done in several alternate ways a s
folIows:

*.,
I
'->.
i Fig. 2.26: Latrolet Fig. 2.27: Elbolet
r* 1
5 ;
r ,

I ...

1
13 ' . ,

."\ I .
'Fig. 3.1 .: Slip-on Raised,Face Flange
I

Fig. 2.28: Nipolet

. .

' 1 These are fittings, which have restrictive

1
-I use. Weldolet is used for butt-weld branch
--. !
Fig3.2: Socket Welded Raised Face
x'
3 i connection where standard tee is not
7 available due to size restriction and the Flange
:1 piping is of criticafiigh pressure service.
f !
-3 ! Sockolet is used for socket welding branch
3
connection, which require reinforcing pad.
k
?
'
;
Threadolet is used for .thfeaded branch
i :' connections. Elbolet is used for branch
. - connection on elbows and have the profiles
1;[
. j
I made to suit the elbow. Sweepolet is
integrally reinforced butt weld branch
Fig. 3.3: Threaded Raised Face Flange

?>.
'; i
-;
>

I
.
connection. Latrolet is used for branch
connection at an angle. .

3.0 FLANGES
123
3 : ) Flanges are used when the joint needs
dismantling. These are used mainly at
?
;3
I
4
equipmcnts, valves and specialties. In .
.
.
. . . . . .

'i
-.>
certain pipelines where maintenance is a
regular feature, breakout flanges are
Fig. 3.4: Lap Joint Flange with;-tub
. ..
.
End.
. .
.
. .

provided at definite intervals on pipe lines.

t9
-51 i A flanged joint is composed of three
jx separate and independent although
- ..
- I interrelated components; the flanges, the
i
1 gaskets and the bolting; which are
)> assembled by yet another influence, the
' 1 fitter. special controls are required in the
! selection and application of all these Fig.3.5: Welding Neck Raised Face
elements to attain a joint, which has Flange
-' ) i
j? I
Piping Elements 19
I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The Screwed-on flanges are used on

pipe lines where welding cannot be carried
out. Socket welding and threadediflanges are
not recommended for service above 2 5 0 ' ~
and below -45'~.
The Lap joint flanges are used with
stub ends when piping is of a costly
material. The stub ends will be butt-welded
Fig.3.6: Reducing Slip-on Flange to the piping and the flanges are kept loose
over the same. The inside radius of these
flanges is chamfered to clear the stub end
radius. With Class B type stub ends slip-on
flanges can be used for the same duty.
The Welding neck flanges are attached
by butt-welding to the pipes. These are used
mainly for critical services where all the
weld joints need radiographic inspection.
While specifjhg these flanges, the thickness
Fig.3.7: Expander or Reducer Flange
of the welding end also should be specified
along with flange specification.
3.1 Based On.pipe Attachment The Blind flanges are used to close the
Flanges can be classified based on the ends, which need to be reopened later.
attachment to the piping as below;
The Reducing flamges are used to
3.1.1 Slip-on
connect between larger and smaller sizes
3.1.2 Socket Weld
without using a reducer. In case of
3.1.3 Screwed reducing flanges, the thichess of the flange
3.1.4 Lap Joint should be that of the higher diameter.
3.1.5 Welding Neck
Integral flanges arc those, which are
3.1.6 Blind cast along with the piping component or
3.1.7 Reducing
equipment. Thickness of integrally cast
3.1.8 Integral flanges and welded on flanges differ in
The Slipon type flanges are attached certain sizes. There - are some types of
by welding inside as well as outside.
flanges developed by 'manufacturers, which
Normally, these flanges are of forged
arc not covered in Code. They are mainly
construction and are provided with hub.
modification on the welding neck such as:
Sometimes, these flanges are fabricated
fiom plates and are not provided with the
a) Long Welding neck flange
hub.
The Socket weld flanges are welded
b) ~ r ~ a n c l e r / ~ e d uflange
cer
only on one side and are not recommended
for severe services. These are used for
Bolt holes are in multiples of four and
small-bore lines only. The thickness of
shall straddle the fitting centerline.
connecting pipe should be specified for this
type of flanges to ensure proper bore
dimension.

Piping Elements
 I
PTPINC ENGINEER1 NG CELL

, 3.2 Based On Pressure-temperature

7
i Rating
'3 The flanges are also classified by the
pressure temperature rating in ASME B 16.5
!
as below;
, r
3.2.1 150 # ks b F
3.2.2 300 # b \6.5 Fig. 3.8: Flat Face
3.2.3 400 #
! 3.2.4 600 #
'3 '
3.2.5 900 #
C

,I 3.2.6 1500 #
3.2.7 2500 #
i Pressure temperature rating charts, in
the standard ASME B 16.5, specify the non-
3 shock working gauge pressure to which the
i Fig. 39: Raised Face
-2
> flange can be subjected to at a particular
I temperature. The indicated pressure class of
B 15W,3 W , etc. are the basic ratings and the
'h flanges . can withstand higher pressures at
P I lower temperatures. ASME B 16.5 indicates
h
i
the allowable pressures for various materials
1
/"
I
-
. of construction vis a -vis the temperature.
\

MME B16.5 does not recommend the use

\ ' 2
of 150# flanges above 400 OF (200 O C ) .
Fig. 3.10: Ring Joint
I
-
t
F
3.3 Based On Facing
> . The flanges can also be classified based
- - on tht facings as below:
)$
. '
,
3.3.1 Flat face (FF)
1.
<?' 1
3.3.2 Raised h e (RF)
i
4
--
3.3.3 Tongue and groove (TIG)
3.3.4 Male and Female (WF)
3.3.5 Ring type joint (RTJ) Fig. 3.11: Tongue and Groove Joint
-) + e - I.
Flat face flanges are used when the
counter flanges are flat face. This condition
occurs mainly on connection to Cast Iron
cquipmtnts, valves and specialties.
For 150# and 300# flanges, the raised
face is of 1/16 inch and is included in the
thickn& specified. For higher rating, the
flange thickness does not include the raised
face thickness. The raised face thickness for
higher rating is % inch. Fig. 3.12: Male / Female Joint

1
Piping Elements 21
PIPIXG ENGINEERING CELL

3.4 Based O n Face Finish have a wider range of pressure temperature

There are two types of finishes done on classes. IS has developed IS 6392 in line
to the facings. They are the smooth finish with DIN standards !and the same is also in
and the serrated finish. The smooth finish use.
flanges are specified when metallic gaskets ASME B 16.5 Covers Sizes from '/z"
are specified and serrated finish is provided NB to 24" NB only and ANSI B16.47 / APT
when a non-metallic gasket is provided. 605 are referred for higher sizes.
The serrations provided on the facing could
be concentric or spiral (phonographic). 4.0 GASKETS
Concentric serrations are insisted for face
finish when the fluid being carried has very 4.1 Selection
low density and can find leakage path Proper selection of gasket depends upon
through the cavity. The serration is specifiedfollowing factors.
by the number, which is the Arithmetic 4.1.1 Compatibility of the gasket material
Average Roughness Height (AARH). This with the fluid. .
is the arithmetic average of the absolute 4.1.2 Ability to withstand the pressure-
values of measured profile height deviations temperature of the system.
taken within the sampling length and. 4.2 Type
measured from the graphical centre line. Based on the type of constructi.on, gaskets
are classified as: I
. .
3.5 Based On Material O i Construction 4.2.1 Full Face .
The flanges are normally forged except 4.2.2 Inside bolt circle
in very few cases where they are fabricated 4.2.3 Spiral wound metallic
fiom plates. 4.2.4 king type
When plates are used for fabrication, 4.2.5 Metal jacketed
they should be of weldable quality. ASME 4.3 Material
B16.5 allows only reducing flanges and Experience on the job and published
blind flanges to be fabricated from plate. literature shall be .used to select the gasket
The materials of construction normally used material with respect to the compatibility of
are as follows; the same with the fluid.
FLANGE MATERIALS The material, which is most commonly used,
-
3.5.1 ASTM A105 Forged Carban Steel is the Compressed Asbestos Fibre.
3.5.2 ASTM A1 8 1 - Forged Carbon Steel lndian Staadard IS 2712 specifies three
for General Purpose different materials at three different grades.
-
3.5.3 ASTM A182 Forged Alloy Steel 4.3.1 IS2712GfW/l,W/2andW/3
- and Stainless Steel - for Steam, Alkali and general
-
3.5.4 ASTM A350 Forged Alloy Steel for applications.,
low temgerature 4.3.2 IS2712GrN1,
services - for Acid applications.
4.3.3 IS 2712 Gr 0/1,0/2,0/3
3.6 Other Standards - for Oil applications.
Certain British Standards, German Asbestos fiee gaskets are also available
Standards and Indian Standards are also for above applications. For very corrosive
followed in India for flange specifications. applications, PTFE or PTFE enveloped
BS-10 is the most popular among them. gaskets are used.
DIN flanges are also popular because they

Piping Elements
PIPING ENGINEERIISG CELL

For high temperature and high-pressure are used otherwise. Normally, the bolts are
applications, spiral wound metallic gaskets provided with hexagonal head, hexagonal
are used. The selection of material of nut and a round washer. Studs are provided
construction for winding depends upon the with two hexagonal nuts and two washers.
corrosive nature and concentration of the The length of boltdstuds required for the
fluid, the operating temperature and the flange joints of all pressure classes are
relative cost of alternate winding materials. specified in ASME B16.5.
The most commonly used are the Austenitic Flanged joints using low strength
stainless steel 304; 316 and 321 with carbon steel bolts shall not be used above
Asbestos filler. For very high temperatures, 200 OC or below -29 OC
graphite filler is also used. Alternate ASTM F-704 specifies the standard
winding materials also can be used practice of selecting bolt lengths for piping
depending upon the services. system-flanged joints.
ASME B 16.5 does not recommend
the use of 150# rating spiral wound 5.1 Material Of Construction For Bolting
gaskets on flanges other than welding Bolting materials normally used are:
neck and lapped joint type. 5.1.1 ASTM A 307 -Low Carbon Steel
Spiral wound gaskets are provided with Bolting Material
carbon steel external ring known as 5.1.2 ASTM A 320 -Alloy Steel Bolting
centering ring to position the gasket. When material
used in vacuum services, an internal ring is 5.1.3 ASTM A 563 - Carbon and alloy
also provided. The material of inner ring steel nuts
should be compatible with the fluid. The 5.1.4 ASTM A193 - Alloy Steel Bolting
spiral wound gasket will perform when the Material for high
flange face is 125-250 AARH finish. temperature service
5.1.5 ASTAMA 194 - Alloy Steel nut
4.4 Dimensional Standards material for high
Gasket dimensions are covered under temperature service
the following standards. 5.1.6 IS 1367 - Threaded steel
4.4.1 API 601 fasteners
- Metallic Gasket for Refinery Piping
4.4.2 BS 3381 5.2 D i m e n s i ~ n dStandards For Bolts
- Metallic Spiral Wound Gaskets The dimensional standards referred for
4.4.3 ANSI B 16.20 the studdbolts are:
- Metallic Gaskets for pipe flanges flanges
4.4.4 ANSI B 16.21 -
5.2.1 ANSI B 18.2.1 Square & HexagonaI
- Won-metallic Gaskets for pipe head bolts
flanges. -
5.2.2 ANSI B 18.2.2 Square & Hexagonal
. . nuts
5.0 BOLTING. . ' , 5.2.3 BS 916 - Black bolts & nuts
5.2.4 IS 1367 - Threaded steel
Depending upon the service, its fasteners.
prcssure/temperature and the type of gasket,
type of bolting is selected.
For low pressure, low temperature
services, machined bolts are used and studs

Piping Elements
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

6.0 NON- FERROUS PIPING To add mechanical strength with the

corrosion properties of non-metallic
The non-ferrous piping is used materialb, the concept of lining of material is
depending upon the corrosion properties and established. The combination normally used
the temperature at which the fluid is in the industry are:
handled. Special teclmology is involved in * Mild Steel Rubber Lined (MSRL),
the fabrication of these pipins. The * MildSteelGlassLined(MSGL),
commody used materials are: * MiId Steel Cement Lined,
* Aluminurn * Mild Steel PP Lined,
* Alloy-20 * Mild Steel PTFE lined
* Hastalloy * Mild Steel PVDF lined
* Lead The lined pipes and pipe fittings have
* Monel flanged ends and are joined by bolting. Of
* Nickel late flangeless lined piping is.in use. In this
* Titanium case the liier is butt-welded and the outer
These materials arc specified under carbon steel shell of the pipe is connected by
ASTM Section I1 part B and the numbers are 'Lorking' mechanical +ling. *

prefixed with the Alphabet 'B'. The use of gasket is not recomrncnded
Due to economic considerations either in piping Lined with resilient materials, but
carbon steel flanges with lininghonding of this can damage the lining restricting the
these materials or Lap joint backing flanges reuse.
wherever possible are used in this piping. .- The requirement of lined pipes has to be
studied case by case based on the service
7.0 NON-METALLIC AiiD LINED conditions.
PIPING The glass pipes & fittings have either
Non-metallic piping is used where the buttress end or beaded ends 'and are
problem of: corrosion is severe and it is connected with flange assembly.
difficult to get a suitable economical
metallic piping. Temperature limitations 8.0 PIPING SPECIFICATION 1
restrict the use of these non-metallic piping. PIPING CLASS
The commonly used materials are: A document indigiting the dimensional
ABS - Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
and material specificatiok of pipes, fittings
-
CPVC Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride type is called a PIPING CLASS.
-
ETFE Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene - - - - -& -~ valve
d
Each class represents &tinct features such
FEP - Fluoro Ethylene propylene
as p r e s s ~ e - t e m p e r a ~ e conditions,
-
FRP Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic corrosion resistance and strength abilities or
-
HDPE High Density Polyethylene a combination of these abilities. There
LDPE - Low Density Polyethylene
could be a number of them selected and used
PFA - Perfluoro Alkoxyalkane
for one project While selecting these, care
PP - Polypropylene should be taken to minimize the number to
-
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene rationalize the inventory. The designation
PVC - Poly Vinyl Chloride
of these Piping Classes varies with the
PVDF - Polyvinyliedel~eFluoride
company. While designing the piping
Glass
systepl for a project, the components, which
Cement
Ceramic are not mentioned in the piping class, should
be avoided.
J

Piping Elements 24 I

1
, i -
i PIPING ENGINEERLNG CELL

9.0 TIPS FOR THE PREPARATION 9.3 Piping Components

O F PIPING SPECIFICATIONS
9.3.1 PIPES
The approach should be to minimize the * All pipelines canying toxic/mflammable
number of different elements and thus fluids shall be seamless.
simplify and rationalize inventory. * Utility piping can be ERW or Seam
welded.
9.1 Materials * Steam pipelines shall preferably b e
.* Carbon Steel shall be used for seamless.
temperature upto 425C (SO0 OF) only.
* Low temperature steel shall be used for 9.3.2 FITTINGS
temperature below -29 OC (-20 OF) * Fittings shdl preferably be seamless.
* Alloy steel shall be used for temperature * Butt weld fittings shall be used for pipe
above 426 "C (801 OF) sizes 2" (50 mrn) NB and above for all
* Stainless steel shall be used for AlloyICarbon steel piping.
comsive fluids. Basic material of * For stainless steel piping where
construction specified by Process Licenser thickness is less, all fittings could be butt-
to be referred for the typc. welding'type.
* Galvanized steel piping shall be used for * Welding tees shall be used for full size
services such as drinking water, instrument branch connections. For reduced branch
air, nitrogen (LP) etc. sizes upto 2 steps less than run diameter, it
* Selection of Non-fcrrous, Non-metallic can be fabricated. For smaller sizes half
and Lined piping shall be as per the couplings shall be used. Full size
recommendation from the Process Licenser. unreinforced branch welding can be done
where pressure temperature condition are
9.2 Piping Joints mild.
* Butt-welded connection shall normally
be used for all AlloyICarbon steel piping 2" 9.33 FLANGES
(50 mi) NB and larger and also for * Rating shall be based on the pressure
Austenitic Stainless Steel. temperature conditions. However 150 lb .
* AlloyICarbon steel piping 1%'' (40 mm) flanges are not maitktb bey d 200C
NB and below shall be socket welded. (400F). $c~mnrdc2?
* Threaded connection shall be avoided * Socket welding flanges may be used for
except in galvanized piping. all pressure ratings upto 1%" (40 mm) NB
* Flanged joints shall be minimized, as size except on lines subjected to severe
they are points of potential leakage. It may cyclic conditions.. -
be used to connect piping to equipment or * Screwed flanges shall be used for
valves, connecting pipe lines of dissimilar galvanized stee~castiron piping.
materials, where spool pieces are required to * Slip on flanges are used in 150 lb and
pennit removal or servicing of equipment 300 lb rating upto a maximum of 200C.
and where pipes and fittings are with Welding neck flanges shall be used for
flanged ends. higher pressure ratings.
* Raised face is used for flanges upto 600
lb rating. For flanges 9001b rating and above
RTJ is recommended. Tongue and groove -

facing shall be used selectively.

Piping Elements 25
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

* Depending on pressure and temperature, * U s e Spiral wound gasket with inner ring
gasket shall be either CAF, spiral wound for Vacuum service
metallic for raised fice flanges or selected I * Low strength carbon steel bolting shall
based on the corrosive nature of the fluid. not be used above 200 O C and below -29 O C
* Use flat face flanges to mate with cast
iron valves and equipments.

Piping Elements
 FACTOR A.
I
?'HE VALUES OF FACTOR A
USED I N FORMULAS F O ~ ~ V E S S E LUNDER
S EXTERNAL PRESSURE
 Certificate Course
on
PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May II 27,2Q05

PIPE HYDRAULICS AND SIZING

Prof. A. S. Moharir
IIT Bombay :
 PIPE HYDRAULICS AND SIZING

WHY PIPE SIZING IS IMPORTANT

1
non-optimal. Also, what is optimal today
> According to a 1979 American may not be optimum over a long period (due
survey, as much as 30% of the total cost to fouling, change in relative cost, change in
'z
i I operating schedule. which affects the
of a typical chemical process plant goes
for piping, piping elements and valves. A utilization time of the pipeline,etc.)
c>
significant amount of operating cost
I
(energy) is also used up in forcing flow Pipe sizing is thus a lot of experience,
through piping its components. A engineering foresight and judgment than just
I
significant amount of the maintenance theory. This paper attempts to review the
cost is also for the piping and associated pipe sizing procedures, the pressure drop
-j S things. calculation procedures which are integral to
Proper sizing, optimal in some pipe sizing procedure, the pitfalls in these
sense, is therefore very necessary. calculations, the confidence limits in
calculated values and the factors of safety
WHY IS IT DIFFICULT AND which must be incorporated in view of
AT TIMES MEANINGLESS known limiiations of correlations. Different
Piping must be sized before the concepts aie then cemented through .
' plant is 1gid out. Layout must be representative examples during the lecture in
complete (i-e. equipment must be the Certificate Course on Piping
located, pipe racks established, layout of Engineering conducted by Piping Cell at
individual pipe runs decided, etc.) for Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai.
calculating realistic pressure drop and
doing pipe sizing for each pipe segment. PIPE SIZING PROCEDURES
This 'chicken and egg' scenario means Pipe sizing is generally done using
that decisions regarding pipe sizing and one of the following criteria:
plant layout must be iterative h most
cases. That is normally not the practice 1) velocity considerations
except in few very large engineering 2) Available pressure drop consideratio~s
or~anizations which can afford it. 3) Economic considerations
Having to carry out pipe sizing at a
. yemature stage invariably means that The degree of difficulty increases as one
the recornmended pipe size inay not goes from (1) to (3). While pressure drop
meet process requirement or may not be calculation in an integral part of (2) and (3),
the most economic, etc. it would need to be calculated in case (1)
Normally a layout is assumed also to quantify energy requirement, sizing
drawing on past practices and.experience pressure providing equipment such as
and pipes are sized. No second iteration pumps/ compressors, etc. To be conversant
is carried out. Actual layout which with pressure drop calculation procedures
emerges later may be significantly for variety of flow types that are
different than what was assumed during encountered is thus very important. -
sizing. The sizes t h u may turn out to be
This paper assumes that the readers + Scientific approach
are conversant with pressure drop
calculation procedures and concepts
underlining them, a t least for the
MULTI CALCULATIONS -PHASE 1 -. ,,

-,
single phase flow. The paper attempts FLOW PRESSURE DROP
to build on this background.
+ A possible approach
1. ,I

The paper reviews the following: I '

PIPE SIZING
TYPES OF FLOW
+ Velocity considerations
+ Single' phase, Two phase, Multi- + Pressure drop considerations . '

phase + Economic considerations

+ Horizontal, Inclined
+ . Through straight run-pipes, through TYPEOF FLOW
complex routings
+ Isothermal, non-isothermal Although the flow can be
+ Incompressible, compressible categorized on several basis the
+ Laminar, Turbulent classification based on number of phases
involved is the most commonly used. When
BERNOULLI'S EQUATION the flowing medium has uniform physical
properties across the flow cross-section, the
SINGLE' PHASE PRESSURE flow is a single-phase flow. Flow of pure
single liquids, solutions of solids in liquids,
DROP CALCULATIONS. . . '

mixtures of completely miscible liquids,

mixtures of gases and/or vapors come in this
+ - Horizontal, straight, constant cross- category.
section segment . All other flows are multiphase flows.
+ Inclined, straight, constant cross- The two phase flow would involve two
section segment distinct phases such as liquid with its vapor,
+ Fittings and valves a liquid with an incondensible gas, etc. A
+ Equivalent length in actual terms liquid or gasfvapor stream with suspended
+ Equivalent length in diameter terms solid particles is also a two phase flow.
However,'a two phase flow would nomaIly
TWO PHASE PRESSURE DROP refer to-- two fluid phases. When two
CALCULATIONS immiscible liquids are involved with their
vapor andlor another inert gas, it is a three
+ Flow regimes and their phase flow and so OIL
identifications Energy required to sustain such
(Baker Parameters) flows in pipedtubes is a very hnprtant
+ Pressure drop caiculations information which has to be generated
(Lockhart Martinelli, Baker) through calculations of pressure drop that
the flow would cause in a conduit of given
+ Confidence kvels in calculated cross-section, and extent. This i n f o d o n
pressure drops is then used in locating equipments, sizing
+ Effect of inclination
 I
pipes, deciding their routes, rating BERNOULLI'S EQUATION
pressure generating equiprnents, etc. In its original form, Bernoulli's
f
I Temperature of the flowing equation is merely statement of conversation
'I medium affects physical properties such of energy for flowing medium. Consider a
?
as density and viscosity which in turn
, . have a bearing on the pressure drop.
segment of an inclined conduit of variable
cross-section as shown in Fig.1 and fluid
-1
When the temperature is constant over flowing through it. The energy of the fluid at
the pipe segment under consideration, or any location may be expressed in terms of a
' t I
! .
the temperature change along the flow vertical column of the flowing fluid itself.
i
path is not significant enough so as to The height at any point along the conduit is
7.

- 3 cause appreciable change in the physical then seen - as comprising of three

I properties, it is treated as an isothermal components, the pressure (Plp), velocity
, I
I flow. When the temperature change is head (v212g) and elevation head (Z).
: significant, it is non-isothermal flow.
Bernoulli's theorem states that the sum of
' 1
i When the density of the flowing medium these three components is constant
;
5

f
c i- 1' is not strongly correlated with the everywhere along the flow path. This is true
-. pressure, the medium is termed as if there are no external inputs or withdrawals
-.p'
. /. incompressible and the flow as from the conduit Applied at the two points 1
<A . incompressible flow. Liquid flow and 2 of the inclined pipe shown (Fig.l), the
f (single, two or multiphase) would come Bernoulli's equation can be written a s
2
,
I
>
>
1% in this category naturally. However
when gasedvapors which are
follows:

1.,
compressible (that is their density is a P I/p+v, /2g+z, =P ,/p+v ,'/2g+z 2
: strong function of pressure) are
5 ! involved, but the pressure drop along the
flow path is not significant enough to
i 'r
.
'
S e c t the medium density, their flow
may also be treated as incompressible
'
)'
>
' flow. Oth&se, the flow of
jj> / gasedvapors is a compressible flow.
In some flow situations,
j
,I -
2;j !
- * especially two and multiphase flows, the
J inclination of the flow conduit from
.
2 s
horizontal is of great significance. Also
1 whether the flow in the inclined conduit
L4 I1 is upward or downw~d is also an-
:?
> important considera2icx In the case o f .
i'i single phase flow, the inclination is
i
important in the sense that it affects the
overall energy balance given for the flow
,
When the pipe is horizontal (2, = Z ) and
1
situation by the famous Bernoulli's ,
the conduit cross-section is uniform (v, =v )

-,
1 equation. But the flow type and
hydraulic pressure drop are not affected
, the pressures at the two points, 1 and 2,
should be equal, This is not the case because
by the pipe inclination. the flow is confined by the pipe and there is
i t a resistance to flow caused by fiiction
- -
i between the fluid and the wall, friction
-
between different layers of fluid flowing at

i l
different velocities and the small or big However, for other cross-section
swirls created in the liquid due to flow $rectangular, square, . annular, etc.), D is
turbulence. Flow against these defined in terms of the Hydraulic
resistances causes generation of heat radius@, ) as follows:
raising the temperature of the fluid as it
flows. This temperature rise is not D = 4 x Hydraulic radius.
enough to do any work an this energy
transformed into thermal energy is good
as lost energy. This expressed in The HYDRAULIC RADIUS is
pressure units or expressed in terms of defined as ratio of flow cross-sectional area
an equivalent column of the flowing to the wetted perimeter. For example, the
fluid is called fictional pressure drop or case of a rectangular cross-section with sides
head loss. a and b, the flow cross-section is ab while
the wetted perimeter is 2a+2b. Similarly, for
Incorporating this fact into the
Bernoulli's equation yields the following an annular region as shown (Fig.2), the
form which is generally used in hydraulic radius is as shown: .
calculating fictional pressure drop in
flow:

SINGLE PHASE PRESSURE

DROP CALCULATIONS .

Single phase flow is classified as

LAMMAR, TRANSIENT OR
TURBULENT. The deciding factor is
the REYNOLD'S NUMBER defined as
follows:

.
-
:.. r

.
= .I
It is a Dimensionless number if ..E

With D defined in this general sense t '

- 3
the quantities are in consistent units. For in the definition of Reynold's number, the , L:
Reynold's number values up to 2000, the limiting values of the number for laminar, ,
, P
2

flow is termed laminar and for values transient and turbulent flows remain the I -
above 4000, it is a turbulent flow. The J
same as given earlier. The linear velocity 3 -
range 2000-4000 is termed as the used in the definition of Reynold's number ,
transition region. D in the definition of is obtained by dividing the volumetric flow I . ,
the Reynold's number is the actual rate by cross-sectional area for flow. 1

diameter if the flow cross-section is

circular such as in commonly used pipes.
 Alternative but equivalent forms factor for given value of Reynold's number.
of definition of Reynold's number which Newton-Rhapson method may be used for
are commonly used are as follows: getting the value in fewer iterations.
DG Fanning's equation is also used in
Re=- place of Darcy's equation as follows: a
P

Where G -is the .linear mass

velocity of fluid

W Comparison should show that the

Re=6.3 1 -
.
Darcy's friction factor is obviously four
(DP)
times the Fanning's friction factor, f, .While
Where W is the mass flow rate using any friction factor vs Reynold's
l b h , D is pipe ID in inches and p is number graph to read friction factor and
density in lb/ft3 then while using it in the formula to
calculate the pressure drop, care must be
The frictional pressure drop is taken to choose the compatible graph and
calculated using Darcy's equation as compatible correlation. This is often a
follows. source of error.
Another friction factor is also
(fDv2) defined by Churchill ( which is half of
= Fanning's friction factor ) The
co&sponding formula for pressure drop
f D is tenned as the Darcy's calculation thus has a factor 8 in the
fiction factor and is related to the numerator instead of 4 in Fanning's
Reynold's number and pipe roughness. 'equation. So, one needs to be really very
The applicable and widely used m hs carehl in handling this prevailing multiple
are given in several text books. definition scenario. Generally, chemical
engineering literature uses Fanning's fiction
For turbulent region. The fiction factor and Process industry follows the
factor value should be read an Darcy's fiction factor.
appropriate curve for a pipe of roughness If one uses the f vs R, plot, it is
E by calculating its ratio with pipe necessary to note whether it is for Fanning,
diameter (a). Darsy or Chmhill fiction factor. There is a
The log-log plot h difficult tc .. simple way to do it which any engineer
read and the reading is error prone due to should know. If you don't, ponder over it a
non-lineariG of scale. Several little and you would get it.
correlations are therefore proposed by Several simplified correlations are
various authors so that the fiiction factor available to calculate fiiction factors fiom
can be calculated &om the Reynold's Reynold's number under different
number. Some of the famous conditions of flow. Some of the commonly
correlations are given later. used ones are given'below with reference to
In the case of implicit the Darcy's definition of fiiction factor.
correlations, an iterative approach is Suitable multiplying factors must be used to -
necessary to get the value of the fiction

5
 convert these correlations for other situations in process in industry would fall
friction factors. in the fully developed turbulent region and
Blazius equation (especially
the one with R, with exponent -0.2) given
LAMINAR REGION above is widely used.
The roughness factor E is dependent
on the pipe material and method of
fabrication and some representative values
TURBULENT REGION are given in the Table 1. Note the wide
variation in perceptiocs of the roughness by
Rough commercial pipes, Re less than different authors. In most plots, Moody's
50000: roughness values are used. Because of the
variation in friction factor definition and
roughness values, it is advisable to stick to
one plot with full knowledge of the fiiction
factor it pertains to and the roughness values
Smooth Pipe, Re less than 3400000
. .
it refers to.
The frictional pressure drop
calculated by any of the above methods
should be multiplied by the effective length
of the pipe segment to get the net frictional
drop across the segment. This is then used in
Blazius equation, filly developed the Bernoulli's equation to obtain the actual
turbulent, : pressure drop between pipe origin and
destination. The effective length is the
actual pipe length if the pipe line is straight
and long enough so that pressure drop due to
extra turbulence created at the entrance
Another Blazius equation when fluid enters the pipe from an
equipment or at the exit when the pipe fetds
f=0.046 R, "' into another equipment are relatively
insignificant as compared to overall
Smooth or rough pipe, R, less frictional pressure drop. In case, . the
.
pipe
-
has
fittings such as elbows, tees, valves,
- than 3400000, developing turbul&t expanders, reducers, etc., an hypothetical
flow: straight pipe length of same diameter as the
run pipe on which the fittings exits is added
in place of each of the fittings. The effective
length is the sum of the straight-mn pipe
length plus the total equivalent for all
fittings. Entrance and exit of fluid in and
h r n the pipe segment also adds to
Most f vs R e plots would mark turbulence and to extra pressure drop. This
effect is also incorporated by adding
transition between developing turbulent equivalent length of these. The actual
flows by a broken line. Most flow equivalent 'lengths for important fittings are
 5 L
given in real terms (i.e. length of pipe to of segmenting the pipe line may be adopted.
) I be added) in Tables 2-5. (The tables are A good practice would be to
. I taken fiom the famous paper on practical calculate pressure drop over the pipe run
;
pressure drop calculations by Robert assuming fluid properties at inlet or average
,-, Kern) temperature/pressure conditions to begin
In another approach, equivalent with. If the pressure drop so calculated i s
length of fittings are mentioned in terms within 10% or less of the actual pressure
of diameters of the pipe. This number levels at which the fluid is flowing, one may
'j
should then be multiplied by the pipe ignore the effect of temperaturefpressure
t=.
B size to get the equivalent length of pipe change. If the pressure drop exceeds 10% of
to be added. The equivalent lengths for flow pressure, the above approach of
"1 valves and fittings in terns of diameters segmenting may be restored to.
I
:'6 are reported in several books and are not
given here. Analysis of the actual TWO PHASE PRESSURE DROP
I
3 I
1.
equivalent length for fittings of different
sizes as given in Tables 2-5 should show
CALCULATIONS
-f 1
r

.$ that the equivalent diameter approach is

-j 5
rather approximate. Using actual pipe
Pressure drop in the case of a two
phase flow is dependent on the flow regime.
length as per tables is a more accurate
For two phase flow conditions, 7 regimes
! approach. are possible as shown in Fig.3. Flow regime
? Above procedure is applicable to
\ identification is done by following Baker's
'b fluids, i.e., liquids and gases.
In cases the temperature varies procedure.
i
I
i across the pipe segment, the physical
Two Baker parameters B, and B ,
2' are calculated as follows:
properties vary. Also if the fluid is
>',-. gadvapor, its volumetric flow rate may
3 i vary due to pressure changes arising out
I \ of temperature change as well as due to
j' v
1
pressm drop. To account for these
7
effects, it may be a good' practice to
i' divide the whole line into segments over
- 3 :
> 5
I each of which, the temperature change is
not so significant as to change the
3 properties drastically. The properties are
1
*-: r suitably updated to incorporate In the above definitions, following units are
i' temperature and pressure changes as one used: - -
3 traverses these hypothetical segments.
-
W, Vapor flow rate, Ib/hr
),
f
Calculation over all the segments thus
gives the total pressure drop. -
W, Liquid flow rate, I b h
, ,
I
Change in pressure across the -
p , Vapor density, lblft
pipe may be of importance in case of
compressible fluids. It may be ignored if p , - Liquid density, 1blft3
i
- ?

it is less than 10% of the total fluid A - Internal cross-sectional area, A

$ I
pressure. However, if it is more than this ,
p - Viscosity of liquid, cp
- engineering tolerance, above approach a,- Surface tension of liquid, dynelcm
 Note that although the Baker
parameters are dimensionless, the
numerical constants (2.16, 531) in above
equations are dimensionless. Given units BAKER'S METHOD
must be followed.
The Baker parameter values are Depending on the regime identified
than used to identify the flow regime earlier, an appropriate correlation or plot is
from the plot given (Fig.4). Remember, used to get Baker's modulus, gL and it is
slug flow must be avoided in process multiplied with pressure drop with only gas
piping applications. flowing to get the two phase pressure drop.
The pressure drop calculations Fig.6 is used for dispersed flow.
then proceeds as per several correlations
offered by several researchers. Only two
commonly used ones discussed here.
These correlations were derived by
LOCKHART MARTINELLI the respective authors by . extensive
METHOD experimentation on air-water flow, but
Assuming that that only the mostly on smaller diameter pipes. There
liquid flows in the pipe line, calculate applicability for larger dimension industrial
the pressure drop that it would cause pipes is suspect. However, these remain the
over unit length, ( ) Similarly, most used correlations. Better approaches to
considering that only vapor/gas flows in two phase flow pressure drop estimation are
the pipe, calculate the pressure drop per avaliable but are seldom used.
In two phase flow calculations,
unit length, ( ) Single phase
confidence levels are low. Also, it is not safe
correlations are to be used in getting to overdesign here as the flow regime may
these two pressure drops. change and one may get an undesirable flow
Lockhart Martinelli Modulus, X, is then regime such as slug flow. Extreme
defined as follows; is therefore necessary at
engineering stage in designing pipes for two- '

phase flow and must be ready to handle

problems that may surface at the
For this value of modulus, a commissioning stage.
,
multiplier Y or Y is then read h m The Bakex map is applicable only if
the plot in Fig.5 and it is appropriately the flow line is horizontal. Inclinatioa has a
used in one of the following relations to. great effect on flow pattern and the flow
get the two phase pressure drop,
'
regime may change for same vapor and
liquid flows in same size pipe line if the
(AP),, per unit length. Multiplying
inclinations are different. Also, in inclined
this with the effective length (after pipes, it matters whether the flow is upward
including equivalent lengths of the or downward. Extensive work has been
fittings) of the pipe, one gets the total reported on these aspects but industrial
two phase fictional drop. practices ignore this fact
 I
IvIULTIPHASE PRESSURE SteplV
- -i ! DROP CALCULATIONS
For this value of modulu~a multiplier Y,
(i.e.Yu ) or Y, (or Y ,)is then read for the
Or partly plot in Fig. 5 and it is appropriately used in
miscible liquid phases and a gas phase one of U, following relations to get the
comprising of vapors of these liquids three phase drop, P), pre unit
andlor other gases give rise to three
phase flow situations. There are no length ( after including equivalent lengths o f
reported reliable pressure drop the fittings) of the pipe, one gets the total
calculation approaches for three phase three phase iiictional pressure drop.
flow. What is proposed here is a possible
extension of the Lockhart Martinelli uv =yL MU
approach which was reasonably
successfid in using single phase flow (A% =YG&
correlations and predicting two phase
flow pressure drop. The approach would It may be appreciated that this is
be something like this: nothing but using the Lockhart Martinelli
approach on itself. In absence of any other-
Step 1 correlation with proven merit, this is likely
Consider only that the liquid phase to be a good engineering approach.
including the two liquids is flowing
through the pipe. Let these liquids be I PIPE SIZING
and L . Using Lockhart Martinelli The earlier mentioned three pipe
method or other method (say Baker's), sizing approaches are discussed here in
calculate the pressure dro$ per unit brief.
length that would be caused in this case.
Let this be AP PIPE SIZING BASED ON VELOCITY
CONSIDERATIONS
Step 11 This is the simplest of approaches.
Consider only gadvapor is flowing and Herein, recommended values of linear
calculate the pressure drop that would velocities for the flowing medium are used
occur per unit length using single phase along with the design flow rates to back out
pressure drop correlation. Let this be the pipe diameter. EGecommendations for the
linear velocities may d s e due to process
APa considerations, material of consanrction
considerations, corrosion - c ~nsideratiom,
Step1 11 economic considerations based on prior
the Lockhart experience etc. or a combination of these.
modulus as was done in the two phase Consider the following examples:
flow situation as follows: '

a) In a steam carrying pipe, if the linear

x2=bP,/dP, steam velocity is beyond a certain value,
the flowing steam may pick up the
condensate, break it up into hgments.
These entrained condensate droplets may
impinge against the pipe wall causing the maximum hydraulic pressure dmp that
erosion and erosion-corrosion. one can accept over the pipe segment of
interest. A minimum pipe size which causes
b) Too low a steam velocity in steam a pressure drop at the most equal to this
headers may mean a large diameter maximum acceptable pressure drop is thus
pipe for design requirement of steam. recommended. Any size more than this size
This would increase pipe cost, would also be acceptable, but would be
insulation cost, etc. thereby uneconomical as it would involve higher
adversely affecting economics. capital cost.
c) A gaseous steam carrying The procedure would be one trial and
particulates (such as pneumatic solid error. A commercial pipe size would be
transport lines) must flow above a assumed in terms of NB. The pressure
minimum velocity to eliminate solids design of the pipe would decide the
settling down at pipe bottom causing schedule. From the appropriate .tables, the
flow obstruction, increased pressure ID of the pipe size would be obtained.
drop etc. Taking this as the hydraulic diameter and for
d) A gaseous steam carrying the design flow rates, hydraulic pressure
particulates must not flow above a drop over the proposed pipe route is
certain linear velocity to eliminate calculated using appropriate pressure drop
severe erosion of pipeline or elbows correlations. If this pressure drop is more
etc. than the acceptable level, a higher pipe size
e) A tine carrying two phase must be of is taken for next trial. If the pressure drop is
suitable dimension so that certain much smaller than that acceptable, next
two phase flow regimes ( such as lower pipe size can be tried. Minimum pipe
slug flow) are avoided or a certain size meeting the pressure drop requirement
regime is guaranteed (such as is recommended.
concentric flow). Some important situations where
f) Linear velocities- in exhaust lines pipe sizing needs to be done using avaliable
should be below certain upper to pressure drop considerations are as follows:
keep noise within acceptable levels.
1. Suction Pipe Sizing for a pump: A liquid
These are just representative is to be pumped f?om a storage tank to
examples to help appreciate the origin of an quipment. The storage tank pressure
such restrictions on hear velocities of is fixed. On its way from the'&%
flowing medium. tank to the pump suction, the liquid
Some of the more accepted linear would loose pressure due to fictional
velocities in a variety of design cases are pressure drop. If this pressure drop is
complied in Tables 6 and 7. excessive, the fluid pressure as it is
delivered to the impelim may be below
PIPE SIZING BASED ON the vapor pressure of the liquid at
AVALIABLE PRESSURE DROP flowing temperature. The liquid would
This is a more involved method flash and some of the liquid would then
of pipe sizing and perhaps the most evaporate. As the impellers impart
important. Pipes are sized here to meet kinetic energy which is then converted to
certain process requirements. These higher fluid pressure inside the pump
process requirements are translated into body, the pressure again rises above the
 vapor pressure. The vapor bubbles a static head difference between the
previously formed thus collapse back downcomer and riser. Pipe sizing is a
into liquid form. This sudden delicate balance between barometric
collapse creates the ' cavitation ' head that is avaliable and pressure drop
effect which could damage the in downcomer and riser.
blades and cause vibration and noise.
This must be avoided at any cost. It
is therefore imperative that pressure 6. A fluid is to be transported from point A
drop in the suction pipe should be at pressure P1 to,point B at P2.There is
such that the liquid is delivered to a flow control valve on the transport line
the pump at not less than the vapor and it has been designed assuming
pressure at flowing temperature. certain pressure drop across the valve is
avaliable. Pressure 'drop across rest of
2. Even when there is no pump above the line that is avaliable is thus limited
consideration would apply. During and pipe must be sized accordingly. This
its passage through the pipe, the situation can come even in two phase
pressure of the flowing liquid should flow lines.
not drop below its vapor press&e
flowing temperature. Otherwise Pipe size as per avaliable pressure
vaporization would take place. drop is
closely linked to process requirements. Any
3. In the case of a feed to distillation errors in appreciating this and mistakes in
column, it may be the process pipe sizing could mean that the gravity flow
requirement that the feed is a would not sustain, thermosyphan reboiler
. saturated liquid. That is, at the cannot be commissioned, pump would be
flowing temperature, the feed is at damaged and so'on.
vapor pressure and flashes as soon as It helps to appreciate these process
it enters the column The pipe related limitations t!!ough working out
carrying the liquid fiom the reservoir suitable practical cases.
or the previous equipment to the
distillation column must ensure that ECONOMIC PIPE SIZING : LEAST
the pressure drop is such as to ANNUAL COST APPROACH
deliver the liquid at saturation point. If the linear velocity and avaliable -
pressure drop constraints are not shingent or
4. A liquid is required to flow at design these constraints still leave a scope of a -
rate by gravity h m a vessel to a reasonably broad choice of pipe sizes, the - --
lower destination. There is only one most economic among these should be .
pipe size which would come close to chosen.
this requirement. The nearest The economics is governed by the
commercial size should be capital cost of the pipe and accessories
recommended including fittings, insulation, etc. and the
annual operating cost, If for given service, a
5. A -distillation column uses smaller size is used, the capital cost would
thermosyphon reboiler. This kind of be lower. At the same time, smaller would
a reboiler works on the principle of mean higher fluid pressure drop and
natural circulation developed due to therefore higher pumping costs. These two
 i
conflicting effects of pipe size mean that (capital -t maintenance) is (A, I P -
there is an optimum pipe size.
For the two costs to be
+G)(l+F)C . Substituting the expression for 1.
I
' '<--:, .
compared, it is necessary that the capital C, in this, one can write the annualized . :
i

cost be annualized. Fig. 7 shows a capital plus maintenance cost, C, as a r>

I
typical annualized cost of a pipe for function of diameter, D, as follows: !
given service as a function of pipe
diameter. The operating cost curve is
shown in Fig. 8. The sum of these two
costs (Fig. 9) gives the total annualized
cost which passes through a minimum. The second component is the
The objective of the Least Annual Cost operating cost involved in pumping the fluid
(LAC) approach is to obtain this through the pipe. The frictional losses
optimum diameter. ' Although decide the energy lost. If AP is the hydraulic
conceptually simple it is dependent on pressure drop (say in psi) and W is the. fluid
the reliability of cost data and cost flow rate (say lbh), the energy expanded in
projections over the life of the pipe the fluid flow is (W/p)(144AP). p is the
being designed. A possible approach density (lb/ ft' )and the factor 144 in
which appears reasonably scientific and second parenthesis is simple to convert psi
practical is presented here (Nolte, 1978). into psf for consistency of units-The energy
The cost of unit length of run required is then in A.lb force. The pump has
pipe of diameter D is calculated as : to supply this force using electrical energy.
Taking the pump efficiency (E), the annual
usage of the pipe in terms of hours of
operation per year (Y) and the cost of.
electrical power, K, (say per KW-hr), the
X is the cost of 2inch diameter pipe of annual energy cost of pumping (C ,) can be
same material and schedule. written as:
The pipe will have certain
accessories such as piping elements.
Although the cost of these would be
application specific, a general process
plant average statistics such as the
. The units of cost (e.g. RS. or $
. .

.
. .

.
i
.J
folbwing could be useM to calculate - . ".
the cost of accessories per unit len& as
should be same as. ;that power cast). The '
. ' , .. -- 1
g .i 3
factor 0.0000542 comes ody b e ~ i u s eof . .. .i.9

some factor F of 'the run pipe cost. For - . > , . .. . b

.
C
. ;Y
different en& units for
tstsused energy .
example, a typical pipe line (93.5ft) may . .
ts

. .
. . .
1, ..
.
.
'
. ,t

- (ft.lb.forceand-kwhr): :
-. : . .
' '

:
'

have 1.6 gate valves, 10.2 bends, 5.9 <

flanges, 2.1 tees, 32.6welds. So the total The. pressure drop, AP, can be . .' .u
.. . aJ3
t

calculated by conventional methods

. . '. I
capital cost is (l+F) C,. If the . . discussed .earlier. One. of the simplified - ,:. 'i -

amortization rate is A,, the annualized forms of pressure drop - - equations

. .f
P
'.,.
capital cost of the pipe and accessories is
A, (l+F).C .. If the annual maintenance
recommended by Generawc has the.
following form;
r. - .I
-.

cost is a fiaction G of the capital cost, 1 -. B

the total pipe cost
 Most quantities in the above
expression are project specific. Their values
themselves may not be very reliable. What is
then the sanctity of the optimal value of D
arrived at ? some order of magnitude
It is a dimensionless equation analysis should resolve this issue and give
and the units for various quantities are as an idea as to how accurately one should try
fo Ilows:
these project specific parameters.
AP psi For example, in the expressions in
W 1000 1bs/hr square bracket of the above expressions, one
P CP would have reasonably good idea of Y, K,
p 1bs.1ft3 . E, X. However, at the time of pipe sizing
D. inch which is done quite early in the project life,
Substituting this in the earlier values of a, b, F etc. may at most be
equation, the cost of .moving the fluid guestimates. The important point to note is
per year is that the impact of error in estimating the
expressions in the bracket is diluted to a .
great extent by the exponent 0.169. For
example, a 33% error in the value of the
bracket expressions would lead only to a 8%
error in the optimal size estimate. Another
Remember, W above is in 1000 parameter which is often a source of low
lb*. confidence level is the viscosity. But, due to
a small exponent of p in the expressions,
The total annual cost of unit pipe length one can verify that even a 10 fold increase in
is thus viscosity changes the optimal diameter by
only 6%.
C ,4.353(AM +G)(~+F)xD" + hi view of the above, the optimal
diameter expression has been fhther
simplified by using representative values for
2840000 w~ ~ P ~ . ' ~ ~ K a (0.143. i.c. 1/7), b ( 0.01), F (6.75), E
D4-Mp2E (0.55), X (1.32 Wft), Y (7880 Myear). K
(0.0218 SkWhr) to obtain the following
simplified expressions for LAC diameter.
The optimum dimeter,which . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
..
minimizes' C , a s o b t a i n e d b y . ' . . ,
. .
0.479 '0.142 0.027 . .. . .
. . . . . . D,,=1.717Q. S
.. . .. p. .
, .

ditrerentiating C ; with fespect to zero . . , . . , . .! ..

and simplifying is given as follows: - With D ,

in cm, volumetric flow
- rate Q in m'lhr ,
Depthm S as specific gravity of fluid at 4

[w
0.479

potT
0.027

1 0.0657YK
(A, + + F)
I
0.169
centigrade, and p in kg/cm.sec.

An alternative expressions is as follows.

With D,, in inches, Q in US galdmin
and p in cp.
If the LAC diameter calculated
If the estimates of a, b, F, E, X,
Y, K for a project are different than the
,
earlier is above D , D is recommended. If
values used in arriving at the above ,
it is below D .DL is recommended.
simplified expressions, correction kctors A good question to ask would be
can be suitably used. For example if the - why exponent of D, is 0.6 and that of D Lis
actual number of hours of operation is Y 0.4 and why not the other way. Why not
and not 7880, the calculated LAC equal exponents?
diameter should be multiplied by a factor With better computing facilities, one
,
F defined as may not be required to use the simplified
F D= 0.2196YO.'~~ forms of Fanning equations and other
simplifications used in the above approach
Similarly, if the amortization rate should be justified by availability of more
is 'a' and not 1/7, the correction factor reliable cost data and values of other project
should be specific parameters. The essence of the
approach would remain the same.

RECOMMENDED PIPE SIZE

F =0.728 /(a + 0 . 0 1 ) ~ ' ~ ~ Whatever the approach used to axrive
, .
at the pipe size, it must be kept in mind t4at
The reader should ponder a little the pipe sizing activity is being canied out ..
to see how these correction factors are rather prematurely. The actual pressure
arrived at. drops are going to be decided by the actual t' -
A better idea would be to use the layout of a particular point-to-point pipe
v d u a realistic estimates of the . routing. That evolves at a much later stage. I '
-
%-" -
parameters (a, b, F, E, X, Y, K) ' Also, over the .normal operating life of the
whenever they are available and use plant, the pipes are subjected to t
1
default values given earlier in the modifications in their ID (due to fouling) I '
, I
- .
-2

absence of such estimates and uses the and surface roughness (due to scaling,
expressions for , D h its erosion, corrosion etc.). Also, optimization -3
unsimplified form. ------- --- . exercises and capacity enhancements in '
* -
The values thus calculated may firture may require the same pipe to catry
not conform to the commercial sizes. larger amounts of process fluid. In view of 1

The following procedure is all these, it is an industrial practice to * - 3

-.-
recommended to anive at the recommend a pipe of one size higher than
what is arrived at by any of the above - -
I

commercial size.
The adjacent commercial sizes procedures. .. !
on either side of the LAC diameter are I
(This paper has relied heavily on the article
identified Let these be L D, On by Robert Kmq published in Chem. En&. # -- 5
lower and higher sides respectively. An ,world I :
hypothetical size, called crossover A -
-
diameter is then defined as: a I t

-4

1 '

14 -3

I '
 Distributive Flow

. ? 1) Bubble b) b1 is c

Intermittent Flow

Plug.

Segregated Flow

Stratifid 9 Annular

Flow Ilc.~,irncsfor Two Phiasc Flow

 brct w- e, I
,
1 19 1
0 '0'

I
I
\
-

,( i

.-
I
1 L-
-

- >

9
I d'

Two-Phase Flow Correlations 4

Dispersed Bubble Srug Stratified Wave Plug Annular I '

Hoody* O- 14.2Xa" 0*tt90Xmm B-S.4COX UauFaS 0*27.31Sx" 0=&

, . '.--
Fuzningo (WJAI" (HIJAf' PUN" .nd [W/AI*'' a -
4.8 0.311
b=0.M3-d
i,
friclipnbcpordk nd :lo)
d 8 1.0. d m. <-
t 4
kroid hlizmul F a pipe la-$
wlk* Huiyd
PPI P+ war, um d . ' g !t
%J
1

I
.. C
-. I
I

Fi.4 i .
Bakerp~nmetcndctrrmined h e t)rpc oftwo pbuc Ikw and approprutr two phue llowcomhtion kusunit l a -&

I --

no-5
IBurmmetcnfur prcssurcdrop inliquid - Ilow through horiionral piw ' '
.

. .. .
.

':
. .
I ltnwd oil 1.1~liflan ..AS. J'I ( I Y . 1911
qnd ~t~rtiacUL.Chcm..Ea~~~Prop ... . . J
 fig. 6
Lackbrrr ,H~rllrclliCorrtlrflo. r c l ~ l c rvrpoer amd liquid propenlcs to tstrbllrLcd t r a plant mw radmlcr.

FiL; 7 Fit J
Amortized trpitul costs lo8 ou reel aC plgc . Amflrrl cost d oprrmtlmg awe' C-I o f pipe.
 Table 1
&
I Miller (32) K u t ~ t d a d z (19)
e !.
~n- 1 mm I m. 1 mm I ~n. I mm

CMUCle
Smaath

Rough 0.02

Wood
Birch vene~r
Pin0 vaeer
Rough

Gakan'd '
SmooChIhirh 0.W1 - 0.025
~ o r n ul%w~
l o.m .a.is

Reslance a Row for Various f y p of V a h fa& 2 .

( Resialance in equivalent p(pa length. fl )

For p a d d y open globe valve

multiply tabulattd values by' "
for*reeQ-m, by .,
for me-halt open, and.by 7~
for orteguarter open 1

I. With port area open

Port area = plpe sire
.2. Pan area equals 80% .. c' .,
. PI@afea I

9 '

1 '

r '
-#

I
 Resistances of E l b o w 8 , T ~ sand Bends -Table 3
! (Resistance in equivaIent ppe length. ft)
I
i
;iesist,nce o l Eccentric and C o n c e n t r i c R e c u c e r s .
And of Sudden Changes in
-
I

Line Sixe Table 5 Typical Liquid Vtlocities in Steel Pipe{ines -Table 6

iRssistsnce ~n ecurralent p ~ p elength. fi.1 (Resistance in equ~valeolpipe leng~h.It.; I
Norn~nalSizm !n. -.A
-L. --.
Y

I
YWMU 3 w Yrrr -n 2 oc ess
I
l l o 10 10 lo ,a
Laud c LWW v*an ra u ~ , rvs -v hs ,I
w.rr I
pvrp S U S ~
i.
l to2 7 - 4
ho=bq8!W Zmf 105 4 - 7
c.uzUp.h.a~m~. 4 a a SIC 1 2 l a tr
ao4r -t 4 n J . SP'Z d o tr
Qlra
SLaa-r
-1
3a4 3-5
3 -4 5 4107 - L
(Isanurnrcaibes)
~ V r o o n 1 . w 2.2 2 14 4 106 1
rm? I

--
Ducnrrg.h.wkr!bg 2.5 to 3.5 3 IO5
bhbd bV13 5 M !2 8- IS

-
ONa 3 ~ 4 10s
v* oh
Rrrowabn ! i.
r ~ d b d p b
1.) lo 1
a4 D a7.S
2s to 5
9.3 O 1 .
[- 1ms roe !.J
On- 1 IS m 3

TypIcslVelocitler In Gar and Vapor Lines -Tabte 7

t
Swur S l u m oc N s ,I
w s.llmcu!Y.ory Susv.%~Vloor~G.r
'
Peak. '
La?mrun, U.aiUnP- HgtPnaw"
In.
.* f e n v-ry Fvs *-=e ,I.
2 a h a U E 100 (4-80 Ir)*O -
1 4 4 =lo 110 90 =tom
a a0 120
4s 0
500 1 2 0 4JloW ,I
8 Lo lQ a lo 12s mm 1 6 0 as 12s
12 14 mlo 1JO 100 D 1- at8 1 4 .
16 o 18 7s 1 s 11010210 mm1m
ZQ mmta c2ahra !mbtm rl-

Note - W h i n me rbov6 w c l o ~ i i arrrd lirr4rc mt*r I s ) f&e'K*- .i'

a n b * c b6wt .drK/tiCI l C l ~vn~lkro n e (bl ywn Ilncr. rnd
- -.
hemitua.
kdr fmm kak.7 cur hive hi*? velocitia rhrn h g (inch r ~ c

R c b a i k r 40- curnn (liquid) j l o 7

Rcbotlu. ricer (liqard a d VSQQV) IS o 45
Ovcmcrd c o d c n s a ?S to IOU :
T - d ~ h n e I'C- j! :a a$

C~mprersarsuctrjn :I lo 204: ,
Clxnpramr d i s e h u ~ e tcO tu 3 0
Inlet. ~ C c a m4ur'Hne 1!t8 w ;I? I '
I d c t . zu ~wblnc I IO tu J!n
Wcl~cfr d v c i u c h u l e GSV.'
K:llcf -11bc t n e rc silcncc: '4-
 .. .
TrroPham Flow brrrlrtknr
. T

'
Dkpr
m . Bubble I ' stratifid wm PI- kurulqr
bFb.3 9 - 142fi" 4- 1.l90f -"'4-16.4SOX Urn Fig, 6 #-27316~~"' # m e 9

b-033--94
d-IB.dpipe.in
Avoid Horiomol HorjzontJ Forp~12islwd
slug flow P~W: pipe ~ , l m d - ~ O .
. .
Courtesy: Mr. h i d B a b r and The Oil md Gas Joumd.

FIG. 1. Bakei parameten determine the type of tw+phase flow and the appmpshte two-
phas~flowcordation rett unit loss. ,
 !-
.. .
-.

. .
I -.
Fluid FIOW, Two-Phase Design , .

t . -.-..-

Sourw: Crane Co.

. .

. ' ..
. . .
. . .
. . . . . .
.
'. .
.
.
- ~ t y n o t d i n u mN~ ,
:'

. . . . .
. .
. . .
5 :
. . . .
. .

. .
'.
.
:-.
.
.

--
.
.

. . .
-
.
I.

.
.
.
1
.

.
. . .
.: . .
. .
. . . .

.
:
.

.
.

i .
FIQ. 2. F d h fktm
~ in new commcrdalatcd pipe fw vapor-pbast or liquid-pbc flaw.
I
L
,-
31sornw: BuPblc slog
T w Q ~ %vv
~ ~ Corrgtations
u

Sr~at~tied Ware P!U~ i Annular

I
t
j 8

~ ' ~ " >1 * I s . ~ o Q ~

I
{
J - I ~ G x ~ "0' ' : . t ~ ~is.5 9. 23.3!5x".''" 0 -&'

-.
an6 ZC. !31 (~/*;~+l
: W ~ A ; ~ - - ~ !r,p
!0-3 ant3 Ec. 19)
ana (1CI
(v,O.lt r*3.2-0.21%C
j2:1- 0..:2: @
3
1.2. IO I W .
$

-
9-

i
i
AVOW
lrug f:ow
Hcrrion~I HorizcntJ
pipe P~PC
Far olae f 2;n anc
ova-. use d 10. i
Caurterv: Atr. OWU-Iarker and The Oil and Cas-J~urnal.
I Q
 Lockhart.Marrinelli modulus, X 2

AG. 3. Lochart-Martinclli conclation rclqtes .vapor and liquid properlies to es~ablishtwo-

,i
phase flow modulus,

-
. .

,.. . C'" cp' ,"''

:I
- -
'.
'8"
:, i ir:
rr,
i <,. ~
'IIb :; :r>Fr)
p+.m ...".>,y?%
, .?.; -,y,,mY4* -+;,., -@"? . : ; / - . . ,+fl\ k. * ' . " . , . . A. ;-.. ,
I

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Powai, Mumbai - 400 076 .
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

VALVES
T. N. GOPINATH

INTRODUCTION thought should be given for the selection

of valves. The first step in the selection
Estimates reveal that .a substantial is to determine exactly what b c t i o n the
portion, approximately 8-lo%, of tbe valve is expected to perform after it has
total capital expenditure of the chemical been installed.
process industry is used for the Valves are installed on equipmentfpiping
procurement of valves. In terms of the to perform any one of the following
number of units also, valves exceed any ~dions;
otber piping component. Hence, proper

Functions of Valves

I
Isolation
1
Regulation
I 1
Non-Return Special Purpose

The design of the valves are done in such 2.2 Needle Valves
a way as to perfom any of 'the above
hctions. The type of valves used can be 2.3 Butterfly Valves
classified in the following categpries.
2.4 Diaphragm Valves

. . 2.5 ,PistonValves
1.0 ISOUTION
2.6 Pinchvalves
1.1 Gate Valves

1.2 Ball Valves 3.0- 'NON-RETURN

1.3 Plug Valves 3.1 Ched Valves. .

1.4 Piston Valves 4.0 SPECLAL PURPOSE

1.5 Diaphragm Valves 4.1 Multi-port Valves

4.2 Flush Bottom Valves

1.7 Pinch Valves 4.3 Float Valves

4.4 Foot Valves

2.0 REGULATION
2.1 Globe Valves 4.5 Line Blind Valves

4.6 Knife Gate Valves

Valves 1
PIPING ENGINEERLSG CELL

The above classification is 4.0 Gun metal

based on functions. The valves could
also be classified based on the type of 5.0 Carbon Steel
construction. Valve manufacturers offer
endless varieties of constructions. Based 6.0 Stainless Steel
on the operation, valves can be broadly
classified as operated valves and self- 7.0 Alloy Carbon Steel
operated valves. Mainly the check valves
are self-operated and all other types 8.0 Poly propyl&e, UHMW-PE,
come under operated valves. UHMW-HDPE etc.
The valves can Wer be classified
based on the end connections. End 9.0 Special Alloys
c o ~ e c t i o nmeans the arrangement of
attachment of the valves to the 10.0 Fluom polymer/Elastomer lined
equipment or to the piping. The types of metals
end connections are:
11.0 Glass
1.O Screwed ends
TERMS USED FOR VALVES
2.0 Socket weld ends SPECIFICATION
3.0 Flanged ends
- -
1. Pressure Temperature Ratings
Pressure Temperature Rating
is. the maximum allowable sustained
4.0 Butt weld ends non-shock pressure at the corresponding
tabulated temperature. These are listed ha
5.0 Socketted ends ANSI B 16.34 and ANSI B 16.5.
6.0 Wafer type ends - 2. Class
The valve.isspecified by the
7.0 Buttress ends pressure rating of the body of the valves.
The valves could also be classified based The American standard specifies the
on the materials of construction. There following classes.
can be any number of combiitions
possible with the materials of 2.1 Class 1
m
constnactioa It is fir the piping engineer
to select the sane in consulation.,~th . .2.3 -A -.. .'Cl*s-
the process engineer to suit the process cCOO#
fluid. - 5 2 environment in which the 2.4 Class 600#
valves are installed is also to be
considered for seleztion of materials of
construction. However, the most 2.6 Class 15W
commonly available materials are:
2.7 Class 25W
1.0 Cast Iron 2.8 Class 800#
2.9 Class 4500#
2.0 Ductile Iron

3.0 Bronze

Valves
. .
i I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

common types of valves. API 600

i , 3. Trim specifies Trim numbers in table 3 of
I
x
P The trim is comprised of Stem, Seat the standard. It specifies the types of
Surfaces, Back Seat Bushing and material, which can be used for the
"* I other mall internal parts .that parts with its typical specification and
4

h
normally contact the surface fluid. grade.
The table below indicates trim of
I

Stem Stem Seat Ring Disc guide

seat* seat Ring Disc holder Seat ring
Wedge Ring Disc nut Side plug
Bushing Bushing Holder pin
Disc nut pin

4. Wetted Parts
All parts, which come contact with the
-
7. Quarter Turn Vdves
This refers to the valve where the entire
service fluid, are called the wetted parts. operation of valve is achieved by 90
degrees turn ofthe closing element.
5. Wire Dmwiue
This t a m is 'used to indicate the 8. Pressure Drop
premature erosion of the valve seat Pressure drop is the loss of pressure
h u e d by excessive velocity b-een through resistance a m s s the valve while
seat and seat disc. An erosion pattern is flows and is expressed in terms of
left as if a wire had been drawn between ~ v a i mlength
t in pipe diameters
the scat surfaces. Excessive velocity can
occur when the valve is not closed Equivalent
tightly. A WOG (Water-oil-Gas, Type of Valve Parition length in pipe
relatively cool liquids) disc is the best dia (LA))
Gate Fully 13
defeasc against wiredrawing because its
resiliency makes it easier to close tightly. Globe
Discs of harder material are to be closed h g l e globe
Swing check
carefully to prevent wire drawing. In Plug -
LPG Service, the wire drawing effkct
causes a threat of anti-refrigeration. The Plug Port
Ball - Regular 40
ice formation on the wedge will obstruct Port
movement thereby increasing the leak Ball - Full port 8
through seat M e r .

-
6. Straight Through Flow 9. Upstream Pressure
This refers to the valve in which thc %s is h e prasurs of the fluid that
closing delnent is retracted entirely SO enters the valve. a s is sometimes
that there is no restriction of flow. referred to as'inlet or supply pressure.
. .

-
Valves 3
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL , .

10. Downstream Pressure

This is the pressure of the fluid=that is
discharged fiom the valve. This is 13. LEAKAGE CLASS
sometimes referred to as outlet or
reduced pressure. Leakage class Maximum seat
leakage
11. LDAR
Class I A modification of
Signifies "Leak Detection And Repair"
to ensure that the fugitive emissions any class II, 111or
standards of EPA are met. Fugitive N valve where
emissions are the minute amount of design intent is the
same as the basic
process media that escape into the
class, but by
atmosphere though gland packing along
valve stem. agreement between
user and supplier.
No test is required.
12. LAER
Signifies "Lowest Achievable Emission Class II 0.5% of rated
Rate". It is the minimum rate of figitive valve capacity
Class 111 0.1% of rated
emission, which is achieved by
deploying proper sealhg arrangement. valve capacity
'
Class N 0.01% of rated
valve capacity
class v 5 1G4 d p t ~
minute water per
inch of orifice
dimeter per psi
differential

as per table below

S i i NB ml. w min. . Bubble ua lninut~

I 0.15. 1 .
13 .. , . ... -
.0 3 0
32:. ' .. ' . .
'2 6.45
2.5 0.60 . . , 4
3 . . 0.m ' . . . 6 . . .
: . .

i 1.70 . 11.. , .. .
6 4.06 . -. . ' 27. . . . i
6 .. .
6.35 45 . .
. .

.--
- 4 +
Valves
f
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

2%!
ttt

I"" """

Valves. . .

. .
 PIJ'ING ENGINEERLNG CELL I

RECOMMENDATION FOR VALVES I

CHEMICALIBULK DRUG PLANT

SR. SERVICE Size NB Isolation Rtgulation Non-return Remarks

i Steam H.P. W" -1 % " a) C.S. Body a) C.S. Body C.S. Body Pion
stellited trim stellited trim Stellited valves arc
800# Globe 800# Globe trim 800# costlier.
withSWends with W e n d s Liftcheck Fromthe
b) C.S. ~ o d y b) C.S. ~ o d y with SW point of
stellited trim stellitcd trim view of
800#Piston 800# Piston ' E=U
with SW ends with SW ends COIISCTVII-

c) C S Body SS tion they

Ball. Special are 0 . K
PTFEseats.
800# SW ball
valve
2"- 12" a) CSBody a) CSBady a) CS Body ALL
Stellited trim s t e f i a trim stellited trim VALVES
3W15W 3oo#/lSW 300#/150# TOBE
%dGate Flgd Flgdswing APPROV-
with flex Globe check ED BY
Wedge IBR
b) b) CS Body
13%Crtrim 13%crtrim
3W150# 300#1150#
Flgd P ' n ~ l g Pd i n
2. Steam LP. W" - 1 %" a) CS Body a) CS Body C.S. Body No IBR
13% Cr. Trim 13% Cr. Trim 13% Cr trim APPR , .
800# Globe 8 W Globe 800# Lift REQUD. :..
.>
!
J

:-

with SW ends with SW eads chock With FOR PR I;' 9

b) CSBody b)CS Body SW- <3.5

13% Cr. Trim 13% Cr. Trim ~tiLld S
800#Piston 8WPiston
With SW With SW ads
ends
c) C S Body SS
Ball Special
PTFE seau.
Boo# SW ball
valve
Y - 12" . a) C S B ~ a~ Y' 5 CSBO~ ~C . S . B O ~ ~
13% Cr. Trim 13Wr 13%Crtrim
Flex wedge trim 15U 15W Lift ,
1M# Flgd ngd check With
Gate Globe S W W
b) CSBody b) cs Body
t 13% Cr trim 13% Cr trim
150# Flgd . 1 m Flgd
Piston Piston

Valves
i
!
- PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
!

[
a) C.S. Body SS a) C.S. Body
ball PTFE 13% Cr.
scat 800# S W Trim 800#
Ball . SW Globe
b) C.S. Body
800#
13% Cr.
SWTrim valve
Globe
SAME AS LP STEAM
a) C.S.Body SS a) CS.Body a) C.S.
Ball PTFE 13% Cr. Body
Seat 800# Trim 8OO# 13% Cr.
S c d Ball SW Globe Trim
b) G.M.Body b) G.M. 8W Lift
Bronze him Body check
Scrd Gate to Brpnzc With S W
IS 778 Trim Scrd Ends
Globe to b) G.M.
IS 778 Body
Bronze
Trim
Scfd
check to
IS 778
a) CI Body 13% a) CI Body a). CS Body
Crdisc125# 13%Crdisc 13% Cr.
wafatype 125#wafcr trim
Butterfly type Butterfly water
Gear Gear Operator b'P=
above 6" NB check
above 6" NB
b) CIBody 13% b) CI Body b) CI Body
Cror 18%Cr 13% or 13% or
him 12% 18% Cr 18% Cr
Flgd Gate to trim 125# tri 125#
IS 14846 %d flgd
Globe swing
check to

c) CS Body C)CS Body

13% Cr 13% Cr trim C)CS Body
trim 150# l50# agd 13 % Cr trim
Flgd Gate Globe 1SO# flgd
d) CastIron swing check
Body 13% Cr
plug 125 #
Fldg h b .

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

5) Hot 011/Heating %" - 1 %" a) C.S. Body a) CS. Body a) C.S.

Fluid Stelllted trim Stellited Body
Graphoil pkg trim stellited
800# SW Graphoil trim
Globe pkg 800# 800# SW
b) C.S. Body SW Globe lift check
B 13% trim b) CS. Body
8 W SW 13% trim
Piston with 800# SW
suitable Piston with
sealing rings suitable
. sealing
rings

2"- 12" a) CSBody a) CS Body CS Body

stellited trim sttllited trim stcUittd trim
Graphoil pkg graphoil pkg 3 W (Mia)
300#(Min) 300#(Min) Flgd swing
Flgd Gate Flgd Gate with chock with
with125- 125-250 125- 250
250 AARH AARH Flgd AARH Flgd
FlgdFinish 6nkh Finish

b) CSBody b) (3Body
13%Crtrim 13%Crtrim
Craphoil pkg Grapbo'i pkg
300# (Min) 300 #(?din) ,

Flgd Piston Flgd Piston .

with Suitable witb Suitable
sealing ring sealing ring and
and 125 - 125- 250
250 AARH AARH Flgd
Flgdhaish hish

6) Chlorine @ry) W' - 12" Ball valve with Globe Valve Check (Lift /
CS body M o d with CS Body Swing ) valve
HastalloyCball hfonelf CS Manel 1
&stem Hasfalloyc HastaEoyC
trim trim
7) Solvcntl Process %"- 12" a) C.S. Body SS a) C.S. Body a) CS. Body
(&.dm11 Steel) Ball I50 Flgd 13%Cr. 13%Cr. trim
full port Ball him ISO# Flgd Lift
valve with Flgd Globe cback 5P to 1
rn GFr Yin and Flgd
seats swing check
b) CSB* 2- a above
13% Cr plug
1sO#ngd
~~~ p h
seats

Valves
- s S:
1 -
 PIPING ENGINEERMG CELL

Solvent1 Process $4" - 12" a) SS Body SS a) SS body SS SS Body SS

(StainlessSteel) ball 150 # him 150# Flgd trim l50#
Fldg full port Globe Flgd swing
ball valve , check
with PTFE !
GFT seats
b) SSBody SS
Plug 1 so#
Flgd slccvbd
plug
Solvent/ Pn>ctrr~ %" - 12" a) Ductile Iron a) Ductile Suitabi-
CHighl~ MY plug Iron lity with
Corrosive) lined with MY Tcm~aa-
Quoropoyner lined turetobe
plug valve with checked
b) Ball valve fluoro
with suitable - pol~mm
plastic body ball
andball chk
Mhte
b) -do-

Valves
i. ,
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.0 ISOLATION VALVES

The isolation valves used in the
Process Industry qe:
1.1 Gate Valves

1.2 Ball Valves

1.3 Plug Valves

1.4 Piston Valves

1.S Diaphragm Valves

1.6 Butterfly Valves

1.7 Pinch Valves

O f these, the Butterfly, Diaphragm and
Piston Valves can be used for regulating
the flow as well. Similarly, the Globe
Valve design could be modified to use it 1.1.4 Stem
for positive shut-off purposes. The
present trend in industry is to go for 1.1.5 Gland
quarter tum valves for this duty due to
ease of operation. The types of valves in 1.1.6 Seat ring
this category are the Ball valves, Plug
valves and Butterfly valves. Ball and 1.1.7 Yoke
Plug valves are also car.. be used for flow
control with shaped port of the closing 1.1.8 Packing
element. More over the design of quarter
turn valves are inherently better suited 1.1.9 Gland Flange
for emission control applications. The
linear stem movement of the gate and 1.1.10 Valve Port
globe valve tends to open the path of
emissions release and in its dynamic 1.1.11 Yoke Bush
mode, emissions can be "dragged? along . ..
the stem. 1.1.12 Lantern

1.1.13 Back Seat Bushing

1.1. GATE VALVES 1.1.14 Gland eyebolts & nuts
A typical Gate valve will have the 1.1.15 Bonnet bolts & nuts
following parts, which could be
identified. 1.1.16 Hand Wheel
1.1.1 Body

1.1.2 Bonnet
1.1.18 Gasket
1.1.3 Wedge

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.1.1 Body services like the nuclear, very high

The body is the part which gets temperature and lethal services. The
attached to the vessel or piping. The screwed-on bonnetlunion bonnet is used
classification of the body could be done for very low priority application and
depending on the end connections as small size valves.
indicated earlier. Body could also be When valves are used for Cryogenic
specified based on the material of Service extended bonnet design is used
construction of the same. This could be to take care of large insulation thickness.
cast, forged or fabricated. When used for very high temperature
The wall thickness and end to bonnet attached with fins are also used.
endiface to face dimensions of the body
shall be as per the Regulatory code to 1.13Wedge
which it is designed. This is the part, which facilitates the
The end flanges shall be service by its movement up and down.
integrally cast or forged with the body. It The types of wedges are classified as;
can also be attached by weldin& if so Solid Plain Wedge
specified. Tbe end connection shall suit
the rating specified. The flanged Solid Flexible Wedge
connection shall be to ANSI B 16.5 or
any of the flange standards. The butt- Split Wedge
welding end connection shall be to ANSI
B 16.25 or any other end preparation When solid disc is wedged into the rigid
required. The socket weldlscrew body seat and the valve und-
connection shall be to ANSI B 16.1 1 or temperature changes, the wedge gets
any other equivalent standards. The body jammed in the seat. Hence the flexi'ble
can have auxiliary connection such as wedge and split wedge design is
drains, by-pass connections, etc. developed to overcome this difficulty.
Normally the solid plain wedge
1.1.2 Bonnet is refwed as solid wedge and the split
The bonnet is classified based wedge is r e f d as flexible wedge. The
on the attachment of the same to the design slightly alters with the
body. The type of connection nonnally manufmers though the basis temains
adopted are Bolted, Bellow sealed, the same.
Screwed-on, Welded, Union, Pressure The flexible wedge desiga is
sealed etc. followed for valve sizes 50 NB aud
The bolted connection shall be above. Valves 40 NB and Wow ,are
flanged, male and female, tongue and available in solid wedge design only.
groove or ring typejoint. In low pressure
- Flexible wedge design is superior as it
rating valves, it may be flat faced. The will not get jammed during high
bonnet gasket is selected to suit body- temperatwe operations.
b o ~ e conndon.
t It can be corrugated The wedge material should be
flat solid metal, flat metal jacketed, at least of the same quality as that of the
asbestos filled, metal ring joint, spiral body. In case of integral seat rings the
wound asbestos filled or flat ring wedge circumference is deposited with
compressed asbestos in case of low superior quality material. In smaller
pressure rating, Teflon or Teflon filled valves, the whole wedge will be
for comsive applications. manufactured out of superior material.
The bellow sealed bonnets can
be bolted or welded on to the body.
These are selected for very critical

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

material of lantern shall have corrosion I

1.1.4 Stem resistance equal to that of the body. I

,.
The stem connects the hand Normally, the packing is of -,
wheel and the wedge for operations. The braided asbestos with suitable corrosion
design can have rising stem and non- inhibitor. When special packing such as 1 3
rising stem. The stem is operated 'Graphoil' is used, the number of packing .:
rotating the stem nut by hand wheel rings required will be more. To I
mounted at the top of the yoke. accommodate more packing rings, the I -
P.
:L
I
In the rising st& design, the length of gland is also modified. This
stem moves up along with the wedge to design is called the 'Deep Gland' design. .,
?. h

open. This is called the OS & Y (Outside This is used for the high temperature I -j :
Screw and Yoke) type of design. In case services. But this cannot satisfy the 5

i '
of non-rising stem the wedge moves up EPA's fugitive emission standard of 1 ,.
.'-G
,
and down and the stem is stationary. 4 0 0 PPM threshold. Hence frequent ,
This is called the inside screw non rising LDAR will result in excessive I '
stem design. expenditure.
Normally, bar stock or forging
I
--. i

are used for the construction of stem. 1.1.6 Seat Rings ,. '-
-
There are two types of designs
T

1.15 Gland, Gland flange, Packing posslihle in seat rings. They are the -+
- ,
and Lantern integral and renewable. In case of I -
There are two types of gland renewable seat rings, it may be either
I
I
rj
designs possible, Single piece and Two tlmaded, rolled-in or welded-in. In case
piece. In two-piece design, there will be of integral seat rings, the seat material is .,'t
I
gland flange and a follower. The welddeposited directly on to the valve I r i

follower will have a spherical end, which body. The minimum hardness specified $
facilitates proper aligning of follower by the code for this material is 250 HB, ij
and loading on the packing. In Single with 50 HB minimum differential iI *
piece, the gland and follower will be between body .and gate seats, the body
$
integral. This design is used mostly in seat being harder. Deposition of harder I ' r
low-pressure valves. materials like "Stellite-6'* is also done *. I
I
K t

Nonnally gland follower will be for valves used in special services. 2

T:
3
of superior material than 'the gland The back seat m g e m e n t is
flange. Gland flanges are made of carbon
I 3
provided to repack the stufig box when ?:J
steel only. The glands are bolted to the
bonnet with gland eyebolts in low-
the gate is in fully open position. The
stem shall have an integral conical or -w
B
pressure valves. . . - spheaid backseat surface to Setit against ' , -
=133
The regulatory codes specify the bonnet backseat.
that the stuffing box should 9 .
..
J
accommodate minimum six packing 1.1.7 Yoke and Yoke Bush .
rings for class 150 valves. As regards Yoke may be integral with or =*

higher rating valves, it should have separate b m the bonnet. When the yoke . % 1
lantern ring with five packing rings is integral, the stem nut should be -<

above and two packing rings below removable without m o v i n g bonnet. ' -- 1
lantern. Lantern is not provided for class The yoke should have the same material
150 valves. Lantern is provided for
' 1
of construction as that of the shell. The
higher rating if required. When lantern is Yoke bush is normally a Ni-resist . 1
provided, the stuffing box shall be material. This is to prevent gauling of the
provided with two plugged holes. The stem, as stem will normally be of a I 1 -
Nickel alloy.

Valves
 PIPING ENGLNEERING CELL
1' -
end. The port or the bore is the pasage
1.1.8 Hand wheel and Hand wheel Nut through the valve.
There are two types of port designs
The hand wheel is fixed to the stem possible in gate valves, full bore m d
by a threaded hand wheel nut. The arrow reduced bore. In case of full bore, the net
pointing the direction to open the valve area of the bore through the seat shall b e
will be marked with the word "open" or as nearly practicable equal to the
"close" or "shut", unless the size makes nominal pipe size. For reduced port
it impracticable. Valves shall be closed valves, the port diameter is normally one
by turning the hand wheel in clockwise size less than the size of the end.
direction. The compact design small bore (% -
The material of construction of hand 1 % inch) gate valves are as per API 602
wheel shall be malleable iton, Carbon or BS 5352. Unless the full bore design
steel, Nodular iron or Ductile iron. Cast is specifically asked for, manufacturers
iron is not preferred. The nut shall be of supply the reduced bore valves. The full
carbon steel or stainless steel. bore design gate valves are also c o v d
When the installed position of the in BS 5352 and is designated as 'std
valve is such that the hand wheel is not bore'. In full bo* design, the net area of
accessible, then the hand wheels are the bore through seat shall be equivalent
replaced by chain wheels and the valve to that of Sch 80 pipes for class 800
is operated with chains. For large valves and Sch 160 pipe for class 1500
diameter valve where the operating valves. In no case less than 90% of the
torque is high, gear arrangement is above figure is acceptable as per axle.
provided to facilitate operation. Mostly,
bevel gear equipment is adopted.
General recommendation for specifying 1.2 B ALL VALVES
Gear operator is:
I U I B LBIFII

n g -
Size.
Class 150 14" NB & above
Class 300 12" NI3 &above
Class 600& above 8-"NB & above

If remote operation of the valve is

required, then this could be achieved
through motor with limit switches.
Proper selection of the drive unit should
be done depending on the services.

1.1.9 Bolting
Normally high tensile stud bolts are The ball valves are normally used as
used for bonnet bolts and low carbon positive shut off valves. The positive
bolts for gland and yoke bolting. Gland shut off is attained because of the soft
bolts are normally hinged bolts with seats. Special design is also available
hexagonal nuts. with ball having shaped port for
regulation Metal seated ball valves are
1.1.10 Valve Port also available' for high temperature
The valve size is specified by the service. The ball valves can be classified -
size of the end connection or the body based on:
. .

. .

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Extended body design. i

The port size Lined Body

The type of body construction In the single piece design valve,

the body will be castlforged as one piece.
i The construction of seat The insertion of the ball will be through
the end or through top of the body and is
The construction of ball held in position by body insert or b o ~ e t .
The side entry design restricts the valve
The construction of stem to be of regular port only.
In two-piece design, the body is
The above classification is in constmcted in two pieces and the ball is
addition to the ones based on the end held in position by body stud. There can
connections, material for construction be firll port or regular port design
and the pressure classes. The pressure possible in this construction. In case of
temperature ratings of the ball valves three-piece comtmction, the body has
are g e n d y established by the materials two end pieces and one centrepiece.
of the seat rings. The service .
These are held by body studs.
temperatures are also limited by the
material of seat rings. The three-piece construction
permits in-line servicing without
The ball valve offers minimum disturbing the existing pipe work. If the
resistance to the h w . There are two valves have sock2 weld, screwed or
types of designs available as far as the butt-welding ends, this design totally
flow area through the valve is concerned. dispense with the necessity of
They are the Full Port design and the companion flanges.
Regular Port (Reduced Port) design. In The short pattern and the long
full port valves, the port diameter will be pattern of the body is on the basis of the
equivalent to the nominal sue of the end to end dimensions. Normally short
valve, whereas in the regular port valves, pattan body is adopted by the
the port diameter will be one size smaller manuhdurer up to 380 NB valves for
than the nominal .size. Valves with 150 LB class. In case of 300 NB to 400
shaped port are used for flow control NB, class 150 short pattern valves, the
applications. ball may protrude beyond the body and
flange fhces when the valve is in c l o d
Based on the M y construction the valve position.
could be classified as: The sandwich is the
Single p i e design flangeless design adopted by some
manufacturers. This is to confine the use
Two piece design of the high cost exotic materials like
Alloy-20, Hastelloy-B, Hastelloy-C, etc.
Three piece design to the wetted areas only. The valve is
designed to fit between the flanges. The
a Theshort pattern body covef gets bolted to body with
studs or hex&onal head screws.
The long pattern The seat rings are renewable in
the ball valves except for those having
s Sandwich design. one-piece sealed body construction. The
two different types of seat construction
Flush bottom design.

- 14
Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

are possible, viz., the fire safe design and same has been explained earlier. The ball
the non-fire safe design. In the fire safe at the bottom end of the body could b e
design, a secondary metal seat will be supported fully by the seat or it could be
provided so that when the soft seat is trunnion supported. The ball can be solid
l l l y burnt, the ball will shift its position ball or of hollow construction with
and seat against secondary metal seat cavity. The cavity is to be sealed when
and arrest full leakage. The modified the valves are used in volatile liquid.
design incorpoiates a double staged stem This design of the ball is called sealed
seat design and a seating system that cavity design.
adjusts to the line differential pressure. The gland shall be bolted type
At low differential pressures the floating or screwed. Internally screwed stuffing
ball seats against resilient tip seat. At box is not allowed by code. Bellow
higher differential pressures, the ball sealed bonnet is also provided in case o f
deflects to produce contact across the valves used in lethal services. Two basic
entire seating surface of the seat ring. bellow seal designs are available. The
In an actual fire, the heat same is explained under plug valves.
intensity of the fire could be so different The valves shall be operated b y
that it is impossible to ensure that wrench or by hand wheel with gear
elastomer seats are fully damaged during amgement. The wench shall be
fire. If the seats are only partially designed so that it is parallel to the flow
damaged, the ball cannot @Ice seating passage of the ball. The valve shall be
against the secondary metal seat and closed by turning the wrench or the hand
hence the valve would leak. Hence, in wheel in clockwise direction. The length
my opinion, none of the soft-seated ball of the wrench or the diameter of the hand
valves can be declared fire siafe since the wheel shall be such that minimum force
valves are bound to leak in case of is required to operate the valve under the
partially damaged seats. The maximum differential pressure.
manufacturers have come up with metal- When added emission control is
seated ball valves, which are l l l y fire required, additional packing and leak off
safe. Here the resilient seats are replaced port &e options that can be added.
by metal seats, which could even be Normally all the parts are metal
deposited with high temperatme resistant except the resilient seats in a ball valve. .
materials. The fire safe design should Plastic valves arc. also selected for
also ensure that any development of corrosive process fluids while they
static electricity should be Mly operate up to 150 psi and 100-150C and
discharged by proper design and also in food industry. To select the best
manufacture of valve. Such 'an plastic valve, process data such as
arrangement is called the 'Anti-static' number of cycles before failures is
design. This ensures to have a discharge critical.. Ball valves Lined with PTFE on
path h m ball to the spindle and h m the body and ceramic ball is used for
spindle to the valve body with an extreme corrosive fluids.
electrical resistance of not greater than
10 ohms when the valve is new. A 13 PLUG VALVES
typical method of achieving earthed The plug. valves, like ball
continuity is to provide stainless steel valves, are quarter turn positive shut off
spring-loaded plungers, one fitted valves. Two major types of plug valves
between the stem tongue and ball and are in use. They arc the lubricated metal-
second fitted between stem and body. seated plug vdves and Teflon sleeved
The ball could be of full bore or plug valves. These valves can have
a reduced bore. The design aspect of the flanged, butt-welded, screwed or socket

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

weld ends. The pressure classification is with the tapered portiorl towards the top,
the same a s that specified for the gate it is called 'inverted plug'. Normally
valves. The range of pressure to which larger diameter (8"NB and above) have
these valves could be used depends upon this design.
the seat, seals and the lubricant. Plug Another design in use is the
valves with shaped port are used for flow Pressure Balanced Plug. The benefit of
control applications. the pressure-balanced design is the
elimination of the possibility of
13.1 Metal Seated Plug Valves unbalanced forces causing taper locking
In lubricated plug valves, the of the plug. This is achieved by using the
lubrication of the seating surfice is by live line presswe to replace the sealant
means of lubricant, which is fed into the pressure. The regular sealant injection is
operating surface of the valve either in not needed to keep the valve fiee to turn.
the form of mastic sticks or by grease The pressure balance system
gun. The selection of the lubricant consists of two holes in the plug
depends upon the service to which the wnnecting the chambers at each end of
valve is subjected to. In certain designs, the plug with the port, which contains
a low friction Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene line pressure.
(PTFE) is impregnated on the mrface The valve having pressure
structure of the valve plug. This is called balanced is called dynamically balanced
'LOMU' treatment. This reduces the plug. MIS Audw called these types of
frequency of valve lubrication. valves as 'Super-H' pressure balanced
The plug valve design refers to valves. The break away torque required
three patterns considering the shape or to operate these valves are lower than
port through the valve and the overall (almost half) that for the reduced port
length. They are the regular pattern, the ball valves.
short pattern and the venturi pattern.
The regular pattern valves have
plug ports generally rectangular in Comparison of Breakaway Torque
section and have area substantially equal Requirement of h v e s
to fill bore of the pipe. The transition
f?om the round body to nxbngular seat The following data has been published
ports is smooth without sudden alteration by a valve rnmufactum to indicate the
in section, which causes turbulence. easiness in operation of. the pressure
These are used where pipeline losses are balanced plug valve.
to be kept minimum. . . - . . a
..- ..: -.
The short pattern- valves baire
firce-to-face dimensions w m p d i n g
to wedge-gate valves. This is used as an
alternative to gate valves.
The Venturi Pattern Valves have
reduced port area. The change of section
through the body h a t is so graded as to
produce a venturi eff& to restore a large
percentage of velocity head ioss through
the valve and produce a resultant total
pressure drop of reiatively low order.
The plug could be installed with
the taper towards the bottom end of the
body or reverse. When the installation is

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

13.2 Teflon Sleeved Plug Valves

the temperature to which the sleeve can

be subjected to. The sleeved plug valve
also is available complying with the fire
safe atmospheric seal. They are not
manufactured fire safe through seat. The
anti static design as explained for ball
valve is also possible in Sleeved plug
valves.
The sleeved plug valves are also
designed with bellow seals to control the
emission rates. There are two basic
bellow seal design for quarter turn
lhwt cok.dclinbcc &eel valves. One is the "goose neck" or the
foamed dbptram PlFE
"bent-strawn design. The other is the .
"rack and pinion" type. The rack and
pinion type maintains a linear bellow so
there is less stress and no forging. There
is an alternative to bellow design is
available and is called a 'caged' plug
valve. In this design the plug is W e d
in another plug and it provides inherent
emission control characteristics of the
sleeved plug valve while improving the
throttling capabilities and reducing wear
BW. FEP u PFA h d potential. Plug valves are also available
dudleiam with Fluoro polymer lined metal body
and plug.

133 "Permasealn Plug Valves

Bdtm d'aphogm, PlFE
m These valves ate similar to the
sleeved plug valves but are provided
with Teflon seats instead o$ sleeves as in
the case of ball valves. These are
designed for on-off applications and can
handle clean viscous and corrosive
liquids. The construction features and
operation are identical to that of the
sleeved plug valves. Graphite seats also
can be provided for high temperature
In Teflon sleeved plug valves, the service. But this design cannot provide
plug and the body in the valve are drip-tight shut off.
separated by a PTFE Sleeve.. This sleeve
setves as the seat for the valve plug, thus 13.4 Eccentric Plug Valves
eliminating the contact of two metal
surfaces. Here, the turning effort is low These valves are provided with plugs,
and fiction is avoided. The limitation is which are mounted off-centre. Eccentric

- -

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

plug valves are used in corrosive and surfaces of the sealing rings. This
abrasive service for on-off action. provides a large sealing surface I
i
Eccentric action plug moves into and compared to globe valves of ' 2
away fiom seat eliminating abrasive conventional design.
wear. These are covered under MSS-SP
standards.
Piston valves are of two types,
balanced and unbalanced. Balanced
I I:'
valves are used in high-pressure services I. r. I
'
and unbalanced one for low-pressure I . -
1.4 PISTON VALVES. services.
[ '? - *
The main parts of the valve can
be identified as -- -
.
~

1.4.1 Body

1.4.2 Bonnet
-
I---..,
,
-. i
I ' ',

I
1.4.3 Piston ! 2- .i

1.4.4 Valve rings I -u< =

-
I -
z
- >
1 -4.5 Lantern bush 't-
I i
1.4.6 Spindle
f
; ;
1.4.7 ' Gland I
_
1
.\
. .
<>
1.4.8 Packing
&
1.4.9 Hand wheel -

'
a

1.4.10 Yoke bush I

Z
1
f
1.4.1 1 Bonnet stud
%
';-.--
1.4.12 Gland eyebolt ' ;
,3
c - ...*,, , '. .. > . x.:; -... :: . .
: , : 2-3
?n= bodyii normally d cast .
' . . . ~. .

'
. .
1
~3
construction. Itcan have screwed.&,.. ;
' flanged ends or butt-welding ends. These - . . . ..
.
$. .. ..
.. . .:..J
.. t
valves foilow the regulatory codes' to :-
'

' . ' '

3
Piston valves resemble in construction DM. There are no API or ANSI
more towards a globe valve and are wed standards wvkring the piston valves. Tbc
for shut off and regulation. These valves end-to-end dimeasions are to DIN 3202,
provide positive shut off. The shut off which is more than a gate or globe valve
assembly comprises of a metal piston, of the same size to APWANSI/BS
two resilient valve rings and a metal standards. Of late, the Pistoa Valves are
lantern bush. The sealing s d a c e also made to ANSI B16.10 dimensions.
consists of the outer vertical surface of The end connections are also available to
the piston and the corresponding inner AN S m S standards.

-
Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The bonnet is also of the same The valve body can be lined or unlined.
material as that of the body and it is of
bolted construction. The piston along
with the two resilient seats provides
proper sealing. The upper valve ring seal
to atmosphere, the lower valve ring
provides seal across the ports. The
lantern ring serves as the distance piece
between the two rings.
There are two types of piston
designs available: Regulating type and
the normal. In regulating type the bottom
part of the piston is tapered to have
throttling effect. The sealing rings are
the heart of the piston valves. The
sealing rings are made h m specially
developed high quality elastomer
material or graphite. The materials are
selected depending upon the service
conditions viz. The fluid for which the ~
ini
ymaterial is selected to suit the
u
valve is used and its prassure comsive nature of the service fluid.
temperature conditions.
Spring washers are fitted under
the bonnet nuts to ensure that the Diaphragm valve with plastic body is
pressure of the bonnet on the valve ring also manufachued.
is kept constant This along with the There are two types of
resilient sealing rings produces a spring diaphragm valves available. They are the
action, which compemates for any Weir'type and 'Straight flow' type. The
differential expansion that can occur. .most commonly used one is the weir
There are two types of stem type and are popularly known as the
designs available, (ha inside sam rising 'Saunderst type. In this type' the body
stem and the 0' S and Y type with rising configuration is such that isolation as
stem. The haqd wheel is of &g design. well as control is possible.
1110'sandY type, a s t u 5 g b o x with a
bolted g l a d is provided. This design is . A typical diaphragm valve has
mainly wd for Thennic fluid/High the following major parts that could be
t e m ~semdces. t identified. They are:
The piston valves are prefemd
by maintenance people, as they need 1. Body
lesser attention. They call it as 'Fit and
Forget' type of valve. 2. Diaphragm

3. Bonnet
15 DIAPHRAGM VALVES
4. Stem
Diaphragm valves are mainly used for
low-pressure corrosive services as shut- 5. Stem bushing
off valves. These can also be used as
control valves. Here the diaphragm 6. Compressor
moves up and down to operate the valve.

-
Valves 1q
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
I
7 . Hand wheel are covered by. British Standard md
MSS-SP Standards. I
I
8. Bonnet bolting. i 1

The body and the bonnet are

made of casting. The material of
1.6 BUTTERFLY VALVES [ ' $-- i
Butterfly valves are positive
wmtruction of the body depends upon shut off quarter turn valves. The major
C

I '
the service for which it is used. The body parts of the butterfly valves are: I +--

can also be lined with corrosion resistant 1. Body

materials like PTFE, Glass, Rubber, etc.
depending upon the comsive nature of 2. Disc
thc fluid or could be entirely made out of
plastic material. The diaphragm is 3. Shaft
normally made Grom an elastic material
like PTFE or ~ b b e r .The diaphragm 4. ~ o d seat
y
presses against the body to give positive
shut off. The port can also be adjusted by '5. Disc seat or seal
controlling the position of diaphragm,
.$
which is being done for control
applications. The diaphrap is secured
6. ' Shaft seal 1 ' 1
x,$
=;
2 4
between the bonnet and the body. The 7. Shaft bearing F;:
compressor attached to the diaphragm . .
. .
facilitates the up and down movements. 8. Handle.
There are two types of stem designs
possible in a diaphragm valve. They are
the 'Indicating' and Won-indicating' type.
In the indicating type, the position of the
spindle indicates the port opening. The
opening and closing of the valve is
effected by the hand wheel in a manually
~paated valve. The material of
construction of the hand wheel could be
ductile /malleable iron or even plastic.
The body ends could be flanged,
smwed or butt-welded as required. In
case of diaphragm valve with lined body,
the a d s are always flanged an8 the
lining extends to the flanged surface.
The use of these valves is
restricted as they can withstand a
maximum operating pressure of 7 to 10
k#sq.cm g, The damage to the
diaphragm occurs and hence the
maintenance is more bquent. On lined
valves, spark test is also conducted in
addition to the pressure tests. This is to
&we that the lining is continuous and
no 'holiday' occurs.
There are no MI or ANSI
standards for this type of valves. These

Valves
I '
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

There are three types of body The difference between the

designs possible in a butterfly valve. wafer lug and wafer type body design is
They are the double flanged type, wafer that the former has provision for all the
lug type and wafer type. ln the double- studs to pass through the body whereas
flanged body design, the disc is the latter has provision for only locating
contained within the body and is fitted to bolts. The wafer lug design is also called
the pipeline like any other conventional single flange design.
valve. These types of valves are used As regards the shaft is
rarely as the advantage of sandwich concerned, there can be a single shaft or
design is not available with the same. a main shaft and a stub shaft at the
In the wafer lug type and wafer bottom of the disc. Single shaft is a
type, the valves are designed to pennit better design as it minimizes the
installation between ANSYBS/DIN deflection. The shaft sealing can be done
flanges. There are different designs with '0' ring or stuffing box and
available in these types. In certain packing. These valve designs provide
designs, the body is lined with a resilient inherent emission control advaatages
>:
f .
I
!
material such as Nitrile rubber, Ethylene over rising stem valves.
Propylene Dime Monomer (EPDM), . Valves up to 12" NB are
PTFE. The metallic disc with or without operated with lever. The lever cain have
coating ensures proper d i n g against positions to control the flow. Higher
these liners. By selecting proper disc diameter valves are provided with gear
material, this type of valve can be used unit and hand wheel. When used as
for corrosive services. The body could control valves, these can be provided
be of any material. There is no gasket with actuators also.
needed for the installation of these The use of this type of valvc for
valves. high tern- is limited by the
I . certain other designs, the material used for seats. Only resiliat
body will be provided with soft seat seats can ppvide positive shut off.
instead of a liner. This scat flexes against Metallic seating can as0 be provided for
the scaling edge of the disc when the use at higher tern- but will not
valve iS closed. The seat is made of provide positive shut OK
PTFE with catain rchforcemeats. This Thesc valves can be used for
seating is designed to replace the m vacuum service. When used for
seatswhcn~out~ cryogenic service, the ,valve shall bc
Anotha design is the ofErct provided with extended shaft to clear the
shaft and eccaltric disc design, which iIuulation.
imparts camming action to the disc. In When used beneath a h o p
this,. the st- mtre line, the disc centre for solid handling applications, tight shut
line and the pipe centre lines are offset. off is troublesome since particles jam
This feature causes the disc to swing between valve closure surfaces. Further,
completely out of contact with the seat the valve must be strong to lift half the
upon opening, eliminating wear points at disc against the weight of the solids in
top and bottom of scat. On closing, the the hopper. The advantages of these
disc mwes tightly into the flexible lip valves are that the wear resistant
for reliable seating around the entire elastomer has a longer life expectancy
seat. than the conventional metallic seated

Valves
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

(even stellited) valves when used in 2.3 Butterfly Valves

high-density mineral slurries. The
seating problem in other type of valves 2.4 Diaphragm Valves
does not affect these valves as the
encrusted scale will break when the 2.5 Piston Valves
valve operates and solids flush away
with the flow. The sleeve is the only 2.6 Pinch Valves
wetted part and by selecting the right
sleeve material, the valve body can be The features of Butterfly,
made out of low cost material. As the Diaphragm, Piston and Pinch valves
design calls for no gland, there is no were already explained under isolating
fugitive emission and meets the EPA valves. There are many identical f w
requirements. in the construction of gate and globe
valves. The foregoing note is intended to
1.7 PINCXVALVES explain the comparison between these
Pinch valves are also similar to valves highlighting the differences
diaphragm valves. In Pinch valves, the
bodies provided with slwes, which get 2.1 GLOBE VALVES
squeezed to control or stop the flow. The A typical globe valve has the
sleeve could be of comsion resistant following . p e which could be
materials like Rubber or PTFE. The identified
body is normally made firm cast iron.
These are used for special &ces
where service pressures are very low like
isolation of the hose connections etc. in
the chemical process industry. The body
is cast and can have flanged or screwed
ends.
Of late manufactunrs have
developed these valves to edldupe higher
pressures and temperaturts (0 to 100 bar
8 c up to 120C @vely) for
application in mining and mineral
industry.
These valves an also not
covered under MI or ANSI standads
and are manufactund as per
Mauufacturers' standards.

2.0 REGULATINGVALVES
The valves normally used in the
plant to regulate/control the flow are:
2.1 Globe Valves

2.2 Needle Valves

. f ' . .-
-
_ I
Valves - 21
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1. Body 25. Anti-Rotation Device

2. Bonnet 2.1.1 Body

The construction of the body
3. Yoke differs from that of the gate valve. The
body ports are arranged such that the
4. Backup Ring flow is from the underside of the disk.
Though the code specifies that the globe
5. Thrust Ring valves shall be designed suitable for
installation in either direction of flow,
6. Gasket the preferred direction of flow for globe
valve shall be h m under the disk.
7. Gland Normally the direction of flow is cast or
embossed on the valve body.
8. Stud and Nut There are two types of port
designs possible, the fill port and the
9. Plug duced port. In the fill port desigu the
body ports shall be as large as
10. Seat Ring practicable design considerations permit.
However, in no case the net area of the
11. Spindle bore through the seat of globe shall be
less than the 85% of the area of the
12. Plug Nut actual pipe bore. In the reduced port
design, the port diameter is normally one
13. Back seat size less than that of the connectedpipe.
14. Clamp 2.13 Bonnet
The body bonnet come@ion for
15. Gland Bush the globe valve is the same as that of
gate valves.
16. Gland Flange
2.13 Disk
17. Yoke Sleeve The disk of the globe valve.
shall be:
18. Cross Bolt and Nut Flat faced type
19. Eye Bolt and Nut Plug type
. ..,
20. Yoke Nut

2 1. Hand Wheel Needletype

22. Hand Wheel Nut Vporttype
23. Grub Screw The flat-faced type disks are
used when the valve is to be used for the,
24. Grease Nipple positive shut off service. For such

Valves
- 23
PIPLNC ENGINEERING CELL

valves, disk can be provided with an 2.1.7 Yoke and Yoke bush
elastomer ring or facing which wiIl The construction of the Yoke is
ensure the same. The n d l e type disks the same as that of the gate valve. The
are used when finer flow control is to be Yoke sleeve of the gate valve is machine
achieved, These disks can be also of finished on all surfaces whereas that of
contoured design as used in flow control the globe valve shall be screwed or fitted .
valves. These are generally used for in the position and locked in case of
precise flow control applications. V port rising stern design.
type disc is used for k t t l i n g
application. 2.1.8 hand Wheel & Hand Wheel Nut
The disk shall be either loose or Unlike in gate valve the hand
integral with stem.The integral design is wheel also rises along with the stem for
used mainly for the needle type of disc. globe valve. When used as a control
The loose plug design allows the same to valve, actuators are fixed so that the
be renewable. When in the fully open stem movement is effected through tbe
position, the net area between the disk same. In case of bellow-sealed globe
and the seat shall be equal to the area valves, the non-tising hand wheel design
through the seat. is provided similar to that of gate valve.
Bellow seal is the only way to This is to ensure that the bellows art not
achieve emission control in this type of subjected to torsion.
valve.
The above are the major design
2.1.4 Stem aspects of the globe valves and
In case of globe valves, the comparison of'the same with that of the
stem is always of rising design along gate valves. As regards the material of
with the hand wheel. The stem is construction, end connection etc. are
provided with a disk nut at the lower concerned, the same shall be selected by
end. The upper end is provided with a the piping engineer based on the d c e
hand wheel screwed by stem nut. In case of the line to which the vdves are used.
of bellow sealed valves rising stem with Tbe environrnqnt in which the valve is
non-rising hand wheel is provided installed also will have to bt consided
similar to that in the case of gate valve. while selecting the material
2.15 Gland, Gland flange, Packing & There could be slight variation in
Lantern design. from mauufachmr to
Design, a d details same as that milllufbcturer, but the birsic design
of gate valves. features as specified are not a l t d ._
2.1.6 Seat rings 2.2 NEEDLE VALVES
In case of globe valves of The needle valves, like dobe
carbon steel, the hard faced seats can be valves, are used for flow control.
directly deposited on the body or the seat Normally needle valves are used in
rings shall be shoulder seated. smaller sizes and are provided with
either screwed or socket weld end Tbe
design of the needle valve can be c x d y
same as that of 'the globe valve except
for the disk. In globe valves, the disk is
Valves - 24-
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

like a truncated pyramid whereas in the code covers this design, these are mostly
needle valves it will be full. This facility made as per Manufacturers'standard.
eures finer flow control. The disk could
also be integral with the stem, in which
case UIe bottom part of the stem will be 23 BUlTERFLY,DIAPHRA'GM,
machined .accordingly.
PISTONAND PMCB VALVES
The design and the construction
features of the same are alreadv
explained under the head '~solatio;
Valves'. These valves can perform the
dual duty of control as well as isolation.

-
3.0 NON RE'IWRN VALVES
As the name ipdicates, these '

valves are used to ensure unidirectional

flow of fluids. Check valves are mainly
divided into two types based on check
mechanism.

3.1 Lift check valves

3.2 Swing ch&k valves

The type is selected depending

Screwed Ends upon the seavice, size and material of
weld Ends construction. N o d l y , small bore .
vdves (up to 40 mm NB) are selected
as lift check and big bore as swing
check due to constructional limitation.
A totally diff-t t y p of
constmition is also used for the needle 3.1 L m CHECK VALVES
valves of smaller sizes. The body1 These valves m e by the
bonnet connection will be screwed on lifting action of .the &&element The
type instead of bolted. In place of a different types of lift check valves
flanged gland with gland bolting, the. available are -
packing will be positioned with a -
screwed d o n gland nut The stem will 3.1.1 Piston lift check
be of inside screw m g e m e n t . This
makes the valve compact. 3.1.2 Ball lift check
The body and bonnet can be of
forged construction or can be fabricated 3.1.3 Non-slam check
from barstock.
These valves are used' only for 3.1.1 Piston lift check
limited applications. Even though the The piston lift valve has body
similar to that of globe valve. The piston

Valves , - Crr
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

will be in cylindrical fom, the lower end 4. Seat

of which is shaped to form a seating
disk. The cylindrical part fit into the 5. Guide
guide making an effective dashpot.
When it is in l l l y open position, the net 6. Gasket
area between the seating disk and the
seat will be equal to the area through the 7. Cover stud nut
seats.
The body will be provided with The body shall be of forged or
renewable body seat rings like in globe cast construction and with socket
valves. In carbon steel valves, there can welded/screwed/flanged ends, integrally
be hard faced seats deposited directly on cast or with welded-on flanges.
to the body. The cover shall be either bolted
The piston lift check valves can or welded or with union nuts. The union
only be placed in the horizontal pipeline. nuts could be of hexagonal or octagonal
The lift check valves can also shape. The cover material shall be same
be provided with'qing-loaded piston as that of the body.
In this case, a spring of specified tension The &g shall be integral or
has to be placed, between the guide and renewable. The M e s s difference can
the piston within the cylindrical portioa also be achieved by weld dqmsit on
This type can be placed in any location seating surfaces. The renewable seat
rings shall be screwed-in type either
3.1.2 Ball lift check shoulder seated or bottom seated.
In ball lift check valves the
unidirectional flow is achieved by the 3.13 NON-SLAM CHECK VALYES
movement of a ball. There are two
designs possible in this pattern, the The non-slam check valve is a
horizontal and the vertical. In vertical spring loaded lift check valve with a
design, the valve should be placed in modified design of the body. he valve
such a way that the flow is always in the is designed in such a way that the same
upward direction. can be sandwiched betweea the two
Thcsc check valves are flanges. Here the disc is held in position
provided with guides to guide the ball by a spring, which is housed, in a
throughout the travel. The travel should housing cap or yoke.
be such that in fully opcn position, the
net area b e t w h the ball and the seat 33 SWING CHECK VALYES
shall be at least equal to the area through These valves operate by the
the seat. swinging action of the disk There arc
The main parts of lift check
valves are the following.
two of swa check dvcs
available. They are the conventid
1. Body swing check valves with flanged ends
and the wafer type spring loaded check
2. Ball / Piston vdves.

3. Cover

-
Valves
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

;
"

3.2.1 Conventional Swing check valves 12. Washer

In these types of valves, the The body will be cast with a tapered
check mechanism is the disk, which is wedge seat and will be provided with
hinged. The pressure of the fluid l i b the renewable seat rings. The wall thickness
disk and allows the flow. The disk and end to endfface to face dimensions
of the body shall be as per the regulatory
code to which it is designed. The end
flanges shall be integrally cast or
attached by welding. The flanged
comection shall be to ANSI B 16.5 or
my other flange standard. The butt-
welding end comection shall be to ANSI
B 16.25.
The disk will be attached to the
,body through hinge and hinge pin and
swings against the same conttolling the
flow. The disk mataid shall be of
quality at least equal to that of the body.
The cover will be bolted on to
returns to the seat with its own weight. the body. The bolted c o ~ e c t i o nshall be
This allows the valve for mounting in raised face/ tongue and groove/male and
horizontal as well as vertical position femaleking type joint depending on the
with upward fluid flow. The main parts pressure rating of the valve. The gasket,
of the valves are - shall be selected to suit the type of
connection. It can be corrugated or flat
1. Body solid metal, corrugated or flat metal
jacketed, asbestos filled, metal ring joint,
2. Cover spiral wound asbestos filled. Rat ring
compressed,asbestos is used for low-
3. Hinge pressure application, Teflon or Teflon
filled for c o d v e applications.
4. Hinge Bracket Normally high W e bolts are uscd for
cover bolting. In cast iron check valves
low &n steel bolts arc used.
6. Cover Stud and Nut 3.2.2 Wafer check valves
The wafer check valves are the
7. Bracket Stud and Nut flangeless swing check valves. These are
covered under the regulatory code API
8. Disc 594. There are two types of wafer check
valve dkigns available.
9. Seat Ring
a) Single plate wafer check valve
10. Hinge Pin . Dual plate wafer check valve
b)
1 1. Disc Pin

Valves
- 22-
PIPRYG ENGINEERING CELL

The arrangement of single plate 4.3 Float,Valves

check valve is somewhat similar to the
conventional swing check valve. Here a 4.4 Foot Valves
circular plate seated against the valve
body seat by line backpressure or flow 4.5 Line Blind Valves
reversal acts as a valve closure. This is
fkther aided by the provision of spring. 4.6 Knife gate Valves
In dual plate check valves, there
are two spring loaded semi circular
plates. The plates are arranged in such a 4.1 MULTI-PORT VALVES
way that the spring force acts beyond the Any valve, which has more
centre of area of each plate and the fluid than two ports, is classified as Multi-port
force acts within the same. This Mcrum Valves. The multi-port valves on certain
causes the heel to open first preventing services reduce the time for operating
rubbing of the seat surface prior to and the over all costs. There are thrc;e
normal opening. The sizes specified in pod valves and four port valves in
API 594 are from 2" NB to 48" NB. common use. Five-port designs are also
Manufacturers have developed standards available. Two types of three port
beyond these sizes as well. designs are available viz. The T'port
The plates shall be made of and the 2' port. The possible flow
matcrial at least equal to that of the patterns of these are as below
body. The body and plate seating surface
can be renewable or integral or with
deposited metal. The seat surface could
be stellited or can be of resilient
material. In these valves, the items
specified under trim are the seating
surfaces, springs, hinge and bearings.
-
Table 4 of API 594 gives trim numbers
and the corresponding material of
construction.
Compared to the conventid
check valves, t h e have less presswe
drop across the vdvc in larger sizes,
reducd water Rammer and are ccmpac.-----

4.0 SPECIAL-PURBOSE
VALVES
Valves, which perform duties
other than the two-way isolation, control
and check, are classified under the i .. -
category of special purpose valves. Few A most economical layout could be A
--
1
of such valves are selected from the study of above flow
patterns. r- . ,b
4.1 Multi-port Valves -'i
The 'typical applications of the three, way 1
4.2 Flush bttom Valves
.
. valves are-,
:
I ': :4
.

. .
. -Z .
J
.:..
.. .3
.

Valves . . .
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

' : !
(1) alternate connection of the two (3) Simplification of piping layout and
supply lines to a common delivery, thus economy in fittings,
r3
(2) diversion of flow to either of two (4) Less risk of product mixing by
directions, incorrect valve operation,

(3) isolation of one of a pair of safety (5) The stops can be arranged to arrest
valves for maintenance purpose, the unrequired flow patterns and at
the same time make it impossible
' (4) division o f . flow with isolation
' for desired positions to be obtained.
facility. .
Two of the multi-port valves can
The flow gatterns of a four-way valve also be inter coupled to pennit fast
are- multiple operation in the simplest
possible way and with minimum
manpower.
It is essential for the designer to
specify the exact requirement of flow
pattems based on the piping
arrangement to the manufacturer. Lack
of proper coordination will result in a
totally different output tban what is
required.
The typical applications .of four way
valves are:
(1) Reversal of pump suction and 43 FLUSH BO'ITOM VALVES
delivery 'These are special type of
valves, which are used to drain out the
(2) B y pass of strainer or meter piping, reactors and vessels. These are
attached to the vessels on pad type
-3
y
, i
1 x,
(3) ~ e v & of flow through filter,
heat exchanger or dryer.
nozzle. The disks in closed position
match with the bottom of the vessel or
, piping leaving no room for hold up or
stagmlion.
The types of valves used
for this design arc the ball or the plug There ire two types of flush
valves. However, globe pattern valves boaom valves.
also can be designed with suitable disc a) Valves with disk opening into the -.

positions to achieve the three-port tanks.

design.
b) Valves with disk into the valve.
The advantages of multi-port design
valves arc - In the first case, the stem
(1) Reduction in number of valves pushes the disk into the tank to drain the
used, liquid. This type cannot be used when
there are any internals, which restrict the
(2) Quick and easy operation, movement of the disk The draining of
the material could be effected
I

1 Valves - 2-9
I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

completely. In the second case, the disk depending upon the pressure holding
gets pulled down into the valve effecting capacity of the valve. I
II -
the discharge of material. The body lever and intemals
There are two types of disk are rnanufactured - out of gunmetal and I
design available, the plug type and the the float is of PVC or copper depending !
ram type. upon the temperature of the fluid. The
lever length could be adjusted to suit the
Normally, the inlet size of a
standard flush bottom valve is one size level in the reservoir. II
higher than that of the outlet size. There These valves have threaded
are special constructions possible with ends and are c o ~ e c t e dto the wall of the I
both sizes same. The outlet port is at an reservoir with hexagonal nut. The I
angle to the inlet port Normally 45 or 60 reservoir need not be provided with a
degrees deviation is provided. The end nozzle, only an opening is required. The
connections are normally flanged.
However, smaller size samplddrah
level of liquid will always be below inlet
connection.
1 J
..
valves have been developed with The maximum size of valve
1 ;
- -
welding end at inlet to withstand higher covered under the standard is 50 NB and I -
pressures. The maximum rating special design has to be done if higher 7 -
available at present for flanged valves is size valves are required. These are called II .< I
ANSI 300 lbs. equilibrium float valves. i -'>

The parts of the flush bottom . ,

I
valve are identical to that of a globe
valve and the closing and opening
4.4 FOOT VALVES i
actions are also similar. The shut off is Foot valves are a sort of non-
achieved by disk closing against the
body seat. The disk could be Globe type
return valves with strainers mounted at
the open end of the pump suction
1 :. -
.-
7.
7

or Ram type. pipelines. These are used when the pump I

has negative suction. The check action I ' :.I

Jacketed flush bottom valves of the valve holds the priming fluid of ' - 1,
are also possible if required for the the pump while the pumps arc filled Lf

service. The disk and seat also could be before stating. The suction strainer i1 -:-j1
machined to such accuracy to serve the helps to hold the solids while the pump
vacuum duty as well. is sucking the fluid f
c-9-
1
43 mom VALVES ~ h e s valves
e are covered under -
, .-,I
r

the Indian Standard IS 4038. There are

Float valves are used to control
two types of check mechanisms - I ., B
the level of fluid in a m o i r . Only the
inlet of the valve is c o ~ e c t e dwith the available viz. the lift check and the b
supply pipeline and the outlet is open to swing check. The operation of this is t --'

the reservoir. There'will be a float with similar to the Non-return valves. Valves I 1
lever, which contr~lsthe movement of are available with either flanged end
connection or screwed end connection. ' 1
the piston regulating the flow.
The material of construction of the body - 3
These valves are covered under is Cast lron or Gunmetal for the valves.
the Indian Standard IS 1703. There are 1
two types, the "HP" and the 'LP' !
- A ) -

Valves 30
 PIPING ENGINEERIIVC CELL

!
4.5 LINE BLIND VALVES 4.6 KNIFE GATE VALVE
Line blind valves are used These are single seated valves
for positive shut off and replaces a used for slurry senices. They are
'spectacle blind'. Unlike blind plates covered under MSS-SP-Standards.
these are easier to operate and less Being single seated valve, it can be used
expensive than a standard valve. The for only unidirectional operations.
most common type of the line blind
valve is three-bolt/five bolt I-he blind In its simplest fonn, the sliding
valve. Another design is the single gate valves consist of two stationary steel
line blind valve or the 'pulp valve' plates each with large holes drilled
which can be power operated or with through it. A third plate slides between
hand wheel. There also exists a design of stationary plates to perfonn valve
visible-wedge line blind valve,, which operations. When open this design offers
provides a full bore opening or positive no resistance to flow. The ability of the
blinding inside a seat in a three quarter gate to slip through the plate effortlessly
enclosed body. No line residue c a spill
~ is the success of this design. The edge of
when wedges arc being changed and no the gate is shaped to shear the solids and
line movement is necessary when the elastomer seal is used to keep the
spectacles arc changed solids away from entering the space
between the plates when open and to
clean the sliding blade when it retracts.

VALVE INSPECTION AND TEST

If specified in the purchase order,
the valves shall be inspected by the
Purchaser's inspeding authority at the
place of manufacture before despatch. If
not, the manufacturer shall 'supply a
certificate stating that the valve and
valve parts comply in all respects with
the relevant standads and regulatory
codes.
U n l a additional inspection is
specified in the purchase order,
inspection by the Purchaser shall be
liited to the following.
1.0 Visual examination of any frnished
wnaponents at the assembly stage,

2.0 Visual and dimensional check of

the finished valve,

3.0 Witnessing of the required and

specified optional pressure tests.
f
i
Valves - 31
I
PIPING EXGINEENNG CELL
9

The regulatory codes referred for these For valves used for vacuum
tests are either; service, a low-pressure air test on the
1. API - 598 - Valve inspection and seat shall also be canied out.
test.
Hydrostatic Test Pressures (in bar)
2. API - 607. - Fire safe testing of
soft-seated valves.

3. BS - 6755 - Testing of Valves.

Pressure Tests
Pressure tests, unless otherwise
specified, shall be carried out on each
valve as follows;

1. Shell - hydrostatic (inclusive of

body, bonnet, stuffing box and
cover plate)
+>

For this test, disks, wedges and I .-,

*
plugs shall be in open psition and ball !
in the half open position. Check valves
.,
shall have pressure applied to the
upstream side. When valves with
I ,i
*.

stuffing box are tested, the back seat - ->

shall be tested for leakage with valve in r' i

! .
l l l y open position and stem packing Note # 1. The hydrostatic seat test
removed or untightened. pressure of soft-wkd valves shall not " 1
exceed the body rating or the seat rating f . .
..
.I

2. Seat - hydrostatic whichever is lesser (refer regulatory

3
:,
,
code for the valves). I - 3f
For gate valves, the test is to be CP

conducted to each side of disk. For globe

For hydrostatic tests, the test . .
1
fluid shall be water at ambient 3
valves, pressure is to be applied under
the disk For chock values, it is on the
temperature unless the use of another .- f, -,
:-3
1
liquid is agreed. Tbe use of high chloride
downstream side. For ball valves and
plug valves, it is to each side of
- containing water should be avoided. 3
'I'he water may contain water-soluble oil 1 : .)

balllplug,
or a rust inhibitor. - 3
3. Seat - Pneumatic Fire safe test is a destructive
test and carried out only in exceptional
All gate, globe, plug and ball cases when specified. The arrangement
valves are air seat tested at a minimum and test shall be as per API 607 or BS
of 80-psig/100 psig with liquid on the 6755.
side, which is not under pressure. This
test is not required for check valves.

Valves
1.0 ISOLATION VALVES
- I

1.1. ~ a t Valves
k

Steel Gate Valves

Compact Design Carbon Steel Gate
Valves
9 API 603 - Corrosion Resistant Gate Valves
P API604 - Ductile Iron Gate Valves - flanged
ends.
Gate Valves for water & sewage
system
Resilient Seated Gate Valves for
water & sewage
Class 150 Corrosion Resistant Gate,
Globe and Check Valves.
Cast Iron Gate Valves
-

Gate Valves for Petroleum lndustry

CI Wedge and Double Disc Gate
Valves for general purposes .
CI Gate (parallel slide) valves for
general purposes
Steel Gate, Globe, Check Valves < 2"
NB
Steel ate Valves for Petroleum
Industries
Sluice Valves for water works 50 -
1200 rnm.
Steel Gate Valves

1.2. Ball Valves

Recommended Practice for Fire Test

for valves.
P API 607 - ' Fire test for soft-seated ball valves
> C-507 - Ball valvesd'.' - 48'.'
P MSS-SP-72 - Ball valves
-

aa 3s
 Piastic Industrial ball valves
CI and CS Ball valyes for general
Purposes
Stee1 Ball Valves for petroleum
Industries
Ball Valves for general purposes
Steel Ball Valves for Petroleum
Industries

1.3. Plug Valves

P. API 593 - Ductile Iron Plug Valves - flanged

ends.
Cast Iron Plug Valves
Resilient Seated ~ccentricCI
Plug Valves.
CI and CS Plug valves for
genera1 purposes
Specification for Plug Valves

. . . .
. :
. .
r .T

. . .. . ..
l .S.. Diaphragm Valves .. ,

I '
1
-
1 .

. h MSS-SP-88 Diaphragm Type Valves

. . ... 1
P BS-5156 - Diaphragm valves for general
. .
:...;

. .
'

I
'1
.
-..- .~.
-

Purposes ... ,.
1 ;

h BS 5186 - Diaphragm Valves. . 3

F

3 IS11791 : . - ~~DiaphragmValvesf~general.
. . . . I ~:.
<...I
-~l
. . . . . . . : . : . . . . . . .
-- . .
.
. . . . . . .
.,

:
. ,-

purposeg . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . - 1
. .

-!
. .. . .
. . . .
.
. .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . .. .. .. .
. .
. . .
-. . . 1 . 1 . . ..-
. 1 . 6 , . ' ~ u t t e . ~ ~ ~ a .l v: e s . . , . " . . ' , . , .. . . : . . .. . . ,. . . . .
. .
.
. .. . . . . . .
.I
. . . .
. .
. - . i .
"

. '
'

7 3

>: 'MI609 - Butterfly valves

. .
I : 3
. h C-504 - . - Rubberse&d Buttemy , 4
valves-
h MSS-SP-67 - Butterfly valves' . 1"
' 3
' . .
..
h MSS-SP-68 . - High pressure. Offseat Design b
Butterfly Valves
. . .
. .
1 ' j -
. .
. . . . . . ;.
. . . . . .. . .
. . . . . .
. . .
- .
. . 3 6 .i r
. .
. .
. .
. . . j
:

: I !
. .
The Pipes and Tubes can be compared on the following lines: I
Tube pipe
1. Lower thickness and Lower ductility makes it
higher ductility permits unsuitable to coil. Duc to
rolling into coils without higher Moment of Inertia
high differential stress larger bending moment is
between h i & and required for the same radius.
outside of coil. This means larger residual
stress.

2. Specified by outsi& dia- Specified by Nominal Bore and

meter and actual thickness thickness by Schedule.
in d m c h or wire gauges.

3. Uniform thickness means Variation in thickness can

Jcsschance of tube failure cause hot spots and consequent
due to hot spots. fail-. . . .

4. lLow rougkytess factor and Higher roughness factor and

lower pressure drop. high pnssun drop.

5. Normally wsd in heat -, : . N o d y used in straight. length

.
-: &changers & coils for heat' . . , . for fluid transfa. . . ' '

. . . ..
.. transfer. . .
. . . . ..

. . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . . .. . . :
. . . . .
. . . . . .. .
. .. . . . . . . . . . , . . .
. . . :

. .

'6. Limitation in s h . No limitation:'

. .
 Certificate Course
on
PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005

BASICS OF PIPING DRAWINGS I

T. N. Gopinath
Consultant

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
\ Powai, Mumbai - 400 076
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

PIPING DRAWINGS
! T. N. GOPINATH

THE BASICS

The drawings are always considered as the which 3D representation of the pipelines can
language of engineers. The machine be prepared.
drawings and the geometrical drawings are 1.0 ' PLAN AND ISOMETRIC -
taught in the basic engineering curriculum. PRESENTATION OF A PIPING
Piping Engineers derive basics from these to SYSTEM
represent the pipeline routing on the
The purpose of drawing is to give detailed
drawing. There are two types of views used
information so that the pipelines could be
in the piping drawings: fabricated and erected to satisfy the process
requirements. Prior to making the piping
a) Orthographic- Plans and Elevations drawings the equipment layout drawings and
b) Pictorial - Isometric Views plot plan are prepared and these drawings
> Piping layout is developed in both plan view are used as the basis for developing the
II
and elevation view and section 1 details are piping drawing. Sometimes preliminary
f I
piping study is made to fix the equipment
added for clarity wherever necessary. These
co-ordinates. The other data required for the
I drawings are called the General
i Arrangement of Piping. To represent a three development of piping drawings are defined
J in the paper on "Equipment and Piping
plane piping in two dimensions of the paper,
certain symbols are followed. Most Layout".
1,
J
!

)
I
used are in !' For presentation of unit piping layout the
olthopphic s)mbals are ln
scale adopted usually are 1:25 or 1:33m and
I templates that are wed for spedins up the 1:100 for the pipe mk mas dilfasnf
1
:
drakg and 'lso the library sires of drawing sheets available for the
- , ,
for computer drafting.
In complex piping system, especially within -
preparation of the drawings. The Indian
Standard IS 10711 standardises the drawing
-- the unit/plant building where orthographic sheets as below:
views do not illustrate the details of design, OVERALL DIEAENSIONS
SIZE
pictorial view in isometric presentation is in rnrn (Untrimmed)
drawn for clarity. Specially printed isometric . 841x1189 . -
sheets are available with lines drawn 594 x 841
vertically and at 30' clockwise and 30' 420 x 594
counterclockwise respectively fiom the 297 x 420
horizontal axis of the paper by the use of 210 x 297

Piping Drawings
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

TABLE- 1
I

PIPING SYMBOLS
Sr.
No.
DESCRIPTION j PLAN I END VIEW I I END VIEW 2

1.0 CHANGE OF DIRECTION

AT 90'
1.1 DOWNWARD BENDING

1.1 .1 BW elbow

'"71
1.1.2 1 SW elbow

-7 E
1.1.3 Scrd elbow
1-~-1
--I B
1 .I . 4 Flgd elbow

-
1.1 UPWARD BENDING

1.2.1

7
BW elbow

H 8-J 1
1.2.2 SW elbow

w .?L-JJ
1.2.3 Scrd elbow -II- T
t
(J

Piping Drawings
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

-
Sr. DESCRIPTION PLAN END VIEW 1 END VIEW 2
-No
l.o CHANGE OF DIRECTION
AT 90'
1.2 1 UPWARD BENDING

CHANGE OF DIRECTION
AT OTHER ANGLES

1
3.1 DOWNWARD I

Piping Drawings
PIPlNG ENGINEERXRG CELL

Sr.
No. DESCRIPTION
I PLAN END VIEW 1 END VIEW 2
-
30 BRANCHING
3.1 DOWNWARD
I

3.1.3 Scrd Tee &t?t+ $

-
?-? (
I

J- S-
I

3.1.4 Flgd Tee

-r" B .
3.1.5 Stub connection ?+J
T H
'r' Y
3.1.6 Half Coupling ? ) >

3.2 UPWARD

3.2.1 BW Tee

3.2.2 SW Tee
.+a++ L. 1
- r
rC
,
,,A 0
3.2.3 Scrd Tee

i (d0-i-3

Piping Drawings
PIPING ENGINEENNG CELL

Sr.
DESCRIPTION PLAN END VIEW 1 END VIEW 2
No.
3.0 BRANCHING

3.2 1 UPWARD

Piping Drawings 5
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

S r. DESCRIPTION PLAN END VIEW 1 ENC VIEW 2

No.
8.0 . VALVES

8.1 H a n d Wheel O p e r a t e d
F l g d Valve w i t h
v e r t i c a l h a n d wheel tik%H HWFI 6
8.2 'Lever o p e r a t e d
Valve
Hy- / .
wdi+ . 6
8.3 H a n d wheel operated
BW Valve w i t h
r o l l e d hand w h e e l $--&L, +&$+- . .
,..
.

9.0 . CONCENTRIC REDUCER c x b

..
H3-5 +c+ , .. @.
. .

10 ECCENTRIC REDUCER
. .
@.
FSU/ FSD

. .

. . . . . .
. . . . - .
. . .. . . . ..
. . . . .. . . . , . . .. . : . .

. .
.
.
. . . . .
. . . . .
. .
. .
. . . . .
.
.
.
. . .
.
. . . . . . . . . .
. .
. . . . . . . .
. . .
. .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . .
. . . ' . , , . .
. .
. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .

. .

L A

Piping Drawings 6
 I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Piping General Arrangement is normally 2.4 Process equipment and piping have
drawn on A, size sheet. If the area to be priority on the Piping GA. The piping
i; covered is small then A, size sheet is also
used. Piping group produces a 'KEY PLAN',
drawings are started after fixing
positions of the equipments.
the plot plan on a small scale (1:500, 1:750 or
! 1:1OOO), which can be a c c b o d a t e d on. an 2.5 Equipment layout is reproduced on
i A,, size drawing sheet as per scale and dividing the Piping GA to its scale and drawn
the area of the site into smaller areas identified on the reverse side in case of manual
i by key letters or numbers. This is added to the drafting. In case of CAD separate
, i piping drawing for reference purposes. The layer is used.. The major primary
subject area of the particular drawing is beams and sec~ndarybeams are also
i hatched or shaded. shown if area covered is indoor.

The dimensional details of the title 2.6 Pertinent background details which
block are specified under the Indian Standard govern piping routing, such as floor
IS 11665. The drawing sheet is divided along drains, HVAC ducting, electrical and
the length and the breadth in equal spaces. The instrument cable trays, etc. are also
longitudinal blocks are identified by alphabets drawn in faint on the reverse.
and those along the breadth numerically.
These co-ordinates are used to locate the area 2.7 Utility stations are also established so
on the drawing. The direction of the north is that the most convenient utility header
taken either towards right or left on top of the routing can be carried out.
drawing sheet. This direction is kept constant
in all the areas covered in the plant, so also is 3.0 DEVELOPMENT OF PIPING
the scale of the drawing. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
DRAWING
2.0 HOW TO START THE PIPING GA ?
3.1 Tbe piping drawings should be
2.1 Obtain the drawings numbers and fill in developed in such a way that all the
the title block, with the drawing number process requirements are met with.
and title at the bottom right hand comer
of the sheet. 3.2 It is not always possible for the piping
drawing to follow exactly the logical
2.2 Place the north arrow at the top lewright arrangement of the P & IDS.
hand corner of the sheet to indicate plant Sometimes lines must be routed with
north. different junction sequence and line
numbers and subsequently the list
2.3 Do not plan. drawing, in thc area above may be changed.
the title block of drawing, as this is
allotted for general notes, number and 3.3 Performance .and economics have to
title of reference drawings, brief be considered in parallel while
description of changes during revision deciding the routing.
and the bill of materials wherever
3.4 Piping is represented by single lines
applicable.
up to a size of l5ONB and double
lines for sizes 200NB and above. This

Piping Drawings 7
P I P I N G ENGINEEIUXG CELL

is to save die time of drafting and to 3.14 Each line should be ~dentifiedby line
avoid confusion. number and should also show the
insulation, tracing requirements, etc.
3.5 In single line representation only the
centre line of the pipeline is drawn using 3.15 Lines, if required, shall be broken to
solid line and in double line show the required details 05 hidden
representation the actual size to scale is lines without drawing other views.
drawn with centre line marked in chain-
dotted lines. 3.16 Do not draw details that can be
covered by a note.
3.6 Line numbers are shown against each
line exactly in the same way as 3.17 Draw plan to a larger scale for any
represented in the P&I diagrams. part needing more details and identify
it as "Detail 'A"', etc.
3.7 The change in specification should be
shown in line with P&I diagram. This 3.48 Draw part isometric sketches or part
change is -usually indicated inimediately elevations to clarify complex piping
to the downstream of the valve, flange or or piping hidden in the plan view.
equipment.
3.19 Full sections through the plant may be
3.8 Valves should be drawn to scale with avoided if isometric drawings are
identification number from the P&ID drawn for the lines. Part sections
marked thereon. where required shall be shown to
clear the hidden details in plan.
3.9 Draw valve hand wheels to scale with
stem fully extended. If it is lever 3.20 Sections in the plan views- are
operated, then the movement of handle identified by numbers say 1-1, 2-2,
position should be marked. etc. and details by alphabets, e-g.
"Detail 'A"'.
3.10 If a valve is chain operated, note the
distance of the chain fiom the operating
floor.

3.1 1 Show location of each insfnunent

connection with encircled instrument
number taken b m P&ID.
- ..
3.12 Similar arrangement shall be shown as
typical detail or covered in a separate
company standard as Instrument Hook-
up drawings.

3.13 Draw plan view of each floor of the

plant and these views should indicate
how the layout ,will look like between
floors as seen from top.

Piping Drawings
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I I r I I I I
GENERAL NOTES : H

- 0 -
G

- -
MATCHL!NE AREA - 1
F

- ,
: rJ REFERENCE DRAWINGS : -
: I
E
8 a : '

- : -
:
. F l '
<
-
i
;
W
1
$. ' D
- : a2 .
I
-
: x
.
- 4
MATCHLINE AREA'
.---.--------------------------------
J
KEY PAN . C

- U&M IR N
REV~S~NS
( MSCRlPTlCH 1 DATE 1 CHKD 1 4PPD
DRG.NO. REY. COUP4N.f M E e .
- By
PROJECT : -
CHKD BY TITLE : . C.A.DRAWING Of
PIPING Y(EI - YI A
@PO B?
SHEET: 1 OF I
8 I 7 ' 1 6 1 5 I 4 I 3. 1, 2. I . I

FIG. 1 :TYPICAL GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PIPING

Piping Drawings
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I 0 LL w: a U m I <
'F
2

OIST. COLUMN

-
0
L~~
0

-
N
a3

- N1/350
I
350x300

5 EL. 1 13.650M Ln

-
-
0
m

C
0
In
N
$ EL. 1 0 1 . 5 5 0 M
rc)

,,?--.

:;I ;-
" 5 EL. 1 0 3 . 0 4 0 M
-
4b
0
0
-% EL. 100.448M rc)

c b m DR~(~YP)

- =
3 5 0 x 2 0 0 ECC-RED
-
- 0
In

In
* cn
C
B

q jut
- . 2000 - 2000
I A

BOTTOM PUMPS

ALL DIMENSIONS IN MM
L 4 I 3 I 2 I 1

FIG. 2 : TYPICAL GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PIPING

Piping Drawings
 !

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

) 1
FIG. 3 : TYPICAL PIPING ISOMETRIC DRAWING
r
)

Piping Drawings 11
I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL i

4.0 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS OR ISOs

, Piping isometrics are three
dim&sional representation or piping on two
dimensional of drawing sheet. An isometric
drawing covers a complete line as per the line
list connecting one piece of equipment to
another. It should show all information
necessary for the fabrication and erection.
IMPROPER NORTH ORIENTATION -
Isos are not drawn to scale but should be
proportional for easy
' understanding. 4.2 Dimensions and angles.
Dimensions are given relative to centreline of
piping. 4.3 Reference number of P & IDS, GA
Drawings, line numbers, direction of
Isometric drawing should also include the flow, insulation and tracing. . . . . .

following information:
4.4 Equipment location and equipment
4.1 Plant North -
The direction should be so identification.
selected as to facilitate easy checking of
GA with.Is0 4.5 _ Give nozzle identification on the
connected equipment.

4.6 Give the details of flange: on the . . 1.

:'
equipment if the specification is
different fiom the connecting piping.
I
. $1 3

4.7 Size and type of every -valve/

., .
. .
1. ,

<J
.*

Direction of operation. 1
;B
4.8 Size and number of control valve.
I .
;.
s -- 3
.,J

i 4.9 Location, orientation and number of

PUN
each equipment.
. . . .
. .. .. . . . . . . : .

-
. .
- 1
,

-4.10. Field .&*Id pief&ed in all.&&tions . '

. .
r
.
- =
$3
N
. __ . . to. take ; c. a. n of 'site variations, Ciin-- . 1'. g
. .
.. . . also be covered
. . .
with a . g e n dnote.
. . . .
.
,

. . :
. .

. :. . i..J
:)
.
'
.

4.11 Location o f high point vents and low .

. . . . .

. ..
.

:' '.
.

. ,
.
,
!
. .
'4

point drains. Covered with a standard ' ..P

'
; i
arrangement note.. " -)
PROPER NORTH QRIENTATION I --.:

4.12, Billof Materid.

;-. .3 ,.
- ,

4.13 Requirements of stress relieving, seal

weldiig, pickling, coating, etc.

Piping Drawings 12 .
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

5.0 SPOOLS 6.0 DIMENSIONING OF

DRAWINGS
When the piping is shop fabricated, the
isometric drawings are developed further to 6.1 Sufficient dimensions to be given for
create spool drawings. A spool is an assembly positioning equipment and for
of fittings, flanges and pipes that may be erecting piping.
prefabricated. It does not include bolts, gaskets,
valves or instruments. A spool sheet is an Duplicating dimensions in different
orthographic drawing of a spool drawn either views should be avoided, as this may
from piping GA or from an iso sheet. Each lead to errors if changes are made.
Reserve horizontal dimensions for the
spool sheet shows only one type of spool and
plan view.
5.1 Instructs welder to fabricate the spool
6.3 If single pipe is to be positioned or a
5.2 Lists the cut lengths of pipe, fittings and pipe connected to nozzle is to be
flanges etc. needed to make the spool indicated, then show the centre line
elevation and mark as c.
5.3 Gives material of construction and any
special treatment of finished piping . 6.4 If several pipes are sharing a common
support, show elevation of Bottom of
5.4 Indicates how many spools of the same Pipes and mark as BOP EL. This is
type are required more applicable to non-insulated
lines.
Spool' numbers are given to make the
identification easy. Iso sheets are identified 6.5 In case of several pipes on a pipe
with line number it represents. Both the spool rack, show the 'Top of Support"
and the spool sheet can be identified by a elevation and mark as TOS EL.
number or letter using the ~ S Gsheet number as
prek. 6.6 In case of buried pipelines in trench,
Straight run pipes over 6 m are usually show elevation of bottom of pipes.
not included in a spool, as such lengths may
be welded in the system during erection in the 6.7 In case of drains and sewers, the
field. The size of a spool is limited by the Invert Elevation of the inside of the
available means of transport. pipe is marked as IE.

As a general practice Carbon Steel 6.8 Centre lines of the equipment and .

piping 43NB and below are 'field fabricated'. pipelines shall be located with
All Alloy Steel and Carbon Steel spools 50 reference to the building columr~
NB and above are norma!ly 'shop fabricated'. centre lines or the co-ordinates which
Large diameter piping, being more difficult to can be considered 'as a reference base.
handle, more economically produced in
6.9 The distance between the lines shall
workshop.
be dimensioned centre line to centre
line.

Piping Drawings
 I
YIPI3G ENGINEERING CELL I

6.10 The horizontal nozzles on the equipment 6.15 For foundation the Top of Grout
shall be located from centre to flange (TOG) elevation is shown.
face in plan. For vertical nozzles show
Face ofFlange elevation (FOF). 6.16 Show dimensions outside the drawn
view - do not cut pictures.
6.1 1 For valves, instruments and non -
standard equipments, show the 6.17 Draw dimension line uibroken with
dimensions from flange face to flange fine line. Write dimension just above
face. . the horizontal line. For vertical lines
write sideways.

6.12 Flanged valves are located with 6.18 The dimension lines can be
dimension to flange faces. Non-flanged teminated with arrow heads or
valves are dimensioned to their centres oblique dashes.
or stems.
6.19 If series of dimension is to be shown,
6.13 For flanged joints show a small gap string them together. Show overall
between dimension lines to indicate dimension .of the string of
gasket. Flanged joints can also be shown dimensions. Avoid one of the break-
without gasket but cover the same with a up dimensions to omit repetition and
general note and include gasket thickness crror during changes.
in the valve or equipment dimensions.

6.14 For Finished Floor (FF) the elevation

shall be the high point of the floor.

Piping Drawings
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

6.20 Do not omit significant dimension other 7.1 Title of the drawing.
than fitting make up.
7.2 orientation - North arrow against plot
'V plan.

7.3 Inclusion of graphic scale (if drawings

is to be reduced).

7.4 Co-ordinates of equipments against

equipment layout.
3

7.5 Equipment numbers and their

appearance on the piping dra&g.
6.21 For field run piping, give only those
dimensions which are necessary to route 7.6 Correct identification on all lines in
piping clear of equipments and other all views.
obstructions. Locate only those items 7.7 Line changes.
which are important to the process.
7.8 Reference drawing numbers and files.
6.22 Underline out of scale dimensions or
mark as NTS. 7.9 ~orre'ctnkssof all -&ensii>ns. -- .
6.23 DO not terminate dimensions at screwed 7-10 ~h~~ repramtation is corrwtly
or welded joints. made in line with the standard
symbols or not.
7.0 CHECKING OF PIPING
DRAWINGS 7.1 1 Location and identification of all
Checking shall be done only on the print
or the check plot of the drawings and by
lenptas.
,
instruments. Requirements
dowosb-
of
atnight
coloured pencildpens.
7.12 Insulation requirements as per P&Ds.
A. Corrected areas and dimensions are
marked yellow. 7.13 Piping arrangement against PkID
requirements such as gravity flow,
B . Areas and dimensions which are to be seals, etc.
deleted are marked green.
7.14 Possible interference.
C. Areas to be comctdincorporated on
the drawing are marked in red. 7.15 Correctness of scale in case of
General Anangement Drawings.
The new print after correction is "back
checked" for incorporation. 7.16Whether all stress analysis
requirements are met or not.
Points to be checked on the piping drawing
includes:

Piping Drawings IS
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

7.17 Adequacy of clearance from civil 7.21 Details and section identification
structures, electrical apparatus and match.
instrument consoles,
7.22 "Matchline" provision and accuracy.
7.1.8 Floor and wall openings.
7.23 Presence of signatures and dates.
7.19 Accessibility of operation and
maintenance space and provision of drop 7-24 Accuracy of BOM in ~ s ~ m e t + s -
out and handling areas.
7.25 Number of issues and revision.
7.20 Foundation drawings and vendor
equipment requirements.

b
I '
i ---
Piping Drawings 16
I .
/ Certificate Course

PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 1I 27,2005

. .
. .
PLOT PLAN

Consultant
: .

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
\ Powai, Mumbai 400 076 -
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

PLOT PLAN
T. N. GOPINATH

The selection of a project site is a 1.0 BASIC DATA

major corporate decision considering the
various factors that make the plant 1.1 Civil
technologically and economically viable.
The industrial policy of the government is a 1.1.1 PLANE TABLE SURVEY MAP
major factor to be considered. Availability This document shows the extent of
of the various supporting facilities such as the plot with the overall area identifying all
power, water, emuent disposal, manpower the existing constraints such as transmission
etc. have also to be taken into consideration lines, structures, ponds, place of worship if
along with the size and. nature of the any etc. The survey covers 20 to 30 metres
industry. Once the site selection is done, the beyond the extent of the specified plot to
next activity is to develop the plot plan. show the nearby r o d , drains, etc. and
Plot plan is the master plan locating broad features of the neighbouring plots.
each unitlfacility within the plot boundary This will also show the geographical north
for a process industry such as direction. The location of power and water
co~mcctionsare also shown therein. (Ref.
i) Refinery Fig. 1)
ii) Chemical I A g o Chemical I
Petro-Chemicall Organic Chemical I 1.1.2 CONTOUR SURVEY MAP
Inorganic Chemical Contour survey map shows the levels
iii) Fertilizer of the plot with respect to the mean sea
iv) Pharmaceutical level. These levels arc taken at 10 M Grids
v) Metallurgical so that the topography of the plat is well
vi) Power Generation represented. This will establish the co-
ordinates; normally North-South and East-
The development of plot plan is a much West or it could be X-Y as well. The
involved' job. While locating the various contour map will also show the benchmarks
units/facifities w i ~the. piot' co&dera~on indicating the mean sea level (MSL) to
$balk. b e . given for the operation,
. . .. . establish the level of the plot. (Ref. Fig. 2)
maintenance &ety .=pests related to the
. . 7 . : .
,

plant and that of the neighbour, fire hazards, 1.1.3. SOIL SURVEY
location o f ' . power and water supply, , , Soil survey is conducted to establish
expansion facilities,
. 'man-material
, .. . . . . the bearing capacity of the soil which will be
mvmmb eu.in a:balm& m m e ~
. .
.
required for the civil design. The nature of
the soil is also tested to determine the
Before the activity of development of the expansive nature, corrosion properties etc.
plot plan starts, there are a lot of data,
related to all disciplines of engineering, to
be collected and analysed andlor made use
of. Data to be collected before starting can
be classified as follows.

Plot Plan
PlPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.2 Electrical
1.3.10 Steel / Scrap Yard
The data related to electrical will
constitute the supply voltage levels, the 1.3.11 Fire Station
voltage levels required within the plant and
fault levels to establish the power 1.3.12 Weigh Bridge
distribution system, the location of supply
point to decide the location of the receiving 1.3.13 Staff Colony
station and the requirement of the state
electricity boards. 1.4 Meteorological Data

1.3 Non Plant Facilities This data is required to arrive at the

location of the process area, utility ana
Necessary data is required to be and the type of enclosure required for the
collected, to anive at the block size of the building, basic design parameters, the
following facilities, before the work is- drainage details, etc. The data includes
started on the development of plot plan. The
user department should be consulted to 1.4.1 Minimum,maximum and normal
arrive at the requirement and the allocation temperatures during the year
should also be proportionate to the available
plot area and the effective process area.

1.3.1 Administrative Block 1.4.3 Intensity and direction of the wind

(wind rose)
1-3.2 Canteen
1.4.4 Seismic zone
1.3.3 Workshop
1.4.5 Wet and Dry BuIb tcIElpcrahnes '

1.3.4 R & D, QC Laboratory and Pilot

Plant 1.4.6 Flood level
. ,
I
i
I)
9~3
1.3.5 Gate House 1 Time Office 15 Process data
. . . . <.,&,?
13.6, Security Arrangements .. . . : ....
. . ... . . . . . A lot, of. 'b.
Ttl'w
+&. &b
. .- . .. 1-:: )
-
, ,' ' ' '

- ...
.
. . : wOrking Of the proces~plant is also required. . . . .c .,I
. .
1.3.7 Vehicle Parking . . .. :
.
. to develop a plot plm. These a&; . . .;I . 3
. .. ..- ., .. .. . .. ..
. . . .. . . . . .
. . .
. . .. . .. . . .&

..
... . . . . . . . . .
.

1.3.8 ~ e d i i aCentre.
l . .. .
. . . 13.1 Size / capacity of the p m e s s unit to . :4 v

work &the area to 'accommdate 1:)

1.3.8 Ware House . . -
'-

. ..
the same.. . . . ' .
8' 1
i) Covered Area 1.5.2 Knowledge on the type of plant, \-- -3
ii) Open Area whether it is to be located indoors or s

iii) Solid Warehouse

iv) Liquid Warehouse

Plot Plan
 j
. ,
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

outdoors or the extent of enclosure 1.6.4 Requirement of different types of

required. utilities such as Steam, Air, -
1.5.3 Sequence of process flow to locate Nitrogen, DM Water, Soft Water,
the process unit in the proper Cooling Water, Chilled Water,
manner. Brine, etc.
1.6.5 Capacities and the grouping
1.5.4 Hazardous nature of the plant to keep philosophy based on the nature of
proper inter unit distances and work utilities.
out the fire water storage volume.
1.7 Statutory Requirements
1.5.5 The overall operating philosophy of
the plant such as Based on the location, nature and
i) Fully Automatic type of the plant, the requirements by the
ii) Partially Automatic statutory authorities are well spelt out.
iii) Manual Knowledge and application of these are .
iv) Batch / Continuous essential to develop the plot plan. These
talk about the requirements of the Green
1.5.6 Raw material receipt and product belt, Floor area occupation, Floor apace
despatch philosophy index, Width of .the mads. Free area to be-
maintained along the plot boundary, Height
1.5.7 Storage Philosophy. The and tread of the steps, Floor to floor
requirement of above ground and/or distances, requirements of distances to be
underground storages, the nature of maintained between the units, requirements
storage material etc. are required to within the petmleum storages and gas
decide on the block size. storages, fire fighting requirements,. height
of chimneys, etc. These requirements arc as
1.5.8 Effluent plant 'capacity md discharge per the nonns set by
points, incineration requirements,
.
etc.
. 1.7.1 State Industrial Development

1.5.9 Type of hazard to decide 6re hydrant Corporation (SIDC)

system. 1.7.2 Central / State Environmental

1.4. t 0 Numbcr of flares. Pollution Control Boards (PCBS)

-
I .7.3 Factory Inspectors$: --
1.6 Data on Utilities
1.7.4 State Electricity Boards (SEB)
The following data on utilities are
required to be to size and locate the 1.75 Chief Controller of Explosives
various utilities. (CCOE)
1.6.1 Source andlor supply point of Raw
water 1.7.6 Static and Mobile Pressure Vessel
1.6.2 Quality of water available
Rules (SMPV)
1.6.3 Water consumption for the process
1.7.7 Tariff Advisory Committee (TAC)

Plot Plan 3
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1.7.8 Aviation Laws

2.1.6 Non explosive chemical storaged =-.
1.7.9 Chief Inspector of Boilers (CIB) Explosive chemical storages as per ! 4
, -

1.7.10 Oil Industzy Safety Directorate classification t

2.1.7 Petroleum Storage as per

(OISD) classification
1.7.1 1 Food and Drug Administration
2.1 -8 Fire water storage requirements 5-3
.i
(FDA)
2.1.9 Acid / Allcali storage s-?
% >

1.7.12 Ministry of Environment and Forest

WEF) 2.1.10 Steelandscrap yard f)

1.8 Expansion Philosophy 2.1.11 Raw material storage and treatment

facilities
The philosophy of expansion within
the unit iind additional units should be 2.1 -12 c ~ shed ~ ~ ~
considered while developing a plot plan. -d
The expansion could be segregated as near 2.1 13 Emuent treatment & Incinerator B
future expansion and far future expansion. plants t <j
apd both should reflect in the overall plot 3,
. plan. 2.1.14 Flare stacks .
:
J

2.0 DEVELOPMENT OF PLOT PLAN 2.1.15 control

C
.
I
. I

B
23
Based on the data collected as listed above, 2.1.16 Administrative buildings, workshop,
tJ
the following details shall be worked out so cant- laboratories, pilot plant ctc.
that these can be used for the development
of plot plan 2.2 Tentative details of Pipe rack/Sleepcrs
c
* 1
b
. =d
2.1 Block dimensions of: 2.3 -Interunit distance based on the type
and nature of the process.
2.1.1 Process plants considering- the . .

e x p e o ~philosophy
' l ; . . . .. ,. ,2.4 Safety dist;m~afor #e mragfi:. :.:. - ,

. . based on the relimnt

. .
atahtory . , ' .
. .
2.12 Utilities b s s d on the. group in^.
. .. , . regulationr.... ... . . . ..... . . .. . , '.,. , ,

'.. . .
: and' :
:. ' . . .
philosophy . . ,expansion. .
' ' . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .

requirements
... '
3.0.
. .
. ~ T E .:
iPOI~~TS-TO . .
. .

2.1.3 Electrical receiving station and sub- 3.1. Normally Construction is permitted
station maximum on 50% of the plot area with
total built up area equal to area of the
2.1.4 Uncovered storage spaces plot (i.e. F.S.I. .= 1 (Depending upon
the regulation governing the area and
2.1.5 Solid ware houses the type of industry)

Plot Plan
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

3.2. Area reserved for tree plantation shall that material handling (solid,liquid) is
be 1/3 of the area occupied. minimum.
3.3. Parking space - 10% of the plot area 4.6 The blocks shall also be arranged
3.4. Water storage capacity - 24 hr. considering prevailing wind direction
minimum. so that flammable gases do not get
The following basics can be used to carried to sources of ignition.
.estimate the water requirement. 4.7 Storage . tanks shall be grouped
according to process classification.
3.4.1 Domestic water - 100 litres per person
Per day 4.8 Centralised control room shall be
located in safe area close to process
3.4.2 Water requirement for Boiler - Steam plant.
rating x Working factor
4.9 Two adjacent process units shall be
3.4.3 Cooling tower - 1114 % of capacity as located based on annual shut down
drift and blow down losses philosophy so that hot work shall not
affect the operation.
3.4.4 Washing - 10.15 litres per day per
sq.R of floor area of the plant 4.10 Process unit shal'l be located on higher
ground away h m the unwanted
-
3.4.5 Gardening 5 litres per day per sq.ft. traffic.
of garden area
4.11 Process units shall be s e ~ c e c iby
3.5. Height of Boiler Chimney H (in m) = peripheral roads for easy approach.
14 Q where-Qis the quantity of SO2
generated in kg/hr. 4.12 Utility block shall be kept at safe area
close to process plants.

4-0 t3"I'PS TO BE CONSIDERED 4.13 Electrical sub-stations shall be placed

WEFILE DEVELOPING THE at the load centre to minimise cabling.
PLOT PLAN
4.14 Receiving S'tation shall be placed near
Study the contour map and establish the supply point.
the grade leveldtexraces.
-
4.15 Ware houses shall be lmated close to
Establish the N-S and E:W (or X-Y) the material gate to avoid truck traffic -
grids, the plant north in relation to within the process area
geographical north. 4.1 6 Flms, ~urmaces/~eat&, cooling
Establish the h e area dong the plot towers, etc. shall be placed depending
boundary as per the statutory norms. on the wind direction.
Work out the area requirements for the
green belt, vehicle parking etc. as per 4.17 Provision of future expansion shall be
the norms.
The process blocks shall be located in
the sequential order of process flow so

Plot Plan 5

,. .
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

4.18 Raw water storage shall be placed i) Class-A - Liquids, which have flash
closer to water source. Fire and raw point less than 23C
water tanks shall be located together.
4.19 Fire stations shall be away from .the ii) Class-B - Liquids which have flash-
hazardous area and nearer to main point 23C and above but
gate. below 65C

4.20 Effluent treatment plant shall be iii) Class-C - Liquids which have flash
located away &om the process and. point 65C and above but
utility area on the downwind direction. below 93C

4.21 Workshop, contractor's shed, storage iv) Excluded

yard, etc. shall be at centralised Petroleum: Liquids, which have flash
location seniced by peripheral roads. point above 93'T

4.22 Two gates are preferred, one for the 5.1.2 REGULATORY QUANTITY
material entry with weigh bridge and ABOVE WHICH LICENCE IS
the other one for man entry. NECESSARY

4.23 Administrative block, laboratories, i) Petroleum Class A - 38 litres

etc. shall be located closer to the man In case of motor conveyance or stationary
entry gate. engines, capacity of fuel tank

4.24 Process unit can be separated within a ii) Petroleum Class B 2,500 litres -
fencing providing additional gate. provided it is contain& in a receptacle not
exceeding 1,000 litres capacity
4.25 Consider recommendation from the
statutory authorities for inter unit iii) Petroleum Class C - 45,000 litres
distances.
5.1.3 LAYOW CONSIDERATIONS FOR -. - =

4.26 Residential colony shall be located EXPLOSIVE TANK FARM I -t 31

away h m the plant more closer to the
city limits. i) P e t m b storage tanks shall be [ >
:I
. . . .
l m d in &IonrrrP I ..
i s .. '..
. . ..
. .
. ..
5.0 P O ~ T S ~ T ~ WHILE:
N S I ~. . ' -a ~~'encloSUTeC . . . . '
-.
....>

DEVELOPING 'MEE EXPLOSIVE . ' l. , '. . ' . .. '. ' ' . .. ' : . :'.
.
.
.
. . . I.t ... I
- ;

TANK FARM 'WHICH.

REQnRm .
. . : D y k d enclo-.
ii) : be. able to..
' CCOEAPPROVAL:"
.. .. . . . . .
.

.,.
.
.
. , .
.
& mwf&& of
, ,

. ' .
"! .
...--I
.%.

largest tankinthe tank fium in case of 1

5.1 Layout of Liquid Storage an emergency. . Enclosure capacity

5.1.1 CLASSIFICATIONOF
shdl be calculated after deducting the
volumt of the tanks (other than the
I,
"
- - >
1
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS largest tank) upto the height of -
enclosure. A h e b o d of 200 mm _4
I

. .
Plot Plan
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

shall be considered in fixing the height bund to allow safe access/ escape in all
of the dyke. wind directions.
In case of excluded petroleum the !
capacity of the dyked enclosure could xi) Distances to be observed around
be based on spill containment and not facilities in an installation shall be a s
containment on tank ~u~ture. .
per the relevant chart fiunished in the
Petroleum Rules. (Refer Fig. 3 &
iii) The height of tank endosure dyke shall relevant Table in the Petroleum Rules)
be at least 1 M and shall not be more
lhan 2 M above average ground level
inside. However, for excluded 5.2 Layout Of Gas Storage
petroleum it can be 600 mm. 5.2.1 Storage Vessels are not allowed
below ground level.
iv) Class A andlor Class B petroleum can They are to be installed above ground
be stored in the same dyked enclosure. level.
When Class C is stored together, all
safety stipulations applicable to Class 5.2.2 Vessels shall be located in open.
A and Class B shall apply.
5.2.3 Vessels are not to be installed above
v) Excluded petroleum shall not be stored one another.
in the same dyke.
5.2.4 If vessels in the installation are more
vi) Tanks shall be arranged in two rows so than one, the longitudinal axis of
that each tank is appro~hableh m the vessels should be parallel to each
surround road. other.

vii) The tank height shall not exceed one 5.2.5 Top surfaces of vessels are requhd to
and a half times the diameter of tank or be made in one plane.
20 M whichever is less.

viii) hhhnurn distance between the tank 5.2.6 Vessels installed with their dished ends
I
shell and the inside of the dyke wall facing each other shall have screca
- dull not be less than one half the' . waIls in between them.
./ height of the tank. Height is
considered-fbmbottom to the top 5.2.7 The distances to be observed between
curb angle, two vessels in one installation and
distance from buildbig or group of
ix) It is better that the comer of the bund building or line of adjoining property
should be rounded and not at right are given in Table 1 & Table 2.
,
angle as it is difficult extinguish hre in
I a 90' angle comer because of the air 5.2.8 The area where vessels, pumping
compression effect. equipment, loading and unloading
i !. facilities and direct fired vaporizers are
, i There should be a a minimum of two
) x) . provided shall be enclosed by an
access points on opposite sides of the
, i
Plot Plan
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Industrial Type Fence at least 2 M high liquefied state shall be provided with
along the perimeter of Safety Zone. enclosure wall all around the ground.
The minimum distance between vessel
5.2:9 The minimum distances to be observed and enclosure wall shall be the
around installation shall be as per the. diameter of the vessel or five meters
guidelines in SMPV, which are whichever is less. Ground shall be
reproduced in able 1.& Table 2. graded to form a slope away 6.om
pumps, compressors or equipments.
5.2.10 Not withstanding anything contained The height of the enclosure shall be 30
in the sub rules above, the storage of cm. on the upper side and gradually
LPG can. be placed underground or increasing to 60 cm. On the lower side
covered by earth in such a manner and at the end of which a shallow sump for
subject to such conditions as may be collection of spilled liquid if any, shall
specified by the notifications by the be provided.
Central Government.
5.2.1 1 Above ground vessel for storage of
corrosive flammable or toxic gas in
- ,
:A

-.=,
=,
TABLE 1 I pi
F -

Minimum Safety distances for flammable, corrosive & toxic gases .<
. ,

,.-.

-
I .!
. /

from Building or . between Pressure

:
L
.:.
.:?

Group of bldgdline
of adjoining property . -?. .
t
.+

, . . ..f
;j-
Not above 2000 . - # .<
, ;
.I
i/
....
I- <)
.<
',

Above 2,000 but not

- !
...
xi'
9 r

1:.
. . . .

;,
, B
. . . . . .. ...
7 ?

iii Above 1 0 , 0 ~ ) b u t. n .o t .' , 1. . : 15 metres

. ' .2.5 metres : . , .:, . . JP
. .
, ~ v e 2 0 , 0 0 0 ' ~ ; ~ . . . .. .
. . .
. . . .
. .
1 : ;,
;
.
.. .
.
. . . . . : .
. . . .. . . . .. .
.
. . . . . .
.: .:I
. . 3- >
. . .. . . . . .
. .
.
.
:
.
iv A b v e 20,(Jmbut not '. 20
.
.
.
. . 2metres
' .-
! ,'
3
- .

above 40,000 .. . . A 3
- .

. . . , 1-" . b
v . Above 40,000 30 metres 2 metres ..

- - 1
. . 1 : --i
. . . . . . . : 8: --
. . . . J ..
. . . . . . . . .
. .
. .
. .
. . .

Plot Plan 8. . - .' I-"

. . .
.
. .
.
.
.-
- -
. . .

. . 1 ,'

. .
. .
i PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

!
TABLE 2
Minimum Safety distances for non-toxic gases

SI. No. Water capacity of Vessels Minimum distance Minimum distance

( in litres ) from Buildiog or between Pressure
Group of bldgsfine Vessels
of adjoining
property

I Not above 2000 1 3 metres I . 1 metre

ii Above 2,000 but not 5 metres 1.5 metre

above 10,000

Above 10,000 but not 10 metres 2 metres .,

above 20,000

Above 20,000 15 metres Diameter of larger

I t I
Y ote: The distances specified above may be reduced by the Chief Controller in cases 1
he is of the opinion that additional safety m&ures have been provided.,
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

TABLE - 3
Minimum Clearances to be considered in a Process Unit
(As per OISD guidelines)

Process units to flare 90M

Storage tanks class A/B - 0.5D or ISM for Class

Am, 6M for Class C

Storage tanlc to vehicle unloading ISM - Class A/B

3M - Class C

Vehicle unloading to boundary facing ISM - Class A/B

3M -Class C

Storage tank periphery to boundary facing -

15M Class A/B
4.5M - Class C

Electrical substation to process units

Head room over main refinery mads 7.6M

Head room oves main-service roads 6M

Head room over secondary

.. . .
.roads -
4.5M for cranes
3.6M-for truck

Plot PIan
 !. .
- .
1 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

ANOTHER PLOT

t
--.-.--
.-.-.-.-.-.-.---.-.-2c.---.-.-.---.-.-.--
3OM WIDE M.I.D.C. ROAD

Fig. 2

Plot Plan
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

\/
\ /
/\
\/
/\
,
- .'\
\/

\/
0

\/
\/
FENCING
1

\/
\/

LL
+ +LOADING/UNLOADING
=+ PUMPS

++ -~ _ z * - u _ N c ~ . ~ ?PSIE
L

\/
\ / \/ \/ \/ \/
/\ /\ /\ A .".
?

-
Fig. 3: EQUIPMENT LAYOUT. EXPLOSEYE TANK FARM

Plot Plan
 Certificate Course

-
May 11 27,2005

EQUIPMENT AND PIPING LAYOUT

T. N. Gopinath
Consultant .

Organized by

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

EQUIPMENT AND PIPING LAYOUT

T.N.GOPINATH
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Equipment and Piping arrangements During the planning stages, the Piping
cannot be segregated to have different Engineer could meet with simple ideas
approaches since the r&uirements of that can effect substantial cost savings. Let
equipment and piping layout design often us take a practical example to it.
overlap. In a chemical process industry, a waste
Equipment is arranged in the process heat boiler had to be installed at the
flow sequence in plan and elevation and exhaust of a diesel mgine to recover the
piping is laid to effect the pmcess flow. It waste heat. Thc .job was award4 to a
is v q . appropriate to say that the Consulting organization on a turnkey
Equipment and Piping layout design is an basis. The design activities took the
ART and not a SCIENCE.There is not a following sequence.
single formula available for the design of The process group worked out the
Equipment and Piping . layout. The required parameters did the process design
equipment layout design can be as rational of the heat exchanger and issued Process
as the matheamtics of fluid flow but with Data Sheet (PDS) to the Fabricated
the language of projective geometry. Equipment Group (FEG), who did the
Mathematics is abstract; geometry is mechanical design and issued the drawing
visual. All engineering courses have to the Piping Group. Piping Group located
mathematics; few have the subject of the h@ exchanger and designed the inlet
projective geometry but none has layout piping and also did the flixibiity analysis
design. HOWCVQ, systematic methods and of the same piping as it is subjected to
pmcedurts can be developed fiom high w . To save the upipment,
engineering principles, specifications, an anchor was placed near the inlet nozzle
practical engineering knowhow, and just with an expansion bellow. The data of the
SIMPLE COMMON SENSE. All this anchor loading was pascd on' thc
sbMlld be coupld with thC: capacity to Structural Group, who deigned a braced
vis;ualize the armsgcmmt of apipmcnt stmdum to take arc ofthis. The total cost
d pipig tbm dimcmsional~. The h e prohibitive. At this point, a
design must take comtmtibility; sumdon was ma& to tum the waste
economics, safety, quality and operation heat boiler q d d e down slnd thus
hito account. All these should be achieved clbhating the heavy shwture. The final
within the Saportest schedule and will design turned out to be simple, cost
demonstrate the technical capacity along effective and occupied less space. (Refa
with cnative taleat and common sense Fig. 1.1% 1.kb)
approach to problcm solving. Although the
tools to achieve thest goals h a v ~cHqngad
from pencil and papcr to computer
graphics, the responsibilities of the Piping
Engineer remains the same.

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGlNEERING CELL
I
,--
between alternate layouts. In addition to
-L

capital cost, the plant layout also I

\ f"
-
influences the operating and maintenance
cost. These are long-term benefits that
affect profitability. I
Incorrectly established plant layouts
can have serious impact on safety and
operability. If the layout does not have I, E'I
enough room, the plant will be --- ,

overcrowded, unsafe and difficult to

a + I :
operate and maintain. On the o k hand, I1 ,c-
<'
&- an overly generous layout results in
rl
o) AS DESIGNED - WASTE MEAT BWLER U M high capital
~ investmatt
I '-'
2.1 Conceptual Layout
Conceptual l b u t is a part of the basic
engineering package. The design of it is a
highly innovative activity.
In this, only the essential process
design quirements are established,
horizontal and vertical . relationship of
equipment is sptlt out. Space allocation is
there for all the basic plant requirements
such as laboratories, offices, storage etc.
Access for operation, maintenance and
construction is provided for. Control room,
motor control centre room ctc. is also
planned. Thi basic size of the
'

Fig. 1.1% l.1b buildh#stnieturc is worked out. The

resultant drawing is the conceptual layout.
2.0 STEPS IN
. PLANT
. DESIGN N o d y small scales of the or& of
1:200 or 1:lOO are used to r e p a the
The mechanical dtsi& and development same along with simplified prcscntation
of the plaut has three majm steps viz. - techii~~es. Plans .along with zLamsuy
2.1 Conceptual layout design .cm& sccbns' Complete this .drawing.
2.2 Equipment layout design - Changes in the process, operating
2.3 Piping laput design .. - philosophy or equipment type and size can
Thcse are not sharply divided anas. cad up in suhtadal changes in. the
Though equipmeat arrangement cam be C O M : ~arraugcment. Hence it is
made along with the piping laputs, it is h p c d v e that, being a basic document,
normally dealt with separately in large pmpa thought should be givca while
plants. g d g the conceptual layout. A typical
The plant layout can be the biggest cost conceptual layout is illustrated in
saver in chemical plant design next to the Fig. 2.1.1.
PPocess and Equipmuit design. Money
wasted or saved can be substantial

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEEIUNG CELL

--+ +.--+ .-.-. +----+ Information req* for the preparation of

klQliei i +-,3g *
i the equipment layout is more extensive
-. i $pi @ iqq.l i than those required for the concept layout
Tb-101 r P - 2 0 q P-mi-!- -r design. The essential data required for the
preparation of an Equipment Layout is as
follows.
-----
+--G
--+.-.-I-.--+ 23.1 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAMS
Fig. 2.1.1 0 PUN GROUND FLOOR (PFD) / PIPING AND INSTRUMENT
DIAGRAMS (P&ID)
PFD / P&ID is the most important
document refemd to by a layout engineer.
They show how eacb of the equipment is
Fig. Z l . l b PUN MEZ. FLOOR
intccconnccted. P & ID indicates the
information such as solid handling, gravity
fcad, line slopes, loop sizes, v h g and
drabbg requirements, special piping
matcliaas etc. which govem the equipment
l d o n to a great extent
Utility flow diagrams show the
F i g 2 . 1 . 1 ~SECTION individual seavice lines and utility headers.

2 2 Eq-ment ~ayout: 2 3 3 PROJECT DESIGN DATA

EQPipment layout is an extension of Project Design Data includes the
th%.c~nceptuallayout in a more detailed geographic location, proximity to roads
m&cr. In the same way as the P & I d railways, topography and local codes
diqpms are the basic documcats of and regulations. It also lists w e a k
&deal ~~gSnccring dtsiga, equipment ccmditions such as W a l l records,
layout is the basic document of seasonal 'tempcsaturt diffmcts, wind
'mec&icd engincuing design. This is a directions, outlet point for drains ctc. This
*te rndmical C L P design,
~ ~
data affects the desiga of storm watcr
~
the dcqign infhption to drains and recphment of axlosum.
. bqdhathg
..
&jwe wnshucticm drawings. Further, the wiqd diPsctian i l l f l m thc
Generally all equipment and facilities Ioaition of cooling towas; b e s ;
@at a& floor space are shown. Access, ineinaatm stacks ttc. .
. -removal space, cleaning area, storage
Grade elevation is d l y r e f d to a
space and handling facilities arc outlined. *
datum such as +100.00 M or O.OM and
GQod layout design minimizes the cost of is r t f d to an absolute levcl in the Plot
opedon and maintenauce. A- is the Plaa This is tixed at the ground floor of
most importad featrrrc to be considend one of the rnajor process plants and it is
Cadwtibility is motha factor, which absolutely essential to establish a
have equal importance. Equipment layout consistent elevation dationsbip between
of laqc outdoor plant is sometimes various facilities. The plants and major
ref@ as plot plan This doctqncpt is the equipment an located with ref- co-
basis for the development of construction ordinates that arc establish4 in the Plot
drawings by all disciplines. Plan.

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The soil characteristics decide the convenience. Process compressors under

foundation.depth and the required area to one roof are a fizquei requirement.
be occupied. This affects the equipment Pumps in a row can facilitate better rack
spacing to take care of foundation layout, cable arrangement and
interference and layout of drains. maintenance accessibility
c) Functional euui~menterou~ing
2.23 EQUIPMENT SIZES AND Cost of alloy steeVstainless steel piping
BUILDINGS initiates a compact arrangemekt of
Equipment includes fabricated equipment Bolting condensers on top of
equipment such as Vessels, Heat distillation column as a part of the same,
Exchangers, Reactors, Tanks and stacking heat exchangers one above the
proprietary equipment such as Pumps, other ate some examples. Reactors are
Compressors, Furnaces, Filters etc. The arranged in a row, which need crane or
layout and piping arrangement trolley for removing equipment intmals
characteristics of each of these shall be and for' material handling. Equipment
dealt with subsequently. However certain containing acids or toxic materials is
general principles arc followed in locatiag grouped and located within a paved a d
the same. The equipment is grouped to curbed area which will have the fhcility to
have the optimum location for minimum drain out the efnuent treatment plant or for
pipe run. Pmccss flow sequc~jc is neutralizing i t The building sizes in an
followed to cstablikh the functional outdoor plaht include the MCC mom,
performance of the same. control room, liboratories and space
a) Inline Layout required for personal facilities. These are
Exchangers are placed next to towas. worked out in co-ordination with
Thennosyphon reboilers, which have large Electrical, Instnuneat and CiviVStructural
diameter pipelines, are attached to towers groups-
as well. Towers are ammged with
individual platforms or with a common 23A GUIDELINES - A NEW
platform for several in a line. Generally, APPROACH
surge dnrms, storage vessels, cooks, Layout guidelines for major
heaters are placed betweem distillation equipment arc basedon minimum distance
columns in the process flow se~ueme r e p i d bdwcm various types of
b;) W a r apipneat mou~ing apipmcnt to meet the humncc
Operating or maintenance c o n v c n i ~ rtgulatiom. They tire designed to Wp
and d e t y c o n s i d ~ o n scan dictate the F a t , . =P=idy.
grouping of quipmtnf. Grouped' ' d e n highly inflammable chemicals
exchangers and b e d up channel gads involved-Dese guidelines, wbde usdul,
make possible the use of a common gantry often include ambiguous entries such as
crane moving on rails in the h t for "provide spacing based on access for
bundle reznovaf. Colmm can bt iincd up o p e d o n and main-'; "as
to haw r common pfatfm for Ilmhols rquhd", and "not applicable'' etc. H a m
and valve opcxations. React& or agitated following these guidelines d y could still
kettles can be grouped to have common d t in crowded plant. The solution is to
opcratbg levels and lifting h a m frm the study each piece of equipment to
agitators. Utility equipment is normally determine the needs of oped011 and
housed together for opmting maintenance. This, howevers is an

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

extremely time consuming activity, and is b) Volume Calculation

qgite possible to be overlooked or not As a second part of the evaluation,
eccowtcd for certain specific need. As a make a similar study by comparing the
result, plant layout becomes a subjective equipment volumes. Calculate the volume
$pic, left to an experienced Piping of each major piece of equipment with the
Enginax. total volume of the plmt. Then compare
A quantitative method is evolved the results with voltnnc ratios of the
by d a Piping Engineers for evaluating existing plants in similar service.
the quality of a given layout in the early - Adjust the size of plant and the
part of design. Two complimentary equipment layout, if necessary. The
calculations meet these criteria. The following guidelines and cautions are
nsults are then compared to those of helpful in improving the accuracy
plants in similar strvice - both good and comparisons.
bad layouts. Used in conjunction with i) Make comparison to as similar a plant
! established pmpticts, this new approach as possible.
can iLgProve engineer's ability to evaluate ii) Use similar a s s u m p k in analyzing
the equipment layout. both existing M1itics and new design.
a) A r c a m iii) For outdoor installation, where volume
Make a scale drawing of the layput has less relevance than in an ~1clOSCd
showing all the equipment such as strrpcturc, rely on the area comparison
Reactors, Exchangers, Filters, ~1~ done.
Vessels, Pumps, and other devices. iv) For tank fann, g& guide lines,
-M- the area actually occupied by dictated for firc safety rcasons or
each quipment and the total area of the statutory requirements govern.
- plant. Now compare this value with that of
thcto@a plants of the same or similar General guide lines for equipment
dcc. k the operatom and minimum spacing &all be as given in the
maintcamce personnel of these plants Table..
wh&a the ama is a8aquate, crowded or
roomy. Thus compare the proposed layout
with that of the existing plants.
I

Equip~entand Piping Layout

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

2.25 EQUIPMENT LAYOUT/UNIT are; 1' 11

, ,
PLOT PLAN DRAWING - GUIDE a) TOS - Top of Steel I
r <

LINES b) TOC - Top of Concrete

The following are the guidelines c) TOG - Top of Grout 1 ' -:
generally followed while making an a) FGL - Fished Gromd t
'I
Equipment layout drawing. Level ,-'
-i>
a) Equipment IayoutNnit Plot Plan &all e)Fm.-FinishcdF100t .
be drawn in 1:SO or 1: 100 scale.
1. = I
Level 3
f ) FS - Ficd Support
A

b) -40 size drawing sheet should ~enerally =)

be used for equipment layout If the g) SS - Sliding Support -d
.I -
area to be c o v d is small, A1 size can iii) F k r flail or floor treatment - 6
be wed. required should also be explained such as;
c) Place north arrow at the top right hand a) 'AR=ling - 1
I -
comer of the sheet to indicate plant b) Gating i 1
north. c) Chequered Plate F-C

d) The area above title block to be kept e) All cquipmmts are marlcd with its !
free for general notes, legends, equipmdt no. as appearing in .a
reference drawings etc. equipment list 8t dimensions (diameter, -
i) One of the general notes s b d d heightncngth ttc.)
establish how to ascertain thc f ) All cquipments centerline art located in
1' :,
- .
datum level. plant building w.r.t. the column grid
ii) The legends normally adopted For layout of outdoor plant / ofkite I
.A f

Equipment and Piping Layout 6 f ' "

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

facility, the equipment shall be located coordinates shall be clearly mafked.

by co-ordinates. Avoid duplication. t) One of the general not@ should specify
g) Conceptual layout, P & ID, vendor / the absolute level of the area covered
fericated equipment dra+gs are to be with rkspect to the plot. The dahun
used as basic documeat for preparing preferably should be considered as
equipment layout drawing. +100.00M.
h) Walkways, cutouts, pipe racks, floor u) The equipment load, operating or test
drains, gutter, trenches, ramp etc. if load whichever is msximum shall be
applicable should be clearly marked in considered for design and the layout
the drawing. Mark invert level in should indicate this along with the
trenches p r e f d slope for ramp is 1:s. dynamic factor whertva applicable.
i) For in house plant layout, the location of This could also Be covered in table as
staircases, lift & other utility areas well.
should be clearly shown. v) or k t o r s with agitators, beam
9) In equipment layput sectional drawing, shall be pmvided for agitator removal.
for each equipmeat its top most or w) For vendor cquipments maintenance
bottom most elevations should Be space as rccocnrmcndcd by them for
marked.Enough sections to cover each maintemce shall be pmvidd
equipment shall be considered. X) Equipment layout shall also indicated
k)Oricntation of equipment shall be the positions of utility stations, safety
clearly marked for all the cquipmcnts by shower and eye wash.
orienting one of the major nozzles. y) Equipment elevation shallbe so
1) In case of reactors / tanks, the location arranged to ensure gravity flow where
of manhole / hand hole, SG/LG,I;I etc. specified.
shall be at accessible position. ~3 ~ s c n p r i a ~ riht cjcT T % h o d
a d&;rr\
m)Equipment lifting cutout alongwith 2.2.6 TYPICAL LAYOUTS * wq*h..pa.
laydown area shall be marked clearly In tenns of the equipment
in the drawing. arrangerheat, the equipment layout (unit
n) Equipment planned to be instslled ip plot plan) can b a s i d y bc divided into
filturtshallbeshowndotted. two c o n f i ~ t i o n s :
o) For heat ex~hangcrs,tube rcmovd / a) the grade mourrted horizontal -

cleaning space shall bc marked amngcmcnt as seen in the

p) While locating the pumps carc shall be re6ndcs and petrochemical
takmtocnsutethattheN9SH plants, and
r a q h m t is met. b) the vertical m g e m e n t found in
q)G t n d notes an writtea on one of the many chemical process
drawings (first) and shall not be . __ industries.
repeated on all layouts but reference Irrespective of the type of
shall be given. amn~dmcnt, &ere are certain basic
r) Dimtion of north shall be maintihed principles to be followed while locating
same for all the plans for the same plant the equipment.
/project. i) Economic piping; To minimk cost of
s) If more than one drawing is required to piping; equipment should be located in
cover a specified ma, then the match p m a s scqu~9~:c and close mugh to
line shall be indicated clearly with the suit safety netds, ;access raphments
refxcnce drawings. Matchipg and flcxibili@. Ideafify the group of --

Equipment and Piping Layout 7

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
,

ii)

r*. 12.1 nuu MRU~

OT Y( OU- PCTWCUCWCLL rum

iv) Undergmund facilities: Piping s p d footings. S p d bting

Engineer should investigate the foudation will rapire more space and
fhdities such as storm water drain, equipmcatshouldbespacedt0~t.h
efnucnt drain, fire water, cooling water cataia cases multiple equipment d d
to be placed u n d w u n d before be p l d on r common foundatioo.
deciding the equipment position. v) CLimatic canditions: Weather
Depending upon the soil condition, the condition iduencm the typc of
foundation will be either piled or enclosures aud location of CQUipmcd

Equipment and Piping Layout 8

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Wind influence the location . of- The cross section of such units is
furnaces,cooling towers and stacks shown in the sketches 2.2.2 to 22.5. In
principle all these variations of the layout
shown therein are same. One or two lines
of process equipqg~tsare placed along the
a) Grade mounted Hoe2
..
oat4 pipe rack. Maintenance mads art provided
amnnement parallel to the pipe rack and process
equipments. Central pipe - rack is
In the grade-mounted horizontal in tht line economical as shown in Fig. 2.2.2 and
unit, the equiprnents are placed on either 2.2.3. Air coolers can be placed over the
side of the central pipe rack with auxiliary pipe rack while those at the ground will
roads. The main advantage of this increase the ground coverage. When .
arrangement is that the cquipments are pumps are lined up under the pipe rack
located at grade level, which makes' it with central access and air coolas placed
easier to constxuct, operate and maintain. above, the insuraacc requirement may ask
The disadvantage is that it talres a lot of for sprinklers above the pumps. Tbis type
ground area. The typical layout of a grade of layout is the most economical and
rnountcd outdoor petrochemical plant is thousands of petmchanical plants are built
illustrated in Fig. 22.1. all over the world &g this principle.

Fig. 2.2.2
TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF AN OUTDOOR PROCESS PLANT

) Fig. 2.2.3

)
I r

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING E N G I N E E W G CELL

i. tompressor r=->
houn II II

Fig. 2.2.4

Air coolers.
outside the ~ i ~ e r o c k'

When pumps are placed outside the rack b) Structure mounted Vertical
that will increase the distance between the &-ranetmtnt
pipe rack and process equipment resulting The structure mounted vertical
in additional pipe length. This arrangement bas equipment located at
arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.2.3. multilevels in steel or concrete structure,
The one sided arrangement as This could be indoor or outdoor. The
shown in Fig. 2.2.4 and 2.2.5 are more advantages of this are small amount of
expensive, since only one side of the area ground coverage and the ability to house
is used to locate the process equipments. the facility to suit process requirements
However, if only a narrow area is or climate conditions. The basic principle
available and or if expansion is to be taken of locating equipment in an indoor and
.up in future, these arrangements give outdoor plant remains same. The
optimum solution. applicable principle is economy. In a
The control room and fiunaces m multilevel layout, the vertical'rdationship
placed outside the main process area, of eqdpmmt also to be c o n s i d d The
keeping the required safe distaaces. confined building does not c h q e the
Auxiliary pipe rack is required to run philosophy of kuiPment layout and piping
cables to control room and piping tiom design. However, the requirements of
furnace to process area Safety distance operation and maintmance diffa.
and maximum ,allowable length of transfer in a building, mobile platforms can
line influence the h a c e location. be used extensively but it is m t practicable
Tlrie baric principle to be outdoors Hence permanent local
remembered while locating equipments in platfom are more common in outdoor
all these cases is to eliminate, combine plants Mobile cranes can be used in
and minimize structures to achieve cost . outdm for maintenance. In indoor, tube
savings. pulling area for exchangers is ta be built
in. Bdding will be costly if this facility is
to be included. Or else, the exchanger will
. . . . . .. .,
. .
. . . .
- .
.. . .
. .
. .
Equipment and Piping Layout . . I0
. . . . . .
 - . PWpVG ENGINEERING CELL
I

'-3
I
I
have to be shifted to workshop for 2 3 Piping Layout
'B cleaning which again will need more time 23.1 PHILOSOPHY OF YARD
and hcnce cost. Removal of large vessels, PIPING
1 glass lined kettles etc., will need space The main artery of an outdoor process
I
above or below and also access aisle to plant is the pipe rack. Because the rack is
b outside with adequate clearance. Lifting located in the mid of an outdoor plant, the
beams with cranes located with negligible pipe rack must bc mted first. Hence the
* ! initial cast can make substafltial qvings in development of structural drawing
future maintenance cost. becomes one of d y requirements in a '

Typic@ in house vertical . plant. To pass on the data to the

' I arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.2.6. civilhtmctural p u p , ' a civil scope
i drawing showing the width, the column
i spacing and the design load is prepared.
I This 104 data should include, in addition
to the dead weight specified per tunning
I
&I metcr, the thcimal and occasional loading
I
. the piping will ixupart 0s to the structure.
\

iI- !, &,dm: + I t @' h e Ma will inc$udeforces and moments

1
depending on the type of support provided.
i i1
3.\
The struchual designex ~ o f i r t ssuch
f
pipe rack'@ overcome these
rces and moments. Hence, a proper
B, ! d in the initial stages of
-i
f :
i
s
;d
So, the first step in the development of
1) 1 9 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF AN pipe rack is the generation of a line -
. 1 INDOOR PROCESS PLANT routing diagram. A linc - muting diagram
'r, Fig. 2.2.6a

> r
is a schematic r e p k t a t i o n of all process
;
.
and utility-piping systems dnwn on a
copy of plot plan or it could be
plamrnetric r e p e o n of the utility
[ ? and proccss line diagrams. Although it
-3 dkGgads the txsct lmations, e l ~ ~ a t i o ~ ~
or inttrferenees, it locates the most
'j 1 congested -area.
The pipe rack splits the plant area into
-a convenient parts. The pi* rick takes
a I various shapes such as 'straight', 'L', 'T',
and 'C' or 'U*.This d p t i o n is based
on the o v d l m g c m e n t and site
.) 1 conditions. Based on the
2
incomingloutgoing lines and locations, the
pipe rack is laid.
? lYP1CA.L CROSS SECTION OF INDOOR
CHEMICAL PLANT
Fig. 2.3.1 to 2.3.7 shows the typical
pipc rack layout for various plant
1 Fig. 2.2.6b arrangements. Smaller plants have the

!
Quipment amj Piphg Layout 11
)
I
I
-5
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

simplest yard piping as shown in

Fig.2.3.1 and 2.32. In the arrangement *--i

shown in Fig 2.3.1, the process and utility r - iI I

line enter and leave at one end of the
battery limit. Fig. 2.3.2 presents a
fiquently adopted layout, with utility
lines entering at one end of the battery
limit and process lines at the opposite end.
This is called a straight through yard.
Layout condition sometimes result in an
'L' - shaped yard as shown in Fig. 2.3.3.
L-shaped yard. lines can enter ond-
leave north a n d east side of the plot.

Fig. 2.3.3

Dead-end y a r d . Lines enter

ond l e o v e one end of y a r d .

Fig. 2 . 3 . ;
.----------------
Rood
I CONTROL !
i r.-.-- 1 1I
1-shaped yard. Lines can enter and
leove on three sides of the plot

Fig. 2.3..4
.
PROCESS EQUIPMENT : i. . . . .
.
. ..
1 . I-.-.,. I --.,. -.-._I .i . , -. ....:. . - -: .. . ,. . . -.
-'. .., . .. .

-
Strdight-' through: yard. Gnrs con enter. ond . '
leave both ends of the. plot '
. .

. .
.-. . . -

Fig... 2.3.2
' .. .
:
- . .-

. ...
.
.
.
.
. .
.
-
.
.
.
. .. .

.
.

.
..

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. ' .... .
.

.
. .
.

. .
. .

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL
,-\
3
enter and leave on three sides of the plant.
.-l I Fig. 2.3.5 shows a 'U' or 'C' - shaped
yard. Lines can enter and leave at all four
"
sides of the plant. Fig2.3.6 shows a
' 13
combination of the 'L' and 'T' - shaped
yard. Lines enter and leave siinilar to that
shown in Fig. 2.3.2. Fig. 2.3.7 shows
-'' i
-c $
complex yard piping for a very large plant.
This layout can be considered as a
combination of many simpler yard Piping
-1
I arrangements.
Of course, the configuration of pipe
'-1 rack is not determined while doing the
3
t
1 j plant layout. The arrangement results h m
;3 , an overall plant l a m site conditions,
U-shoped yard. Lines con enter and
le0ve dl four sides of the plot
client requiregents aud above all plant
7 Fig. 2.3.5
_ .tz [ r------------'-------- economy.
1- r----------- The pipelines on the rack arc classified

,I..
i
i 1
\ i L.-.-.-.-., I!
.1
as proctss lines, dicf line headers and
utility lines. The rack should

),
J

I
-,
d
I ,
-Tl-[]:]:I:I:I:rr]
-I-
-
--[]:1:[~
~ ~ s F i ~ i % i iu&ci~-7
TJ I
accommodate the electrical and instrument
cable trays as well. The width of the pipe
! i - -- -- -- - LE0EPPuEN.!J I
rack is estimated as
1: I 528b I. . W=(fxnxs)+A+B
-.-
'>
. .
J

I
., . 1 I
@@@
L--------.---------.--J
S
1
@~sotsn '
i
When
f = ~dcty factor
= 1.5 if pipes arc counted from the PFD
)> Combination of L- and ~-sohped yard.. = 1.2 if pipcs art counted Erom P & ID.
)>
-
1 Fig. 2.3.6 n = Numk of lines in tht dcnstst area
up to the size of 450NB
>I
3 ; I
s = 300mm (estimated average spacing)
=225mm(if lines are smalla than
-4 350NB)

-' Ix I A = Addiaional width for

(1) b e s larger than 450 'MB
(2) For instrument cable tray/duct
X3 (3) For elecbid cable tray
1 B = Future provision
=200/"oof~fxnms)+A
Nor&& pipe m k width L limited to dM.
Complex yard-piping orrongement If the width worked out thus is more, then
for o very large chemical plant.
- the arrangement to be done in multiple
Fig. 2.3.7 layers. The space requirements of
!. [ In larga plads, yard piping will be equipment along with the acctss below
) more complicated as shown in Fig. 2.3.4, influences the width of thc rack. The
2.3.5 and 2.3.6. Fig. 2.3.4 shows a 'T' - m g e m e n t s adopted are:

)
i shaped yard. Process and utility lines can

j Eq$pment and Piping Layout 13

J t

/
PPPmG ENGINEERING CELL !

a) Single column rack 'I" type The headmorn normally provided is as

b) Double column rack with a single tier below:
c) Double column rack with a double tier ST. Description Head room
No. (-1
These are illustrated in Fig. 2.3.8. 1. Clear headroom under 2200
Structuredpipelines
inside operating area.
2. Head room over rail 7000
( h m top of rails)
3. Clear headroom above 7000
TTPE I
crest of road for crane
movement
4. Clear headmom above 6000
crest of road for truck
movement.
5. Clear headroom above 4500
crest of road between
process units.
A typical arrangement of yard piping is
illustrated in Fig. 2.3.9.

The yard piping can also run on the

sleeperti. These are made of concrete and
are mainly used to run large diameter
piping such as cooling water piping.
Another way to run the yard piping is in
open tmchcs with the arrangemeat same
as that of a single tier rack. The road
W E 4 cmshgs arc done by culvtrts. Water
TYPES or RICKS
Fig. 2.3.8
logging in the trenches and draining of the
same arc major problems to be handled in
this case.
Depending upon thi.type of plant the rack :
could: be . of' st& - concrete-.or - a
combination ofboth. -me
the bent/column -of -the
spmink,between
pipe rack i s ] . .- . . .
.. . .. . ... .. -. .
.
,
. .

. . . .
.
.
.. .

. . . .
, , ,

, , ,
. .

.
,

.
. .

. .
. . . .

. . ..
.
.
'

.
- -)
. 3
:;

1
normally -5 to 6 meters.. Wide. spacing -is-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . .
. .
.
1 ' -:
. . . . . . . .. . . .. . -
. .
necessary at road - - ,assings .
' ' w b e . . . . .' . . . . ' ' '
.
.- 1
loa&g accm s p e are-need& ni - . - . . .. . ' +.-
-
headroom clearance also dependsupon . . .

1 '
.I
.. -
the type of crossings. - .. ,
.
1
,'

.
-A

. . . .

. .
. .
. . . .
. .. .
. .

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGINEERING
... . CELL _
[ U I L I v LINES (UPPER LW

IYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF 2 TIER PIPE RACK I

Fig. 2.3.90

I .. .
I :
-<. .

.
-.. .+.
.
-.. .
b. ' i .

Piping shall be arranged in an orderly

manner and routcd as directly as is
practical in &abCshcd pipe racks. As fbr
L33 PPING W G E M N T as practical, piping should run at diffkent
B L I diagram, equipment layout, elevations along north-south and cast-west
piiing spccificatiom, equipment drawipg directions. The basic principle to be
ad tlp vcndor nquire.mmt for proprietary followed in such cases is change in
Npracnt form the basis of a piping direction, change In deviation. Combined
layout. In areas whae piping is critical, chqnge in dirccMon and c b g e in
0
the q u i p m a t locations are fixed' only elevation is effected by 90 elbows. To
afta a 'piping study' is made. This will achieve minimum change in elevation,
kilitate access to equipment after piping 0
combination of 90' arjd 45 elbows may be
is in place and also to have the most used. (seeFig2.3.10 and 2.3.1 1)
economical pipe routing.
Fig. 2.3.9 shows typical cross secti~n
of pipe rack for a petrochemical plant.

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGINEENPIC CELL

rack and also provide additional flexibility

(see Fig. 2.3.12)
Proper drip leg and stem traps shall be
provided for steam lines to avoid the
condensate collection at these points (see
Fig. 2.3.13).

TURN I N PIPERACKS
(CHANCE IN ELEVATION WHEN
CHANCING DIRECTION)

Fig. 2.3.10
' p wui C
& STEAM TRAP

DRIP LEG & STEAM TRAP

Fig. 2.3.13 . .
Header growth can create problem of
interference, which is often overlooked
The spacing on the rack should account for
these. The line, which expands dso,
should be properly guided to ensure
maximum effectiveness of expansion
Fig. 2.3.11 loops.
Although the final stress analysis will be Most of the lines leaving or entering
done after the routing are finalized, the rack perpendicular to it need support
preliminary check h m monogram is This is affected by the provision of the
required to establish the requirement and structural members, known as spandrels,
size of expansion loops. The flexibility connecting between tbc columns at the
temperature can be obtained h m the line r e q M elevation. T h e spandrels could
list. The lines requiring expansion loops is be located along the external face of the
placed on the top level of the pipe rack. column or on the centerline of the same.
The line that requirestbe largest expansion If hyhcarbns arc prevalent in the
loop leg must be located on the outside. plant, it is a common ptactice to fireproof
The loop shall be arranged with the the columns just below the low- support
@ t t i ~ nof the loop g elevated h m =% ~Wrt E,.?it cool= or any
other eqiilpmcnt is lwated above the pipe
the rack level by two 90" b d s . This will rack, the fireproofing is extended up to thl
allow the stmight run of other lines on the equipment support Beams (see Fig.
2.3.1 4). Firepmfing is done on the rack
columns by c o v ~ gthese by Plain
Cunent Concrete 0.

. .
GROUP OF LINES WITH EXPANSION LOOPS . .. 1 1
(HOTTEST AND LARGEST LINE OUTSIDE) f
. Fig. 2.3.1 2 . .
. . . .
' * - .

... . . . . . .
. .
J

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

(PRESENT FUTURE

FIRE PROOFING REOUIREMENTS OF RACK COLUMN

Fig. 2.3.1 4

EXTENSION OF PIPERACK
The expansion of the rack &OM lJsP be Fig. 2.3.1 6
thought while planning. It is normal
practice to add additional tier on the top.
To accomplish the same, the space above The typical arrangement of hose
station along the rack is as shown in Fig.
the column should be kept free of piping
2.3.17.
or conduit. The preferred location of relief
header is as shown in Fig. 2.3.15.

. .

':
?' I
. ..

1.j i
.

i
I

- Fig. 2.3.15

Alternative to the expansion .&ovc the -

-
.

1,i I " . Fig. 2.3,17 . .

rack p l ' dfa.apansion
*.
.
. . . . . .
. .
outside which not g n f d This keeps.
I
. . .,
, . -the pmwss equipents
. away. . .
'ovaall =k design must ' .

thc CUT& nee& ss wcli & expansion

'

. . .
(RefaFig;2.3.16).: '

1; . .
.
.
~. .
. .
.
. .
. . .
plans without major modifications.Heavy .- .
.
.-
.

. h i d $ping
~ may be, laidb l o w . '. . . .

grou~d;or on sleepers as established by

mnQmw. ' .

233 VALVES-UXATKIN
Accessibility to valves and instrummts
should be the primary concern while
arrapging the same on the piping. Process
isolation valves should be M y
accessible, the valve-stem centdine W g -

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING E N C I N E E ~ G
CELL

at an elevation of 1200 - 1500 mm from rack is shown in Fig. 2.3.20. The valves
the operating level. If at elevated level, are staggered on eitha side of the catwalk
they can have chain operators. Valves When a pipe rack cnters a unit, the
located a t low or high locations can have elevation changes may be required The
extended stems to reach the access aisles. block valves could be installed on vextical
One thing must be ensured that the stem leg in this case as shown in Fig. 2.3.21.
will not be oriented below horizontal This allows relatively easy operation Fig.
level. (Fig. 23.18) 2.3.22 shows two level racks with
elevation charges above or below rack
level. High point vents and low point drain
valves are provided to avoid frustration
during testing. These shall be piped to
accessible spots.

Fig. 2.3.18
Fig 2.3.19

Utility lines have two groups of valves.

One group is closely related to process and
should be located having acce+bility just
like process valves. The 'other groups
contain a l l isolating valves such as block
valves on headers, root valves on sub
headm and valves for fUture connections.
These valves are seldom used and are
located overhead. Temporary ladder
accessibility is acceptable for such valves
(set Fig. 2.3.19). Battery limit isolation
valved can bc provided with axes
platforms, valves being located on tither
side of the platform to economize spacing.
Battery limit valving for a single tier pipe

Equipment and Piping Layout

 , COMMON ,
CENTERLINES I 1
ARRANGEMENT OF BAlTERY LIMIT
ISOUTION SINGLE L M L RACK
-ELOIATION CHANCE

Fig 2.3,21b

Fig 2-3-20,

lJNy&[ RACK

I
. &~UNGEUENT OF R A ~ E R ILIMIT ' .
. . ISOL~Nl'VfOLMLRhCK- , . .
. - ELEVAT0.N C U G E . .
. .

.
. . .
.
Fig 2.3.22
.. .. .
.
.
. . .
.
.
.
. .
. . . . .

.
. . . .
TRAYS .
Fig 2.3.Z1a ' .
The Electrical and Instrument cable
J ' traylduct location is coordhted in the
design-planning phase itself and integrated
in thc o v w anangancnt.
Space for thew h y s is provided above
I the piping on the pipe rack. Future
)
-

' I Equipment and Piping Layout 19

1
 BPPING EWGI[NEEMNG CELL
i
1; provision for these is also taken care of contrullers t-ture P~O&
while designing the pipe rack. Where the ,conductivity probes,bottom flanges of the
t
requirement of pipe rack does not exist, control values etc shall be provided All
cable rack is provided separately as primary and secondary indicators of
required. Specific locations are allotted, pressure, temperature, flow, level,
including the type of support so that positioners etc. should be visible h m the
electric and instrument hardware and their operating area.
support do not interfere with the o p t i o n e) Rotameter shall be placed on vertical
and maintenance access. line and the inlet should be h m the
bottom of the instrument.
23.5 PIPING FOR INSTRUMENTS f) Thermowell shall be located on the pipe
Instruments,when located on piping ,will line of required size. Instrument hook up
need certain specific requirement for it to shall be referred for the requirement.
perform the duty for wsch it is provided. g) Enough operating and maintenauce
Piping Engineer should be aware of these access shall be considered while locating
requirements and should take care of the any instrument.
same while routing these pipe lines.
a) Flow measurement instrument need 23.6 SAFETY VALVE PIPING
cu-tain straight length upstream and Safety valve is defined as automatic
downstream of the i n s t r u m e n t ~ s is pressure retrieving device actuated by the
.normally 1SD on the upstream and 5D on static pressure upstream of the valve and
the downstream. characterized by full opening pap action. It
b) The pipe lines in which flow meters is used for gas or vapour service.
such as magnetic flowmeters ,vortex Relief valve is defined as an automatic
meters ,turbkemeters etc are located pressure relieving device actuated by the
should be routed in such a way that the static pressure upstream of the valve
line will be fidl with liquid all the which opens M e r with 'the increase in
time.The pipe line should be supported on pressure over thC opening pressurt. It is
both sides of meter. used primarily for liquid service.
c) Control valves are located at grade, at Safety Relief Valve is an automatic
about 500mm height to provide wnvarient pressure actuated relieving dewice suitable
access for operation and maintenance. for use either as Safety Valve or Relief
-Block and bypass valve also form the Valve depending on application.
same criteria. The standard arrangements a) SRV shall be W e d in upiight
followed are as per Fig 2.3.23. If - poMori -md-directly' -attaclied to' piping -
pocketing the prscess line is unacceptable, system or equipment to be protected.
then a pemnaneiiz or mobile platform b) Depending on the service the system
should be planned,' as access is very can be open dischargi or closed discharge.
important h a t i n g control values on the c) The installation should be such ars to
vertical line should be av0ided.E is keep the piping force to the minimum TO
unavoidable; the should actuator should be reduce the forcdstrcss in the inlet Line;
supported propcrly.The bypass should be i) The inlet line should be kept
selected for easy opxatbn. more than the valve inlet size.
d) Isolation valves for level gauges and ii) The inlet nozzle can be
pressure gauges shall be made accessible. dorced.
Access and space for the removal of level

Equipment and Piping Layout

PEPIPJG ENGINEERING CELL

d) The inlet line for liquid service shall

never run dry. Formation of bubble at inlet
Ehall be avoided.
e) Supporting arrangement shall be such
that the piping should not vibrate while the
valve is discharging.
f ) GasNapour discharge line should be
k q t atleast 3M above the nearby platform.
g) Liquid discharge lint shall be routed to
facilitate draining the system.
h) A weep hole shall be provided for the
vapour discharge line.

23.7 RUPTURE DISC PIPING

a) Rupture Disc shall be installed
at the direct vicinity of the system to be
pmtected.
b) Discharge piping should be kept
as short as possible to ensure safe
discharge of the fluid. CONTROL V U K ARRANGEMENT
c) If rupture disc is of graphite, FIG. 2 3.2s
trap shall be installed downstream to Figure 2.3.24 shows cross section of a
collect the broken pieces. typical yard piping for petrochemical
d) It will be ideal to integrate the plant. The various structural elevations are
rupture disc into vertical lines with flow determined by the guidelines for the
fidjn the bottom. requirement of headporn given above.
Size of the supporting beams should also
23.8 MISCELLANEOUS be taken.into account while f h a h h g the
Space mqukment of HVAC ducting, structural levels.
where applicable, shall be integrated into Generally, process lines that connect
'the layout at the stage of dtvclopmcnt. two lines located at a level bigher than the
Thc equipment for these will be housed top tier should run on thc top tier of the
separately and should include in the rack. Lines having m e cnd located at
ovasll plot plan. she #Inensid elevation lower than the bttom tier can
q-mts of ladders, stairways, run in the top or the bottom tier. If both
trmcdm, platfom etc. are to be ends of a line are lower than the bottom
consided while making equipment tier, the line should run on the bottom tier
amangemcat and planning access to valves of the rack.
i d instruments. The elevation of lines can be
Wuenced b y valve and instrumat
location. Access platforms art r e q u i d to
be provided if valves art to bd placed on
the top at rack level. The preferred
locaticm of hes with arifiicc runs is near

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

-.-
TYPICAL PIPE RACK CROSS SECTION FOR PtPlNG ARRANGEMENT
Fig. 2.3.24
the edge of the yard, with orifice flanges (&ired) Rdes 1981.
I I - -,

near a rack column for access, with a d) The Gas Cylindk Rules 1981. I - I

portable ladder. Orifice runs after pumps e) The Indian Boiler Regulations 195I.
can be located near supporting column at f) I)evelopment'control rules by the State
2.5 rn level. Control valves are usually Industrial Development Corpo&tion. I
located near rack columns for convenient I

SuPPort- 23.10 CRITICAL EXAMINATION , ,

Keeping dimensions B and C to the TECHINIQUE I '
lowest required levels will minimize the The quality of the equipment and piping
length of pipe between rack and process layout can be established by the Critical %

equipment and for connecting equipment Examination Technique where you ensure I
on opposite sides of rack The dimensions that all the following parametas are well L5
D and E at not more than the r e q u i d yard addrtssed
height will reduce the vertical pipe nms. a) It is p~ocessadequate? I
However, the distance E is kept 1 to 1.5 m b) It is opcrat~rfiricndly?
to have a proper erection and maintenance c)It is umstmctim clear? - ,I - 2
access and depends on the size of the pipe d)Has adequate maintenance -.
at the lower tier. provided?
., .
' 1
e)How to evacuate in case of emergency?
23.9 STATUTORYREQUIRE~MNTS OHas safe fire fighting access provided? I
- The layout designer should familiarize g)Starndad practices where-applicablehas 3
himself with the law of the l a d while been adqtd?
planning the equipment and piping h]is the piping arrangement aesthetic 9 I
j
mgement. The rcqUirement as per the i)Is supporting arrangement adequate and
,
followidg shall be adhered to: hetic?
a) The Factories Act 1948. j) Is p i p i i adequately flexible ? r - -9
b) The Petroleum Act 1934 & The
Petroleum rules 1976. - $
c) The Static and Mobile Pressure Vessels I ;

Equipment and Piping Layout 22 I

-
 P I P m G ENGINEERXNG CELL

3.0TYPICA.L ANALYSIS back pull out design, which facilitates the

removal of impeller without affecting the
With the general principles and piping connections. Pumps will b e
n q u b n e n t s as described above, we will mounted on a bike plate with the motor,
apalyzk the layovt and piping design of keeping the motor sbiift aqd pump shaft
specific Guipment deployed in carefully aligned. This base plate wilI be
chcmicaVpetrochemica1 process plants. grouted on to a concrete foundation. The
sue of this foyndation will be
3.1 Pumps approximately 500 x 1500 mm or can vary
Pumps rarely influence the plant layout up to 2000 mrn long in case of large
except where a common standby for two P"mPS.
services or multiple duty pumps might Large capacity water pumps usually have
dictate the process equipment horizontally split casing. Inlet and outlet
anyngement. But the pumps can never be arc horizontal at rigbt angles to the pump
trWed as an indcpe~dententi.@, but t0 be shaft. Suction piping should be short and
tnatcd as part of the p i w g system, which straight with one or two expansionjoints.
affects the performance even if the basic Lnline pumps arc compact and mounted
selection is faultless. along the pipeline evm overhead. Large
inline pumps may need separate supported
Types of pumps on vertical shaft pumps occupy less area
Before looking into the layout and but needs head room for removal.
- piping details of pumps, we will review The positive displacement pumps can be
thdpertjnent details of the equipment that rotary or reciprocating type. The rotary
affect tht plant layout and piping design. pumps work with forced volume
1 , / !.=
,-

,
a;.
. Basically there are two types of pumps,
; :1: displacement and can deliver constant
.
j1 7:
.
.., . the; centrifugal type and the positive pulsatien fiee flow against higher head
. . disp,h==t type. than the centrifugal pumps. The layout and
The centrifugal type could be a single piping design do not differ h m that of
stage or a mdtistage The single stage catrifugal pumps.
pump has one impeller and multistage Reciprocating pumps are used where very
pump has two or more impellers in saies. high head is needed for a low flow. Here
The discharge of one impeller is the the discharge cannot be throttled to obtain
suction of the next one and the head capacity control as in the case of
developed in all the stages rn total& centrifugal pump. Imkd variable speed
Based on the suction and discharge drive or stroke -a&usheats is wed. The
ammgegsent the type of pumps availqble alternating action of reciprocating pumps
are produces pulsation flow. The extent and
(a) end suction top dis&arge firequency of pulsatian depends on the
(b) top suction top discharge number of cyl- in parallel and
(c) side suction side &charge. whether they are &glc or double acting.
Due to pulsating operations, these pumps
The end suction top discharge pump has are bulky, but are considered for very low
vertically split casing and the end suction flow applications. The pumps could be
end discharge pump has horizontally split single acting wit$ single piston plunger
casing. Vertically split casing has good with very high pulsating flow. The
maintenance access. They w normally the variation in cylieder arrangements gives

Equipment and Piping Layout 23

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

single, duplex, triplex and quadruplex arranged under the pipe rack in a refinery
pumps. The diaphragm pumps are or an outdoor process plant, keeping motor
compact and deliver precise quantities of end towards the access space and
fluid. suctioddischarge faces towards the
The positive displacements pumps are not process vessels (Refer Fig. 3.1.1). Siaglc
suitable for pumping slurry and are not pump should have access all around, a
suitable for abrasive services. minimum of 900mm. When space is
restricted, or the pumps are small, two
pumps can be placed on common
foundations with the orientation of the
The design of equipment and piping motor terminal modifled if required.
configuration affect the energy used and (Refer Fig. 3.1.2)
capital cost of pumps. Hence, economy of
piping and structures along with ease of
operation and maintenance . are the
principal aim while arranging the pumps.
I'umps arc placed close to process vessels.
Number of pumps should be lined up and
aesthetically well arrangd Pumps are

PYIODCIlYPYllUHQYCn
PUMP ARRANGEMENT
Fig. 3.1.2

OF PUMPS
RFFINERY / PETRO-LCU PI *NT

Fig. 3.1.la

-PICE FOR PIPING -

-
I I

Jhl A TANK FA&

Fig. 3.1.3

Fig. 3.1.lb

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

For safety and operators' conveniace,

pumps for tanks containing
inflammabldcomsive liquids should be
locatcd outside the dykes. (Refer
Fig.3.1.3)

3.13 PIPPIG ARRAN(iEMENT SPOOL WCE FOR PUMP RfUWa

The primary goal in piping
m g m e n t is to satisfy the performance
and the flexibiIity requirements. Suction SPOOC PIECE
FOR PVUP RCUOVAL - &
piping should be designed without loops
or pockets. The eccentric reducers are
PUMP wlrn
placed close to the suction nozzle either
FSU or FSD depending on the line FIG.3.1.4b
configudon (Refer Fig. 3.1.4). These
hcs shall be drainable n w the pumps.
The suction line is g e n d l y one or two
s&s larger than the pump suction nozzle
for atrihgal pumps. NPSH roquircme~1t The check valves an: placed on the
has to be checked while locating the discharge piping to arrest the back flow
pumps and routing the suction lines. and the revem run of the impeller due to
-.- Accordingly saturated liquid, steam it. If the check valve is piston lift type, the
2 condenate and vacuum conditions need piping should be arranged horizontally and
- elevated suction vessels. The horizontal if it is swing type it can be placed
: runs should be kept minimum in all vertically (Refer Fig. 3.1.5).
1 suction piping. The thermal expansion
requirement should be taken care of in
such a way that the pump n o d e s are not
loaded. 'Ihe suction as well as the
discharge piping shall be supported
adequate enough not to impose excess
forces and moments, due to dead weight
and pipe expansion

ECC RE0
FSUl I A

FOOT V U K

PUMP WITH SUCTION VFSSFL BFI OW

/'
L.'
i
- FG. 3.1.5
Streamlined piping is desirable at suction
/
,t.'
I

and discharge piping of reciprocating

pumps. Use long radius bends and angular
bmch connection to avoid sudden change

Equipment qnd Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

of direction and opposing flows (Refer Auxiliary manifolds to supply cooling

L
Fig. 3.1 -6). Spool pieces shall be provided water, seal flushing fluid, gland oil, for
to facilitate pump removal because the pump jackets heating/cooling shall be
maintenance requirement is relatively located overhead and nearer to the pump.
frequent. If the pumps are designed to do The complexity of piping system
the multiple duty, the suction manifold and design, maintenance, and troubleshooting
the discharge manifolds shall be arranged requires the Process Engineem, the
neam to the pumps to make it operator Maintenance Engineers and the Piping -
fi-iendly. Engineers on the same wavelength and
work more closely together.

I ' ) -
A

Equipment and Piping Layout 26

1.
-1

I'
IPWIP4G ENGINEERING CELL

R - 1.50

LR -ELBOW 90' TURNS PIPE BEND

-

. .---- ----- ----- A_.-.

LATERAL ANGULAR
BRANCH-OFF

@ ; . .

DOUBLE OFFSET ' . ONE PLANE TURN .

ELECATlON CHANCES

----I-

. . . . .
. .
. . . . . . .
. . . . .
. .
.
. OPPOSING. . . JUNCTION - STAM. LINED. .
. '
. . .
. . ,. .
. . .
. .
. . . .
. .
- . . : : . . . . :.
.. . .
C L .
. .
. . ... :

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
' _ . . . , . . . .

. . . .

. .
. .

CONMNTIONAL BRANCH CONNECTIONS STREAM LINED BRANCH

PIPING FOR RECIPROCATING PUMPS AND COMPRESSOR5

FIG 3.1.6

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGTNEEPJNG CELL I ,

i
3.2 Compressors discharge to avoid backpresswe. To avoid
Basically there are two types of vibration due to pulsating flow the
compressors used in the chemical pmess customary piping details are modified as
industry. They are the centrifugal type and follows.
the reciprocating type. a) Use bends instead of elbows
Layout and piping considerations for the b) Use angular inlets instead of laterals
centrifugal compressors do not differ in c) Use smoothjunction instead of head on
concepts from arrangement of centrifugal opposing flow.
pumps. However pipe sizes are much d) Use streamlined end-of-header
larger because of the large volume arrangement instead of dead end header
handled. These have horizontally split (Refer Fig 3.1.6). Components having
casing. Those having bottom connections large pressure drops should be avoided.
are elevated. Concrete columns and Types of valves should also be selected
tabletop arrangements are provided with accordingly. Support the piping at
surrounding access platform. directional changes and at valves. Support
C o m p m r foundations are kept should also h c t thc pipe movements.
indepcndcnt of building foundations. A High pressure and high-speed compressors
hand operated travelling rrane located at must have pulsation dampeners to
compressor centre line is to be provided eliminate pulsation in suction -md
overhead. Lay down space also has to be diiharge piping. If pulsating flow is
planned for. Knockout + and inter transmitted to piping, structures and
stage exchangers are so arranged as to process equipment, material fatigue can
have short and simple piping. Long radius occur. Dampeners' design is highly
elbows should be used immediately before specialized and manufacturers
the compressor suction. A straight length recommendation should be followad
of 5D at the suction is normally provided. N o d e velocities at inlet and outlet are
For air compressors, strainer has to be Limited to 15mfsec. While planning the
provided at the open-air inlet. layout, provision shall be made for thesc
Lubricating oil and seat oil consoles are dampeners.
atso to be located which occupy large area
near or under the compressors. 33 Heat Exchamgem
Manufacturer's mmmendation should be The information required for the
followed in this case. Equipment and Piping layout as applied to
The reciprocating c o q m s o r s are located h a t exchangers is the same as that
on concrete foundation at grade level and required for any other equipment and has
not on a concrete tabletop. The basis of lay beepl explained edier.
down area, foundation and the m f above
are identical to that of a centrifugal 33.1 EQUIPMENT LAYOUT
machine. The position of an exchanger in a
The piping interconnecting the pulsation Chemical or Peirochenaical plant depends
dampers, intercoolers, after coolers etc. on the location of the didlation
should be short and simple to reduce the vessels/columns. The relahvt position
vibration. It is advisable to provide a should be evaluated h m the process flow
vibration dampener (expansion bellow) at diagram PFD).
the outlet of the comprtssor. Sufficient The following general concepts apply for
straight length shall be provided after the locating the heat exchangers.

Equipment and Piping Layout

P P m G ENGINEERIIVG CELL

a) Exchangers should be located adjacent tube bundle remoyd as well as

to the related equipmen$, e.g. Reboilers maintenance and cleaning.
sbould be located attachedl next to their j) The channel end shall face the h i d e
nspcctive towers, condensers should be for convenience of tube removal and the
locatcd next to reflux drums close to shell cover the rack side.
towa. The various clearances shall be as
b) Exchangers should be close to the indicated in Fig. 3.3.1.
otha p m s equipment e.g. in case of
draw off flow through an exchanger from Cleofonce
pipes ond
a vtsseVreactor bottom, the exchanger of dovl

should be close to and under the vessel or

reactor to have short pump suction lines.
Ovahead condenser shall be placed above
the reactor to havc minimum horizontal
piping- 1
c) Exchangers connecting two equipment, L ~ lboltom
e o r a n of
c ebeheen
pipe ond E " c l e o r o n c c betwen
one on shell side and the other on the tube yrode lor drain voke
mxchongar flanges
and concrete plinlh
side, located at a distance, should be AnlhuuiawrtLmm
p&d where two streams mod, d on Fig. 3.3.la
thnt side of @e yard where majority of
relatad equipment is placed.
d):Exchangers between process
equipment and the battery limit. e.g.
product coolers, should be located near the
battery limit to reduce pipe xum.
e) Stack those exchangers, which can be
grouped together to simplify piping and
save plot space.
f ) Leave space and ~iccess around the
arc4apga flanges and heads, and tube Clearances ore esscnliol around shtR-ond-lube heat
&changers lor ease af installotion and maintenance
bundle clcaning/puUing space in front and Fig. 3.3.lb
in line with the shell.
g) While locating exchangers in a row,
mange the saddle to have mom
333 PIPING ARRANGEMENT
The piping engineer is ~ n s i i l for
e
c c o d d ovaall (lined up or combined)
f-on / structure design. Furtha,
the physical arrangement of piping. Most
often the piping agineer will havc no
travelling gantry can be pmvided in such
influence in the selection of exchangers,
cast to handle a row of exchangas.
h) The heat exchanger shall be
be can only modify the node
arrangements to have aa economical
l0$.wtcd in the equipment layout with
piping. For this, the basic lcn~wlcdgcof
respect to thc bed saddle and the same is
the type of exchangers and its c o ~ o n
located closer to the head
details are required. QMA (Tubular
i) Outline the clearances and working Exchanger Manufadurers Association)
space in the fiont and around both ends of
specifies the various combinations
thc exchanger to facilitate shell cover and possible.

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGWEENNG CELL

The basic types used in the\chernical facilitate channel, shell-cover and tube
process industry are bundle removal, as well as maintenance 1
a) Fixed tube-sheet Heat Exchangers: and cleaning. 1
Exchangers with complete enclosed tubes b) Excessive piping strains on the
are mainly used iu clean services.
Cleaning can be done by flushing through
exchanger nozzles h m the actual weight
of pipe and fittings and h n forces of
r I
the tube side and shell side. C l a out thennal expansion should be avoided.
connections are provided in the piping
between the exchanger nozzle and block
c) The piping shall be arranged in such a
way that no temporary support will be
i. -~

valve. The bolted cover and channel required for removing the channel and
facilitate inspection and physical cleaning tube bundle. . 1 -

of the tubes. When used in high d) Provide easily removable spool pieces,
temperature services, an expansion joint is flanged elbows, break flanges, or short t
built into the shell to take care of the pipe runs to provide adequate clearances
differential expansion between the shell for the operation of tube removal. i
and the tube. t ) The pipelines with valves and control -
a >,

b) 'U'tube Heat Exchangers: valves should run along with access aide
In this type, the tube bundle is hairpin
shaped and can f k l y expand. The bundle
closc to the exchanger.
f ) Pipe line connecting the exchanger
! -;L

-
is removable from the shell and provision with djaccnt process equipmmt can run I C I

in layout has to be made for the same this point to p i n t ' just above required I j

type is used when fouling inside the tube headroom. J

is not expected. g) Steam lines connecting the header on [ '4.

c) Floating Head type Heat Exchangers: the rack can be arranged on tither side of I
- A

This is more expensive than the fixed the exchanger.

tube sheet and U-tube type exchangers. h) Valve handles should be made If a '%
One end of the tube bundle has stationary accessible b m the grade and from access B
tube sheet held between shell and channel way. This access way should be used for
flanges. The floating head can k l y
expand and contract with temperature
arranging manifolds, control valves
stations and instruments.
' 3-
?

changes. i) To avoid condensate drainage toward

I ' :
'i
d) Kettle type Heat Exchangers: exchanger, the prefermi connection for
For high evaporation rates, kcttle type steam Lines is to the top of the h d a . 3
heat exchangen are chosen. The shell is However, them is nothing wrong in having
S
expanded to accommodate the geqcrated a steam conxiection fhm the bottom of the
I ' 1
j
vapor. This type generally has U-tube header if steam traps iue placed at tlht low ' 1
bundle. point
The basic principles adopted in the j) The standard dimensions related to
heat exchanger piping are: exchanger piping arc given in Fig. 3.3.2. a - -.
a) The working spaces should be kept 3
- clear of any piping and accessories to

Equipment and Piping'Layout . ,

PIWING ENGHNEEWHNG CELL

Notes : Clearances listed here ore for

exchaqer having about o 2ft shell d i i t e r .

Exchoqger piping in plon shows orrongements for

heat exchangers and spoce required far access
'*
Fig. 3.3.20

Dimensions o+ . Elcrotionr for piping

600-900 , belween erchanqen
Ekvotionr for piping
to adjacent aq6prnont

Control voL Y tine up c ~ l i n g.atw

inlat nozzl*s main

Exchanger piping in elevation shows locotion of

pipeline runs in relation to main pipe rack
Fig 3.3.2b

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGWEEFtKUG CELL

The following alterations can be suggested b) Angular n o d e can save one or two
in order to achieve an optimum piping bends in the pipeline. The maximum angle
arrangement. Consent from the process h m the vertical centre line can be about
0
group is requid to ensufle tha! these will 30 .(Refer Fig. 3.3.4)
not affect the thcnnal design of the
exchanger. The cost increase in
modification can be more than ofhet by
the cost effective piping. These factors
iduence the decision on piping routing as
well.
a) Elbow nozzle pennits lowering of heat
exchanger to grade to have better
accessibility to valves and instruments.
(ReferFig.3.3.3) . r;l
Angular connection for top ..nozzles

Fig. 3.3.4a

Elbow nozzle reduces height of single eachongei

Angular connection for Bottom nozzles

C) Horizontal a ~ h m g e r A be turned
vertical for comewing floor space.
Verticd exchangm can be changed to
horizontal when installation height is
restricted.
d) Exchanger saddle can also be relocated
to adjust to a iie-up or combined
Elbow n022li reduces he~ght of stocked exchanger
Fig. 3.3.3 fou11dation design. (Refer Fig. 3.3.2) ,

e) Interchange flow media between tube

side and shell side. This can give tht
following advantages.
i) If hotter liquid is allowed to flow
through the tube, this will minimize !he
heat loss a d o r avoid use of thicker shd
insulation.
ii) If high pressure fluid flows on the tubt
side, only tubes,tube sheets, channels and

Equipment and Piping Layout

PIPING ENGINEERIMG CELL

covers have to be designed for high

pressure. This reduces shell side thickness result ip easier bundle removal and
and the cost. cleaning.
iii) Comsive liquid should pass &ugh v) Shell side volume is much more than
the tube so that only the tubes and the the tube side and hence vaporization or
channels have to be made of corrosion condensation of &ee flowing fluid is more
resistant rnattial. effective in shell.
iv) If one medium is dirty and the other is
clean, passing clean through the shell will

'jrF~-
.$=!!zL
-
Undcsiroblc
Slope

Out I
Roof
Slope

Out
o
f;

i) Conventional condensor i) Most tcanornicol piping provided

arrangement by rototinp channel 1 8 0

Vent 4.

ii) System hos loop and pocket ii) Gravity-flow suction line abtoined
by chonging direction of flow
through exchanger
. .

. . . ..
..
t-
. .
.
.
' I
I

'

,
. I
Pipe' Pies :
Rack 7 I Rack 7.

iii) Zig-zag flow p d t e r n iii) ser, piping ond better flaw pattern
1 productd by relocating nozzles.

Simplifying t h e flow p o t h improves piping design

Fig. 3.3.5

Equipment and Piping Layout 33

vi) When hazardous chemicals are water through'the operating floors with the
cooled, the water is passed through the ;anholes located at accessible levels. !
!
shell. The tube leakage will contaminate Space for utility manifolds and process
the cooling water. On the other hand, the inlet manifolds, if required, shall be
shell leakage can vent process material to provided for in the layout. I
the atmosphere.
Simplifying the flow path to improve the 3.43 Storage vessels and tanks can be in
piping design is illusbated in Fig. 3.3.5. two categories:
a) Intermediate storage, generally located
3.4 Process And Storage Vessels adjacent to process units or buildings.
The basic set of information required and
for the equipment and piping arrangement b) Feed chemical or product tanks
for the process and storage vessel does not remotely located, the area being
differ from those of other equipment. identified as tank farm with its dyking
Design methods and conceptual details and acid proofing requirements.
also differ very little. The process vessels
can be classified, based on their function, Thest tanks are conical roof
ss follows: atmospheric storage tanks to store bulk
chemicals. If the storage demands high
3.4.1 a) Surge volume to hold liquid for pressure, these are designed as horizontal
a specific length of time and bullets or spheres. The relevant statutory
b) Liquid-vapor separation, or requirements govern the layout of these
separation of immiscible liquids storage tanks. These aspects are already
with different specific gravities. covered in the 'Development of Plot Plan'.
This category include reflux drums,
surge d m , process liquid collection 3.4.4 PIPING ARRANGEMENT I '
dnuns, dnuns for adpitives, decanters, The piping associated with these
steam flash and condensate collection vcssels is simple. Economy of piping and b
*, caustics and acids holding dnuns access to valves and instruments depend I ' - _

etc. These could be horizontal or vertical. on welf-oricnted nozzles. The nozzle and . f
f
-2
support oricntation can be d u a t e d as
3.4.2 Drums are with internals, often below. (Refer Fig. 3.4.1) I- it -I -

agitators, for mixing operations. Thesc tau a) Inletloutlet nozzles .B

-
be simple reactors with agitators of Vaporfiquid inlet is placed on top at -. . "
v

required type or with cooling/h&g coils -oneen& Bottom inlet is also possible but . - . ..,.
! 3
or jacket. The material of construction can with d standpipe. Outlet is placed at the I .

v q h m carbon steel, stainless steel and bottom on the other end. The bottom inlet %
glass lined. These reactors are normally 1 '
is provided in cast of large diameter
vdcal. piping to save pipe and fittings. In some -
b-
These vessels are located in a process cases, the inlet and outlet are centrally 9
flow sequence. The area q u i d around 1 '
located. The vapor outlet in this case shall
reactors is much more compared to other be diametrically opposite to liquid inlet _%
process vessels.
The manual loading of thest, if b) Vents and Drains f . 1
required, also shall be facilitated. Hence Vent nozzles are located at the top and
these reactors will be located passing drain at the bottom of the other end.
' b
1
1 - .
A

Equipment and Piping Layout

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Tonqent line 1/5 L 3/5 L 1j 5 L Tongcnt tine

Nozzle ond manhole locations . '

. Fig. 3.4.;.

-
Vessels are sloped towards drain point. If g) Vessel saddles
the vtssel has a top manhole, the vent can Ideally, - saddlcs art located at 115 of
be located on the manhole cover. The the drum length from each tangent line.
drain valve can also be located at the low The vertical vessel can be supported on
' pomt of the outlet piping instead of vessel. skirt, on half skirt, on legs or on lugs as
c) Relief Valves/Rupture Disc the case may be. The analysis of the
Located anywhere on the top of the support attachment shall be done
1:-. dnxm, preferably at accessible location accordingly.
fmm the platform provided for valve Location of associated equipment mund
operation. the vessel also influences the nozzle
d) Level gauges orientation The liquid outlet should be
The gauge glass shall be located at the located towards the nearby pump suction.
least agitated liquid section. If the vessel is The elevation of the vessel should be such
horizontal, the location is best at the centre as to provide the required NPSH. In a
of inlA and outlet node. reactor, the manhole &odd be oriented
c) ~ueandTempccaturetap-offs. towards the access aisle to hilitate
Prasswe connection at the vapor space w u a l feed if mpmd. The utility
at the top of the vessels will make it manifold and t4c prscess inlet manifold
visible from the platform. The temperature should be placed at the operating level
connection shall be near the outlet hespective of the n o d e attached to the
pointing towards the platform. vessel.
f) Manboles The piping should run overhead as short
These can be positioned ~n the top, to and as simple as possible. Pipe rack shall
the side or at one end of the vessel. be arranged whieh will suppart electric
I)cpcading upon the vessel size, can and instrument trays along with pipelines.
be two manholes, one located on top and Piping should not transmit vibrations and
the other is located on the shell accessible should be isolated from vibrating
h m the grade. equipment with the help of apansion --
I

I
i Equipment and Piping Layout 35
t i
PIPING BENCIPJEEWBG CELL

bellows or hoses. Such equipment. are envisaged and detailed in the P & I
centrifbges, filters, dryers etc. In all these Diagrams.
cases, interaction with the manufacturers The structural arrangement for support
of equipment will always yield positive also contributes a considerable part in the
results. economy of installation. Certain
While detailing the layout and piping, it economical arrangement of support is
should always be borne in mind that this illustrated in Fig. 3.4.2 to 3.4.5, which are
should achieve the best performance as selfexplanatory.
r V a s s e l Lugs

Lug-supported drums Lug-supporled drums

(leas economical design) (More economicol design)
Fig. 3.4.2
Building steel is. not
-. ottoched to rcactor
. and dn've
I

f Less econornicol)
: kcass\

- (More econornicol)
reodor footimgs Verticol Drum
Fig. 3.4.3 . Fig. 3.4.5 . ,

b. Outdoor (kas ecmomicol) c. Outdoor (more econamical)

Fig. 3.4.4

Equipment and Piping Layout A 36 I '

 I PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL
I
1
3 5 Distillation Units
- ! 3.5.1 BASICS:
Let us analyte the equipment
layout and Piping design for a distillation
i CO)PIIM( which is more of an integqted
I
unit than the individual equipment
clkcd&t~.
I Interactions between hydraulic
requirements and piping configurations
require close attention to many fluid and
i mechanical details, in order to obtain the
most efficient and economical distillation
units.
I
- 1 ,
The PFD of a typical distillatton
slump with bottom pump, thennosyphon
rtboila, overhead condenser, nflux drum
:. I
I are as shown in Fig. 3.5.1. During the
I
normal operation, the pump transports the
1
J,
liquid in equilibrium. The arrangements
, j should be such that the NPSH
I
nquhmcnts of the pumps are satisfied.
The pump normally has dual service. The
I pump head requirements should be
1 sclcctal to suit both services. The pump
- can also have simultaneous operati-. All Tbe reboiler circuit could be either
i
I . . alternatives should be investigated wbile
selecting the reflu pump.
pumped or thennosyphon. The design of
pumped reboiler circuit is similar to that o f
) reflux 'pump system. The bottom pump
I
transports the liquid through a heat
i exchanger and return to distillation
column. The possible two phase flow in -

) ! . the pipeline after heater should be studied.

); ' Tht reboilers could be shell and
tube typq v d q d OE k-ntal tb k d e
>. \ , type. In large &imcter towers inserted
I type U tube bundles inserted directly into
1 liquid space through tower nozzles, are
also used. Helical coil$ b i d e tower also
3 r can be used for s d duties.
I

Equipment and Piping Layout

I '
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

3.5.2 EQUIPMENT LAYOUT: orientation of bracket lined up along with

The equipment components are the entire length of the tower. This will
located adjacent to each other in a process minimize the interference with piping.
plant. The arrangement of principal Most reboilers are at grade next to
elements to integrate into the overall plant tower with centerhe cievations 1.5 rn to 2
layout is as shown in Fig. 3.5.2. m above ground. This is to facilitate tubc
bundle removal, maintenance access to
valve and instruments. In this arrangement
Lines 4 t h a. md Mm.
the static head is well determined between
a d sh.r rrd a h . pp. the exchanger centdine and draw off and
L k s r - l h wlb
-6. )ow then
return nozzles on the tower. Vertical
W l l m pq roct
reboilen are supported on the distillation
column or adjacent to it at the same
Iltmal. elevation. The details of support on the
skirt or on adjacent structure am w o k d
out considering the tempmturc of
operation. Some reboilcrs have condGnsate
or liquid holding pot located after the tubc
side outlet as shown. Whcn high capacity
steam traps arc provided, the top of the
c o n d m pot should not be higher than
the bottom of the exchanger shell to avoid
flooding on the tuba with condensate
adversely affecting the performance of the
exchanger. Process conditions determine
the precise relationship between the
exchanger and the vertical condensate
control pot as shbwn in Fig. 3.5.3.
Fig. 3.5.4 shows the part P & I
Plon diagram for a .kettle type reboiler. This
Piping around the distillatiqn column.
Fig. 3.5.2 ananganent in the rtboiler is elevated-to
I' .
. O
meet the NPSH requirement of the
The tower is located adjacent to the rack centrifbgal pump. The elevated reboiler, in
so that the lines can drop directly on to the turn, raises the tower because the
rack $nd c%n turn left or right. The plan minimum liquid level in the bottom of the
view (Fig. 3.5.2) of thc tower shows the tower must be higher than the liquid level
segulmts of the tower along its in the heat exchanger. Thc elevation
circderence allotted to various utilities. difference marked as H in the Figure
Manhole faces the access roads or access provides static h e . for flow in reboiler
aisles in case of indoor layout Platform is circuit, and overcomes friction losses in
provided below each ma&ole at a distam the exchanger, down comer and rehun
of 750 - 1000 mm below the eenterline. Sies. The pumps are located below the
This will fxilitate maintenance as well as rack as per the details indicated in section
access to instruments and valves. From for pumps.
layout point of view, it is preferable to
have equal platform spacing, and

Equipment and Piping Layout 38 I

I '
PIWXNG ENGINEERING
. . . CELL .

3.5.3 PIPING LAYOUT:

The segment used to locate the
down comer from the column is a s
indicated in Fig. 3.5.2. f i e area segments
of piping going to equipwent at grade are
avail@le between 1- ad on both
sides of manholes. For economy and easy
q p o r f piping shplrlld Wp immdakly
upon leaving tbe towq nozzle, and run
parallel and as cloqc to the tower as
possible. The insulation thickness of tower
a b l l o m of r.bd10r lhould Ix el-ttd ~USI
and that of any possible flange on the
a b n lop of candmsate pol. tower as well as lint sbould be considered
while deciding thc distance. The vertical
line can be a suitable location for the
straight nm for an orificc.
The horizontal elevations aAer the
lines leave the vaticat run are govcmed by
thc elevations of thc main pipc rack. The
lines to run W e r on the rack can
approach the rack at a higher elevation
wnsidering the size of other horizontal
lines and be placed on the top tier. These
can turn 'left or right' depending on the
plant o v d l arrangement. Lies running
directly to equipment at gxade, more or
b.
C%&ol
pd rrgulatm liquid *m h "chaw-
r.lOlionskip M1I.n liiuid h I k c-le
tub..
pol
less in the direction ~f pipc rack, often
ad requhd lqvid H k e u c k . s r l u b u 0s ' m n l
have the same clevaticm as the pipe bank.
fig. 3.?.3

R h ' k roL.d lo m r l plrnp'l NPSn: n turn. tor, d d o n

k r.aoiu m n m;Mnum rsua k d in t a w .
Fig. 3.5.4

t wd:Piping Layout
~qui~rneri
PIPING ENG1[TBdEEMNGCELL

Lines from tower nozzles below On distillation column the largest

the pipe rack should approach the pipe lines are the overhead vapor lines and
bank below the rack elevation. The same reboiler down comer and .return. These
elevation is used for lines that nm for lines should have simplest and most direct
pumps located bclow rack contigurations to minimize pr&iiure loss
'
The pump suction lines should be and cost.
as short as possible i d run without any The prime consideration in all
loops or pockets. Thc steam lines to these cases is the performance to achieve
reboiler are tapped h m the top of the the process requirements integrated with
main header to avoid excessive condensate economy.
drainage to process equipment. This line
can nm at the same devation a s those lines
approaching the rack h m the tower.

******a**

Equipment and Pipiig Layout 40

 I
. .

:.
.. *
I
.
Certificate Course
f . on
r
.
PIPING ENGINEERING
. . .
May 11 1 27,2005
. i, . .

8. .
.
MECHANICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
-.,
I ...I ,

.'
:
'--II
:. 7

. .
-I.,,
1
.q
; Prof. A. S. Moharir . , , . ''

IIT Bombay.
i'
)I:.
.3.. :
-j . ,

>.:
- i'

...
? -:
Y;. , .
.'.;

. . . .
..).\*, . . .

J:-'...: . .
. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. . .. - . . . . . .

. .
. . . .. . . . . . .
j . . . .
. . . .

.:
. .
I..: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .

.. . ..
. .
... O .r g a n i d b y : . . . . . . . . .
.

..
.
.
. .

.. . . . . . .. . .
. . . . . .
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . - . . .
.
--" .

>:. !

Piping.Engineering Cell
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. .

A Computer Aided Design Centre.

1
-- Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
di Powai, Mumbai 400 076 -
.Ii
i
-
. .
-, . .
.
~

. . . . . . . .
. . . .
 PIPING ENGINEERlNG CELL

MECHANICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS

Prof. A. S. MOFL4lUR
IlT Bombay

INTRODUCTION the mechanical and civil aspects of a

The life cycle of any chemical chemical process plant. Another look is at
process involves inputs from almost all the outwardly invisible things and
disciplines of engineering and science. happenings. These include the reactions
The two main contributors are chemical that take place in a reactor, coke or fuel
engineering and mechanical engineering. that burns in a boiler, vaporization that
It is very difficult to say who should get takes place in an evaporator or boiler,
more credit for making a chemical process radiation that heats in a h a c e , pressure
plant function, a chemical engineer or a drop that takes place in a pipe,
mechanical engineer. It depends on which condensation that takes place in a steam
side of the great divide'you belong to. But header, crystallization that takes place in a
the fact is that the success of any chemical crystallizer, etc. Traditionally, chemical
process technology is often given to a engineers confine their attention to what
chemical engineer species for his great happens h i d e the structures and other
process invention and process design. The engineers such as mechanical engineers,
mechanical engineer who converts his civil engineers worry about what
dream process or process dream into happens to the structures.
reality is often forgotten if the process is Most of the operations listed above
successful. Any mishap, however, brings occur at temperatures and pressures, which
him into focus and the enquiry into such are different h m normal atmospheric
unfortunate episodes unequivocally conditions. These operations are often
blames him for it. After all, what fails in a hazardous and do put the
commercial scale plant and causes a shut surro~ndir;~s at risk. The job of the
down or even accident in a process plant is mechanical and civil structures is to
a small or big mechanical component of confine these risky operations within
the plant. Chemical reaction does not fail vessels and pipes, act as boundaries
to occur nor does the vapor liquid between these rislq but necessary
equilibrium alter its come. The partisan operations and the outer world. While
treatment the two contributor species get is protecting the outer world fiom risk, these
all too noticeable but mavoidable. structures suffer stresses and strains
Oae can look at any chemical themselves. They have their own
process plant in two ways. One look, the limitations dictated by their material of
. outwardly look, is at the structures such as construction, method of design and
vessels (reactors, boilers, columns, tanks, construction/fabricat-ion, schedule of
etc.), pipes, pipe components (valves, maintenance and their physical age. Any
elbows, expanders, reducers, etc.), flaw or shortcoming in any of these
machines (pumps, compressors, agitators, aspects woald mean that these structures
turbines, etc.), supports (pipe supports, would be unable to do their protector's
hangars, buildings, platforms, pipe racks role perfectly and mishaps would
etc.), and facilities (weigh bridge, safety occur.
shower, etc.). What catches the eye here is
,

Mechanical Design Fundamental 1

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Mechanical engineering and civil b. What is the critical combination of

engineering designers have to make sure stresses and strains at which failure
that the structures would guarantee would occur.
reasonable safety for a reasonable period
of time and not fail in spite of continuous The answer to the first (a) lie in the broad
or intermittent harsh conditions faced by domain of applied mechanics and to the
their designed structures. second (b) in the domain of physics of
Ln this paper, we will focus on the solid. The minimum essentials fkom these
important aspects of safe mechanical areas required to appreciate various design
design of process plant structures, proceduxes are covered here in brief.
especially equipment and piping.
WHAT IS A FAILURE?
INFORMATION NECESSARY FOR
MECHANICAL DESIGN Failure. of a structural part can
occur by
Mechanical design of equipment . excessive elastic deforination,
and auxiliaries, which together comprise a . excessive non-elastic deformation,
process plant, follows the process design or
stage. At this stage, a PFD (Process Flow . fiactue
Diagram) is available. For each major
equipment, information such as its Mechanical design of any structure or its
capacity, operating temperature and component must guard against 'excessive'
pressure, chemical composition of its deformation under extreme conditions that
contents during operation etc. are the structure may face during its operation
available. Similarly for every pipe cycle. The extreme conditions may occur
connection between vessels or machinery during normal operation, start up or testing
(pumps etc.), the flow rate, temperature, etc.
pressure and composition are known. A . Moderate deformation (elastic .or
mechanical engineer has now to take non-elastic) may be beneficial in that -they
important design decisions, which would can reshape the structure reversibly or
ensure that his design of equipment and irreversibly so as to redistribute the
associated piping would not fail. stresses in a structural part and prevent
Failure of a structural part is said to
their rise anywhere in the structure .to
occur when stresses, strains or a certain levels at which failure, can nu.
function of stresses andlor strains in the Moderate d&o&ations' can thus give
structure reach a crifical point. Any design-desirable
-- flexibility to any system.
has to guard against this perceived failure. While deformation may be
* beneficial in most cases, in some cases, it
The designer must h o w two things at this may lead to change in the shape o f the
stage. body that causes an increase in the stresses
for the same applied load. This increase in
a. How the stresses and strains in his sttesses may increase the deformation
envisaged structure can be calculated further, which leads to further increase in
fiom applied load, and stresses and 'so on. This may continue till
fracture or rupture takes place. Elastic
buckling or plastic unhindered extension

1'
Mechanical Design Fundamental 2 -
BHPHNC ENGINEERING CELL

of a rod or wire during the course of which involved here and are briefly discussed to
its cross-section diminishes and the prepare the background for design.
stresses for an applied load increase is the Most materials of construction
simplest example. Specimen tests for used in the process industry are metallic in
determination of material properties such nature. Pure metals or alloys of v 'ous
as modulus of elasticity, ultimate tensile compositions are used for given s g c e .
stress or strength, fatipe behavior under While the first choice is dictated by the
cyclic load etc. tests the material behavior chemistry between the MoC and the
till such ultimate failure occurs. Some of process fluid, the ultimate choice from
these properties are crucial design inputs. among various options, which satisfy
chemistry considerations, is on the physics
SPECIMEN TEST AND IMPORTANT of the MoC. The important properties used
MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR in design are temperature dependent and
DESIGN are experimentally determined using a
specimen test. The results of such tests in
Mechanical properties of any terns of properties of various Materials of
material of construction are dependent on Construction at different temperatures are
their chemical composition as well as then compiled as material standards. Each
method of manufacture. The choice of country has .its own standards institution
material of construction (MoC) for a given and may also follow several international
service (fluid to be handled, pressure, standards.
temperature etc.) depends on both the A schematic of a typical specimen
chemistry and physics of the MoC. test apparatus is as shown in Fig. 1.
The chemistry decides the
material's interaction with the fluid that it
is expected to handle. A suitable material
which would not be chemically reactive
with the fluid and hence will not be
corroded itself andfor contaminate the
contents with *corrosionproducts, which is
hard enough to withstand the erosive,
abrasive action of the fluidlsolid that is
being handled, etc. is important to choose.
Choice of material of construction from
this point of view requires expertise and
know led^^ -of metallurgy and chemistry. Fig. 1: Typical Specimen Test Apparatus
Broad guidelines for choice of MoC have Aspecimenpieceofah4cCisWfiun~
emerged. These are, however, outside the the jaws of the test machine and can be subjected
scope of the present topic. to t d e bad by pulling , h ejaws apatt with a
Another important aspect is that known fbrce or a cornhive load by
the material sb chosen be adequately ~themcloserwi~laYlwnfiRce.?be
strong so that any structure, which is made spimen can also be subjected to a cycle of
out of it, can withstand process conditions tmsileloadarad~eloadwithkmwn
for reasonable amount of time. Some basic ampIib.de and kcpmq. Mated Material can
concepts &om strength of material are be stdied under sllch applied loads arxl its
plqX&*ed

Mechanical Design Fundamental

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL 4

The two lmportarrt parameqers which situation arises when the specimen does
qum!@the behavior of a specimen are the strain not return to its original dimension. even
a n d t k ~ F o r t e n s i l e ~ i h e ~ i s when ~ l y the load is withdrawn. This is also
h e d o of inaease in length of the specimen the load level (or stress level) at which the
l m d e r ~ ~ l o a d t o h o r i @ l a g t h stress strain curve begins to deviate fiom
ofthe ~ k h e t h e l o a d i s a p p l i e d F o r the elastic straight-line behavior as shown
mmp&e load, it in simhiy the ratio of in Fig. 2. We say that the metal is
decrease in length to the original lengthunda undergoing plastic deformation in addition
sustained load Strain is thus an observable and to elastic deformation. When the load is
measurable quantity as the artensian or withdrawn, elastic deformation is
m ~ o of nthe specimen can. be c l k d y recovered but the plastic deformation
mea&red strain is also a dimensionlesscpntity- stays.
Stressisde~astheapplidloxlper Most metals exhibit an erratic and
unit d m of the qmimenUnlike strain,it uncertain stress-strain pattern as the load
is dimensional The common wits fix shs are increases fiuther. The circled region in
psi @ ' d scpm inch), kPa, MPa, kg per Fig. 2 shows this. The highest stress that
&an.etc. d q d i n g on the system of units the metal can withstand under sustained
used fbrfaceand lineard i m 6 load without continuing to elongate under
When tbere is rn k d , there are m same load is called the upper y&ld point.
skses and no drain When a snail tensile load is There is also a cluster of lower stress
applied, the strain can be measured and dms values at which there is accelerated strain.
derived. If h e load is ranowl, h specimen The lowest stress values among these are
returns to its original shape. That is rhere is no called a lower yield point (Fig. 2).
residual orpamanentstxaininthe specimen If the specimen test is carried out
s i t d o n &ues up to a cabinlevel of stress. A with different specimen cut out fiom, say,
stxsdmb curve in his region is also a shai&t the same piece of rod, each may show
Line(Fig 2),ie.~kts~is~rtionaltostrain different location of upper yield point. All
such specimen of same MoC would,
! however, exhibit same lower yield point.
Upper Yeld Points
The upper yield point depends upon the
chemistry of the MoC but also upon the
way the molten metal was frozen in a rod
or plate mill at manufacturing stage.
Stress During this sudden quenching of ,molten
L o w r Yeld Points
metal, crystals and crystal aggregates get
interlocked in awkward nosition and they
get to readjust themselves only during
stress tests and when plastic deformation
Slrain begins beyond the elastic deformation
range. This relaxation is reflected in the
Fig. 2: Typical Stress Strain Curve location of upper yield point. As d i f f m t
portions of the same rod or plate would
Most metals and alloys exhibit this have cooled down and frozen differently
behavior. This region of the curve is called under cold shower during m a n u f d g ,
the elastic region, as the MoC's behavior location of upper yield point cannot be
is elastic like a rubber band. As the tensile said to be a reliable property of MoC but is
load during the test is increased further, a

I
Mechanical Design Fundamental 4
7
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

obliterated by the manufacturing process than compiling the curves, speczc

as well. The lower yield point is however a parameters are derived &om the curve and
material property and depends on temperature dependent properties of the
chemistry. The lower yield point is what is MoC are reported in material standards.
used as a reliable yield stress value. Some of these important properties are as
Beyond the yield point, the follows.
specimen would continue to deform under
the same applied load. The strain thus Modulus of Elasticity:
increases. As it happens, the specimen Also called Young's modulus, it is
cross-section decreases, same load would simply the slope of the straight line
then mean higher stresses causing higher representing the elastic line in the stress
strains etc., as discussed earlier. Plastic strain curve. It has the units of stress (as
instability is said to have skt in. strain is dimensionless). It is an important
Similar tests are cvried out at property and is often used to convert
different temperatures. As temperature of measured strain in a structural element to
test increases, specimen of same material corresponding stress value if the structural
would elongate more for same load as element were to produce that much
compared to a specimen tested at lower deformation while still in elastic region.
temperature. It would also yield at lower For example, consider Fig. 4.
stress value. The material thus becomes
softer, so to say, as it is subjected to higher
and higher temperatures. This sets the
upper limit on the temperature for any
engineering material of construction. The
stress strain curves at different
temperatures for same MoC would look
qualitatively as shown in Fig. 3.

Strain .

Fig. 4: Code Stresses

. . - Presm&. that a load has.
. . . .
a: ',str& : .
. 'an elbment
. . . .

corr&ondins to point A on the$train @-:

. . - stress wou@ be,
ordinate. The. .actual . .
on
. .

comespanding to point B the.stress cd-

ordinate. However,. often in calculation,
he.&ess: would be h q ~ r t e,= d atpbint
on the stress co-ordinate. Point' C is the
Fig. 3: Stress Strain C w e s at Different stress corresponding to the intersection of
Temperatures elastic line with the ver'.ical line
corresponding to the strain value at point
Stress-strain curves are different for A.
different materials and at different This method of reporting stresses
temperatures for the same material. Rather often causes confusion. For example, how

Mechanical Design Fundamental 5

PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL

can one have a stress value (corresponding applicable for the design temperature
to point C in Fig. 4), which is larger than should be obtained from the codes. Most
the yield stress? The structural element often, allowable stress value applicable at
should have disintegrated much before design temperature (also called design
reaching that level 'of stress. The conbion stress) is directly available from the
can b e avoided if one remembers that tJlis standards. If not, other available material
is only a convention followed while doing properties and recommended safety factors
stress calculations and gives, in a way, an should be used to arrive at allowable stress
hypothetical stress value. One must value. For example, if yield stress or 0.2%
remember that stresses, unlike strains, can proof stress value is available at design
neither be observed nor measured. They temperature, the same should be divided
are simply derived quantities. Such back by a safety factor of 1.5 to get
calculated stress values are often called allowable stress, if yield stress is not
'code stresses'. as they are calculated using available at design temperature but is
strain value and the modulus of elasticity available at room temperature, the same
reported in codes. '. should be divided by a safety factor of 3.0
to get allowable stress. If stress value for
Yield Stress & Ultimate Tensile rupture due to static fatigue or creep
Strength: failure is available at design temperature, a
UTS or Ultimate Tensile Strength safety factor of 1.5 may be used to get
or Ultimate Tensile Stress is that value of allowable stress. These safety factors are
stress beyond which plastic instability sets recommended for carbon steel and low
in as discussed earlier. Obviously, design alloy steels.
should be such that this level of stresses is Choice of design temperature is
not reached during the life of any crucial to get the allowable stress.
structural element. The lower Yield Point Knowledge of the process is very
discussed earlier is also called Yield important here. The howledge should be
Stress. not only about the normal operation, but
also about start up procedures. How the
Allowable Stress: structure part attains that temperature is
Yield Stress is used to decide the also important. Some of the commonly
allowable stress for any MoC at any used guidelines are as follows. For parts of
temperature by incorporating a suitable a structure, which are not heated directly
safety factor. Allowable stress is often but attain temperature because they are in
defined as the UTS divided by a safety contact with* the stored or contained
factor. The safety factor is obviously material, highest expected temperature of-
greater that 1. Designs which ensure that the stored material should be the design
the stress value anywhere in the structure temperature. For structilfal parts, which
is less than this allowable stress are are heated (say by steam, thermic fluid
considered safe designs as they do not etc.), highest expected temperature of the
allow the structural element to come heating media or highest expected body
anywhere close to the point where plastic part temperature plus 10C should be the
instability leading to disruption or design temperature. Here, 10C is the
disintegration of the element would set in. safety margin. For fired vessels, parts
Allowable stress decreases with which are shielded (say by r e h t o r y
temperature and an appropriate value lining), safety margin is 20C and for

Mechanical Design Fundamental 6

PIPING ENGINEEMNG CELL

unshielded parts, the safety margin is

50C. These are only guidelines. What is
the highest expected temperature due to
unexpected and unintended happenings
(such as coolant flow interruption due to
Stess
control valve closing shut etc.) is for the
designer to visualize. What should be the
safety margin would depend upon the
severity of operation.
E Stain
Proof Stress:
Also called 0.2% proof stress, It is
the stress for 0.2 % strain. In simpler Fig.6: Increase in Proof Stress d ~ toe Cold
terms, it is the stress value for strain value ' Work
of 0.002 on the stress strai;! curve. Two
variations of the definition are also in use. Consider a stress strain curve as shown in
In one it is defined as code stress for 0.2% Fig. 6. Let a fiesh specimen be subjected
strain. In another, it is the stress value to gradually increasing tensile loads. A
obtained from the intersection with the 0.2% proof stress can be marked on curve
actual stress strain curvc of a line drawn as the stress value corresponding to point
parallel to the elastic line from the point C on the curve. Let the load be increased
representing 0.2% strain on the strain beyond this point up to p i q t D on the
co-ordinate. See Fig. 5 for explanation of curve. The specimen has surely passed the
these various definitions. The last elastic range and crossed over to plastic
definition has been adopted by several deformation. On withdrawal of the load,
international codes. the specimen would return back to point E
with a residual permanent strain as shown.
Tensile load test can now be conducted on
this specimen, which has seen 'plastic
deformation or 'cold work' previously.
The specimen would now follow a stress
strain curve with strain zero at point E.
Along this stress strain curve (EGF),0.2 %
proof stress is. corresponding to point G
and is higher than the proof stress for the
fiesh specimen. The material seems to
have h&dened %vith its experience of stress
earlier. Most materials show this marginal
increase in their proof stress due to cold
work.
An important point about the proof stress
is that it can be altered by preceding FATIGUE BEHAVIOR
plastic defomlation or 'cold work'. It can
be explained with the help of Fig. 6. . The above discussed behavior of
materials was under sustained loads. The
final failure under sustained load due to
plastic instability was because the load

Mechanical Design Fundamental 7

 PIPITNG ENGINEERING CELL

carrying cross-section (cross-section of the The material seems to count only the total
specimen) diminished to compensate for time for which it was subjected to the load.
elongation (as volume c ' the metal in the
specimen remains the same), which led to Cyclic Fatigue:
higher stresses causing further elongation Here a specimen fails under a load
etc. Such failures are termed catastrophic cycle, which it has withstood for a
failures. These failures occur almost considerable number of times. The total
suddenly as soon as the load crosses a number of cycles for which the load was
threshold (ultimate tensile strength). These applied is important here. Whethex the
failures take place on the first occurrence cycle was frequent or infrequent io not
o f loads in excess of yield stress. Their is important. For example, if a material
another kind of failure, which is not undergoes cyclic fatigue failure under a
catastrophic in nature but occurs because load cycle of amplitude say X in say 1000
o f the damage done to the grain structure cycles, it would do so irrespective of
o f the specimen due to prolonged whether
application of sustained load and/or
tensile-compressive load cycles. The 1) the cyclic load was applied once every
history of applied load plays an important day for 1000 days, or
role here and the failure is said to have 2) the cyclic load was applied twice every
resulted due to Fatigue. day for 500 days, or
3) the cyclic load was applied with cycle
There are two kinds of fatigues: time of 1 minute and for 1OW minutes
Static Fatigue and Cyclic Fatigue. etc.

Static fatigue: Cyclic fatigue is often expressed as

Here a specimen fails under a number of cycles to failure for a cextain
sustained load, which it has withstood for amplitude of load cycle and certain
a considerable length of time. The total sustained load. For example, a specimen
time for which the load was applied is may be subject& to a tensile load
important here. Whether it was increasing fiom zero to X, then the load
applied continuously or in installments is gradually withdrawn till it is zero, then
not important. For example, if a material compressive load applied gradually till it
undergoes static fatigue failure under a is X and then it is withdrawn till the load
sustained load of say X in say 1000 hours, is again zero. This comprises a cycle and it
- it would do so irrespective of whether is then repezted again and again. With
each cycle, the grains in the-material get
1) the load was applied continuausly for displaced relative to each other a d get
1000 hours, or more and more interlocked. With each
2) the load was applied for 10 hours and cycle, the material loses its ductility in
then withdrawn for 14 hours each day small ipcrements. A time comes when the
for 100 days, or grains are so badly interlocked that they
3) the load was applied for 5 hours and cannot allow deformation to withstand
then withdrawn for 19 hours each day load and a small crack develops. This
for 200 days, etc. . crack grows with Fxther cycles a d failure
occurs.

Mechanical Design Fundamental

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Actual fatigue failure of any failure apart from temperature and

structural element may be a result of a chemistry and physics of solids.
combination of both these fatigue failure A typical sequence of stress values
modes. at failure for solid rods and two most
For example, the above cycles important shapes in process industry,
were applied with mean load as zero (the namely, sphere and cylinder is rod >
load varied between X and -X). It can also sphere > cylinder. This is taken care of by
be applied with non-zero mean. For the design formulae for various shapes in
example we may apply a load of Y, then some way as will be seen later.
increase it to Y+X, bring it down to Y, For application at sub-ambient
lower it fiuther by X to Y-X, increase it to temperatures, more than the above
Y, then to Y+X etc. The material in such properties, brittleness, hardness etc.
cases would faii due to static fatigue as become important. These are also
well as cyclic fatigue and the cycles to quantified and reported by the standards
failure would be less as compared to institutes. Their discussion is outside the
earlier case. scope of this paper.
I-.- Occurrence of static fatigue failure
.
. . I As pointed out earlier, calculation
when the material is under prolonged of stresses from applied load is simple for
sustained load coupled with high simple shapes such as uniform cross-
temperature is also called creep failure. section solid rods. For more
Major international stadards important shapes such as hollow sphere or
institutions study materials fiom all such cylinder, the load is often in terms of
angles and compile data fiom these exerted by the fluid contained in
extemive/expensive experimedts. Most of the vessel and this has to be related to
this data is for solid specirrien. These induced stresses in the vessel walls. This is
indicators of material behavior obtained the area of applied mechanics and is the
h m studies on solid specimen are often subject matter of the next few sections.
used to design failsafe vessels such as
cylinders and spheres. But these are RELATION OF STRESS TO
hollow structures. What is important to APPLIED LOAD
note is that failure. may cccur in such
shapes at lower stress values than Process vessels involve several
applicable for solids of same MoC. For regular shapes. For example, a reactor may
example, pressure inside a sealed cylinder have a cylindrical body, an elliptical
can be used as a way of applying load. closure at the top and a conical bottom. A
Pressure, cylinder dimension and wall riser in a FCCU (Fluid Catalytic Cracking
thickness can be used to calculate stresses Unit) may have a lGger diameter
in the metal walls. Pressure can be cylindrical body at the top connected to a
gradually increased till the cylinder bursts. smaller diameter cylindrical body at the
The bursting pressure may be converted to bottom with a h t u m of appropriate cone
stresses in walls at that pressure. These joining them and a dished (torispherical)
stress values at failure have been found to closure at top and hemispherical closure at
be lower than the yield stresses for soiid the bottom etc. Pipes transporting process
specimen of same material at same s h e a m fiom one vessel to another are
temperature. Geometry thus plays a role in cylindrical entities. More commonly
encountered geometrical shapes in a

Mechanical Design Fundamental

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

process plant are thus: sphere or coinciding with its minor axis would
hemisphere, cylinder, cone or a fnrstum of generate an ellipsoidal closure shape and
a cone, ellipsoid and torus. Design of such so on. These shapes of revolution are
body shapes implies decision regarding shown in Fig. 7.
their wall thickness for given inner or
outer overall dimensions which will ensure
that under the worst pressure and
temperature conditions, these shapes do
not develop stresses which would cross the
allowable stress limits. For each shape, the
codes give simple calculation formulae
which are often used without much
thought to the roots of such formulae.
These formulae are rooted in applied
mechanics, safety considerations,
fabrication considerations etc. It is
proposed to offer here a general applied
mechanics approach to the development of
relation between stress and applied load, Fig. 7: Shapes of Revolution . '

basic - formulae for simple shapes to

calculate safe thickness for given senrice If the line that is revolving his a small
and then compare such design fonnulae to thickness similar to the thickness of the
the code procedures for design. This wall of such shapes, it would ge~leratea
would throw light on how rigorous theory practical xessel shape of interest with
can lead through practical considerations thickness t. Since the shapes of interest are
to simple practically applicable design all shapes of revolution, it would be
procedures. sufficient if one could establish a way of .
relating stresses in the wall of an arbitrary
MEMBRANE THEORY OF shaped vessel generated through
PRESSURE VESSELS revolution of an arbitrary line around an
axis of rotation as shown in Fig. 8. We
All above shapes have something in apply concepts &om applied mechanics to
common. These are all shapes of such a shape subjected h m inside to a net
revolution. For example, if a semicircular fluid pressure P over &d above the
- arc revolves through 3600 a r o ~ dan axis pressure exerted on the outside qf the
coincident with its diameter, it generates a vessel.
'
sphere. A quarter of a circle revolving Let us imagine the vessel under
similarly would-generate an hemisphere. A consideration as comprised of several tiles
. stmi&ht line revolving around an axis glued together as shown in Fig. 8.
parallel to it generates a cylinder, a
stmight line revolving around an axis of
rotation at an angle with it would generate
a cone or its frustum, a circle revolving
around an axis not passing through its
centre would generate a torus, a quarter of
an ellipse revolving around an axis

Mechanical Design Fundamental

 PIPING ENGINEERT.NG CELL

The tile is blown up in Fig. 9 with

its lateral dimensions as ds, (AB or CD)
I
- i and ds, (AD or BC). This tile is being
pushed out by the net internal pressure
II acting on it. Fluid pressure always acts
normal to any surface and therefore the net
P force acting on the tile is a product of the
pressure and the area of the tile. If the tile
i was not glued to its neighboring tiles, it
I should come out of the vessel wall. It does
I
I
I
not because it holds on to other tiles and
' I Lattitud e s they hold on to it with appropriate force.
----- These holding forces would have
I Longitudes components in the direction of the force
-- 1 , Fig* 8: A r b i E v Shapeof Revolution due to pressure and these components
L together exactly nullify the outward push
This mesh
, I

- I is generated due to pressure. These forces act over the

I
! uring the longibdes and latitudes of the entire wall thickness along 6,(A3 or CD)
shape just as we define the longitudes and and ds, (AD or Since ha wall
JL I latitudes of The Earth. The position of the
..
y
I revolving line at several stages of thickness has been assumed to be small,
the forces can be assumed to be evenly
revolution are called longitudes. The loci
distributed over the thickness. The force
1 II of different points on the revolving line as
the line completes 3600 of revolution are divided by the load bearing cross-section
called latitudes as shown in Fig. 8. Also gives the stresses. For example the force,
1 which is holding the edge AB with the
[ ,'shown in Fig. 8 is the thickness of the wall
1- I of such a vessel which is assumed to be neighboring tile, is acting on a wall cross-
section, which is equal to ds,t where t is
r I1
uniform everywhere. We also assume that
wall thickness is very small compared to the thi~knessof the wall. These strases
) ' the vessel dimension. such thin walls are are called induced stresses as these are
generated because there is a force acting
called membranes. The theory to be
1; !I :
developed here is called on the tile .due to internal pressure. If the
! membrane theory. pressure vanishes, these stresses also
)3 would vanish. The stresses induced in a
i We consider a tile ~ C out D of direction normal to edges AB and CD are
1: i denoted as 0, and those along edges AD
the whole vessel. It is infinitesimally small - --
I.
1
,i in dimension if we choose longitudes,
which are separated by a S'Uall dismce,
and BC as 0 , . view of the small
dimmion of the tile, the stresses along
and also latitudes, which are very close to dgesare m m l y in
each o h - In that case, even though the map&ude and act perpendicular to the
) ( tik has a curvature, AB can be said to be
i edges (see ~ i9).~ .
f equal to CD and AD equal to BC.
I

i
J

Mechanical Design Fundamental

 PIPIISG ENGINEERING CELL

, -
I
1
Fig. 9: Differential Element
circumferencial radius of curvature may be
Let us define two-dimensional parameters larger than the conventionally d e h e d i ii
. of the arbitrary vessel shape. For known radius of a circle.
vessel shape, these parameters would The radius of curvature of the arc
automatically relate to conventionajlyused AB (and also CD) is called the meridianal ! .
dimensions such as radius of a cylinder radius of curvature.
etc. Let us now obtain the components
The pressure acts normal to the of the forces due to induced stresses acting I '
.surface of the tile ABCD. In view of the on the edges of the tiles, which oppose the
small dimension of the tile, it can be pressure forces. .
approximated to act at the center of the tile
t ' I
as shown in Fig. 9. As the tile is a part of Consider Fig. 10. Concentrate on the edge I
;
the vessel which is symmetrical about the AB. Let F be its focal point and r, the "
I '

axis of rotation, this direction of the - 1

meridianal radius of curvature. Let the arc ' .
"
r . I6

pressure force if extended towards the AB subtend an angle de, at the focalpoint. .
. . . .
inside of the vessel would intersect the 4, i
- axis of rotation at,some point I- as shown in . .The
- ... induced ,.alo?g,@g= .AD% . . . : I, . . ... . . . .
BC are. obviously 'perpendicular t o the . , I .. .
Fig. 9. Also to be noted is the fact that AD
and BC are arcs of a circle. . .IiBes.
... . . . . FB respectively. Let these . . . .
FA and . . . . .. .

:s~essesbedenoted . . . . . . . . :.;..
by o,. ?hese'stresses . . . . .
. f
.
!
. 1.
If the circle of which AD (and &o . . .
:
...: .

BC) is an arc is to be drawn fiom point I, ha& a component. along the tion on
'

....1

its radius is called circumferencial radius hig. which pressure . force acts.. m s ' . . ' .

I'
,.,,

of curvature. It should be noted that it may direction bisects the angle. do, as shown. i
1
not be the same as the conventionally The~'strrn~es act along edge ck+,,The net: , . - -1
defined radius of a circle where we dr& force is thus &,.t and its component in a !- i
the circle fiom a point in the same plane as direction opposite to the direction of force i
1

that of the circle. Here, point I may not be is &,.t. sin (de,/2). As the situation on
in the plane of the circle and the I ' i
edge BD is similar, its component is also
d
3
Mechanical Design Fundamental
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

same. The net force from the stresses 2a,.~$.tsin(dB&2).

induced along edges AD axxi BC is thus

Fig. 10: Force Components

Similar to the above treatment for stresses along edges AD and BC is the treatment for
stresses along edges AB and CD as shown in Fig. 11.

. . . . . .

. . . .
. - Fig. 11.:Force Componen& . . . - - . . .
. . ... . . . . . .

-
. . .
. . , . . . . . . . . : . . . .

, Concentrate on the edge.AD..I is:

. have : a. component. along',the &ition
the point of intersection of the pressure along which pressure force acts. This
fme's &&on as &sc&d emlia and r, direction b.isoc& heangle dei as shown.
the circurnferencial radius of curvature. The stresses act along edge ds, , The net
Let the arc AD subtend an angle do, at the force is thus ds,.t and its component in a
point I. The stresses induced along edges direction opposite to the direction of force
AB and CD are obviously petpendcular to is ds,.t. sin (do#. As the situation on
the IA and ID Let these edge CD is similar, its component is also
stresses be denoted by 0,-These stresses same. The net force from the stresses

Mechanical Design ~undarnental . .

PIPIlVG ENGINEERING CELL
!
induced along edges AB and CD is thus radii of curvature are equal to the radius of
202ds,.t .sin(de42) the sphere itself, i.e. D/2. Also, the fact
Force acting on the tile ABCD is that sphere has a complete three I
~.ds,.ds;.The-tile remains in place because dimensional symmetry provides that the
the components of induced stresses exactly two stresses should be equal, i.e. a, = o,=. i
!
balance the outward thrust due to pressure. o. Therefore, for a sphere, one can write; !

The force balance is as follows.

2.a,.ds2.t.sin(deJ2) + 2.c~,.ds,.t.sin(de/2)
= P. ds, .ds,
The tile P C D had infinitesimally small
dimensions and therefore, fiom the Let the allowable stress be Sa. The
geometry (Fig. 10,ll) following identities thickness should be so chosen that a
should not exceed Sa. Or, from the above 1
hold.
ds, = r, .sin de, = r,.de, relationship,
PD PR 1 . -
ds, = r, .sin do, = r,.de2 tl- or t2- ! :i

sin(d9 ,/2) = do42 4 Sa 2 Sa - i

sin(d042) = d6J2 1
Y
I '

where R is the internal radius of the

Substituting these in the force balance and sphere. For other shapes, it would be
simplifying, one gets the following necessary to get separate relations for o, I '
important result for any arbitrary shape. and a, . This can be done by taking
.another overall force balance over a
section of'the shape as shown in Fig. 12. I '

t rl r2
his relationship between the
circumferential and- longitudinal stresses
and the geometry of any shape in ternis of
its two radii (r, and I,) with the wall
thickness and pressure can be used for any
shape.
IBe design (that is: thickness - 1) i .
. . .
-should be such that :everywhere in - the - . - . ..Fig.:1 ' 2 : F o ~~alance
. -.
.
e on a Section.
shape, the stresses-should. be within-the :
.
. .
. .
. , .:
.
.
:

.allowable, stress : limit. - . It.. -would ':be. . . . . .. .

. .. :._ :. . . - :., . .

Force 'due to pressure s t i n g 'on the

necessary for that purpose t o
'

Separate .ckdar
relationships for the two stresses 6,and < - section - downwards .must be
balanced by . the foice due the 'vertical '
..

For a simple shape such as sphere, bmponent of the longitudinal &, o,,
however, the above reIationship is acting'on the edge of this circle of,wida
sufficient in itself to find a suitable equal to the thickness t. If such a balance.
thickpess for a sphere of diameter D. is taken, one gets a relation for
The user should verify that for a longitudinal stress as
... . . .. , .
sphere, the rneridianal and circumferential . . .

Mechanical Design Fundamental

PIPING ENGImEFUNG CELL

P r, What is interesting to note is that

a, = - the design formulae in various codes are
2t similar to these theory-based formulae, but
Substituting this in the earlier derived not quite. Comparison of practical design
relation between stresses and pressure, one formulae based on internal and external
gets the relationship for circumferential dimensions and the above design formulae
stress u, as follows. is given in Table 1 for sphere and cylinder.
The codes take into account the
h fact that the shape is going to be made in
most cases by welding several pieces
together. The portion at and around
welded joint may not be as strong as the
sheet material elsewhere, unless otherwise
tested and proved by techniques such as
Reader may check that these definitions of radiography. The design should be safe
longitudinal and circumferential stresses even at the weakest portion of the vessel
also lead to same design formula for wall. This is taken care of by
sphere. For cylindrical shape (generated reducing the allowable stress value by a
by a straight line parallel to the axis .of weld joint efficiency factor, E. The effect
revolution revolving around it), the is that the calculated thickness would be
mtridianal radius of cwature is infinite that much more to take care of the
(straight line has no curvature) and weakness of the weld joint. Another factor
c ~ f e r e n c i a radius
l of curvature is the in the denominator is pressure dependent.
same as radius of the cylinder. If this is For example, if one considers the
used-in above relationships for a,and a,, formulae based on the internal dimensions,
one can clearly see that the effect of this
then one gets the well known result that
pressure dependent term is to reduce the
the longitudinal stresses in a cylinder are
denominator magnitude as higher and
half of the circumferencial (Hoope's)
higher pressures are used. This would
stresses. The design should ensure that the
mean that the code formula would
Hoope's stress is within the allowable
recommend a thickness, which is
stress limit. A formula for minimum
increasingly higher as the design pressure
thickness is then obtained as follows.
increases. This makes sense, as the
implications of failure of the vessei would
be more and more disastrous as the
.-
. . t. 2. . . or. - ' t 2'- . . operating pressure increases. This
.

. 2. Qa:. ,
.
, . . ' . ' S a .
,
-. correction in the denominator can be seen
... :
. .
to be more for cylinder than for the sphere.
where D and R are the diameter and radius This apparently has something to do with
of the cylinder respectively. For other the earlier discussed fact that for same
shapes, similar approach is to be followed. material, the spherical shape would fail at
Getting the two radii of curvature often stresses lower than the yield stresses for
reqwes more involved relationships iiom solid specimen and cylinder wotiC fail at
geometry for these and more complicated even lower stress values. This shape effect
shapes. is captured in the second term in the
denominator of the code design formulae.

w 4

5 -
Mechanical Design Fundamental 15

-=t
 PIPING ErU'GIPJEERTIYG CELL
.?>
?, Code formulae have been under equ~pment or supports etc. that this
constant scrutiny. They represent a sum movement is prevented, compressive or
total of theory, safety considerations, tensile stresses would develop in the pipe
,I
i fabrication limitations, experience with wall. Sometimes, pipe sections are forced
behavior of designs carried out during the to change their route. These additional
past, acceptance of human limitations in loads on pipe have also to be taken into
understanding physics of solids and account while designing and routing a pipe
experimentally &asuring some of the section. Mechanical design of pipes need
important material and above to consider all such kinds of loads together
all, an overriding concern that the design and still offer safe operation. This
should be done to reduce (to extremely necessitates detailed analysis and a broad
low levels) the probability of d'lsastrous area of stress analysis has evolved for
failures causing damage to heaith of study of critical pipe sections.
concerned people and environment. Even for vessels, just designing the
Caution is the watchword of mechanical body is not sufficient. There have to be
designers, and rightly so. opeAgs on the body to provide for
several things such as inlet and outlet of
CONCLUSIONS process fluids, drainage, inspection,
instrumentation, maintenance etc. These
The paper attempted to discuss the openings would weaken the portion
important basics from physics of solids surrounding them and need to be specially
and applied mechanics, which form the considered for possible reinforcement. The
foundations on which practical design vessels have to have closures, which need
procedures rest. The actual designs are to be fastened in a leak proof manner to
subjected to several otler sources of the vessel body. The design of flanges,
stresses and strains such as compressive or gasket, nuts and bolts is a part of vessel
bending loads due to own weight, design. For pipe-to-pipe connection or
compressive and tensile load due to pipe to equipmeht connection, similar
vibrations in 1 structures due to design of flange, gasket, bolts etc. is an
seismicity, wind, eccentricity etc. In integral part of system design. Any.
additions to the above discussed loads due process industry has so much of piping,
to internal pressure, which lead to tensile that some of these designs have been
stresses, a structure may encounter standardized to a large extent and one
compressive stresses due to net pressure picks fiom available standard designs
acting h m outside. This gives rise to the 'rather than designiig -Eom-scriitcti every
possibility of failure due to buckling and t h e . Even then the basics of design
needs to be studid separately. A separate should not be overlooked.
set of design formulae for such special Designing structures that we see in any
cases is provided by the codes. chemical process plant is extremely
Structures, especially pipes also involved. These designs have to bear with
encounter thermal loads. Pipes are harsh process conditions inside and a more
installed at ambient temperature. During and &re safety conscious society outside.
operaticln, they cany fluids, which are at These m also d e s i p , which do not have
super-ambient or sub-ambient the luxury of full dress rehearsals. They
temperatures. The pipes would expand or must be right in the first attempt. Always
contract. If the pipes are so fastened to kzeping the theory in mind and

mechanical Design Fundamental 16

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

scrupulously following the codes and the least forgiving technology,' the
8

!
I standards whenever they are available is Chemical Process Technology.
the only way for designers dealing with

I
Table 1: SOME DESIGN FOIUMULAE
Shape Theory Code
Based on ID Based on OD

P. Ri P. R i P. Ro
Sphere t=-
2 Sa 2SaE-0.2P 2 SaE+0.8P
-

P. Ri P. Ri P. Ro
Cylinder t=
Sa S a E - 0.6 P Sa E + 0.4 P
I

I
'i - inner dimension . .

! o -outer dimension
-- . E - weld joint efficiency
j..

Mechanical Design Fundamental

 Certificate Course
on

I -
May 11 27,2005 I

STRESS ANALYSIS

T. N. Gopinath
Consultant

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Powai, Mumbai - 400 076
 :..
, PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

STRESS ANALYSIS
T.N.GOPINATH

1.0 INTRODUCTION

i Stress Analysis is a subject, which is 1.2 Classifications of piping systems

more talked about and Iess understood. The The piping systems are mainly
objective of pipe stress analysis is to ensure classified into three main categories and
I safety against failure of the Piping System then again subcategories. The main
by verifying the structural integrity against categories are the
the loading conditions, both external and
internal, expected to occur during the 1.2-1
! lifetime of the system in the plant. This is to coldSystems.
be undertaken with the most economic
-' I
considerations. Hence the objectives of 1.2.3 Cryogenic Systems.
stress Analysis could be listed as
The hndamental reason for this
! 1.1 Objectives of stress Analysis are to classification is that hot lines and cryogenic
r ; . lines must undergo Flexibility analysis to
Ensure that the sbesses in the piping determine thermal forces, displacemen& and
t
components in the 'ystern are within stresses. These systems are further divided
P- I: the allowable limits. into. .
1.1.2 Solve dynamic problems developed i) Small bore lines
) !
I due to mechanical vibration, acoustic
' vibration, fluid hammer, pulsation, ii) Large (Big) bore lines.
relief valves etc.
j As a general practice those pipe lines
1.1.3 Solve the problems associated due to with nominal diameters 40mm (1 YZ") NB
) higher or lower operating and under are classified as small and 50mm
I temperature such as (2") NB and above as large. Further, piping
) i systems could be classified based on the
'- I
- i }
a) Displacement Stress range
b) Nozzle loading on the connected
regulatory codes under which the system is
designed. Certain codes require more
). I equipment stringent analysis than others.

I c) Pipe displacements 1.3 Hence the steps involved in the

- stress analysis can be listed as.
J d j Loads and moments on the
, supporting structures 1.3.1. Identify the potential loads that the
1; piping system would encounter
When piping is connected to during the life of the plant.
), strain sensitive equipment, the
flexibility required to satisfy the 1.3.2. Relate each of these loads to the
) acceptable limits of nozzle loading stresses and strains developed.
On the connected equipment ('b'
1.3.3. Get the cumulative effect of the
above) overrides all other potential loads in the system.
) considerations.
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1 . 3 . . Decide the allowable limits, the ii) Can readily be judged adequate by
system can withstand without comparison with previously analyzed
failure. systems.
1.3.5. After the system is designed, to iii) Satisfy equation specified in clause
ensure that the stresses are within 119.7.1(A3)/ 3 19.4.1 (c)
the safe limits. 1.5.2 Analyzing the layout by an
1.4 Types of loads approximate method.
All the American code for Pressure Approximate method shall be
Piping classify the loads mainly into three applied only if they are used for the range of
types. configuration for which adequate accuracy
has been demonstrated.
1.4.1. Sustained Loads: Those due to .5.3 Carrying cut a
forces present during normal
analysis.
operation
i) Analytical , . .
1.4.2. Occasional Loads: Those present
during rare intervals of operations ii) Model test,
1.4.3. Displacemefit Loads: Those due to iii) Chart method
displacement of pipe
These are dealt with in detail in the
chapter Pipe Under stress. Hence the 2.0 CODE COMPLIANCE
content of this chapter is limited to the Let us consider those aspects in the
details of analysis of piping system under code, which are mandatory requirements for
the sustained and diGlacement loads. This the expansion and flexibility of metallic
analysis is most commonly called as the piping. The Piping Specification nominates
Flexibility Analysis. Further those the code to be used for various aspects in the
conditions stipulated in,the regulatory code Piping System. Let us consider those, which
ASME B 3 1.1 and ASME B 3 1.3 only are are of importance to the Piping Engineer to
considered hereafter. carry out the flexibility analysis. Every such
code will contain recommendations and
1.5 Conditions of Acceptability of mandatory requirements on the followhg
Piping System

The 'king En@eer has the : . . ;. i).

following. choices to .establish that the, . . . .
required flexibility has been. . provided i n the .- :
_ aspects.

.. -. ' , -
.. ...~Minim.wrunrunflexibility
menu for thmdal ~xpansio.n'.
. . ,
nqw-. .. .. ..: . ..
. . .
. ;.
. .
. .
piping .layout.
. . . . . . . . . . . .
'. . . . .
. ..: . ii)
. .
~llowab~e.stresse~for
.
.,
.. .
various - -
.. . . .
. .
:
- - .. p. i p i i g m a t e r i a l s ' .. . ,
' .
,
. .- : .

1.5.1 Asper.clause.119..7.1/319.4.~ofthe'~ . . . .

code ASME B 3 1 . 1 ~31.3, no formal iii) Reinforcement requirements of . .

'

analysis is required in systems,which branch connections

i> Are duplicates of : successfully iv) Support criteria
operating installations or
It is the responsibility of the Piping Engineer
replacements.
to demonstrate the compliance with these

Stress Analysis
 PIPIKG ENGINEERING CELL
,
requirements and achieve the most i) Highly stressed small pipe run in
economical, safe and practical layout. series with large or relatively stiff
pipe runs. !
I Let us consider each of the above in turn
to see how they are dealt with by a Piping ii) Local reduction in size or wall
Engineer. thickness.
i Line configuration in a system of
iii)
uniform size in which the expansion
I
2.1 Installed And Operating or contraction must be absorbed
' Temperature
largely in short offset.
Pipe is erected at ambient
temperature and that depends on the climatic Unbalance must be avoided by
i conditions. 70F (21C) is the figure design and layout of piping system. If
commonly used for calculations. The same unbalance cannot be avoided the designer
piping when in operation in a Petrochemical shall use appropriate analytical methods as
I
- Plant could achieve a temperature in excess specified in the code to assure adequate
I
o f 500C if it were in a reactor piping flexibility.
' I
I system or it could be of the order of -120C, Each mdterial its om of
if it were associated with themal expmsion. These values are given
refrigeration system. in Appendix C of the code ASME B 31.3
j. 1 2.1.1 Displacement stresses. and Appendix B of the code ASME B 31.1.
B If the pipe is of carbon steel or of low alloy
A piping system undergo steel, it will expand at the rate of 6 to 7 mm

-
b i . dh~ensionalchanges with any change in every meter length as the temperature rises
temperature. If it is constrained B o Bee ~ to 5 0 0 0 ~ . hi^ me= that fie pipe -ng
b : . expansion or contraction, it will be displaced bemeen two equipments lom apad may
I
I &om it unrestrained position causing strain well want to expand by 60 to 70 or
1 r
v d stresses. The system could behave either more it heats up. The increased length
balanced Or unbalanced under such can be accommodated only by straining the
conditions. pipe as the ends are not ftee to move. This
) ' a) Balanced System straining, if not freely allowed, induces
stresses in the pipe as well as load at the
Displacement strains are well support points. However, when the line is
j!
distributed and not excessive at any point. cooled during shutdom to ambient
Layout of the system should aim at such temperature the expansion returns to zero,
I
) condition, which is assumed in flexibility the straining is no longer required and hence
acalysis methods provided in the code. the load and stress also disappears. This caii
) , be demonstrated as below.
1 b) Unbalanced System
2.2 Magnitude Of Thermal Load
In an unbalanced system, stress
A pipe line (Fig. 2.1), held between
cannot be considered proportional to
two anchors, when heated up, tries to
strains through Out a piping
expmd its resbaints resulting in
system in which an excessive amount of
forces, moments and stresses.
strain may occur in a localized portion of the
system. Unbalance may result from

Stress Analysis 3
)
I
I
I
PlPlivG IENGINEERIh'G CELL

In the textbooks, coefficient of linear

thermal expansion is defined as the increase
in length of a specimen of unit length, if it is
Fig. 2.1 subjected to a temperature rise of 1cand is
often designated as a. If a pipe of length L
is heated to a temperature which is A?C
above its installed temperature, the increase
in length would then be

C L
.I A L = a .AT. L .... (1)
Fig. 2.2 In the codes and many reported calculations,
however, a is used as inclusive of AT (i.e.
a.AT in above equation) and is called
If the pipe is allowed to expand fieely due to coefficient of thermal expansion fiom
rise in its temperature, it would expand by installedlarnbient to operating temperature.
AL as shown in Fig. 2.2. . Thg fiee
expansion will take place when one of the The expansion is then written as
anchors is released. AL would depend upon
the pipe length (L), temperature rise AL=a.L .... (2)
(difference between the temperature under This difference in meaning of a used in
hot condition and initial cold condition and equations 1 and 2 should be taken note of. A
also the length of the pipe). AL, can be typical Table C-1 of total thermal expansion
calcuIated if the coefficient of thermal fiom ASME 3 1.3 for a specific material is as
expansion, an important physical property of follows. It can be used to get a easily for the
any material, is known. The axial force applicable difference operating and
generated in the above configuration can be installed temperature.
estimated to be the axial force required to
compress the pipe back to its original
position fiom its expanded position.
. . -f
...
Table C-1ASME ~ 3 1 . 3 , ' I ' :.
TOTAL, THERMAL.
' EXPANSION,US UNITS, FOR METALS ,%
Total Linear Thermal Expasrion Bdween 70% and Indibatcd Temperature; in. J .l 00. ft .
. .
-k
,
,
. . . . .
. . . . . .
. .
. . . . . . . . . . - . .. . . . . . .
.
...... .I..:
. . . . . .
. . .
.. . . .
i . , . - . . . . .
. . .
. .
. -
. . . ..
Material . '
. .
. - J ;

'V
Temp., 'Carbon Steei;.. Wlisknitic Stainless Siwl.., - . . . . . .
.. -
. - - Copperand . .
. .
.
. L '
OF .. .
.
.
.
. . . . . .
.... .. . . . . . .
. . . .
. . . . .
. . . . Copper Alloys'. .
. . 1 . I

25 - ,-0.44, . . . . . : -- . -- . . I

- 50 -0.14' -0.21. . . . . - --. -0.22. ' .

I
70 0 0. . . . -- -- 0 . . .
'

+?-
100 0.23 0.34 -- -- 0.34
i

__ __
.

125 0.42 ' 0.62 . 0.63 - A

. . . I

Stress Analysis
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

If the pipe is to be maintained in the original P = 18535.4 x 1.858 x 10' x 3.625 x 10"
position then there will be an axial force P to = 12,68,563 kg
compress the increase in pipe length of AL = 1269 tons !

(Fig. 2.3).
As per most of the design codes, there is no
stress in the above configuration, since no
bending moment is produced in the axial
I
t
C I run. However, the possibility of buckling
Fig. 2.3 due to the development of compressive
stresses must be considered. In no case,
The strain developed in the pipe, E, is then such a design could be accepted.
calculated as E = AL 1 L= a ~ltemative to this is the piping
system with no fixed points, allowing the
Lntemal stress developed due to this strain, pipe to expand. However, this is also not
f = EE (Hooke's Law) = E a feasible, as the equipment cannot float in
The force required to compress back is space. Equipment on wheels is one
1 P=Af=AEa possibility but seldom practiced. So every
time the plant is in operation and during
where A = Area of cross section of pipe, shutdown, the same cycle of events occurs.
In2(mrn2) The pipe starts from stress free condition
when cold, gets stressed wjth stress reaching
E = Modulus of elasticity of'material, psi maximum at operating condition and then
(KP~) the stresses get reduced to zero when
P = Compressive force on pipe, lbs CN) operation stops and system cools down.
f = Stress developed, psi (Kpa) This was an oversimplified .picture
AL = Axial compression of pipe, In (rnm) and this is not what exactly happens in
L = length of pipe, In (mm) practical situations. The piping system can
absorb large displacement without returning
exactly to previous configuration.
To evaluate the magnitude of such a Relaxation to the sustaining level of material
force, let us consider Carbon Steel pipe of will tend to establish a condition of stability
I
600 mrn outside diameter with 10 mrn in few cycles, each cycle lowering the upper
I
thickness, operating at a temperature of limit of hot stress until a state of equilibrium '

300c. is reached in which the system is completely

relaxed and capable of maintainiqg constant
level of stress. The stress at which the
material is relieved due to relaxation appears
as stress in the opposite temperature state,
Referring to Table C 1 with equal intensity but of opposite sign.
a = 3.625 x 10" rnm/mm Thus the system, which originally was stress
less, could within a few cycles accumulate
Area of the pipe stress in the cold condition and spring itself
A = Pi 14 [(600)' - (58071 without the application of external load.
= 18535.4 mm2 This phenomenon is called "Self springing".
This can be demonstrated as follows.

Stress Analysis
PIPISG ENGINEERING CELL

24000 psi

s y s t e m reloxed
s u s t a ~ n i n q level
/ ,
,/ \System self sprung

;y
II Fig. 2.4
!

Consider the piping system abc (as contraction through remaining 1" will result ,
installed) as shown in Fig. 2.4. As it is taken in a stress of 6000 psi in the opposite !
from installed condition to hot operating direction (tensile stress in this case). The I
condition, let us assume that the leg 'ab' system would now be in position ab3c as -
-

would expand by 2" and leg 'bc' by 2". shown in Fig. 2.4. The system, which was !
! .
This would happen if anchor at 'c' end of stressless at the start at cold condition, will
the pipe was movable. The pipe would then now have residual stresses under cold
f -
be in position ab'c' with the anchor c having condition and is said to cold spring. For I >
moved to c' as shown. If both the anchors example, if the pipe was cut anywhere along
(at a and c) are rigid, the pipe may still its route under this condition, it would I

expand and attain position abzc. It may then separate into two segments with violent
be compressed to bring bz back to position b. spring action.
Such free expansion is however not allowed The true magnitude of the stress , - >

and let us assume that the system absorbs either in hot or cold condition cannot be ,
this 4" expansion between anchors at a and c determined by simple calculations because '%
5
and the resultant calculated maximum stress the amount of relaxation is unknown and r --J

is 24,000 psi. Supposing the material at the cannot be judged reliably. It depends in a b
particular operating temperature can sustain complex way on the metallurgy, pipe mute, ._,
only 18,000 psi or 1/4 of this developed anchor locations an4 geometry etc. I
b*
stress, yielding will take place and the pipe However, service failures are related to
would be at its sustaining level indicated by cyclic rather than static conditions and it is %
? *

able. We would say that the pipe has therefoe permksible to assume that the -[ 1
absorbed stress of 6000 psi by yielding system will operate satis/actorily if sum of
somewhat. The stresses in the pipe at this hot a& -cold stresses is within a stress '1
stage are only 18000 psi. On cooling back to mnge, which is considered safe for an
ambient temperature the system must expected number of stress reversds. This
' # .
B
contract by 4". Contraction would relieve concept provides a logical basis to the B
the compressive stresses, which were design of a piping system because it takes r '

developed because the pipe wanted to into consideration all the stress levels to , ?
expand by 4" but was not allowed to do so which the system is subjected. The actual
f. $
completely. At % o f f s contraction, i.e., at stress intensity at a specific stage is of
a net contraction of 3", the system will academic interest only. * 1
become stressless. Completion of -
'-3
a

Stress Analysis 6
1 '
 I

! PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I
I
'
/
It could be seen that the code the pipe to crack. The cracking will start at
recognizes the fact that stresses in piping a point or points where the stress is
; I
system are not necessarily of constant maximum. This is what is meant by
1 intensity, that the expansion stress at "FatigueFailure".
elevated temperature may not be sustained
because of relaxation or creep and Average axial stress (over the pipe
consequently will drop to stress level the cross section) due to longitudinal forces
material can sustain. The phenomenon of caused by displacement strains are not
yielding in the elastic range or flow in the normally considered in the determination of
plastic stage presents a problem different displacement stress range since these
fiom that encountered in the analysis of stresses are not significant in typical piping
structure which operates at relatively low layouts. In special cases consideration of
temperatures and therefore in a state of average axial displacement stress is
steady stress. In this case, the elements are necessary. Example include buried lines
designed to meet the limiting stress or containing hot fluids, double wall pipes and
deformation within the elastic limit of the parallel lines with different operating
material. In contrast, with stresses from temperatures connected together at more
sustained loads such as internal pressure or than one point.
weight the displacement stresses can cross 2.3 Effect of Fatigue on Piping
the elastic limit with stress reversal fiom ARC Mark1 investigated the
cold to hot condition and still remain safe phenomenon of fatigue failure of piping
provided the number of stress reversals during 1940's and 1950's. He tested a
remains below the limit to exclude the number of configurations; straight pipe,
possibility of failure due to fatigue. various fittings such as elbow, miter bend,
Wle stresses resulting from welding tee, fabricated tee etc. mostly on
displacement strains diminish with time due 4" NB size by using cyclic displacements to
to yielding or creep, the algebraic difference apply alternate bending stress. Plotting the
between strains i n the extreme displacement cycles to failure for each applied
condition and as-installed condition remains displacement, he found that the results were
substantially constant during any one cycle on the expected lines and followed the shape
of operation. The difference in strain of fatigue curves.
produces a corresponding stress differential, Markyl observed that the fatigue
the diplacement stress range, which is failure occurred not in the middle of his test
used & the criteria for designing of piping spans, but in the vicinity of fittings and also
flexibility. at lower stress 1 cycle combinations than for
the straight pipes. This lead to what is called
The type of cy~;icstraining described the "Stress Intensification Factor" which
above, if repeated often enough, will cause covered under section 5.3.

Stress Analysis
PIPING ENGINEENNG CELL

iii)
Honge of imposed displacement to iv) '-

effect complete stress revenal

fig. 2.5
vii)
...
Vlll,'
Ronge of inplone displacement

+I/P
h-- I
Fig, 2.6
\I( Ronge of outplone displacement
All
distir:--q

4 il- Range
-1- 4 p of inplone displocemen:

Ronge of outplane displacemenl

Prescy
attacl
be pg5
oper9
The ?s
Range o f inplone displacement by thkj
n33
Ronge of outplone displacement
influenced
Fig. 2.8 However,
code arex{
If an initially applied displacement less yield strain . This distortion will induce They caii?
load causes the pipe to yield, it results in yield stress, opposite in sign to that below. .;
plastic deformation, producing prestress in developed during loading and equal to >.
.'
the system when it is brought back to its difference between the calculated stress ?< >',
original state by withdrawing the load. This value aud the material yield stress (EG Sy).- 2.4.1 T}..
{
prestress must be overcome by subsequent The elastic, and therefore the allowable
stress applications, resulting in lower range bas b&n extended by the value of this .
~'"7
based on<>
absolute stresses during the later load cycles. prestress.
Because of this expected system reliixation,
tensile:!s
tesL
1
the initial thermal stresses are allowed to 2.4 Allowable ~kesses
exceed the material yield stress, with the aim The American piping codes covered
that the system self springs during the first, under ASME B 31 subscribe to the failure of
few cycles and then settles down into elastic the piping system to the bas& @c UTS
cycliig. The reason for this allowable over - 'Maximum principal stress th&ry9. f i e
stress is that a repeatedly applied load which thary states that the yielding ,orc& when
initially forces the pipe into the plastic range the. magnitude of any of the three mutually
will, afier a few cycles, "shake down" and perpendicular stresses exceeds the yield
Y

be reduced to elastic action in the piping strength of the material. Temperature and
system. This theory can be understood by pressure are the significant factors : 3
considering a pipe experiencing an imposed governing the stresses created in the piping )
--
displacement which is beyond it's yield systems. There are other factors that .-
strain. When cyclic displacement is influence the stress as well. They are The yield 3
removed, the piping component, which the valuk-.
exceeded the yield point, will retain the i) Wind load proportioi 1
residual distortion equal to imposed strain ii) Seismic load removed, '-;

; j
Stress Analb
Stress Analysis
->
-
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

iii) Relief valve forces The ultimate tensile strength is the highest
iv) Fluid hammer stress which the specimen can accommodate
v) ' Settlement ! without failure.
vi) Equipment vibration The basic allowable material stress a t
vii) Weight of attachments the hot (operatingdesign) temperature (Sh)
viii) Weight of contents is defined by the code as minimum of

All these factors contribute to two As per the ASME B 31.1

distinct forms of stresses. i) 1/4oftheultimatetensilestrenRthof-
the material at operating temperature
The sustained stresses - Generated by ii) 114 of the ultimate tensile strength of
Pressure, dead weight of contents and the material at room temperature
attachments, which can be expected to iii) 5/8 of the yield strength of the
be present virtually at all time of plant material at operating temperature
operation. (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
-
The self-limiting stresses Generated stainless steels)
by thermal effects. iv) 5/8 of the geld strength of the
material at room temperahe
The allowable stresses for these two (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
influences are based on different concepts. stainless steel) and
However, the allowable stresses specified in v) 100% of the average stress for a
code are based on the material properties.
.)iinduce They can be cl~sifiedin two categories as
0:O 1% creep rate per 1000 hrs.
jto that below. As per ASME B 313
)ual to
i) 1/3 of the ultimate tensile strength of
1; stress the material at operating
+Q Sy). 2.4.1 TIME INDEPENDENT STRESSES temperature.
i &able Time independent allowable stress is ii) 1/3 of the ultimate tensile strength o f
7 of this based on either yield stress or the ultimate the material at room temperature.
- -3
tensile strength measured in a simple tensile iii) 2/3 of the yield strength of the
test. material at operating temperature
Stress
- (90% of the yield stress for austenitic
eI
5J' red stainless steel)
p u r e of U3 of the yield strength of material
~ J sthe iv)
at room temperature
)V'. The (90 % of the yield stress for
lo4 when austenitic stainless steel)
Autually
fif yield
I ,re and
L Strain
v)

vi)
100h of the average stress for a
0.0 1% creep rate at 1000 hrs
67% of the average stress for
,+to, rupture after 1,00,000 hrs
piping Fig 2.9 vii) 80% of the minimum stress for
ks that rupture after 1,00,000 hrs.
-e The yield stress is the elastic limit and that is
X the value below which the stresses are
proportional to stqain and when the load is
removed, there is no permanent distortion.

Stress Analysis
PIPIYG ENGINEERING CELL

at this high temperature is used to back

2.4.2 TIME DEPENDENT STRESSES calculate stress, the stress value will be
lower than when it is calculated using
Time dependent allowable stress is modulus of elasticity value at lower
usually related to the "creep rupture temperature (cold condition). That is,
strength" at high temperature. At calculated stress value is higher when
temperature 'above 1/3 of the me1ting point, material properties in cold condition are
most metals will exhibit creep in standard used. This provides a built in safety in
tensile test, if the load is kepi constant the design. Hence the stresses are calculated
specimen will continue to deform with time. using the cold modulus of elasticity. This is
Under constant load, the rate of creep strain a very important point to note. Actual
will decrease initially to a steady state and stresses under hot condition would be less
later will increase rapidly until it fails due to
than the calculated stresses.
creep rupture. When difference in elastic modulus
The code uses an allowable stress, within a piping system will significantly
which is the smaller of time dependent, and affect the stress distribution, the resulting
time independent allowable stress. The time displacement stress shall be computed based
dependent allowable stress is the smallest of on the actual elastic modulus and then
67% of the average stress to cause creep multiplied by the ratio of the elastic modulus
rupture in 1,00,000 hrs, 80% of the at the ambient temperature to the modulus
minimum stress to cause rupture in 1,00,000 used in the analysis. .
hrs or 100% of the stress to give 0.01% of There are other failure modes that
creep rate per hour (Ref. 2.4.1) could affect the piping system. They include
The self limiting stress in piping buckling, stress corrosion and -brittle
system are essentialiy cyclic and the initial fracture. These topics are not correctly
hot stresses, if they are of sufficient considered in the piping code. The effects of
magnitude, will decrease with time because these must be considered by the Piping
of the plastic strains and will reappear as a Engineer while selecting the materials or.
stress of reverse direction when the pipe restraining the piping system.
cools. This phenomenon forms the basic
difference between the self-limiting stresses
and the sustained stresses. 2.43 ALLOWABLE STRESS RANGE
The degree of self-springing, as The failure modes that the piping
explained earlier, will depend on the .. code addressgs are excessive plastic
'

magnitude of the initial hot stresses and the deformation or bursting; plastic htability or
temperature, so that while fie hot stresses incremental collapse due to cycling in the
will gradually decrease with time, the sum plastic range and fatigue which may be
of hot and cold stresses will stay the same. developed in a system as its temperature is
This sum is called the EXPANSION raised fiom the lowest to the highest that it
STRESS RANGE. This leads us to the will experience in service or when it is shut
selection of an ALLOWABLE down. Each of this fiilure, modes is caused
EXPANSION STRESS RANGE. by a different type of stress and loading.
Self-springing occurs only when the However 'Fatigue failure' is recognized by
system is subjected to higher temperatures. the code as the most likely mode of failure
For the expected strain (expected expansion of the component and place the limit on the
per unit length), if the modulus of elasticity maximum stress which may be developed in

Stress Analysis 10
1
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
!
a system as temperature is raised from would be subjected to, without the flow
lowest to highest that will experience in occurring in either hot or cold condition.
I service or when it is shut'down. Therefore,
This piping "Shakedown" is also S, = 1.6 Sc + 1.6 Sh = 1.6 (Sc + Sh)
known as self-springing and can be
represented as shown in the following sketch But the American design codes ASME
(Fig. 2.10). B 3 1,l and B 3 1.3 limit the stress range t o
78% of the yield stress, which gives a total
stress range of

S Al,owable = 1.6 X 0.78 (SC+ Sh)

= 1.25 (Sc + Sh) '

From this total stress range 1 Sh is reserved

for the longitudinal stresses developed due
to loading such as pressure, weight and other
sustained loading, giving the allowable
stress range for flexibility as
Fig. 2.10

The maximum stress range may be The above value does not consider the
set tq 2 times the yield stress, more excessive cyclic conditions. The code
accurately the run of hot and cold yield allows it by multiplying by a stress range
stresses, in order to ensure eventual elastic reduction factor. Accordingly, ASME
cycling within the bounds of allowable B 31.1 in clause 102.3.2(c) and ASME 31.3
stress. Incorporating a factor of safety, this in clause 302.3.5 specify the Allowable
can be represented by the following equation Expansion Stress Range as :
SE<= F (Syc + S n ) S, = f(1.25 S, + 0.25 S,)
where, SE - Expansion stress range
F - Factor of Safety where,
Syc - Yield stress at installed S, = Allowable Expansion Stress Range
temperature S, = Basic allowable - stress at minimum
SYh- Yield stress at operating
temperature . metal temperature
. . .
during the
. . .
.:> .
-. .
. ..
. - ,

. .

: displacement cycle under analysis

. . . .
. . .
For materials below the creep mges, S'i = B& allowable stresi at maximum : ,,

. . . . .
the allowable stresses are 62.5% of the yield . . . . . .

stress, so that a conservative estimate of the . .med"t&mperahlre during '. ."

.
. '. ' '

limit of the bending stress at which plastic

flow starts at an elevated temperature is 1.6' analysis
j100162.5) times the allowable stress and by [The value of S, and Sh are available in
the same reasoning, 1.6 Sc will be the stress Table A1 of the Code]
at which. flow would take place at the
minimum temperature. Hence the sum of
these stresses represents the h4AXMUM
STRESS RANGE to which., the system

Stress Analysis
PIPING ENGIXEERING CELL 1;
I

'i
Stress range reduction factor for
f =
displacement cycle conditions for the
f = 6 . 0 ~ ) ' ~ <1.0
wherey I
total number of cycles over the
expected life N = equivalent number of
displacement cycles during the expected
i
full
service life of piping system [code cautions
1 :
I' c -
The factor has a value of 1.0 for I
sirnation where total nmber of cycles is the designer that the fatigue life of materials
I
7000 or less. This represents one cycle per Operated at temperature may be
day for nearly 20 years, which is a common reduced]
I
-
design parameter. Further, if we look at When the computed stress range varies,
endurance curve for and low whether fiom thermal expansion or other
alloy steel available in the ASME Section conditions, sE is defined as the greater
Vm Division 2, Pressure Vessel Code, it computed displacement stress range. The
can be seen thatat some point in the
of 7000 cycles, the Sc + Sh limitation
intersects the fatigue curve.
The code gives the value of 'f in the
table 302.3.5 (B 31.3) and 102.3.2 (c) (I3
value of N is such cases can be calculated by
the
N=N ,+E [f N, ] for i=l ,2.......n
where,
1 $ +
*,

3 1.1) as follows: N ,= number of cycles of maximum

Stress Range Reduction Factor f computed displaceme nt stress
range, S,
Y,=S,/S.
SI=anycomputed displaceme nt stress L 1
*

I:
d
>
.

range smaller th an S, -1
N,=Number of cycles associated with + P

displaceme nt stress range Sl

2.4.4 EFFECT OF SUSTAINED LOADS

ON FATIGUE STRENGTH

If the alternating slress is plotted

against the cyde io failure, it can be seen
that the mean stress has & effect on the ' 3
endurance strength of the material. As the
mean stress increases, the maximum *, . d

This applies essentially to non-corroded permissible absolute stress (S. + S 3

piping. Corrosion can decrease the cycle increases, while the pcnnissible alternating 1 L ;b
life. Therefore, corrosion resistant material stress decreases. The relation between the - -1,
should be considered where large number of allowable alternative stress and the average
stress cycle is anticipated. stress follows the Soderberg line, which I
b
correlates fairly well with test data of ductile
f can also be calculated by the equation materials.
t .
d
.
-

1 - 3
I
I ,
Stress Analysis 12

2
1, PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

When the basic allowable stress a t

~ l l e r n ~ l i nStress
g AXIS
maximum expected metal temperature
slbaemCIO1c* ('Shf) is greater than the sum of the
longitudinal stresses due to pressure, weight
and other sustained loading ('SL') the

. TmslL
SY
difference between them may be added to
the term 0.25 Sh in the equation for SA.

In that case the allowable stress range will

Fig 2.10 be
S,= f [1.25(SC+S,)-S, ]
The equation for the Soderberg line Code ASME B31.1 covers these aspects in
is clause 102.3.2(c). The difference between
S, (Allowed) = &(for R=l) x (1-Sm/Syield) B3 1.3 and B3 1.1 is that the stress reduction
where, factor indicated in Table 302.3.5 covers upto
R=Smi,/ S, 20,00,00Qcycles during the span of the
S,=S,-Sh,/2 system, whereas Table 102.3.2 (c) in B31.1
S,=S,+S~,/2 indicates this value for 1,00,000 cycles and
over. The factors remain the same in both
During the development 'of the the cases.
ASME BPV code section III for nuclear
piping analysis, the special committee to
review the Code Stress Basis concluded that
Let a typical for
the required adjustments to a strain - calculatioD of S*
controlled fatigue data curve based on zero
mean stress occur only for the number of A pipe supplies Dowtherrn to the
-'cycles in the range 50,000 to 1,00,000 for
limpet of a reactor, which is operated on a
carbon steels and low alloy steels and are batch process with a Chour cycle every 24
insignificant to austenitic stainless steels and hours. The Dowthenn temperature is
-
Nickel - Chrome Iron dloys. Since most 3 15"C (600 "F)-and pipe material is ASTM
Of the plant piping come under this material A 106 Gr. B. Design life of plant considered
of construction and the cycles of operation 20 years-
much fewer than 50'000 oycles inthe
Allowable smss at ambient S, = 20.000 psi
lice of the plant, the effect of mean stress on
fatigue life arc negligible for piping Allowable stress atMax. metal temp.
materials with UTS below 1.00.000 psi. For S, = 17,300 psi - .- -
high strength bolting materials where UTS is 24
greater than 1,00,000 psi the mean stress can M~mberof cycles = - 365 x 20
4
have considerable effect on the fatigue
= 43,800 (total)
strength and should be considered when
performing fatigue analysis. The stress range reduction factor = 0.7
For piping vlalysis the effect of hence,
Soderberg line on fatigue allowable is S, = f ( 1.25 S, + 0.25 s , )
implemented in a conservative matter. The
= 0.7 ( 1.25 x 20,000 + 0.25 x 17,300)
code 31.1 and 31.3 covers it up in the
following manner. = 20527 psi (1443 Kg./cm 2 ,

Stress Analysis
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

3.0 LIMITING VALUES OF

TERMINAL FORCES AND 8. Fired heaters
I
- Manf. Specific.
MOMENTS
It has been indicated earlier that in 9. Flat bottom Welded Storage Tanks -
case of strain sensitive equipment, the main API650
considerations for flexibility are the forces
and moments, which a pipe imposes on the 10. For other static equipment such as
equipments to which it is connected. The Reactors, vessels and tanks
maximum permitted values of forces and interaction with the fabrication
moments will vary with the type of engineer is required to establish that
equipment. These are established by the the local stress developed due to
regulatory codes based on which equipment nozzle loadings are within the
is designed 1 manufactured. Or else, the acceptable limits. However the
manufacturers of the equipment set these values given under section 3.10 can
values to ensure safe operation of the be taken as a guide.
equipment. The following are the regulatory
codes referred by the Piping Engineer. 3.1 Centrifugal Pumps
1. -
Centrifugal pumps API 6101 The forces and moments acting on
IS0 5199 the pump flanges due to pipe loads can
cause misalignment of the pump and driver
2. Positive displacement pumps shafts, deformation and overstressing of
- API 676 pump casing or overstressing of fixing bolts
between the pump and the base plate.
3. Centrifugal compressors
- API 617 The American Petroleum Institute
Standard 610 covering "Centrifugal Pumps
4. Reciprocating compressors for General Refinery Service" is the one,
- API 618 which specifies these limits for pumps. The
code specifies the criteria for piping design
5. -
Steam turbines NEMA SM 23 as Appendix F, The allowable external
n o d e forces and moments are tabulated in
6. Air cooled heat exchangers table 2 for nozzle sizes h m 2" NB to 16"
- API 661ASO 13706 NB for pumps with casing constructed out
of steel or alloy steel. .
7. - Shell and tube heat exehangers
- Manf. Specific.

Stress Analysis 14
 - I

I PIPING ENGINEENKG CELL

I T a b l e 3.1: NOZZLE LOADING AS PER API 610

i

I
.- ,

<' .,
J I !

'9 1
r--> I'
.
t
I
,
>-
.
I6

I .
" i
,/ i'
..
I
I t ;
3 I '\,
'-)
.. !
2 .
-1 I
.'

'<
- \f

/ I
-7 .
;P ;
) -.
--' 19 . : API 610 specifies that the pump casing shouldbe designed to withrtmtddouble thefirca and moments as '

:
1
!
above. The piping configuration that produces load and moments outside the above range u a h acceptable
+ ! provided the conditions as specified in Appendix F of the above code are satified. For direction offorces and
.j ' moments see Fig.3.1 . '

_i I

-1i i
' . I I
i' :

-- J
'
.:31. . )
4
.2
'

,
. J
I
I
. .
. .

. .. .

1 . . . . . . . . ..

,$ i .. . .
1: i . .
. . .

Y
? i ji
I .
"bea
!t . (5..
1; . .

VERTICAL PUMP HORIZONTAL PUMP WITH SIDE , ,

I ! SUCTION SIOC DISCHARGE

r 1
!
-

Z .
i. . .
. .
. .
. .

) ,I Stress ~nalisis IS
t

I '.
PIPING ENGINEERlNG CELL

HORIZONTAL PUMP WITH TOP HORIZONTAL PUMP WITH EN0 .,

SUCTION TOP DISCHARGE SUCTION TOP DISCHARGE

I e
-
IS0 5199 - 2002(E) in Annex B gives the Fx = 75 D lbs Mx = 125 D ft.lbs .
allowable values of forces and moments on
the pump nozzle. The basic values given in
table B3 should be multiplied by
corresponding coefficient given in table B5 ! :
or B6. This is based on the study and tests where D is the nominal diameter of nozzle ..
>

undertaken within EUROPUMP (European in inches. :. >

Association of Pump . Manufacturers) r .* --.<$
.. ..
together with the support of piping 3.3 Ce-ntrifugalCompressors . . .,
specialists.
A p I 617 'cmtriheral. c
' & ~1 ' ' .-, ~
f6r General Refinery Service*' has been . I
3.2 Positive Displacement Pumps specifying that-'the compressors shall be
~5 ?
.5;.

designed to withstand external forces' and : . . 6-.

4 3
moments on eachnozzle at least 1.85 times : B
fie- value &lculatd in &ccordance with
.
.9
2
.
NEMA-SM23..
-
.. . . .
.: . . . .. . . . . , . . . I,..'. 3 ,

E x $ a i m c 3 b shown that thereha be nit . :

...7-9

been uniform interpretation of "1.85 times ',

..' . 1
,NEMA'.'. ,Therefore API 617 h& modified . ..' . .
I 7 .:-.

'the.:equations and attached in Appendix G , . . .

; ;,
.$
The American Petroleum Institute the. formulae for the calculation of the 1
Standard 676 specifies in clause 2.4 the . acceptable'forces and moments. 1: -
limiting values for the Rotary Positive
The forces and moments acting on
Displacement Pumps with Alloy Steel or
compmJor(s) due to the pipe and
Steel Castings at inlet and outlet nozzles as :

-P
discharge pipe connections arr:
I

NFrnR: W d R-& I ?
j
&& AW. 4 -

3
Stress Analysis 16 I'
 . .
\
PlPING ENGINEERING CELL

i I. The total resultant force and total resultant D, = Diameter (in inches) of a circular
moment imposed on the Compressor at any opening equal to the total area of inlet side
,-? connection must not exceed the following: and discharge opening upto a value of nine
(9)inches (230 rnm) in diameter. For values
beyond this use value of

927D - M cwtd3-
F' &9bpMS+_1 Dc = (18 + Equivalent Diameter) inches
3.
CQ%L> 't- 3
i I
F + 1.09 M <= 5.41 D in SI units = 460 + Equivalent Diameter in mrn.
'Ib F = Resultant force (IbsMewton) 3
' -j
M = Resultant Moment (ft.lbs/Newton
-3 meters) The components of these resultants shall
,
I
I . . not exceed
4 D = Pipe size of the connection (IPS) in
! inches/millimetersupto (8) inches in USCS
-x I
(200 mm) in diameter.
- f For sizes greate than this, use a value of D
I
--
-.
Z
I
equal to (16+IPS)/3 inches or (400+D)/3 in
mm.
1
2. The combined resultant of the forces and
i > i
moments of the inlet side and discharge
connections resolved at the centre line of
1 the discharge connection must not exceed
the followhg two conditions. where, . .
. r
.;
' n e s e resultants must not exceed Ey = Vertical component of E&
)3
F, = Horizontal components of Fc
- -J
462D,-M, at right angles to compressor shaft
), I 1 F,= in USCS
-.i
. . I

2 F, = Horizontal component of Fc
Parallel to compressor shaft
), Fc= 40.4Dc- 1.ah&in SI Units M, =, componat M, in a hoiantal :
~~~~~~~~r
. .

Fc = Combined resultanat of inlet side and pi^ parallil to s h a ~-

1)
,

discharge forces in poundsMewtons MV. - _

= Component of M, in a vertical
'
.. .
. .
, . . .
! M, = Combined resultant of inlet side and . . .

M,= Component of M, in a horizontal ' .'

discharge moments resulting from forces in
,

4 ft 1bdNewton meters
plane at right angles to the
. .

1 ! compressor shaft

1
- I
i
Stress Analysis
I
PLPlNG ENGINEERING CELL
+y Right angle to
compressor shaft
4

/
+ F*+ +x Paralklto
compressor shaft
+Mx

Fz

Fig.3.2:Components of forces and moments

on compressor connection

- DISCHARGE

PLAN
Fig. 3.3

. .
. . . . .
END VIEW . . ELEVATION " . . . . . . .
Fig. 3.4' . Fig.3.5 . . .

sucss Analysis
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

+ Z +X
fig. 3.6

Fig. 3.7

3. These values of allowable forces and turbines due to the stean inlet, extraction,
moments pertain to the compressor stmcture and exhaust connections should be evaluated
only. They do not pertain to the forces and by simple set of force/moment calculation
moments in the connecting piping flanges similar to centrifugal compressors. These
and flange bolting which should not exceed computations shall be done as below.
the allowable stress as defined by applicable
codes and regulatory bodies. 1. The total resultant force and total
resultant moment imposed on the turbine at
Forces on inlet connections are to be any connection should not exceed the values
transferred along with moments to discharge calculated as per the following equation.
connection to analyze the compressor for
resultant forces and moments. Buh the
transfer of force will generate additional
500D M -
3F+M<500D orF<
transfer moments, which are added to the
, 3 .
total of moments to give resultant moments.
where,
1.
3.4 Reciprocating Compressors F = Resultant force (lbs) including pressure
API 618 "Reciprocating Compressor
for General Refinery Service" do not specify
the limit on the allowable forces and
forces where unrestrained expansion
joints are used at the connection except
on vertical exhausts. Full vacuum load
1:
is allowed on vertical down exhaust
moments in the code. The vendor shall
speeifL the forces and ~liomentsfor each
nozzle in the tabular form. However, the
.
flanges. 1.:
'\jc F? Fz2
values as per API 610 can be considered for
I.-I
+ +

guidance.
M = Resultant moment in foot-pounds,
3.5 Steam Turbines i
1-1
NEMA - SM 23 requires that the M = \]M/ + M,' + M,'
forces and moments acting on steam

Stress Analysis 19.

L -

L;
I '
I -
 I
' PIPING ENGINEEIUNG CELL
i
i D = Nominal pipe size of the connection in
inches up to 8 inches in diameter. For values beyond this, use a value of D,(in
I
inches) equal to:
1 For sizes greater than this, use a value of
(18 + Equivalent diameter in inches)
(1 6 + IPS) Inches
1 D (in inches) =
3
3

I 2. The combined of the

forces and moments of the inlet, extraction,
The components of these resultants
not
I and exhaust connections, resolved at the
1 centerline of the exhaust connection should Fx= 50 Dc Mx = 250 Dc
not exceed the following two conditions.
I
I
Fy = 125Dc My = 125 Dc
I ) These resultants shall not exceed:
The components are as follows:'

= Horizontal components of F, parallel

to the turbine shaft.
where, FY =Vertical component of Fc
Fz = Horizontal component of Fc at right
Fc = Combined resultant of inlet, angles to the turbine shaft.
extraction, and exhaust forces, iq lbs. Mx = Component of M, around the
&I = Combined resultant of inlet, horizontal axis parallel to the turbine
extraction, and exhaust moments, shaft
I and moments resulting &om forces, My = Component of & around the vertical
in ft lbs. axis
Dc= Diameter (in inches) of a circular M, = Component of M, around the
1 . opening equal to the total areas of
the inlet, extraction, and exhaust
horizontal axis at right angles to the
turbine shaft.

I 1 openings up to a value of nine inches

in diameter.
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

3. For installation of turbines with a applicable codes and explanatory

vertical exhaust and an unrestrained notes.
I
expansion joint at the exhaust, an additional
amount of force caused by pressure loading
is allowed. (This additional force is 3.6 Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
perpendicular to the face of the exhaust The American Petroleum Institute
flange and is deemed to act at its centre), Standard 661 for "Air Cooled Heat
For this tye . of application, calculate the Exchangers for General Refinery Services"
vertical force component on the exhaust covers the allowable loads on the vertical,
connection excluding pressure -loading. colinear nozzles found in most single
Compare this with one sixth of the pressure multibundled air-cooled heat Exchangers.
loading on the exhaust. Use the larger of
these two numbers for vertical force
component on the exhaust connection in
making calculations outlined in 1 and 2.
The force caused by the pressure
loading on the exhaust is allowed in addition
to the values established by the foregoing up
to a maximum value of vertical force in
pounds on the exhaust connection (including Finned tuber
pressure loading) of 15 YZ times the exhaust Fig.3.9: Direction of Forces & Moment.
area in square inches. on the Nozzle
4. These values of allowable force and
- moment pertain to the turbine MI 661 has the following two
structure only. They do not pertain requirements.
to the forces and moments in the
- connecting piping, flange, and flange 3.6.1 Each nozzle in corroded condition
bolting, which should not exceed the shall be capable of withstanding the
allowable stress as defined by sirkulataneous application- of the
following moments and forces.

Table 3.2: Nozzle loading as per API 661 / I S 0 13706 '

Nozzle size Forces in 16s (N) - Moments in ft Ibs (Nm)

NB mm (In) Fx . FY Fz Mx k
MY Mz
4q1.5)' ' 15q670) 230(1020) 15q670) 8q110) Il(yl50) 8Cyl 10)
5q2) , 230(1020) 360(1330) 23q1020) 1 1q150) 18q240) 1 lO(150)
8'43) 450(2000) 38q1690) 45q2000) 300(410) 450(610) 300(410)
1 W(4) 750(334Oj 6w2670) 75q3340) 600(810) 900(1220) 600(810)
lso(6) 9OO(W) 1130(5030) I 13q5030) 1580(2140) 2250(3050) lZW(1630)
7

200(8) 128q5690) 3000(l3340) 1800(8010) 2250(3050) 4500(6100) 1650(2240)

2sqlO) 1500(6670) 3000(13340) 225O(I W 10) 3000(4070) 4500(6100) 1880(2550) -

300(12) 188q8360) 3000(13340) 3000(13340) 3750(5080) 4500(6 100) 2250(3050)

350(14) 2250(10010) 375q16680) 375q16680) 4500(6100) 5250(7120) 263q3570)

Stress Analysis 21
 I
/ /
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL i

I!
3.6.2 The design of each fixed or floating manufacturer. Restrictions are applied on
header, the design of fixed headers to side nozzle rotations also in this case to take care
frames, and the design of other support
members shall ensure that the simultaneous
of the clearances between the tube and
refractory lining. The thumb rule used is :
!'
application (sum)of all nozzle loadings on a Forces = 200 to 300 Ibtin. nominal ,I
single header will cause no damage. The bore of nozzle
components of the nozzle loadings on a -
Moments Equivalent to Sh/4
single header shall not exceed the following Nozzle ~otation- From 1/2 " to 1 i" fl

values. I :
3.9 Flat bottom Welded Storage Tanks
to API 650
Mx= 4500 ft Ib (6100 Nm)
My= 6000 ft lb (8130 Nm)
M, 3000 ft lb (4070 Nm)
The design of the piping system
connected to thin walled, large diameter
I j ,

. -:

F, 2250 1b (10010 Nrn)

I
cylindrical vertical flat bottom storage tanks
pose a problem in the analysis of the
I ' :

-
Fy= 4500 lb (20020 Nm)
Fz 3750 1b (16680 Nm) interface between the piping system and the
tank nozzle. . The parameters to be ; 1.
-
-
-
F

a,

Note :-me application of the moments and considered.are the stifiess of the tank shell, i 'I.:

--
forces shown in table will cause movement the and the meridional -
-

that i l l tend to reduce the loads to the rotation of the shell opening at the nozzle 1
values given. connection resulting ftom the static head, . 7

pressure and uniform or differential

1 ' ,
3.7 shell gs Tube Type Heat temperature between the shell and the j
Exchangers bottom. Although three primary forces and I f ,
-
The designer has to set the b t i n i t i n gImm'lc"tS may be imparted by the piping On
values or to check the vessel connections for to the shell connection, only the radial thrust
the nozzle loading imposed by the connected (Fd md two Illomen6 idea the longitudinal
1 .I
I _;j3
piping. moment (ML) and the circumferential
moment (Mc)are significant causes of shell
deformation.
I -d
.)
i
- 3P
w tS
The rough guide generally followed is: -
!
'
A
r, &-&
-..
Resultant : 200 1bJi.n NB of nozzle t
a
. , <
4 P'-F.
,. : I3
Maximum I
I - - 4

Force . I -
\
Bending : Equivalent to bending 3s
. ,x '
Moment stress in standard schedule
Y-Y
pipe between 4000 to x" I
50001bs./in2 a
1 .

a t
+ -
1
x-
Z
3.8 Fired Heaters 2 t 1 -
i
The limiting values for forces and Fig.3.10: Storage Tank Nozzle Details -
moments should be laid down by the .$
( .

Stress Analysis 22
I

1 '
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
a = Outside radius of the nozzle in rnrn(in) and (h/aYc)(Mc/F,~,
F R = Radial Thrust applied in N (lbf) e) plot point ( ~ J ~ Y F ) ( F R E P ),
Fp= Pressure head at the nozzle xaZp (UaYL)(ML/FP)on the nomogram with
L = Vertical distance fiom centre line of X axis and Y axis respectively.
nozzle to tank bottom in mm(in)
t = shell thickness at the nozzle connection f) Plot point (W~YF)(FREP) r
in rnm(in) (l./aYc)(MclFp) on the nomogram with
P = Pressure fiom liquid head in Mpa X axis and Y axis respectively.
(1bf7in2)
XA=L + a in rnm (in) g) Construct boundaries as lines at 45
XB= L - a in mm (in) depree angles between abscissa and
Xc=L inmm(in) ordinates passing through the calculated
Yc= Coefficient determined from Fig. P-4B value.
(API650)
YF,YL= Coefficient determined from h) The external piping loads FRr ML and
-
Fig. P 4A (API650) & are acceptable if both points
= a/(~t)'.' determined fiom b and c above lie
Mc= Circumferential moment at the nozzle within boundaries of the ncmogram
fkom the piping system in N-mm (in-lbf) constructed for that particular nozzle.
ML= Longitudinal moment at the nozzle
fkom the piping system in N-mm (in-lbf)
3.10 Static Equipment such as columns,
Appendix P of API 650 establishes reactors, tanks and vessels
minimum recommendations for the design
of storage tank opening subjected to external Each nozzle, 2" NB and larger, for columns,
piping loads. This is recommended only for drums and shell & tube heat exchangers
tanks larger than 36M (120 ft) in diameter constructed . out of steel or alloy is
and is considered as an accepted practise for recommended to be designed to withstand
the piping connection at the lower half of the forces and moments fiom the thermal
bottom shell course. expansion and sustained loading &om the
The following are the steps involved in the piping as per the following criteria These
determination of allowable loads. forces and moments shall be considered to
a) Determine the non dimensional be acting at the intersection of nozzle and
quantities xA/(Rt)Oo5 , X$(R~)''' and shell in he corroded condition. A total of
&/(~t)'.' for the nozzle connection 7000 fill temperature cycles shall be
under consideration. considered for the expected life of the
b) Layout two sets of orthogonal axes on equipment.
graph paper and label abscissas and
ordinates as specified in 'e' below.
c) Layout two sets of orthogonal axes on
graph paper and label abscissas and
ordinates as specified in 'f below.
d) Using the values of FR, ML and Mc
obtained fiom tbe piping analysis
determine the factors
. ('E./~YF>O;R@P)
('E./~YL)(M~FP)

Stress Analysis
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
3.1 0.1 Nozzle to Shell or channels
a) Moments i
i) Longitudinal bending moment
NOZZLE .
I M L = P130D2Nm -
ii) Circumferential bending moment
M+ = p 100 D2Nm
iii) Resultant bending moment 1.'
Mb =(ML2 + ~ ~ ~ 1 %
= P 164~~~x11
iv) Torsional & moment
Mt = P 150 D2~m
I
I
I'
b) Forces
i) Axial force in plane of Flange
FL = P2000D N
Tangential force in plane of Flange
I.
'.
i
F+=p 1SOOD N
NOZZLE
/
/
/
iii) Resultant shear force
I
FR = + F~'1% I :
=. P 2500D N I

iv) Radial Tensile or compressive Force

3.11 Orientation of Forces & Moments FA=P2000D N 1. :
on Vertical Equipment i

3.1 0.2 Noztfes to Formed Heads

a) Moment II '

I NOZZLE i) Resultant Bending moment

I
I
M ~ = 164D2Nm
P ! -1
I,
A FA Where Mbis the resultant of the i 3
Y LA components Mx and Mz .-
ii) Toriional Moment I ;)
<,
M,= p iso D ~ N ~ ' -J
, >
b) Forces I'
0%WT i) ~e&l&t"shear foice ' t i

.
@
E
L FR = P2500D N where FA is the 1 : :
i.
, resultant of the components Fx and I : -L

Fz 3
Fig 3.12 Orientation of Forces and ii) Radial Tensile or compressive force I

FA= P2000D N I - --=

Moments on Horizontal Equipment
Where P is as per the table 3.3 and D ' B
is the nominal diameter in inches. !- y
The orientation of the forces and
moments shall be as per Fig 3.11 & 2
3.12. These loadings shall be I :
1 , . 3 -
Stress Analysis 24
I !
 . .

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

considered as being caused by 67 %
thermal and 33 % dead weight Load.
I

Flange Rating p Valve

ANSI DIN Heat Columns
Class Exchangers and Drums
150# PN 10 & 16 0.75 0.6
300 # PN 25 &40 0.75 0.7
600 # PN 64 & 100 1.25 0.8 Fig. 4.1
900 # PN 160 3.00 1.8
1500 # PN 250 & 320 4.00 3.O 1. 'Code of Practice
2500 # PN 400 5.60 3.3
2. Basic Material of
, ! .

&+r 1. Table 3.3: Construction of Pipe

,
.. .
3. Ambient I Installation
.
: 3
.-
> i
:
temperature
I 3.10.3 The local ;tress intensiv at the
- , ? .
t
n'ode , connection due to
4. Number of Thennal Cases
\

- 3 .I attachment . of. piping can be 5. Flexibility Temperature (See

;.P ! .
.) .' computed using . the Gelding Note)
.J b
3 '
research. council bulletin 10 7
6. ' Design Pressure
1 ;
i
!
setting the limitations as.
7. Outside diameter of Pipe
))
a) The local sustained stress intensity at 8. Type of construction of pipe
-1
the nozzle connection should be less
1 than 0.5 sm 9. Nominal Thickness of Pipe
b) The sum of local sustained stress
4 - 1 intensity and thp lwal expansion stress
10; Manufacturing tolerance

intensity at the nozzle connection must 11. ' Corrosion allowance

- 1:
h be less than 2 srn 12. Pipe Weight
-k,
7 I I
13. . Insulation Weight
where, sm is the allowable stress intensity
a for the material at the operating temperature. 14.. . Sp&& Gravity of Conttn&.
. .

15. Yom8's Modulus- at

Ambient/Installation
4.0 ~ a t n required.
. for : flixibility
. . ' . . . ,
Temperature
,..lcu~tjono ' . ' - . . . ' . . .

:16. Young's Modulus

. - at
The following data will be required Flexibility Temperature ' ,

for the flexibility calculations if it is carried 17. Thermal Expansion at

out manually or by the use of software. It is Flexibility Temperature
therefore prudent to have this ready before
starting. 18. Allowable stress at Ambient1
The direction of coordinates are fixed as Installation temperature
below:

Stress Analysis
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
19. Allowable stress at flexibility DY
temperature (L-Ur iK1
20. Bend radius and type of bend where,
21. Branch connection type D.=the outside diameter oP pipe
22. Weight of attachments - In inch (or mm)
Valves and Specialties Y = Resultant of total displacement strains I -
23. Terminal movements with
directions In inch (or mm) to be absorbed by the
l a
-
Note: The Code states that the design
temperawe shall be assumed to be same a
Piping
, system. ! -
d :
-; 3
L = Developed length bet wee^ the anchors
the fluid temperature unless calculations or I '
!
-
1
test supports the use of other data In ft. or (m)
U = Anchor distulce, straight line between
.
anchors in R or (m)
K1= 30 SA& in USCS 1 . -
%j
i

5.0 METHODS OF FLEXIBILITY

= 208300 S A / 'in SI units
ANALYSIS
5:1 . Check As Per Clause 119.7.11 -As per B31.3 !. g ::
G.?
>
: 319.4.1 of the Code K1= 0.03 for USCS . . .- $
+ :..
; !

Clause 119.7.1(A3)/ 319.4.1(c)

specifies that no formal analysis is required = 208.3 for SI units.
in systems which are of uniform size, have - As per B31.1 -;
no more than two points of fixation, no
Where & is the Modulus of Elasticity at the 1 - ;;<
intermediate and fall within the 1 ,
installation temperature
empirical equation.
and SA is the,,allowablestress range. ,
i
. e-3
1
3
Example: Let us apply the above check for the following system.
:
I. if h

Fig. 5.1

-
Pipe 6" (150 m m NB) Sch. 40 carbon Design Temperature - 400 O F (204%)
steel to ASTM A106 Gr. B
I
i

Stress Analysis 26
I '
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Step 1 Step 4
To establish the anchor to anchor distance
u
Total length in X direction = 35'

Total length in Y direction = 30'

Total length in Z direction = 25' + 20'

= 45'
since K I K, the configuration is safe
Please note h a t no general proof can be
offered that this equation will yield
accurate and conservative results. It is
not applicable to systems used under
severe cyclic conditions. There is no
Step 2 . assurance that the terminal reactions will
be acceptably low, even if the system
To determine value of L. satisjies the above equation.
L= Ixl+l~~zI=35+30+45=110~.
5.2 Guided cnnthever Method
Step 3 Suppose that we have two vessels
To calculate resultant total TI and T2 say 20 m apart and we have to
displacement Y run the pipe from TI and T2 between two
nozzles at the same elevation. Obviously
From Appendix C, ASME B 3 1.3 the most economical way of doing this,
purely fkom the performance aspwt, is to
Linear Expansion between 70 " F and .
join them by a straight pipe as shown in
400F. Fig. 5.2.
e = 2.7" I100 ft.

Fi. 5.2
-
Az = 2.7 =1.215"
Now further, suppose that everything is in
100 - -
carbon steel and- the vessel T1 has its
2
Y = J A x ' + A ~ '+AZ temperature raised to 200C. When the
= 40.945 ' + 0.810 + 1.215 z
valve is opened, there will be expansion in
the connecting pipeline, which c,m be
= 1.739" calculated as below.
Expansion of carbon steel fiorn 21c to .
2 0 0 ' ~= 2.2 mm.1 m

(Refer Appendix C ASME B 3 1.3) -

Sbess Analysis 27
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Total Expansion = 20 x 2.2 = 44 mm

To absorb this expansion, one of the
following two things can happen.
1. As the pipe expands it will dent

f+
the sides of the vessel as in Fig.
5.3

~wKll-&t

Fig.
fig. 5.3

2. T h e pipe will buckle as shown in

5.4 if the vessels are of
large diameter and, therefore,
thick and the pipe is small.

&WF-+$-----------------
fiq. 5.1

However, if the equipment is laid

out differently, it will be possible to run
the pipe in two different sections at right
angles to each other as shown in Fig. 5.5.

owl----i1,-ii71 --------

Fig. 5.5

With this configuration of piping,

I-"!

as the point B moves out to B', it is able to

bend the leg BC to position B'C.

Stress Analysis
t'
I
e.

-I
!

-It is simple to calculate length L of

BC which will allow expansion " 6 " to be
absorbed while the. stresses are restricted

M=PL/Z

As per Elastic Theory,

6-
pi3
12EI
where,
kMovementin inches
-1
to a given value and this is the simplest
concept of all in the field of flexibility
analysis, namely "Minimum Length".

fig. 5.6

when the pipe bends as shown by the

P=Forcerequiredto bend BC in lbs

l=lengthof BC in inches
E=Young's Modulsin lbs/i2
I

dotted line, i.e. B'C, it is refeqed as

"Guided cantilever "
I

I=Momentof inertia about bending axis in in4

. --
-
MC

28
.
I

I
I

;
'

i
I

,.-I
I

,1. -

I
I

!*_

I'

I'
. ?;

'

'

'-1
1
b '

C
. 5-

it
d-; s

. "3
<Y
K.

-:
%>.

22
-7
24
z 3

555
w 7

I
-)
+

-
\3

33
*

Td
=
h3

:
J
:I
1
k'i
1

-,f

-J

- -

-.

%
-*
*$

1
1

.
.j
zt.

1.
-
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

If L is length c-T BC in ft. ( 1 = 12 L) 6= 0.87"(22mm)

6 '= 144 PL'
EI
-'2 ; Hence,

p =- El6 above
. t
144 L'
.b i
Miximum bending moment at B or C =fP L/2 =14.88 k(4.54 m)
.'i
7
[
:
=M ft.lbs. This indicates that the length BC should
not be less than 4.6 m.
Maximum bending stress f = lbs/ in '
I . We can also~calculatethe stress developed
-2 I, OD of pipe
Y= in such a system of known dimensions of
i 2 leg BC by the same mekod.
j
I f =-12MY
-ir ! I

i '
i ! El 6
.--\ i
Substituti ng P -4
7 5
144 L' 12EI6 . .
-
-\
f
12 EI& L D - Hence P ' , =
f =-x-x-x-
I 144L' 2 2 . . 13

By putting the value of stress range

calculated, as discussed earlier and the
modulus of elasticity of the material, we
can arrive at the "MinimumLeg Length".
e.g. :-In the previous layout if we restrict
the stress at 16,000 psi and consider
modulus of elasticity of carbon steel as
29.5 x lo6 psi and assume the pipf -ize as,
6" NB (6.625'' OD)
. .
Solving for SE =
Expansion of piping between TI and T2, 12
1

Where R = Outer radius of pipe,inches

I = Moment of inertia of cross
section, in4
Z = Section modulus, in3
E = Modulus of elasticity, lbs/in2
1 = Length, inches

Stress Analysis
 I
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL I

In Fig.5.5 if the vessels are arranged in

such a way that B and BC are equaland If a bending moment M is applied to the
10 M each, then the stress developed can end of a straight piece of pipe, it behaves
be calculated as as a uniform beam and exhibits change of
slope fiom end to end, as given by the
1 = AB=BC=lOm=394 . expression.
inches
E = 29.5 x 1 o6lbs/ in2
R = 6.62512 inches
6 = 1.7312 inches

6 x 29.5 x lo6 x 6.625 x 1.73 I .:7$

Where, 1 ,
SE = -.-I
(394)2 x 2 x 2 8 = Angle, radians I ' -,
M = Bending moment, in lbs (mm N) - .;.
- .
= 3267psi
f '
9
='.
E = Young's Modulus, lbs/in2 p a )
5.3 Piping Elements Their - I = Moment of Inertia, in4(mrn4)
-?
,..
Individual Effects
L = Length, inches (mm) 1 ' QA
Let us analyze each of the piping elements
to see how it contributes to flexibility.
5.3.1 STRAIGHT PIPE : FLEXIBILITY
IN TORSION

Fig 5.8
I
If the same pipe is subjected to a constant .d
twisting moment, the rotation of one end 1
1
relative to the other end is given by : a

. .
. .
. . . . .
.
Fig 5.7 . ,
.
.
. '
.: . .

. . . . . . . .
. . . . .. .
. : . - . ' :

, c3
0 = Angle of twist in radians 1
T = Torsion moment in - Ibs (mm- N) ': 1
i -

L = Length, inches (rnm) 5

*=
G = Modulus of rigidity, lbs/in2(Wa)
* b
J = Polar moment of inertia, in4(mm4) 5 '
-
1 -
. -
1

Stress Analysis
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

It can be shown that for metals -

-C-
increased flexibility. This was M e r
developed by Hovgarrd, Berkins, Vigners
G=E/2.6and = ~ t m &)Markel.
~ ~
J = 2 x I for circular cross section
Hence, Flexibility Factor
The ratio of the flexibility of a
TxL
bend to that of a straight pipe having the
0 =
same length and cross section is known as
= ; E / 2.6x 21 its "Flexibility Factor", usually denoted by
2
t
,
the alphabet "k".
TL
'-2
. ,
1 = 1.3 -
i EI
i This result is important as far as piping
$-
i ,. j; . routings in three planes are concerned. It
i
:
. 1
"<-.
..
i.
shows that a given length of pipe can give
30% more rotation if the moment.from the
C"
. .
.
1 '
- 1
,.- adjacent legs produces torsion. instead of rig,. 5.9
'9
I
, becding. This c& create moments, which
should also be kept in limits.
j, r 1

.
There are piping components other M .L
1 , :
, than straight pipe, which are required to g= -
make a complete piping system. These are EI
[ !
7 ...
.
..
.
..
. . elbows, tees, reducers, valves,. etc. The .

i., "
1 . . ' knowledge of individual effects on the
4
j
.
flexibility and the stresses in each .element .
i: . . is essential to analyze a piping system
- .
I close to its true nature of behavior.
1,
~. I
i

$-
: j i
.
j
.. ,

.
5.3.2 ELBOWS:
.

.
, ,
.. Early calculation on the flexibility.
t, - analysis containing elbows proved that the
. .I

) i
structural engineering- theory and : the . .
. ' .. , .
.?

. ;
3

i results of experiments did not agree wek- M . .

. . . .
..
.
.
. . .
. .
J, " Practical piping system was .more flexible - . .- . . . .. . .
. . . .. . .
. . . .
. .
. .

. I
! .. than predicted and.the discrepancy w a s , . ' . . .. .
~ i510.
~ -. . - . . , .;. , .:
. . -
. .
1, t
i
-
. . due to the flexibility of elbows. . . . . .

The first theoretical analysis of the Let us consider how flattening of the cross
behavior of pipe bends when subjected to section occurs
a bending moment was made by Theodore
Von Karman, who showed that when a
curved pipe is subjected to a bending
moment in its own plane, the circular
section gets flattened and this results in

stress Analysis.. . : ' '

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL I
I

flattens into an ellipse with its major axis

horizontal (see Fig. 5.13.a) i

Fig. 5.1 1 Fig. 5.1 3a Fig. 5.13b

1 : I
When bending moment M is applied as If the bending moment is reversed,
shown, tensile stresses are developed on
the outer fibres and compressive stresses
the tensile and compressive forces will 1. L p

also get reversed and cross section gets

on the inner ones. elongated instead of getting flattened. (See
Fig. 5.13.b)
I
1
6.

-3
!. =
i

I '

+%- i
!
.,
, ,
-
--
Fig. 5.14 Circumferential Stress in Pipe I' :
-
waU i
$3
If the element is analyzed in mom detail, it 1 ' 1
Fig. 5.12 is seen that the flattening produces -d
bending moments in the rings, which are -
J\
1
Let us consider a thin slice taken between
two radial planes " X X and "W".
maximum at the ends. These moments
p r o b e a stress which varies b r n tension
f
"1
(see Fig. 5.12). ,to compression through the t$ickne,ys of . -. i
pipe wall and which is ciicderentid in ;?.
The resultant effect of the tensile f T
i

load "T" in the -outer fibres is an inward direction. If we consider one half of the f
radial load on the element. Similarly the ring, the stress system gets .illustrated as .
>

resultant of the compressive loads "C"in above. I . f

the i ~ e fibres
r is an inward radial load on These circumferential stresses due - 5

A
3

-
9
the element. to bending moment M can be many times ' 3
If we view the slice as a cross the value of MY/I obtained by bending 3
-
,

section, and draw a loading diagram for theory of structural members. The factor 3
the ring, we anive at the situation shown by which the circumferential stresses / T

below. Under the applied loading the ring exceed the longitudinal stresses in the -
1
bend is called the "Stress Intensification
'i
I:

Stress Analysis 32
1' -'
I

I :
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Factor" called S.I.F. It can be defined as When any problem is analyzed, the
the ratio of the actual bending stress for a following considerations are made.
moment applied to nominal section.
The effect of the existence of these
'
a) The Flexibility actor applies to
bending in any plane. .
circumferential stresses is that when elbow b) The stress intensification factor i s
is subjected to repeated "in-plane" greater for "inplane" bending than for
bending, it ultimately develops a fatigue "outplane" bending. ASME B 31.3
crack along its sides. permits the use of inplane SIF for any
When we take additional benefit by plane whereas B 31. 1 does not-
Flexibility factor due to flattening of separate out these two. ,
elbows, consideration should' be given to Virtual Length
the induced circumferential stresses by
multiplying the stresses at the bends due to The product of length of arc centre line
overall bending moment by the and Flexibility factor is referred as
appropriate "Stress Intensification Factor". "Virtual length" of a bend and these are
considerable while analyzing thin walled
-3
-J
Appendix D of ASME B 3 1.1 & large diameter pipes.
1 31.3 tabulates the expressions to be used
-
1
7
for calculating the Flexibility Factor and Mitre Bends
L
3 ; Stress Intensification Factor. The In case of Mitre Bends qn equivalent bend
I-, parameter used for the calculation of these radius is used in the equation to calculate
factors is called the "Flexibility 'h'. The equivalent bend radius (Re) i s
1 Characteristic" denoted by letter "h" estimated by
; !
Re = r2(1 + 0.5s / r2cot 0)
for closely spaced

Re = r2(l+cot0).
mitres
for widely spaced mitres
where,

>! Fig. 5.15 S = mitre spacing at centre line,

inches (rnm)
1) 7x1
). 7
-
.
Flexibility Characteristic h =--
b2 Y 8 = One half of angle between cuts
I T =Wall thickness, inches (mrn) rz = mean radius of pipe,' inches
7 .
1-
R, =Mean radius of bend, inches (mm) (mm)
1. r2=Mean radius of pipe, inches (rnm)
? I
Using this parameter, code indicates that 5.3.3 TEES
) The flexibility factor As far & branch off is concerned
. I =k = 1.65h the fle~bilityfactor is and the sbess
)
) i
Inplane S.I.F.
Outplane S.I.F.
=ii
= ' = 0.9/hU3
= 0'75hU3
intensification factor can be calculated
based on the specific formula adapted by

Stress Analysis
 PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL

code ASME B3 1.1 I B3 1.3 and given in small the branch connection has little
Appendix D. These vary depending on the impact on the header and the calculated
type of branch connection. stress could be unreasonably large by
The unreinforced fabricated tee is using large SIF. It has been pointed out by
modelled using same formula for widely R W. Schneider of Bomey Forge that the
spaced miter bend with single miter i.e. highest stress intensification factor occurs
half angle of 45" This produces the when the ratio of branch to header is 0.7 at
flexibility characteristic of which the non-conservation is of the order
of two.

For buttweld tees, Markyl adapted 5.3.4 FLANGES

bend equation with equivalent radius (Re) For flanges also the flexibility
and equivalent thickness (Te). factor is 1 and the various types of flanges
are considered to have the following Stress
Intensification Factors.
S I F for Flanges:

where, Weld neck flange 1.0

Slip-on flange 1.2
c = ratio of tee to pipe section moduIii. Socket weld flange 1.3
= (TeiT)ja as recommended by ARC Lap joint flange 1.6
Markyl. Threaded flange 2.3
Tt = Equivalent pipe wall thickness inches
(mm> The flange when attached to the bend
= 1.60T as recommended by ARC exerts a severe restraint to the flattening of
Markyl the cross section due to its heavy
. . . - construction. Hence attachment of the
. . :..Re Equivalent bending radius inches
flange to an elbow or a mitre bend reduces
a=

(-1 the flexibility as well as the stress

= 1.35 rt as recommended bjr ARC
intensification factor. Flange at both ends
Markyl of the elbow reduces these factors M e r .
Substituting these values in the expression
f0r.h. . . .
. . ASME B 31.3 indicates these correction
. .
. . .
(reduction) factor as:
2. :.
) -
h.=(~el~)?~(~el.35.r,/r, .
. . .. C I =h'" for one end flanged
. . .. . . . . .

Flanges are designed to remain leakfiee

As far as the stub connections are
concerned, the major problem is in the out under hydrostatic test pressure when cold
of plane bending moment on the header. and under operating pressure when hot.
Stresses due to these moments can never The design of flanges does not take into
be predicted fiom the size on size tests. account bending moment in the pipe.
Errors due to these moments can be non- However, the flanges transmit some
conservative as much as a factor of two to bending moment before they 'open up',
three. Fwther when rz / R ratio is very the value being very small. This generates
i

Secss Analysis 34
1 '
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

the wire drawing effect on the mating should be applied on the values available
surface of the flange. Hence, additional
flexibility is to be considered where d
flange joint is located near a point of high
bending moment.

5.3.5 REDUCERS
fiom the table.

Divide 'kyby [I
+ (~)(~)i..[:r]
E 'T

The reducer could be either

eccentric or concentric and in both the
cases the stress intensification factor and
where
flexibility factor are 1. The overall length
is very small compared to the piping and T = Nominal wall thickness of fitting,
hence the effect of the same is neglected in inches (rnm)
ASME B3 1.3. ASME B31.1 indicates the rl = Mean radius of the matching end,
SIF as 2 max for a concentric reducer as inches (mm)
per ASME B16.9. P = Guage pressure psi (KPa)
E = Modulus of Elaiticity psi (KPa)
53.6 VALVES R, = Bend radius, inches (mm) -
Valve is normally considered as a
short length of very thick pipe. The effect This is called Bourden effect and this
of temperature when the valve is closed is stiffening effect of pressure on bends arc
more significant in the analysis. not considered in ASME B 31.I.

6.0 CODE STRESS EQUATIONS

, The sbess equations spai.fied..inthe code.
derived from the. themdeal and.
subitan~,ate&by investigative wr&. To
make the calculation. simpler, the code
calculates the stress intensity only for
expansion stress, since this load case
con-. PO:hoop of . d i d components.
. .
. ,

. . . . . . . . .
1 , ~m B.3P.L
:

. :
. . ' . .

ASME B 31.1' specifikundkr clausel04.8 -. :-

Fig, 5.1 6 ,that to validate a design under the rules of.. .

'. this clause,, the complete piping system ' ' , ' '

. . BrnECT 0.F pm.sSmOM'Sn, must be analyzed between anchom for the

AND FLm:ELiTiT
F,AC-J--R . .
ecects of thermal expansion, weight, other
In large diameter thin walled
'
sustained loads and other occasional loads.
elbows and bends, pressure can
significantly affect the Flexibility :.Factor 6.1.1 STRESS DUE TO SUSTAINED
'k' and S t m s Intensification Fmtor 'i'. LOADS
Hence the correction factor as below
.
The effects of pressure, weight and other
sustained mechanical load must meet the
requirements of the following equation.

Stress Analysis 3-5

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Where,
SE = Expansion stress range psi (KPa)
M, = Range of resultant moments due to
thermal expasion, in - lb
tmm-N)
in USCS units

SA = Allowable stress range (Ref 2.4.3

above) psi (KPa)

in SI units

where 6.1.3 STRESS DUE TO OCCASIONAL

SL = Sum o f the longitudinal stresses due LOADS.
to pressure, weight and other The effects of pressure, weights,
sustained loads, psi p a ) other sustained loads and occasional loads
i = Stress intensification factor (ref. including earthquake must meet the
Appendix D- 1) requirements of the following equation.
The product 0.75 shall never be
taken as less than 1.
MA = resultant moment due to weight and
sustained loads, in-lb (mrn - N)

= V
+My+
M M: inuscs units.
Z = Section ~ o d u l u sin3
, (mm3)
t, = Nominal Thickness, in (mm)
Sh = Basic.allowable stress at the
operating temp., psi (KPa)

6.1.2 THERMAL EXPANSION

STRESS RANGE ' In SI URitS.... '
. .-.-.,...-..
.- . . . .
. .
.
I.,.'

... ,.
The effects of thermal expansion must . .
. . . .
meet the requirements of the following .Where . . . . ,.. . .

equation. . -.
: K = 1.1$ for o'casional loadi'acting less ,' . . ,

iM, than 10%of any 24 hr. operating ., ' . .

.period. - -
K = 1.2 for occasional loa& @ting less
than 1% of any 24 hr. operating
In USCS units period.
MB = Resultant moment loading on cross
section due to occasional loads. If
calculation of moments due to earthquake
is required, use only one half of the
In SI unit

Stress Analysis
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I
earthquake moment range. Effect of Ma = Out-plane bending moment due to
- I anchor displacement due to earthquake sustained (primary) Loading, in-lb
may be excluded fiom the equation if they
are covered in Thermal Expansion stress
. . (mm-N)
li,l0 = In-plane and out-plane stress
;
I \

range calculation. intensification factors

I
Sh = Basic allowable stress at the
i 6.2 ASME B 31.3 operating temp., psi (KPa)
I
6.2.1 ASME B 3 1.3 does not provide an 6.2.2 THERMAL EXPANSION
explicit equation. for sustained stress STRESS RANGE
calculation, but requires that Piping
Engineer should compute the longitudinal The computed displacement stiess range
stresses due to weight; pressure and other shall be done as below (Ref. Clause
sustained loading and ensure that these do 3 19.4.4).
not exceed Sh. The thickness of pipe used
in calculating SL shall be the nominal (a) The range of bending and torsional
thickness less the erosion and corrosion stresses shall be computed using the
allowance. This is calculated by looking installed Modulus of Elasticity 'c
and
at Clause 302.3.5 (c) .then combined as below to determine the
computed stress range.

where
I Sh - in USCS S, =Resultant bending stress, psi ( m a )
. units S, =Torsional Stress = Mt/22, psi
1000Mt/ 22,KPa
M ,=Torsional moment, in - lb (nun N)-
' F, 1000 [ ( i i ~ i'+) (ia,)'I ' Z=Section
..
Modulus of Pipe, in' (mm')
SL -+ ..
=
Am . .. .
.
'. .
. ,

< ShinSFunits . , -
@) The resultant bending stress to be used
... . .
in the above equation for elbows and full
. . . .

' -where,. . - .. size branch connection shall be calculated

SL = Sum Of longitudinal stress due to as follows
pressure. weight. . and, : other '

s & h e d .loding,p i , m a ) .: ..
' '

F, = Axial :, foxc .' due to sustained, .

(pcmary) loa&&. Ibs (kg)

Am = Metal cross sectional area,, inz ' .
(mmZ>
Mi = In-plane bending moment due to
sustained (primary) Loading, in-lb
(=-N)

Stress Analysis
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

For Header

in USCS units.
where

In SI units.

. . . . .
. . ForBranch ' .

. .

in USCS units

. . . .

where " .zi

Fig. 6.1 - Moments in Bends S,=Resultant bending stress e , 1
{
Z.=effective section modulus of branch .%-j
I a
HI = qaT,
. .

r,=mean branch cross -sectional radius

. .
T.=effective branch wall thic&ss, . .

. . . . . . .. . : .. .$.+ , :. ...-.. . le~serof Th and

: . .. .(i,$b)
. . . . . . . . . .I ::
.
. . . .
.
..... . . .
ui.
fh=Thiclmess of pipe matching run of tee : .
. . . . . .

. .
or
. header
. . kxclusive 'of renf&cexne
. .. . . . . .
nt
. . . . . .
,
.
.
.

ut .Tb=Thickne& of pipe branch

. .
0 . . . .

.Yo 3
For branch connection, the resultant - A

bending stress needs special care as '

-
Fig. 6.2 - Moments in Tees section modulus Z of header and branch is - ,

different. 1
r-- ;,
For Reducing outlet branch connections,
the equation shall be as follows. , - 3

Stress Analysis 38 I ' 9

 i PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

)- I
! 6.2.3 STRESS DUE TO due to thermal expansion but it
OCCASIONAL LOADS affects the end reactions in direct
? 1 ratio. So overstress cannot be
I ASME B 31.3 do not specifically define
i i the equation for calculating the stresses
nullified by increasing the
thickness; on the contrary, this
due to occasional loads. The code, under makes the matter worse by
I clause 302.3.6 only states that the sum of
I
2 . longitudinal stresses due to sustained and increasing the end reactions. This
is demonstrated in .the following
occasional loads shall not exceed 1.33 example.
':1I times the basic allowable stress. The
method adopted is to calculate the
,

i
sustained and occasional stresses Let us consider two simple
* L 1 independently and to then add them
absolutelv.
cantilever arrangements having the same
deflection, pipe size and length but with
varying thickness.
6.3 COMPARISON OF CODES
Based on the above, we can identify L

the difference in approach between i 6"(150mm) NB Sch. 40

- - ---_
.J
these two codes
--- -- --
I , 6.3.1 Stress increase due to occasional - 5

loads are different in each code.

Fig. 7.1
Allowable stresses are different for
each code. L C

i 6"(150mm) NB Sch. 80
ASME B 31.3 include Fax in the
-----_-- -- --
stress calculation due to sustained
load where as ASME B 31.1
-- - --
neglects all forces
Fig. 7.2
ASME'B 3 1.3 calculation methods 0

.are undefined for. sustained a d For sipplc cantilever, the deflection

occasional loads whereas MME B given by the formula '
3 1.1 is ekpli&i.tforhe,sme... : '

.
. . . . . .
.
. .

For. calculation of stresses due to'

Y =-
sustained. loads A S M E ~31.3. 3EI -
neglects t&i.on. where as: .MME . .

~ 3 1I .indudesit. .. . .

3EyI
ASME B3 I. 1 intensifies torsion.
. Hence P =
wh&e as ASME B 31.3 does not. L3

) E, y, L remaining the same, P = k I

7.0 MEANS OF INCREASING
FLEXIBILITY 3E Y
where k = -
1 The pipe thickness h no L3
I significant effect on bending stress

' I Stress Analysis 39

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
I
For 6"(150 mrn) NB Sch. 40 pipe since the service life of a system is I

affected more b y the range of stress

I = 1170 cm4 variation 'than by magnitude of stress at a -
,
-

Z = 139cm3-
I' '
given time.
For 6" (150 rnm) NB Sch. 80 pipe
I = 1686 cm4 ASME B 31.3 gives the formula
Z = 200 cm3 for calculation of maximum reaction or
Therefore, moment when cold spring is applied to a
two anchor piping system in clause
319.5.1 as below.
Sch. 40 Sch. 80
Load P 1170 k 1686 k
Moment M 1170 k L 1686 k L
Stress = M/Z 8.4 k L 8.4 k L where
Form the above it can be seen that R = Estimated instantaneous maximum -=_-, =2
,
,.-
although the stress remains the same, the reaction force or moment at maximum or
forces and moments increase with the minimum metal temperature. f-i
=.
increase in thickness of the pipe. 3
E
R = Range of reaction force or moments BP
cl
Where the piping system
derived fiom flexibility analysis I 3
encounters large end reactions or
corresponding to the fblI displacement i r->
; ,

detrimental over strain' und it lacks built

stress range and based on E. - -f
in changes in the diredon to absorb the E, = Modulus of elasticity at installation
same, the Piping Engineer should temperature.
consider adding flexibility by one or more
of the following means; addition of Em = ~ o d u l kof elasticity at design 1 r.,d ?
bends, loops or offsets, swivel joints, temperature. . f T;
-2
corrugated pipes, expansion joints or C = Coldspring factor from 0 for no ;. 3
other means permitting angular, coldspring to 1.0 for 100% coldspring. Z-? -

rotatiand or axial movements. Suitable ' ,

c+
I

anchors shall be provided to resist the The factor 2/3 is based on experience, c-1
endforces. which shows that specified cold spring ! ' 6 j
cannot be fully assured even with r . -3
- . \.
8.0 COLD SPRING elaborate precautions. , 1
; - . ;$

Piping Engineer may also provide

The value of reaction forces or 2 4
-\ S
moments at the temperature at which the
cold cut or cold spring to limit the value of piping is assembled is given by: 1 .
, I
?4
stress and moment.
Cold spring is defhed by the code % = CR or CIRwhich ever is greater * -1
ASME B 31.3 under clause 3 19.2.4 as the
intentional deformation of piping during
assembly to produce a desired initial
displacement and stress.
No credit for cold spring is
Ilr
= Estimated instantaneous reaction or . ,% -
permitted in the stress range calculation moments at the installation temperature.
f : -. a
Sbess Analysis
 i PIPING ENGINEEEUNG CELL

i SE= computed displacement stress range The reaction thus computed shall
not exceed the limits, which the attached -
Sh= Maximum allowable stress at design quipment can safely sustain.
temperature
ASME B 3 1.1 deals with these factors
under the clause 119.9 and 119.10.
9.0 SELECTED CHART One of the shapes considered is the "Three
SOLUTIONS Dimensional 90" Turns" comprising of
three legs, each of which is at right angles
9.1 The book on Flexibility analysis to the other two.
"Piping Stress Calculations
Simplified", by S. W. Spielvogel
deals with a number of shapes
frequently encountered in practice.
This can be used for a quick check
on the terminal forces and
moments. This method neglects
the effect of flexibility of the bends
and to that extent the values are
over estimated.

PIPE SIZE - 4' SCH 160

DESIGN TEMP. - 450' F '

- FY
Fig. 9.1
A.E4=Ll=25' Kb = 8.61 Kt - = 4.35

CD = L3= 5'
L l L 3 = m = 25/5 = 5
L2L3 = n = 10/5 = 2
By referring to chart, we get :

) , The book gives the following formula

Stress Analysis
PIPING ENGIPU'EERING CELL
I
The stresses are evaluated from the Expansion Stress Range
equation, .
!
S = KC D/L32 lbs/ sq.. inch
The forces are evaluated from the equation, = 56 19 lbs./sq.inch
Allowable stress range = SA I
I
F = K C I / L ~I~~ S = f ( 1.25 Sc + 0.25 St,)
>

I
Moments are evaluated fiom the equation, = 1 (1.25 x 20,000 + 0.25 x 19,450) s

= 29,862 psi I[ '

SE< SA. 1 6
i 3

where C is the expansion factor calculated I,

from the expression Reaction Fm= K.C -
L'J
Expansion in inched100'xEc - 1.6x510x13.3
C= 5x5
1728 xl00
= 434 Ibs.
Expansion of C.S. @ 450 OF I
Reaction F = K , C z
= 3.16 inch1 100 ft. L.',
Ec = Cold Modulus of Elasticity
= 27.9 x lo6 lbs/sq.in.
3.1 6 ~ 2 7 . 9 o6
~1
Hence, C= =510 I
1728x100 Reaction Fa= K.CL
Ip for 4" NB Sch 160 pipe = 13.3 in4. Es

Allowable stress at installation temp

Sc = 20,000 psi t
'

Allowable stress at design temp

= 155 lbs. I 3
-.
.I-rm
Sh = 19,450 psi Moment M ,= K,Cz
IP
5F3f
Bending Stress =K,C-
D
L3

D
Torsional Stress = K,C-
L*
- 4 . 3 5 5~ 1 0 ~ 4 . 5
5
= 19971bs./sq.inch

Stress Analysis
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I,
Moment M, = K,C -
L3
', i - 0.4x510x13.3
c
where,
f ,= Expansion Factor allowing for the
temperature and material of pipe
given in table.

f f, = Shape factor allowing for the

- I ]
9.2 TUBE TURN METHOD ratios of lengths.
The above method (Guided
7
I . Cantilever Analysis) does not give - f, = Factor for effective diameter length,
" I allowance for the dlbow flexibility. allowing for the excess virtual length
'-,I
Chart solutions incorporating the (EVL) of the elbow.
flexibility of elbows for certain single plain These EVL aretabulated in the catalogue.
configurations were produced by MIS. Tube
Turns Inc. Charts were developed which
unfortunately limit the application to 2,L, U For example
and symmetric expansion loops. Nothing is
available for 3 dimensional configurations.
In this method, the expansion stress is
calculated by the expression.

Pipe size = 4" std. wt. ASTM A106Gr.B

Operating Temp. = 450 OF
From.table. , , . .

E.ffmtivc~ l b Dimdef
a ~ :-
.
E.flative Elbow hg& . .

Length of Short:VerticalLeg
Length of Long.VerticdLeg.
Length of horizontal offset ...
l,,,~.. . . = 4/25 . =
' WW = 2515 =
) !
-, From Chart, shape factor f, = 1.66
1) Square comer length = h + H + W = l -35.0'
' ! Sum of elbow lengths = 2 Lr = 2 x 4.7 = 9.4'
)
Total effective length = 1 +2Lr=L=44.4'
Effective Diameter length = LDr = fl = 44.418.78 = 5.06
)- ,
7

, i Stress Analysis

I
PIPING EYGINEERING CELL I

From Table 1 There is computer software available to

handle such complex problems. Same 6h
Expansion factor fe for 450 O F = 73,000 the software available are: -
psi
[This can also be calculated by the formula 1. ADL PIPE
Expansion inchedinch x Young's 2. AUTOPIPE
Modulus i.e 3. CAESAR11
f, = E , x A , 4. CAEPIPE
For C.S.E, = 27.9 x lo6 5. PIPEPLUS
Expansion in inches per 100 ft. for C.S. = 6. TRELEX
3.16 f?om Appendix C. ASME B3 1.3 7. Q-FLEX
Hence, The pipeline geometry is fed into the
system along with all the parameters such
3.16x27.9x106 a s design temperatures, pipe sizes; bend
f, = =73,470 psi
100x12 radii, type of branch connections, locations
Computed Stress Range of anchor points and restraints. This is
. termed as 'Modeling' the problem. The
f, f,
S, =- model can be generated by anybody who
f, knows haw to prepare the input. The
- 73000~1.66=23948psi programme executes the solutions. F i t
5.06 computer analysis was done in the year
S, =f ( 1 . 2 5 ~ ~ + 0 . 2 5 ~ h ) 1957.
ForCS to A106 Gr.B, The analysis of the solutions is the real
S, =20,000 psi engineering and is the job of a Piping
S, =19,450 psi at 450F Engineer.
,
S =1(1.25x20,000+0.25x19450)
=29,862 psi 11.0 ANALYSIS OF REBOILER
COMYECTION
SE( S A
10.0 COMPUTER ANALYSIS Let u s analyze the requirements of
the flexibility of connecting piping for the
So far the consideration was given vatical thpmosypbon reboiler, which is
only for the calculation of stresses in a most commonly ucd The lnalysis is
pipeline with uniform diameter - and restricted to. the fixd tube .ah& -type'df
supported at two fixed points. This does heat exchanger for simplicity. Being fixed
not represent a life size problem. -Lia real tube sheet type of heat exchanger, there
w e , the pipe routings will be connecting will be a bellow type expansion joint
to various equipments, guides or restraints provided on the . shell. This is to .
will be provided in between anchors and accomm&te the differential expamion
the pipes will be of different diameters and between the reboiler shell and the tuba.
thicknesses. Further one section of the This has nothing to do with the flexibility
piping may be cold while the other part is of the piping connection.
subjected to high temperatures.
Let us first look into the
hutctioning of the system before analyzing
the various arrangements of the reboiler

Stress Analysis 44
PIPING ENGINEEIUNG CELL

supports. The heating fluid in the reboiler accommodating expansion in the

shell provides latent heat to the liquid horizontal plane, the reboiler is supparted
inside the tubes, thereby vaporizing a part on low fiction slide plates, which allow I
of it. The mixture of vapor and liquid the same to move.
returns to the column via vapor return
connection This mixture will be at the If an operating condition occurs in
same temperature as the liquid drawn from such a way that the temperature of the
the bottom of the column. When the shell reboiler andlor the column varies, then the
of the column and the tubes of the reboiler - differential expansion will have to b e
accommodated by the flexibility in the
are of the same material of construction, -
then the vertical expansion between the connecting piping. This condition could
nozzles on the column will be practically occur if the heating of reboiler is started
same as the expansion between two before establishing the level in the column
corresponding nozzles on the reboiler or with the result of a leaky valve in the
heating circuit.
- There cap be different ways of
attachment of the rebbiler to the column. As the top nozzle is rigidly
First we will consider the simplest system attached and normally will be of higher
to analyze as illustrated in the sizes designed for two phase flow, the
Arrangement- 1. flexibility can be: achieved only by the
liquid inlet piping, Hence the analysis has
to be done for the upset condition as above
and not the normal operation
Hcrt the reboiler is supported on
its shell &om the bottom part of the
column as near to the elevation of the
vapor return nozzle as possible. In this
case the support lugs on ihe reboiler shell
is arranged as near to the top tube sheet as
possible. This minimhies the differential
expansion between the centre line of the I
vapor retuna nozzle on the column and the
corresponding reboilcr nozzle i.e. between
ab and a'b'.
As indicated earlier, when the
tubes are of the same material a s that of
the shell of the column, the diflerential
expansion in vertical plane between the
nozzle on the column and those on the
reboiler will be negligible in. the normal Fig. 11.1
operating conditions. . 11.2 Arrangement-2 (See Fig. 11.2)
-

When ihe tubes and the column If it so happens that the column
have different of shell will not permit the support of reboiler
construction, the piping leg 'cd' in on brackets attached to the shell just below
Anangement-l has the the vapor return nozzle, then the brackets
differential expansion. For are to be attached to the vessel skirt. This

Stress Analysis
PIPING ERGINEEFUNG CELL

will result in the support bracket at a larger 1 1.3 Arrangement-3 (See Fig. 113)
distance &om the level of the vapor return.
nozzle: When the reboiler is too heavy to support ,

fiom the column or the skirt as illustrated

In all reboiler analysis problems,
the centre line of the vapor return nozzle is
above, an independent support has to be
considered as the dahun and the provided for support of the reboiler. In this
movements are assessed first on the case there will be a considerable offset
column side and then on the reboiler side. between the column and the reboiler
Applying this to the present problem, the centrdines. The movements of vapour
expansion of the reboiler shell between the retum nozzle will be at fixed elevation.
vapor return nozzle and the support 7%espring support is the only solution and
bracket will be more as the shell is at a will be as illustrated in Arrangement-3
higher temperature and the tubes and (See Fig. 11.3)
column shell are at the same temperature.
This differential will not be possible to be
accommodated in the connection between
the reboiler outlet and the column, as they
are close coupled.
The only solution to this problem is to
support the reboiler on the spring supports
with the addition of low fiction slide
plates to allow the reboiler support to
slide. This is as illustrated in the
Arrangement - 2.

Fig. 11.3

Fig. 11.2

Stress Analysis
 benl-rlcarebourse
on
PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005

PIPE UNDER STRlESS

Prof. A. S. Moharir
IIT Bombay.

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Powai, Mumbai - 400 076
a
'PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

PIPE UNDER STRESS

' 'PROF. A. S. MOHARlR
INTRODUCTION
1. Identify potential loads that would come
Pipes an the most delicate components in any . on to the pipe or piping system dwing its
process plant. They are also the most busy entire life .
entities. 'Ihcy are subjected to almost all kinds 2. Relate g c h one of these loads to the
of laads, intentiorial or unintentional; It is very - stresses and strains that would be
.impmtant to take note of all potential loads developed in the crystals/& of the
that a piping systcm would encounter d~lring Material of Construction (MoC) of the
operation as well as during other stages in the piping system.
life cycle of a process plant. Ignoring any such 3. Decide the worst three-dknensiodal stress
load while designing, erecting, hydro testing, state that the MoC can withstand & h u t
start-up, shutdown, normal operation, failure
maintamcc etc. can lead to bdequate design 4. Get the cumulative effect of all the
and engintering of a piping system. The potential loads on the 3-D stress scenario
- systetn m y fail on the first occummce of this
ovalooked load. .Pailwe of a piping system in the piping system rmder considedon.
may trigga a Domho eEtct- and cause a 5.' Alter piping system design to ensure that
major disaster. This is the lesson h m the the stress pattan is within Wrpe lipits.
*OUS Flixborough+ that CY-y
. having anything to -.do with G g n ,
The goal of quantification and analysis of pipe
stresses is to provide safe design through the
e n g i n b g , m a , operation etc. of a above steps. Of course, there wuld be stvcrat
piping 9yStun must leam. It is not sufficient to
do 99 right things and 1 wrong thing while designs, which could be safe. A piping
engineer would still have a lot of scope to'
desipiq 8 piping :system. The end m l t 'choosefiwn such al&tiivcs the ant which is
would & dimtrow. One must score a perfect
loo id piping system design. most wmdcal, or m& suitable etc.' Good
pipirig system design is always a mixtun of
Tfie idea of this paper is to discug all possible sound knowlcdgc base in the basics a d a lot
potentid losds that arc dcvc1opcd in 8 piping of ingchuity. l l i s paper attempts to q t e the
system and their implication on the sttesses aecessary base.
thatCwouldbe generated in the pipes. Some
guidclincsto minimize the dfect of such loads CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS AND
aad keep the resultant skcwx under limits FAILURE MODES
spcdied by the d sre Em l giym,' Final
design and engineering of a piping Gtem Pmmre design of piping orequipment uses
may have to-6sthrough rigoious calculations, one criteria for design. mdcr a s h d y
either manual or'oncomputer, of the collectt've application ~f load (e.g. prc.qum), it ensracs '

efikct of dl a h loads and somd analytical against failure of the system as perceived by
&Is to,takc m g k x i n g decisions to mitigate one of tAt failme theories. If a'pipt B t s ' i
this effect. for a certain pmssurc experiences r much
higher pressure, the pipe would rupture e m if
'Stress analysis and safe design normally such load (pressure) is applied only once. The
require appreciation of several related failure or mphirc is sudden and complete.
concepts. An approximate list of the steps that Such a failure is called catastrophic failure. It
would be involved is as follows. takes place only when the load exceeds far
beyond the load for which design was bed
out Over the years, it has been rraliztd that

PIPE UNDER STRESS . . .

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

systems, especially piping systems can fail The design to guard against failw by primary
even when the loads arc always under the loads is bajed on one or more failure thcoriu
limits considered safe, but the load application such as the ones discked later in this paper.
is cyclic (t.g. high prcsmrc, low pressure, high
pressure,..). Such a failure is not guarded Secondary Loa& .
against by conventional pressure design
formula or compliance with failure theories. Just as thc primary loads have their origjn m
Once this was realized and it was seen than some force, secondary loads an caused by
systems may fail after prolonged use under the displacement of some kind. For example, the
load they could withstand till that time, it pipe connected to a storage tank may be uudcr
became clear that system design must comply load if the Eank nozzle to which it is connected
with at least two different types of loads moves down due to t d
csettlement Similarly,
causing two different types of failures. For pipe connected to a vessel is pulled upwards
piping system design, it is now well because the vessel nozzle moves up due to
established that one must treat these two types vessel expansion. Also, r pipe may n i t e due
of loads separately and together guard against to vibrations in the rotating equipment it is
catastrophic and ktigue failure. a t b c W to. .A pipe may cxpuitnce aqmsion
or &mtmctiou once it is.5ubjected to
Thc loads the piping systcm (or for that matter tcqaatws h i g h or'lower rapcctivcly as
, any structural part) faces arc broadly classified compated b tnnperPtrn at which it was
as primary loads and secondary loads. There tfssanbltd.
e i h p l a and charictcristics are given hcn in ,..

brief. ThtscccnldaryIojrdsareo~eqj.clicbutnot
.... .. always. -For example .load dtae to tauk
.
' .:
. Primary Loads ,' . settlement is not cyclic. 'Ihe load due to vessel
nozde movement dmbg o w on is cyclic
These are typically steady or sustained typcs bcwuse the displacement is withdrawn during
. of loads such as intmal fluid pmsurq shut-down and rsu+xs''agaiu aftcz fnsh
u r d pressure, gravitational forces acting gbrt-ip. A pipe subjectmitd a cycle of hot md
on the pipc such as weight of pipc and fluid, cold fluid sirnilarly.\mdcrgocscyclic loads and
forces due to relief or blow down, pmssm defolmatitra..
waves genesated due to wata hammer effects
Tht last two loads arc not n d y ~ ~ r m d a s u c h ~ ~ i s ~ f b e .a ~ t ~ & i g ~ ~
sustained loads. All these loads occur beaure mdnot -hit in nature.
of 'farces created and acting on the p*&: h
fact, primary loads have their ohgin in some Broadly speaking, cata&opbic failure is
force acting on the pipe causing tension, bacause individual crystah a'gnins were
compression, torsion ttc lead@ to n d ;lad subjected to dnsses, *&the chmdtry end
s~arsasscs;Tool8rgealoadofthistypt thep~csofthtsoUddd~withstand.
leads to -deformation, o b plastic. The. Fatigue f i i i i is ofk--hcause the gains
deformation is limited only if the material c o ~ ~ v e I y , ~because e d . their collective
shows strain hardcnimg cIua&&tics. Ifit has c l u w t d t i c s (far example with
no strain hardeningpmpnty or ifthe I d i s so caeh othn &.) chaaged dl& to cyclic load
excessive that the p h d c instability scts in,the Inmemental damage done by each cyck to
tystcm would continue t6 d e f m till mpfm. their collective texture accumulated to such
Ollt says, that primary loads are not self- ievds that 'thc system failed. In otber wards,
limiting. It means that the stresses cont'muc to dastmphic fkilurc is' more at m i w i c
exist as tong as the load persists and Icvcl, whatas fatigue failure is at mcsoscopic
defarmation does not stop because the system level if no! at macroscopic level.
has deformed mto a no-stress condition but
because strain harden'ig has come into play.

PIPE UNDER STRESS

 PIPING ENGTNlEERING CELL

Tbis part of ..the papa - focuses more on orientation. which minimizes some ot4er
. primary loads .&d.catastrophic failure. A brief nonnal stress. 1 .
. . I . implication of cyclic loads and fatigue failure
j on desigi'is presented The subsequent
->
parts would deal more ~~mprehensively with
secondary loads including thermal loads and
i, . .
stress analysisconcepts. . .

Fig.1: Commonly Used Coordinate System

THE STRESSES
The mechanics of solids state that it
'Phe MoC of any piping system is the most would also be orientation, which
'

tortured non-living being right fiom ik birth. minimizes some other nonnal .stress.
Leaving the furnace in the molten state, the Nonnal stresses fot such orientation
metal solidifies within seconds. It is a very

-
(maximum normal 'stress orientation) arc
hurried crystallization process. drystals called principal stresses, and arc designated S
could be of various lattice structurd pattans
such M BCC,FCC,HCP etc. depending on the ( h u r h . , sz and SI (minimum). Solid
material aud q e proccss. grains, crystals mechanics also states that tbe sum of the three
of the material hvc no time or chance to stmscs for all orientatim is dways the
orient thiPuel*in any particular fashion sameforaaygirmatternalload,ThatiS
'hey m thus from in d l rendam orientations
. in tb wld harmla pipe ~.+uiudes~rnemk sLi-s +sa 9 sI +sz +Sa
thatwescc. :
. .:. .'... . ...
n .

.. . ,. . ....<
-.
j -

When we calculate stresses,wc'chwsc: a set of - hpmance of principal strtsses can be

orthogonal directions and d e h e the ~~RSSCSia stressed at this time.*~ssumethat a rnataial
,this c o o ~ t sySeem.
e For example, in a pipe can be b e d to fail of my d stre&
..-subjected to i n t c d prwsurc or .any o h exceeds some threshold value. If cunvmtional
*l the. .most .used choice of c w d h a t e eo-odhate axes arc used, oae niay hifor
system is the one' comprising of axial or certain stress state that S ,S and S are within
L n a
.., longitudiual dire&? Q, ckq@taencial (or this threshold limit. l%e design would thcn
Hoopt's) direction (H)and radiaf dimtion (R) . appear to be safe. However, g r a b , 4 i c h p1.e
as shown in Fig.1. Stresses.in ttao pipe wall oriented in maximum n d stress
uc qmsscd as uid (S ), Hoop's (S) and cnientaticm, may hvc one of (hc scsca (S).
radial (S ). 'Ilurc &,. which &h a ~ w n t h a n t h i s ~ l d . i b c p i p w o u l d &
a
compress a W w y s t a l , arc d l e d n o d fail ai fia as tErese arc concanad
stresses~thdy~ndrmaltothesrof~ D c s i g n h a s t o b c ~ e f o rsuch~~case
ofthesrya- ~cnario. Mneipal strews ore thus a &ay of!
' . . -- defining.& worst case sccnario as far as
Bug all gabs are not oriented as the p& in nOrmai shsses me comxnlad
Fig.1. In fact the grains would havc bten
-
oriented in the pipc wall in all poss~ible uIn addition to the normat strc~ses,g g@n can
orientations. The above strtssts would also tie subjected to shear strtsses as well. These
have dress components in direction normal to act parallel to the crystal surfices as against
the faces of such randomly oriented crystal. perpendicular direction applicable f6r normal
Each crystal thus does face normal stresses. stresses. Shear stresses occur if the pipc is
One of t k oricntationg must be such that it subjected to torsion, beading ctc, Just as that
maximizes one of the normal stresses. Zhe is an orientation for which normal strtsses arc
mechanics of solids state that it would also be maximum, there is an orientation, which
maximizes shear stress. The maximum shear

PEE UNDER STRESS

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

1
stress in a
be
3-Dstate of stress can be shown to All failure theories state that these principle or
maximum shear stresses or some combination
I
of them should be within allowable limits for
the MoC under consideration To check for
compliance of the design would then involve
I-'
relating the applied load to get the net S ,S ,7 3
i.e. half of the difference between thc
maximum and minimum p ~ c i ~ stresses.al
n .L I
and then calculate S , S and 7 and some I g?
The maximum shear s t m s is. important to I 1 ra

calculate because failure may occur or may be combination of them.

. II . 2 2

.--
deemed 'to occur due to shear stress also. A
failure perception may stipulate that mrp5mu-n NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES 3
shear stress should not cross certain threshold
value. It is thmfore necessary to take the
FROM APPLIED LOAD
As said earlier, a pipe is subjected to all kinds
1: . '
worst case scenario for shear stresses also as e
above and ensure against failure. of loads. 'These need to be identified. Each I

'

.I .
L.

such load would induce in the pipe wall,

It is easy to define &sses in the co-ord&te norrrmlandshearstrtsscs.These~cdtobe -
I0?

system such as axial-Hoopc's-did (LB-R) catdated fiom standard relations. The net ;
that we define for a pipe. Tbe load bearing
cross-section is then well defined and stress
n o d md shear stresses resulting firom dl
such actual and potentidloads an then arrived -1: A5
=
eil

<$5
components are calculated as ratio of load to at and principle 'idmaxbum shear stresses -2
catculatd Some potential' loads faced by a . j
load bearing cross-scctik Similarly, it is
possible to calculate shear stress in a @ d a t pipe and their relationships to stress rtn 53P
plane given the torsional. or bending load.
What an rtquked fix testing failure-safe
nature of design &, 'however, principal
stresses and maximum shear stress. These can ". . ...
. ..
. be calculated from the normal strcsscs and pig
A,p i g may ..&
a;;!
may .. face...,..~:#&,.:
.*;
&d force (Fi G). . a&
. .:t.- a$-+&
.: ..a-';=-
. shear stresses available in any convtnicnt .. :;.* . . & . .
;

in lip:2. It could k tensilek m l e or compressiVe;

compressive. :i1.
. . orthogonal co-ord'mte
. . .systcm.
'

T d\ --------.-.-.-.-.-- ,.-.-.\.
. ..
r .i.. :. .

In mostbipc design &cs of &taet, the =did

component of normal shaes (S ) is
R
negligibre as c ~ m p a n dta .the other two
. component3 (S a ~ S
u
d ). The 3-D state of
L. w:
Pipe Under Anial &ad
s t x w thus can be simplified to 2-Dstate of =iJ
&ms. Use af Mok's circle then allows to Whrit is shown is a tensile load. It w&d ltsd ! '. ,.-A I
calculate the prhciple strcscs and to normal stress in the axiddirection (S-).The i <J
maximum shear stress as'follows. -L
load bearing .cross-section is the aoss-
s e c t i d area of the pipe wall narmal b the
'
I .
-
-. I 3

.
Idad. dkction, A The stress can thcn be
I
. I -
-3
1
A-Lt f.' - J
S
L
=FL i Am
I

- i
1"
The third principle stress (minimum i.e. S ) is 3
1 The load-btaring cross-section IyLY be 1' ..
calculated rigorously or appraximtely - 3
follows. f *

PIPE UNDER STRESS

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

A =~(d'-d3/4(rigorous)
(4 0 I
= z (do + d)VL(based on average diameter) Thc intemal:pnssun .also induces strrsses in
I the. circrrmfcrtntial direction . .as shown in
=zd t (based on Outer Dimeta) Fig. 3.
0

The nx*l load may be cawed due to semi

SO US. The simplest case is a tall column.
Tbe metal c ros s-
w o nat the b a of ~ ~fie
column is under the weight of tb c o l m
section above it inclu&g tb wei&t of 0 t h :
column accessories such as hraulatiolq trays,
ladders etc. Another example is that of cold
spring. Many times a pipeline is intentionally
cut a little short than the end-twd length Fig. '3: Hoope9r Stress due to Internal
required. It is then connected to the end pressure
nozzles by fmibly stretching it, 'The pipe, as he stresses are m~hnlrmfor griDs situated
assembled, is lmda axial tension. When the at the b c r radius sad minimum for those
'hot fluid starts moving through the pip, the sihuPcdatt&out,mdius.ThcHoops's~
pip q m l s c q m s i v e stresses arc at my in ktwcm radial position (r) is given
generated. The cold tensile strwscs Pt thus as follows (hne's cquatim)
nullified. TIe thermal cipansion -8es m
thus taken M of through appropriate
assembly-time measures.
- . - . . . , '.
. .

Fm t&l : w e d pip,
e t i m c a a k neglsotcd' Fmm manbra& . .
theory. SB may then be .approximated
. .
u
A pipe used for trrulrporting fluid would be fofi&&
! under in(rrml pressure load. A pipe swh as a
:-.

i '
jacketed p i p -or tuba in r Shell & Tube
exchanger etc. may be under net external
II pressure. Internal.or external presstat.induces
Radial stresses are &o induced due to m t d
stresses in the axial as well as circumfmcial
(Hoop's) directions. Ilu prrrans also press~reascanbesetn~mFig.4.
induces mnrcS m the radial direction, but as
I ?
. . argued earlier, thwe m often neglected. aE
9,

m e internal pressure exerts an axial force

. equal to pressure times .the internal cro&
section ofpipe.
. .-
L =P[xd12141

I This then induces axial stnss calculated as :

I earlier. If outer pipe diameter is used for Fig. 4: Radial Stressts Due to Internal
calculating approximate metal cross-section as Pressure
well as pipe cross-section, the axial stress can .'
often be approximated as folIows. At the outer skin, the radial stress is
comprcssivc and equal to atmospheric
S =Pd/(4t) pressun (P ) or artcmal pressure (P ) on the
I
..
1
I
L
-.q4ata% .6v.9tn.?, # ; ,
ma a
t

. .
''fle+& l.9/jdm: : a'
!
PIPE UNDER STRESS
i
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

At inner radius, it is also com~ressive For fixed supports, the maximum bending
but equal to absolute fluidlprcsure (P ). In moment occurs at the ends and is given by
a
between, it varies. As mentioned earlier, the IXam theory as follows.
radial component is often neglected.
M = w '.I / 12 for fixed support
mr
Bending Load
Thc pipe configuration and support types used
A pipe c8n face sustained loads causing in process industry do not confirm to any of
bending. The bending moment can be related thest id* support types and can be best
.
to normal ahd shear stresses. ,.
'
considerid as somewhere in be- As a
result, a .common practice is to use the
Pipe bending is caused mainly due to two following average formula to calculate
reasons: Uniform weight load and bending moment for practical pipe
concentrated weight load' A pipe span configurations as follows.
supported at two ends would sag between
t h supports
~ due to its own weight and the
weight of insulation (if any) when not in
' opmtion. It may sag due to its weight and
Also, the m a h u m bending moment in thc I
wcight of hydrostatic test fluid it contains case of actual supports would - occur
during hydrostatic test. It may sag due to its
own weight, insulation weight and the weight of somewbae between the epds and the middle
the span. I-
of fluid it is canying during operation All
these weights are distributed miformly a m s s Another load that the pipe span wouId fact is
the unsupported span and lead to maximum . the concentrated load. A good example is a
' bending moment eitha at the center of the
' 1 '
ipan or at the end points of the span (support .
valve on a pipe run (see ~igure-6).
location) depending upon the tyge of the .. 7
Pdn LoadW

support used.

Let the total weight of the pipe, insulation and

fluid be W and the 'length of the unsupported r( .
--
- a
-L
.;?

-b
. . . .
PlmdqW
.
I '
span be L (see Fig. 5).
t o b l bad

-
b-1 ~WWJmt I
-L-
I=
Fig*6: POW&Latd +. .

The load is tlm a p p r o h t t d as acting a: fz I '

center of gravity of the valve and the
Fig. 5: Distributed Load maximum k u h g moment occurs at the p i n t
of lading fapinned suppats and is given as . I:
'The weight per unit length, w, is then
calculated (w = WlL). The maximum bcnding
moment (M ), which occurs at the center for
w
the pinned support, is then given by the beam For rigid supports, the maximum bending
theory as follows. T pointed
moment o a m at the end ~ C to the
M = w La/8 for pinned support load and is given as
111l

q. \ o n ~ t &s+-c
~

PIPE UNDER STRESS

a, : &&\\adrs.t..-tC
6
 PLYING ENGINEERING CELL . .

The maximum tensile stress occurs where c is

equal to the outer radius of the pipe and is
A is to be taken as the longer of the two arms given as follows. .
(a and b) iri using the above formula.
S at outer radius = M r /I= M I Z
L b o b
As can be seen, the bending moment can be
reduced to zero by making eitha a or b zero, what Z (= I/r ) is the section modulus of the
i.c. by locating one of the supports right at the 0

point where the load is acting. In actual pipe.

practice, it would mean supporting the valve
itself. As that is difficult, it is a common Shear Load
practice to locate one support as close to the
valye (or any other pointed and significant Shear load causes shear st~esses.Shear load
load). With that done, the bending moment may be of different types. One common load
due to pomtcd load is minimal and can be is the shear force (V) acting on the cross-
neglected. section of the pipe as shown in Fig. 8.
. Iv
I
Whenever the pipe bends, the skin of the pipe
'
wall experiences both tensile and cotnpmsivc
strwscs in the axid direction ss shown in
Fig. 7.
I

. .
. .
. . . -. . ,

Fig. 8:. Shkr For? on a Pipe.

.. . . . . .
.,,
. . .
. . . . . . .

L - ~ . ~ 1 * . l r k It causes shear strcsscs, which arc maximum

i along the pipe axis md .phimum along ttie
Fig. 7: M a l s&essa due to Bending outer skin of the pipe. This being exactly
'

opposite of the axial stress pattan c a d by

I The axial stress charigts h n xnaxhum bending momcnt a d rlso because t h e
tensile on one side of the pipe to maxixnum stnsses are sindl in magnitude, these arc often
compressive on the other ride. Obviously, not taken in account in pipe stress analysis. If
r
, \
I
. the& is 8 neutral axis along which the bending nccessay, these are caiculated as
moment docs not induce any ucial stnsses.
This is also the axis of the pipe.
. .
I . .
! & &. m i l e sms faa bending
I . .
of M at:any location c as measraed.h the
b . . . .

I neutral axis is givm

. as
. fo1loti-s... . . . .

i
), S =Mc/I Torsional Load
L b
> I
This load' (see Fig. 9) also causes shear
1 I is the moment inertia of the pipe cross- stresses. The shear stress caused due to torsion
I section. F0t a C ~ U ~~OSS-%tion
U pipe, I is
- at outa pipc rndiur ~~d is givsa
I . given as there in tenns of the torsional moment and
1 !
pipe dimensions as follows.

1
i
i
PIPE UNDER STRESS 7
)

!
i
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Maximum Stress Theory

This is also called Rankine Theory. According

to this theory, failure occurs when the
maximum principle stress in a system (S ) is
I
'
greater than the maximum tensile principle
stress at yield in a specimen subjected to
uniaxial tension test.

Uniaxial tension test is the most common test

carried out for any ~ o dThe. tensilc stress in
. .
a constant cross-section specimen at yield is
what is reported as yield stress (S ) for any
Fig. 9: Shear Force Due to Torsion
material and is normally available In imiaxial
test, the applied load gives rise only to axial
strcss (S ) and S and S as well as shcar
I. II 1.
strtsscs are absent. S is thus also thc:principle
L
R is the torsional resistance (= Mrice the normal stress (i.e. s). 'Ihat is, in a specimen I
T
!+I
*
1
moment of inertia). under uniaxial &on test, at yield, the
.
following holds. -
f 2F
3
All known loads on the pipe should be used to
calculate contri'butions to S ,S and T. These
L H
then are used to calculate the principal stresses
and haximum shear stress. These derived = j
7

quantities are then used to chcck whether the <-,:

pipe system design is adequate based on one

or more theories of failure. . ..
The maximum tensile principle stress at yield
is thus equal to the '~~~vcntionally Pepootcd
yield stress (Ioad at yield I cross~scctionalarea
I' ij
B
I' -:+I
'a

of specimen). . ..
THEORIES OF FAILURE . I . 2

The Rankhe theory thus just says that Wure =3

A piping system ig particular or a sfmctmal
part in g c n d is deemed to fsl when a
o c m when the maximumprinciple stress in r I' 41 - a
stipulated fimction of various strrsses and
systcin (S) is more than the yield strew ofthe I . *3 \

. . .AP
strainsiarthc~orstruc~partcro~s . . , .
( 1
;id
_ . .__ ..... .. . ....
'.' . . . . . . .. -
- . . .. .
1
. ..
a. ocrtain threshold d u e . It is a n d . . .._._. _: . .. . . . ..- . .____.,< .. -;:.
,

practice to &fine fzlure as occwing when ' ~ ~ ~ m p r i r r i ~ l ~ ~. i . n m ~ r y. si t a n t j

this b c t i o n in the actual system crosses the should k calculated as earlier. . . . . . . . '- - . B
I : i
value of a similar function in a solid rod . . -*>

specimen at the point of yield. That are it is intmsting to check the implication of this
various theories of faitwe that have btcn put theory on the case when a cylinder (or pipe) is
forth. These theories differ only in the way the subjected to internal pressure.
above-mentioned fimction is defined.
Important theories in common use arc As pcr the membrane theory for gnssure
considered hen. design'of cylinder, as long as the Haape's
stress is less that the yield stress of the MoC,
the design is safe. It is also known that
Hoopc's stress (S ) induced by internal
H

PIPE UNDER STRESS

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

pressure is twice the axial stress (S ). The The maximum shear stress in the system
L
should be calculated as earlier.
.
principle stresses in the cylinder as. m the
&lit& given formula wouldbe
It should also bcintsssting to check the
implication of this theory on the case when a
cylinder (or pipe) is subjected to internal
pressure.
s = (SL + SHy2 - [{(SL - SH)n)l + rZ]"'
2 As the Hoope's stress induced by internal
pressure (S ) is 'twicethe axial stress (S ) and
L
thi shear stress is not induced directly (T = 0)
The nixximum principle stress in this case is the maximum shear stress in the.cylindcr as -
-

S (=S ). The Rankine theory and the design per the earlier given formula would be
2 H
criterion used in the membrane theory are thus
compatible.

Check that tht same is the case if we consider

the. design formula for sphere based on
membrane theory. Membrane theory widely This should be less than 0.5 S as per Tresca
Y
used for pressure thickness calculation for theory for safe design. ' h i s leads to the same
pressure vessels and piping design uses -criterion that Hoope's stress in a cylinder
Rankine theory as a critaion for failure. . should be less than yield stress. Tbe ~ m c a
theory and the design criterion used in the
Maximum Shear Theory membrane theory for cylinder arc tbus
, .* compatiile. -
k s is dso cd~edre& thcory. A C to ~
thistbcory,failtrr~occ\rrswhtnthedum chick whether the same is the case if we . . -

sheer stress in a 'system Vmax) is greater than considq the design formula for sphere based
the maximum b a r .ukcss at yield .in a on membrane theory. .-
sptcimen subjected to uni-axial ,teasioa t e a " - . .,
Note that it is similar in wording to the Octahedral Shear Theory . ..
statement of the carlid. theory except that
mximumshcar~tnsgkusdascriterianfor 'Ibis is also called von Mists thcory.
co-on as against Illaimtrm @cip!e According to this theory' failure occurs when
s h s s used in the Rankine theory. the actah& shear st+s in a system (s ) is
d

In lmiaurial ttst, the maximum 'shear stress at greater 6thc octahedral shear stress at,yield
yield as per definition of maximum shear test in a specimkn subjected to uniaxial tension
given earlier is test Note that it is similar in wording to the
statement of the &hi% two theories stet
s = 0 5 [(S - S Y+4ra]*J that octahedral shear stress is used as criterion
.
p L iI for comparison as against maximuin principle
=SR=SR stress used in the Rankine theory or maximum
shear stress used in Tresca theory.
The Trescs theory thus just says that failure
occurs when the maximum shear stnss in a The octahedral shear stress is defined in terms
system (T .) is more than half the yield stress of the three principle stresses as follows.
II

of the material (S ).
Y

PIPE UNDER STRESS + Aanurc 0- 9

 !
PIPING ENGIXEERING CELL

In view of the p ~ c ~ p stresses

le defined for a
9
and becomes gradually a compressive load of !
specimen under uniaxial load earlier, W (i.e. a load of -9, then a tensile load of W
octahedral shear stress at yield in the specimen and so on. Time averaged load is thus zero.
can be shown to be as follows. The cycles to failure are then measured The
experiments arc repeated with diffmt
1-
1

.c '=203S 1 3 amplitudes of load. The results would be

od Y

The von Mises theory thus states that failure

typically as in Table 1. '
I
occurs in a system when octahedral shear Table 1: Typical Fatigue Test Results
stress in the system exceeds 2 S / 3.
Y Experiment Applied Cyclic Cycles to
Number ~Geis,psi' Failure
The reader should check what it implies for
the case sf cylinder and sphere and how it
compares with the membrane theory criteria
for design.

For stress analysis related calculations, most

of the present day piping codes uses a
.'modifiedversion of Tnsca theory. -

This table was for a MoC with yield stress of

.DESIGN UNDER SECONDARY 57000 psi. Same inkresting & d m cao
' LOAD be madc and qwti& raised.
'As pointed earlier, a pipe designed to If the material has a reported yield stress of
withstand primary loads and to avoid 57000, how were stresses far more than that
number created during fatigue tests on the
1-
!
catastrophic failure may fail after a sufficient
amomt of time due to secondary cyclic load specimm as rtportad in the above table? This
causing fatigue failure. The secondary loads
are oftcn cyclic in nature. The number of
question is very common and natural for all
those who do stress analysis and .obwm 1-
cycles to fiilure is a prom of the m a t e d of reported-strtsses at d o u s nodes of a piping
c ~ & ~ c t i ojust
n as yield stress is. While yield
stress is cardinal to the design mder primary
sustakd loads, this number of cyclu to
system which ere often far beyond the yield
stress. In the stress-strain c u m generated for
the specimen using uniaxial W i l e load, iuch .
I.
failure is the c m q o d q material property
imparCaat in design &. cyclic loads atmid
at enwing that the failure docs not take place
a posslIbZty would not be seen because fot
any stress more than tbe yieId stress,. the
material would seem to & more and morc
I
within a'certainperiod f~ which the system is with* allowing a of simrifiwy
to be designed. inmeaskg the stress furher. This qucsti~ncan
be answmd as follows.
. I'
W e yield stress is measured by subjecting a
specimen to uniaxial tensilt load, fatigue test e always member thgt stresses are
~ o must II ' ,
is carried out on a similar specimen subjected always derived rather than actually measlaed
'to cycles of uuiaxial tensile and c o ~ i v e quantities. What is actuaily measured is the I '
loads of certain amplitude, i.e. magnitude of load or the strain. The strtsscs arc eitha
the tensile and compressive loads. Normally rcporttd as applied. load divided by the
1 .
the tests arc carried out with' zero mean load. original load-&g crdss-section or the r-
This mans, that the specimen is subjected to a values comsponding to the obs~ycdstrain as
gradually increasing load leading to a noted on the elastic line's i n w o n with the 1

maximum tensile load of W, then the load is strain vertical. What the later gives is the
I
removed gradually till it passes through zero hypothetical stress that would have tieen
I
 Certificate Course

PIPING ENGINEERING.
. -
May 11 27,2005.

TRANSIENT F'LuID FLOW .'

Prof. A. S. Moharir-:'

. . . ..
. . .... .. .. ? .
......
. . .;
. .
..
Orgrrnriea by - . ' . .?
. .
. . . . .. . .
. . ..
. . . .. . ..<.
' Plping Engineering:Cell
'

. . ..;..
.
. . .
_
. ..c
.:...
. .. ..
Computer Aided ~ e s i g nCentre . .
.
..:.. . ..
.
.
Indian Institute of ~eehnolo'g~,Bombay
Powai, Mumbai -400 076

. . .
.. ' . li
I

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

TRANSIENT FLUID FLOW ANALYSIS

:..... .
. . Prof. A. S. Moharir

' Piping system's importance in any process plant cannot be over emphasized. In
terms of cost, piping cost is estimated at approximately 25% of the total plant cost. This
is next only to the equipment cost (approximately 50%). In terms of engineering man-
hours, piping consumes almost half of the total man-hours. Same is the case for field
man-hours spent on fabrication, assembly and testing. The operating bill is alsa bloated
significantly by the energy consumed in transporting process or utility fluids through
pipes connecting equipment. In transport and distribution business such as cross-country
pipelines or gas networks etc, the entire capital and operating expenditure is in laying and
running the pipelines. Piping systems, wherever and for whatever these may be
employed, thus have a major footprint on overall project economics.

Wellbeing of piping systems is equally important for smooth and as-expected

functioning of a process plant, just as it is in the case of process equipment. Pipes
distinguish themselves as different from equipment, in terms of their aspect ratio (length
to diameter ratio). A significant &pect is their length and rather complex routing which
make them rather delicate. and susceptible to failure or mal-functioning under
singldmultiple fofe~een/unforeseenloads. Although design formulae for pipes and
cylindrical process vessel are same as far as ensuring their integrity against
intemallexterrial pressures at sub- or super-ambient temperatures are concerned, process
vessels are more stable and rigid compared to pipes due to their larger base (diameter)
and unrestricted nature, at least in one dimension. Piping systems on the other hand, are
'anchored' at terminal, heldlguided along the way by supporkhangas, must carry rather
large weight en-route (valves etc.), move in complex 3-D configuration, undergo
pronounced net expansionfcontraction at operating tempaatum Merent than
installation temperature, must withstand vibrational and displacement loads transmitted
by connecting equipment, must successllly negotiate occassional loids such as seismic
wind, surge etc., must withstand flow induced vibrations and gravitational force etc. To
foresee all these loads and select a pipe route exercises an engineer's knowledge in
diverse science and engineering disciplines. That makes the so called 'piping engineer' so
unique in engineering organization.

This module deals with fluid transients. The origin of fluid transience, i.e.
dynamic change in pressure and velocity profiles along a pipe route, otherwise designed
for steady state behaviour, impact of these transient values on pipe integrity and methods
to mitigate hannful fluid transients are discussed qualitatively as well as quantitatively.

Basics of Steady State Pipe Hydraulics

Mechanics is a branch of science which studies behaviour of objects under the

application of external forces. Two fundamentally different fomes are 'shear' and
'normal' forces. Normal forces could be tensile or compressive. .Behaviour of a
substances or an object under shear force is used to categorise matter, namely, solid and

1
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

fluid. A fluid is defined as a substance which when in static equilibrium cannot sustain i
shear forces. The tenn 'fluid' encompasses 'liquids' and 'gases'. i

Compressive forces result in pressure. Fluid pressure is an important design 1

parameter for piping systems. I

One of the fimdamental equations governing fluids in motion is the Bernoulli's -.

equation. It is a statement of the law of conservation of energy as applied to fluids in
motion. ! ;
1 ,.
Bernoulli's Equation %,

I
It is merely a statement of conservation of energy as applied to fluids in motion It ,
considers any fluid as having three types of energies, namely, potential energy, kinetic
energy and internal energy (by way of fluid pressure). While allowing exchange of I
energy amongst these forms, Bernoulli's equation states that the total energy remains -
I. i
constant. It is best understood by considering a conduit carrying .fluid between two points
f -
'1' and '2' as in figure I. If P, ,Z, and v,; i =I, 2 represents the fluid pressure, elevation 1 I-.

and fluid velocity at point i, then

1
The equation is valid for any pair of points along a conduit. 1
7

-, ,.
A special case is worth considering. Let the conduit be horizontal ?
, ,
(Z, = 2,) and of unifom cross-section (v = v ).The above statement of conservation of 1 .
- f
3
energy would then imply that the pressure is same at the two ends of the pipe. This is I
L

contrary to expectations as one expects pressure at upstream point ('1') to be higher than -
4

the pressure at the downstream point ('2') and tbis pressure difference actually sustaining 2 z)
,
the fluid flow. A force (P, -P )# is then seen as acting on the fluid between points 1 and
. .
X?

-7
B
2 camkg itto move h h t i o n f -+2,.
.<
. .
,
. .
. '
. . . . . . <:>
.
..,-
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,.:,<..v,....
.
. . . . . ..,
.
. . . .. -I.,... : . . .
.?
* .
--- ..:
'1
This is incorporated in the 8 e r n o ~ l i wequati6n
s] by a 'loss? terms as follows: . .
. . .

h, is the head loss which accounts for the loss of energy due to fluid fiiction I. -
b

and/or turbulence. In fact, this energy gets converted into heat, marginally increasing the
fluid temperature which gets dissipated and is 'lost' for all practical purposes as it cannot
be employed to do any usehi work. Pumps and compressors are provided in the process
plant essentially to sustain this 'loss'. This 'loss' constitutes a significant portion of
operating cost. This constituent of the operating cost can be reduced by opting for a larger
bore pipe for a given service. This, however, increases the capital investment. Pipe sizing
is thus a balance between capital and operating costs. Reliable estimate of frictional
PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL

losses is thus important fiom process economics point of view. Some basic concepts and
calculations are covered here.

Frictional Losses

Consider the earlier case of a horizontal, constant cross-section segment of a pipe

transporting fluid fiom point 1 to 2. Let the pipe segment be straight and of length L. In
addition, let the pipe be of circular cross-section with inner diameter 'd', let the steady
velocity of fluid be v, the fluid density be p and viscosity C( .

Bernoulli's equation as applied to this straight pipe is:

The fluid plug within the pipe between the points 1 and 2 experiences a differential
pressure at its two ends. This causes a forces acting on the plug which is equal to
(4 -p2 k
mi2 .
Where t$ is the pipe cross-sectional area (=-).
4
From above; this force is thus
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

However, since the fluid plug is moving at a constant velocity (i.e. no acceleration), there
can be no net force acting on the plug. The above force due to pressure differential is seen
/I
as negated by an equal and opposite frictional force between the fluid and the pipe wall in I
contact with the fluid. If this shear force per unit contact area (shear stress) is denoted as I
I

T, one can write an overall force balance as

4 .

.. 3
!
I ^"

I r
The shear stress depends on fluid velocity (v), fluid properties ( p, p ), and pipe properties
( d , ).~ E is a measure of pipe roughness and is expressed as an average height of f -.-,'
'roughness' mounds on the pipe surface. It is also called as 'equivalent sand roughness'. 1, / _
-
L .

. j
Thus

One can apply dimensional analysis to this qualitative hctionality and arrive at the i ,I>
b
1 :i
following relationship in dimensionless numbers.

dvp E
p d

For a given flow of a given fluid in a given pipe, one can thus write

--
' 1 - comtyt = x (say)
pvZ . . .. . .

,.

or T, =.xpy2 . . . . . .
.
. .
!
. ;$k2
- . . . . .
. . .. . ... . . .
. .
. . . .
. .
.+
. . 5.3
Using this in the force balance written earlier one gets
. .
. . .
. .
. . . . .
.
c . . . .
. .
. . . .

. .
, I ' .
,'
,
.V , 9
1

. . . . .
4XLvf. : * X L v 2 .
' - .'. :, . '. , ,
. . . .. . . .
.. .
- . .. . . . ... -
.
. . . .

-
'

. .. .
.
.
.
.. . . " I)
hf = ---
. .gd . 2gd :. . . . . . . . . -,>
. . . . . ,..A
. .
. -. .$
This in the hdamental relation used to calculate fictional head loss for flow through
pipes. X or its multiples are termed as fiiction factors (f). Three common definitions of
the friction factor are as follows:
I. Churchil
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

f, =8X a h , =-f,Lv2
2gd

The use of three friction factors (without a subscript) is a source of confusion and often
calls for care on the part of the user. Over- or under - estimation of pressure drop can be
caused leading to erroneous pipe sizing or rating of pumps/compressors etc. if this point
is overlooked
The friction factor (f, ,f, or f,) is a function of two dimensionless numbers,
Reynold's number (dvp l p ) and roughness factor ( ~ / ).d The dependence is normally
presented graphically as friction factor vs Reynold's number plots with roughness factor
as a parameter. Familiarity with these f vs R e plots and a quick identification of which
fiiction factor a given plot refers to is very important for all hydraulic system rating and
design.

Several fiction factor-Reynold's number correlations are also proposed as

substitutes for the f - R eplots. Some for Darcy's friction factor are collected below.

+ Colebmk - White equation for turbulent flow

.+ For Smooth pipes

6
~lasikEquation

. . . . .
.
0.316:

.
.

For rough turbulent flow

.
.
"f
.

.
. -
= 2 log (R&)

. .

. .. . . . . .. .
,

.. .
' .

.
. ..

.
.
.

. .
- 0.8

. . .
.
. .

. . .
.

for Re> lo5..

..
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.

.
.

.
. . ..

.
.
.

.
.
.

. .
. .

The above procedure is applicable only for straight pipelines. The actual pipe
routing would have several piping elements (elbows, tees, expanders, reducers, etc.)
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

along its route as well as regulation, control valves etc. These cause extra turbulence and 1 -
energy loss. For simplicity of engineering calculations each element is assigned !
equivalent length. This is the straight pipe length which would cause same pressure drop ,- -

as the element for same flow rate. The piping elementlvalve can thus be replaced in 1 -
I

calculation by the equivalent (hypothetical) length. Total effective length of a pipe route
is thus calculated. Frictional pressure drop for a given route is thus calculable.
I TC'\.

I
Some Examples: a
+ Pressure drop in straight horizontal pipe
+ Pressure drop in pipe with fittings
I;
,'-I

+ Pressure drop in a complex pipe route

+ Pipe in series, parallel, series-parallel
1
+ PipeNetwork I :<
+ Reserviors and pumps in network I -.
zd'

Unsteady Flow Analysis

I ;?
Steady state analysis (pressure drop due to fluid fiction, Bernoulli's equation) can
be applied to a complex pipe route or network to arrive at pressure and velocity at each
node. A node is where there is a change of direction and/or diameter and/or flow.
Normally, one would define a node each on either side of a straight, uniform cross-
section pipe segment as well as on either side of a piping element or valve.

A steady state can be sustained as long as there is no external disturbance which

momentarily or over a stretched time interval perhubs the flow conditions (flow rate,
pressure, flow resistance at one or more nodes). The perhubation' wuld be temporary and
the conditions at the node retum to their original status. Ia this ease, the initial system at a
steady state will deviate fiom it, but return to same steady state condition after sufficient
time. The transient behaviour of the system h m the point of application of disturbance
to return to steady state is of interest in transient analysis. In other cases, the d d a t i m
may be permanent. The system will then reach another steady state after going through a
transient phase. The transient phase is thus straddled by steady state on either side. These
steady states senve as initial/ boundary conditions in the transient analysis. Tke s t d y
state analysis is thus important from the point view of transient analysis as well.

The transient phase could take the system monotonically fiom one steady state to
another or take the system through over-,under-, or critically damped oscillations. Some
simplified situation could be analysed to appreciate the mathematics and behaviour of
fluid transients.

Ln the following examples, the fluid has been assumed to be incompressible. Also,
the changes in pressure are assumed not to cause change of phase. For example, consider
a liquid in the piping system well above its vapour pressure throughout.

Example 1 :
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
I

I
'>
Consider a straight horizontal pipe as shown.

At steady state, a force balance over the pipe section between two points '1 ' and '2' was
written earlier as

i I

1
I
The term on the left hand side is force on the liquid plug due to pressure difference at its
two ends. The term on the right hand side is the shear force (fictional force) between the
.-, i moving fluid and the stationary pipe wall. '9' is the cross-sectional areeof the pipe. vo is
j ! --a\

the steady state velocity.

If for some reason, say downstream pressure 'P, ' is suddenly changed at time
zero to P ,' and then held constant at P, 'subsequently, the velocity wiH change with time
and finally stabilize at the new steady state value v' given by

.>-
J,
,

.
'r

i
me
. . .

will change from vo to v' during the barnid phase and. one would
like to get a measure of that and also the governing mathematical model.

L The fluid clearly experiences an acceleration (or deceleration) as it changes

'
.- x3
~
velocity fkom vo to v'. There must, therefore, be a net force acting on the fluid. This is
the difference between the force due to pressure difference [= #(e- P,')]and shear force
at any time t when the velocity is v

i The net force must be ual to mass of the fluid plug between points '1' and '2'
J
j nultiplied by acceleratioJ= "/dj
at that instant
Expressed in an equation

This is a differential equation in v. This can be simplified as

PIPING ENGINEERNG CELL

....
h, -
- - ---
P, P * ' --. I
dr pL pL 2d
f;?
'
-

(Remember that the friction factor ' f ' itself is a function of v ) . This nonlinear first I
I
order ordinary differentical equation is subject to the initial condition.
-
V = V , at t = O
I
1 . '8

The solution gives a v vs time profile. Without solving the equation, one can
1
qualitatively say here that the velocity will monotonically change from v, to v' . The rate i
of change will be high initially and gradually taper. I . ',

One can extend this to a pipe which is not horizontal as well as a piping systems
with several piping elements as well as valves. For a simple case of laminar flow, one
I I
-..
$3
>
-~5
..-
could even attempt and get an analytical expression. Also the perturbation which sets up
fluid transients could be due to different causes and of different temporal nature. Some
such exercises can lead to a better appreciation of Bernoulli's equation extended to I <;
t
transient bchaviour. r g.i,'
. . . . . ; I ,-.i
!. ... . <.
...
Oscillating Transience '.>...

An interesting case of how a perturbation can set up oscillations in a system is

offered by a simple U tube. This is discussed below and a simplified mathematical model
is developed and solved.
. -

1 len*. of liquid.

r
.
colunrn= L

. ----------.-.-*-----.---.-------.-
.
,

- . feafflte l e d . .

- . .
2'. . . .
. . . .. . .
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
..
. .. . . . .
. . .
.... . .
. . . .. .

. : . . ., .. . . . . . . . .
. .

re is negligible Gictiod loss sc the fluid:

(manometric) moves through the limbs Let the pressure be same in both the limbs. This
would mean that the manometric fluid level in both the limb$ is same. Let that' level be
the datum level.
. .

Let at time zero,.the column in the right limb be pushed down below the datum by
height h ,(thereby also raising the column in the left limb by h above the datum) and ,
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
released. This perturbation sets up an interesting dynamics in the systems, which can be
modeled as follows:

- Let the fluid column be at position f h at time t as shown. Applying the Bernoulli's
1 equation modified for transient behaviour earlier, we get

f > I As 4 = P, and v, = v , = v

dh :
Also v = -
dv
, - - - -
- d2h
dt - dt dt2 , .

Therefore, the equation governing the dynamics is

If we guess the solution as

h (t) = c, cosc2t
1)

we get c, = h,

and cz =

w e thus observe the liquid column oscillating with an amplitude of h, and a frequency of

period of vibration is R
P%-
What happens if the fictional losses are not neglected ?

Can we make a statement as to when a perturbation can lead to this kind of oscillatory
response in a system ?
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

-- -<. '+
Transient Discharge from a Tank

Consider a tank of a large diameter connected to a horizontal, uniform cross-

section tube of length L. Let the water level in the tank be at a height H from the tube
axis. Allow some water to run through the tube and then close the tube exit (Point 2). Top
of the liquid in the tank is designated as point 1. Now the tube is full of liquid and so is
the tank.At time zero, instantaneously open the tube exit to allow the liquid to flow. See
figure for visualization. Develop and solve the mathematical model of this system.
1

L
At any time 't' after the tube exit at point '2' is opened, Bernoulli's equation modified for
transient flow is :
2 2
-
4 + L + z ,- 4 v2
- -+-+Z, +h, +--L d v
Pg 2g Pg 2g g 'ft

For the problem under consideration;

..

Therefore,

Let the velocity at steady state be vo. Then, fiom steady state Bernoulli's quation. - 3-

i.,
Subtracting the steady state equation from the unsteady state equation, one gets
i
 PIPING ENGDEERING CELL

This is subject to the initial condition

i i
Rearranging ,md writing in integral form: . :.
. .

j.

-.- .
.-,
.F 'I, Integration using partial fractions gives
. .~
... ..

_$
i as c ,one can write

One can thus see that $e fluid velocity v reaches steady state velocity monotonically.
Time to reach a certain percentage of value of the steady state velocity can be found out
- - easily from above.

k; 1. What is ct for
v
- =- ?
1

>
4

vo 2
v
2. What is cf for - = 0.99,0.999?
"0

3. What mistake did we make in the above derivation?

4. Under what flow conditions, the mistake is not so serious?

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

. . happens if flow is laminar throughout?

5 . What!
:
I
6. What happens if the tube is vertical and drawn fiom bottom of the tank?
I -
7. What happens in the reverse case when the flow is established and then the exit is
closed suddenly at t = 0.Stretch this as L +a. I
I
Water Hammer
I
I
Mulling over the last question leads to appreciation of water hammer.
For simplicity, let us consider that the liquid was incompressible and the pipe was rigid
(non-elastic). Let the valve be closed over say a period of r seconds after a steady state I
I
flow and with fluid velocity of v, has been reached. An estimate of the pressure that it
would develop can be anived at as follows. I

The mass of fluid plug in the horizontal pipe (length L, cross-sectional area .I$ ) is #Lp.
This has to be brought to a zero velocity h m a velocity -v, over a period of r seconds.
It thus needs to be imparted a deceleration (negative acceleration). Its magnitude can be
found by using the instantaneous velocity vs acceleration formula.
v = vo+at

Where v is velocity at time 't' and 'a' is acceleration. For v to be zero at t=r,
acceleration should be

=.
A mass (rn)of fluid in the horizontal pipe (m'= #Lp)can be impaxted this acceleration
(a) if a force F (= ma) acts on it in a direction opposite to the flow direction. ) . -* _
U

. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. .
. . . .
. . . . .. .. .
.
. . . .
: . . .
.$
F/# is the that would be gmerated i t t h e exitend of the pipe. %his p k u r e
L .. *._
.,.
which is generated due to sudden closure of a valve is called water hammer. Water
hammer effect can be severe if the length of the pipe upsbeam of the valve is larger, \ >
h

and/or the density of the liquid is large, andfor the velocity of the fluid prior to valve
h
closure is high, andlor the valve closuft time is small. Excessive pressure can lead to 1-

system failure. While L ,p , v,, are dependent on layout, service and pipe selection, the I A
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
closure time( T ) can be suitably planned through valve selection, design and operation.
Valve choice is thus crucial from the point of view of mitigation of water hammer effects.

The above is a highly simplified picture of water hammer. It none the less
-
provides a quick conservative estimate of pressure levels that could be expected t o
develop due to sudden valve closure. The actual pressure developed will be somewhat
less than this estimate as the liquid is not totally incompressible nor is the pipe rigid.
Compression of the liquid and elastic expansion of pipe cross-section due to heightened
pressure help mitigate the water hammer effect to some extent.

Other complications are 3-Dlayout of piping systems in reality, to and fro travel
of pressure wave and possibility of its reflection, thermodynamic behaviour of the
flowing medium at different pressures which may cause phase change (evaporation,
condensation). Applied mechanics, fluid mechanics and wave mechanics all get together
to decide the pressure-velocity profiles with time and space in a piping system subject to
sudden closure (or opening) of a valve or a failure, restarting of a pump. The mathematics
is quite complicated and calls for numerical solutions of the governing partial differential
equations with numerous boundary conditions. Competent s/w tools are available which
expect the user to 'define' the system. Setting up of equations and boundary conditions as
well as solving these to generate pressure-time-space and velocity-time-space profiles in
the piping system is the job of the s/w. The user then analyzes the results and suggests
remedial measures (surge vessel, pressure relief valve, valve closure pattern., control
valves, etc.) to safeguard the piping system in the event of happenings leading to water
hammer effects.

The following sections deal with water hammer analysis with the aim to develop a
feel for physics so that educated use of such computer aided analysis is possible.

A simplistic fonnula was presented earlier to estimate pressure that could b e

generated by quick closure of a valve. For instantaneous closure ( r = 0), it would
estimate an infinitely large pressure rise. In reality, finite liquid compressibility and pipe
elasticity prevent this infinite pressure rise. The following discussion pertains to making
the estimate more and more realistic in view of actual fluid and pipe properties.

Finite Liquid Compre-s'sliity,.Rigid

. . .
Pipe . . . . . .,

. . . . . . .. . .. ..
.
. . . .
. . . . . .

: JaukowsE formula .&vw a more estimate of preskuri rise:as ~ O ~ ~ O W S :

.
.
. .
:
.
.
. hp = pcAv - ' . '. ' .
. .
. .
. .
. . . . . . . . , . . ..
. . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
. .
.
. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .

Here,AP is. the rnaximumexpmted

.
pressure rise due t i sudden
.
. . . valve closure, p.-is fluid
: . . . .

Q&:v Av is: be,@i6t&:ch.mgein fihzidv e ~ o c ~ c'~ is the vellociv:of p m w ~wave

~

.9 .
'inthe medium. k'iirelatd to the fluid prop.&tiesas foliows. . .

j,
.i where E f is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid.
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL -- I
time to close. Relation of the magnitude of this time to the time required for wave . I
reflect.\onis an important factor that decides the maximum pressure that gets generated.
I
Maximum pressure gets generated at the point of application of closure if the
valve closes in a time (T ) less than the time taken for the pressure wave to start fiom the
!I i I -

point of reflection, reach the point of application and return to the point of application.
The returning wave can negate some of the pressure and reduce pressure levels.
'
i'
i
I
r-

1
* Ii
If the distance between the point of closure and reflection is L, the above can be I .:.

expressed as follows: I.;

I ! I
a . .

.!,,
I
8
. 2 ;
,

pressure surge is maximum.

If r > -2L pressure w g e will reduce.

C

''
. A reasonable correction for the maximum pressure surge given by Joukowski ,
8
,
I
+
$
;
V
formula for cases where valve closure spans over a period ( r ) more than 2L/c is given I J I -

27
by 1
i ..
' -.
'i

if
The reflected and the original waves can cause periods and locations of high and I
low prkssure. Periods of low pressure can cause degassing of liquids or even evaporation. I ..
I
-a1
2

Similarly, high pressures can cause re-condensation ctc. High and low pressures also can
cause periodicity of stresses in the pipe and eventual fatigue failure.
. .
. . ..
! $- x 1
Fluid transients -occur due to. r s ~ e d ~ t h sapart r v from &4?* yd~q.,
closure. ntc other .reasons could be suck& opening of '~alves, startirig -or stopping of
pumps, changing - elevation of reservoir, change . in- power. dqr=wd of .turbine,
. , '
.
. : . .
reciprocating pumps,
.
tuberupture
. . . in an heat exchanger, etc. . ..
. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
. .
. . .. . . .
. . . . . . .
. . .- . . . . .
. . . :
. . . . .

Anything fhat suddenly changes the d y state behaviour by changing one or

more flow parameters sets up transient response. This could take the pressures to reach
levels beyond the range confined by initial and eventual steady state. 'Measures need to be
taken to ensure that these levels do not damage the system.
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Mathematical Model for Fluid Transients

Flow transience in ariy piping system or its section is captured in the following
--
two simult~eouspartial differential equations.

The two dependent variables are the pressure and the velocity of fluid. The two
independent variables are time and space.
=
..-

--) The equations can be solved with suitable initialhoundary conditions. These
,L would be situation specific. For a simple case of a straight pipe discharging fiom a large
19 resewior through a valve and the valve then closed over a period r as per some closing
;
i. curve, the conditions could be visualized as follows.
- \

3 P (x = 0, t)
3' = pgh
. P (x = L, t) = Pressure drop across valve
i P (x, t = 0) = Steady state pressure
v (x, t = 0) = Steady state velocity
j3 v (x = L, t) = Valve discharge rate/ pipe 9
,I
. .

For pipe routes with different . . and other valves e m u t e , sfiiu may
. .
. be required.over ea& s e c ~ o a,
..

. . These equatik are mhcd with pober&lsolvers '&ing method of characteristics,

finite difference'method,orthogonal 'collocation ctc. Accuracy and convergence of the
solution depends on suitable choice of space-time' (Ax - At) grid. Choiceof grid must
.
observe
.
certain logical restriction such as
. ' . &Zc&, .:
.
.
.
.
. .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . .

That grid size which gives grid-size-independent .mlution is desired. Finer the grid,.more . . . .

accurate could be the 'wlution 7i~~I~g~.the'computational effort. h e needs to strike a

time-.. . ~.. .- - . - - . . . . . .
balm= between.a c c ~ r ( ~ ~ y.so~PtiOnn, '

. . . .
. . . .. . .. .. .. . . .

1t..rnay helpful.to &&re t b bait model.from first pfi.nciples,No new concept

is actually involved other than conservation of mass and energy. The equationsare
actually statements of mass conservation and Bernoulli's equation. . .

It is also useful to mull over the reasons for a product 44 appearing in one of the
equations. What physical statement is one making in this term?
 . .
P I P N G ENGINEERWG CELL

If due to pressure reduction, there is degassing of liquid or minor evaporation

causing tiny bubbles to form and get dispersed in the liquid, what would be the effect on
pressure surge? If pressure rise is unacceptably high, what are the possible remedies?

P u m p and Valves

The occurrence of pressure surge has been discussed so far in relation to the
sudden shutting down of the valve. In general, pressure surges would occur as a
consequence of any event which causes rapid change in the velocity of the fluid. Rapid
closing or opening of the valve or start or shut down of a pump could cause such a
change in velocity and hence pressure surges. The role of pumps and valves in the piping
syste~ is discussed here further.

Water is pumped fiom an underground reservoir to two,high level reservoirs to

facilitate supply against day-time non-uniform demand of customers. The pumps operate
in parallel and simultaneously till tank R, (which is smaller in size as compared to R,) is
near fblL The butterfly valve is then closed over a short period. Once the valve is fully
,
closed, Pump P also trips over a short period.

Comment on the possible happenings and pressure surges that 'could develop in the
system for a rapid and not so rapid valve closure. - . - - . , - - --.

+ Compile a list of data that you would collect to be ready for transient analysis.
Discuss qualitatively worst case scenario (very rapid closure)
+ Discuss instructions1measures to avoid abnormal pressures. i..

Control Valves

If there is a pressure/ flow control valve on the line experiencing surge, the
control valve dynamics would modify the surge characteristics. A knowledge of control
valve characteristics and control law is important. Some basic background of the types of
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

control valves and control strategies as well as dynamics of valve-pipe systems is

important for transient analysis.
 :
- I
Certificate Course
1
.
7,
i
on
I. I
PIPING.ENGINEERING.
L. L:
, ..
May 11 27,2005 - .

, * ,
. .

I
I;
'-.,
(

:-j r STEAM TRAPS .

. .

k
j:
-?;>i . '. 4
, . .
,
. .
Vaibhav Pradham ' .

..-
: z Forbes Marshall, Mumbai
-j'
I):;

- .
1.
s;. i

:)..
. i

4
j
: :

. . . .
)I
i"'
,.

. . . .
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

,I.., $'

.
. . . . . . . .
. .

.
.
.
. '
.
. Organized by: . ...: :. . .. . ,
. .

I> . . . . .
. . . . . .
. .
. . .. . .
. .
. . . .

)\
i
. . piping Engineering Cell
. . ' 8 .
< . .
') I Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technologs Bombay.
. . . .

-
' ' '

)
Powai, Mumbai 4,00 076
) . .
i
)

. .
. .
. .
. . .
.
. . .
. . . .
) . .

i
%"Lw
arbes
Ty@cal Steam CI=uit
urn
 . .
I
.. . . .
,
. ,,S - . Steam should. be 'avajlable i t the point of usag,e
I
i'
. . I 2

. .-.. ..-. . :..-.

',
.
,- - .
. .
complying with.th:; fittars shown below: I I
. ' ... . ..
H I n the correct quantiw.

. . a ~ dtemperature and
El At the correct~~'.pressure
.

free from air and ihcdndensible gases.

I.

El At the des'iredtive. ..

It should be DRY arid CLEAN. .+-5

.-
i.
,

eFa-;
7-.>

Feed Wa te s.
Temperature O C
.Fq
-15 bar

8 5 . 90 95 I00 105 110

% of From and At Rating
-
 Pie 1
CAllltAL COST

CAPITAL. COST

/ ELfCTRlCllY COST
-
.

-
fiery ton !(steam eeneruted per hour costs YOIJ
.
us. 60kkh$ .
Der anntjm
. .
. !..'
fJti!ity cost of 5 Ton boile; will be more
.. . .

- per arinum
-crc~re

BoiJer' EfficiencV Calculation

Boiler Efficiency can. be calculated in one of 2 ways :

-1. The direct method :

Where F = Steam gen&ation;n Kgihr

hs +. .= enthalpy of steam at, op. Fr. In Kcalfk!
hw = en'thalpy of feed water in Kcallkg
NCV = net cdijrific value of fuel in Kcallkg
f '= act'lial fiiel flow in Kglhr

Diit'&6~v
c ~ w iIS\ fws ?
dseful
2.The indir,~ctmethod. :
..
% q = I00 i'los~es
. . :. .
= 100 - stack loss L1
1 lossdue to watefand hydrogen in fuei L2
- radiation loss L3 - .

So, I % 11= .I
0'0 -'.(Lq-t: L2.+ ~ 3 1 1 C/.
.
/

_
This is far more .useful,
.... , because we are interested in I
increasing boiler e.ffici.6ncy
. ....:.. by r e d ~ c i n g ~ t h e
losses.
If each loss' is separately monitjred, thCy can be 1,
min&ized'e.g. damper tuning will reduce stack i?ss. I
!
-

. . efficiency
ize Boiler
2.,',I(1 I , ~ ~ - ~ ~ > ~ R - ~ ~ ~ ) / L L , % ~ ~ \ E ~ ~ Q . E ~ ~ J ~
-1 i(:now your boiler losses
- -
I J i b l ~ n ~ / - nS~~zCeI C ~10:;s
<
EXCESS AIR "/p J
Optirni=e blow down
STACK
TEMPERATI-IRE -'Trock your process itecnr co/lsunlb:,;an
STEAM '. 'J Keep continuous check on fhtd water
CONSUMFTIO~I
qlrolicy .
6011,ER
EFFICIEbICY , , -I Cfo~.v%s
eye on feed wocer t e m p e r o i i ~ r . :.
S:F R A T I O ' .. condensate I-ecol/ery
FEED WATER
TEMPERATURE ILI in imiz e elecrricity bills
,
.

011, FLOW ...?. J Evalcote your fuel quolicy . . ,,l-..al:l!~lll!l

. $1
BLOW DOWN
CONTROL.
. . -1 E n s l ~ r esofi: operation iLF;
BOILER LOSSEES -I Evoluote bul-11er
USER FRIENDLY -I Reduce ~ o l l ~ t i b. n
REPORT
Don't born your profits .

. . . c .
. .:
.. .. :. .:.: .
. .

.';.:!:..:.. .-.I.<>
I
,.<.:::'..;-t><..
.I :.
.---.
,
. _
. .. . - - -* - - - .. - ...... . -
..I g percentitge. .
1. ~ x c. e. Air - .

-1 2. Stack ternocratt~re . .
J 3.- Conlbuslio~lair inla t tcxnpe~ali~l.tr
-1 1). Feed walrlr tompnri~ivro
-I 5. F t ~ vral(rt
d TI33
,I fi. W ~ O Wd O ~ l ~I'OC]IJ~JI'~C.\I
l
J 7. U t l - l ~ t ~ ~ l(>sse!i-
~tia . - - -
J 0. l.onclin!j g~iltterrio l troilrzr
J 9. t3oiIcfbi~i:;i.~l;~tiOfl ..
-1 if f\'flllli?iLy
10. R ~ ~ r r i f c~~f/ciff . .
J 11. ~ttnl;-~clunl/ly i :
-1 12. nurher nozzle ~ o l l i i l i t l ~ t ~ '
-J 13. Flar-fi(: profile ..
J ,114. F~leltenri~eraiure ..'j11
1. ill,,,.
-J 15. Fuel i~rassure
-J 16. f3urncr vil~ratiori , '

J 17. ~ e n l i t i ( jon wator sit16

J O ~ ~of t~oijrrr
13. Sr:aliti:j 0 1 1 S I T ~ sir:lc)
J 19. Cordro,sior~ effect .-
 Fjci1c.i~read their own efficiency
_ . _ - _ A - _ _ I _ _ _ _ - JJUitl 5 3 ~ i

'OX~I~PI~

~-
I
.- ]A~i;llyser
! -Steam I

i Outlet I
.!
Flow 'Fneter I

.,-
., .i .
:
I '
I:

d\-. , :

i;
:1
!
- .
i :;.
Tzm erature
1 Bailer , i
.
.:

Flow
Rate

. 'I'
Pressure ibar g)
w~orbes The effect of too high
$ mrsw
TDS in the boiler..
HighTDSandlor . Contamination of Fouling of
..
suspended solids. Control Valves Exchangr

/ :sFi
7%-1.T

.Blockage
.
of Steam Traps .a2rz.
 Control System - B C S I

" rot L)es

i k Control
M a n h a V ~ t o m a tTDS . ., sy&erns: I
I . .Rl:~intain the bqiler &ter TDS near the m;isin~arn rllo\sahlc
111; II irnise heat losses and tment costs. .
ter trr;~ wn
/I I.

2 . I>t-c.vent too h i g h a TDS wl~ich\r.oolcI.

.
c;~ose dirty ~ t e a t i l ,pt-otli
.

n ntld blockecl stcam traps.

c o n t a m i ~ ~tioo , .

3. - ~ i n .i!, c1e:al.l b(jilcr lvithout s:.;tle 1,.

1 to ~ i ~ it:~in - .ensljl-i
I I I - ~ : ]jctsble \yater cocdifions \yllicji-can be &i-rccl[y
tl-cctetl. ,.

.. . .. ..
. . .
. .
- : -: . ,
. .:
. . . ,
.
.
- -. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
. . . ,
. .

these ad.innta,ges,[email protected] rninim:uni of mintl;,l ; ~ t t ctino..,.

4 . l>~wvide i
Boiler pressure % Fuel Saved i'br 7 %

Barg ...

i-wh y . ~ e a sreu S t e m ?
 i

Accuracy I I

i
c-

- Measured Value or Actual Reading

I; i!
- F.S.D. or Full Scale Deflection I
1: -1
. .
.mi

Turn Down . .
A
.
=.,
s
I

i I :
-7I
-2

i \ , -

n Densitycompensation I -"
-t!
:;;':!':I;--
. .,,:i:.: I I
 9a $team Line Reducers

I
Condensate .

X incorrect
' . '

Ineffective, and Proper ~ ! r a iPoint$'-------

i~
-- . "- .

Cross-Section
4GGJKC; MAIN
. . .
+LA-. 11.
.... ... --- < - -
.-..__
. - .- -
: A-
-
--
-
--
. . .

' noi.ic
Vibration and t
k
c,auseclby
waierhammel
Slugofwaterfrom
. .? I i:d
 Air Venting

Selecting the Right Steam T h p ( 1 )

I

j,
I ;I Application
4
.-r
-
1- 1 System pressure
); Back pressure
-
): Temperature
1 Differential pressure
-
)
Maximum load .
)

1
Minimum load
) Safety Factor
 . i. l
Lift after trap
I rl

Temperature Control
Type of plant
Mate'rials IConnections
Condensate return
Freezing
Vibration
Air venting. . .

'
2

.
,i

.
.
. .
, . . 1 ' *
J
.-.

a Ch:e& the App.li,cation

Dbcide on the type -of&ap-.
. : . 1 ,

I,
1

.
&

7d
e*i- )
'j
:
.<
. . . . . . :
Q
.._ - . . .
a Ch:eelr-thefies,s~fe,;~a~fid'~~j,,~w
1. .) . .
.a' .
. . .

.
. . . .
. .
-,'..: 'I...' . . . .
........
1.i .
>_

xi-

. SizeG,je corredi ,trap

...
. , .
. ..,:.. . . . .

.
. . . .
.
..
.
. . .
.
.
.
;.
. ... .
. . . . .

.
.
. .
..
.
. . . .
I
. .
.

ij
:)
. . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .:
. . .
.
. . . . . .
. . . .
1 : -j
n Check the Instalation:
, ' , .
. - . . .
,
. .

73
.
- .
-.
.

7.
i:

. '~nstallthe trap conectly. !

C. A

.I
~.
..- .

\-. J
. . . .

. .
i
.a.
.-.
. . .
. -
.
. .
.
, .
.
. . ..
. . .

. .. ..
. .
, - .j
. . . . . . . ...
. . .
.. .
. .
.
. .
. .
. . . . I

.. 7:. .
 .. --

[ C'alcula te thecondensa te load tn hr ir:v~dIctl

o Allow for a safety f;lcto~-
I
FI R:lsc(l on the ups trc;lm a n d baclc ili.i*s.iIIrc, i'~lir>.+~~
[
! the typical capacity curvc .
-

I Ensure proper trap installation

Thermodynamic Traps
a Thermotatic Traps. . . .

' Ba,l.ancedPressure Traps.

Liquid Expan~fo~Traps
, . . BIrnetaHc ~ i ~ a n s i 0Traps
. .n . .

.
-MeChanlcal Tra,,ps;.,l
.: ..
, ,
. .
:
. .

BaH:Frost:Traps1.' .;
C
. . . . . .. . .
. . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . I : :
. .

. . . . . . .
.

.
.

.
'Inverted:BuAefTraps',: ,
. .
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . .

. . . . .. . .
. . .
 ,
I
I .
On start-up, it:cominy
pressure raises the
disc
Cooled condensate,
plus air , is .
immediately
dischargeci.

..
dot condensate flowirlg
I . through the trap releases
flash steam.
High velocity creates lob\/
pressure under the disc
drawing it iowards t h swt.~
-
Simbltaneously. flash stearl
- - -- . - - - - ' .. - .
*- -F%; L

press'ure budds uf$'inttic

chamber above tile disc:.
forcing it down a ~ a i n sthe
i
pressure of inconling .
. condensate.
 ? h s r ' m o d y n ~ ~Trap
i c Opera tion: No
'1 1

I
3
.d

i I The disc seats or) the inner

ring and closes the inlet.
The disc also seats on the
outer ring and traps
pressure in the chamber.

Thermodyriamic Trap Operation: No

Pressure in the

. . . . . . .
. . , Jhe ,cycle.'is. ~ h : ~ ~ : : . V.
. . . . .

. 'repeated and ..

. condensate moves -
freely throuy h the
trap. .
Condensate Removal From Steam Mains. . '. : c. I s&=+1

. .... ~
:., . -

+ J
i

I:
I I

c
b8 ::
1

'1 :27
. .?
! 2.:
.q3
I,j L
-.
A;r

$4i -

..
I. L
.-
%<
- .
\

. - . Critical Traci:ng of Jacketed

.., ~

. .. .
".->.
.
Jnivrrsily' ProieU Slic 8
LC -:
 011start up, Condensate When steam
tliermostatic air reaches trap. Float arrives float clrops
i ) . vent allows air to raises and lever and rnaili valve
bypass main valve mechanism opens closes
I main valve. Hot
condensate closes
air vent

Bloat Trap
..
 Appllcaaen: Jacketed Ves:se/s

High productivity achieved by rapid and efficient

removal of condensate and incondensibles. !

Unit Heafe~sHeafef.
. . .$.
,.
. _
es and.
:I Driers
. .
 Ti:. anc!csed Th? van: hole in th?
i:?Jl:l 1:011C'~llS2S ' buck?:.:rill kl~o.:!
arlc! stzani ercJ[;es air into tire top 1;f

:.hrougii tho velrt :he :r2p. The *:e!:t

Iicla: Tile -:,?ight of holc i s r ~ a ia~ii.!
i
:!la i;ucks! :vjll pull V?tiL
.:till SICV:~~.
the r ~ l v ccif its A separa:? air */si:i
saat afld :Iir cjcle , nlay I:E :?quired.
:Iic?.;i r~l~eats.

S~mell,light and haus .; l21.qeca;!ac:il./ f;;:~::!c

small size
 '
i
9 f rm,t.siejecticbfiC,hafi
. .
j.

. :r . ..
.- -..:, ..'
-

.,-
. , . . . .*
- . . : . . 8
.. .

~~p'a
. r .h e a ' t e
.,. Steam
d .

i Heat exchangers.
I

I
Mains
i Jackets .. drainage
.

8 ')
Air heaters a .
 Thermodynamic Traps
Headcrs

Separators
. .

o Float Traps
--.
- .-

All plwcess cil~li'pmcnf .

. .
,
Inverted Bucket Traps . .

Where risk of wntcr harrimcrin;<~'sists. i

i .
Balanced Pressu reTraps -
-
-

n ~ and tracing jackets

~ t - a c i lines a. I

. . .: . .
I
. .
. . . .
. . It
-3, .

f . . . .
. . . . ; '
! f.9
ii "r
I -

. . . Space ' i .
. . -tanks
heating db
.
-. . . .. :.. . . .-., . . . . . . . . .
. .
..- :
%3
. . . ,
. . ,:.
. . !
. .
f.2
.
'

. . . . .
i . . ,
.
.. . .
. .
..
. . - . ..
. . .
;
.
. . . . . . . .
.

. . .
. .
. .
.
. . .
.
.

. .. ..
' ..
.. ..
..
. .
.;
.
.
.
.
' 1 . .

.
. .
.
"

.
.
- -
.:

i
. . .
coils . .
coils I
1
i i . . . - .
. I . . i ! ..
. . heaters \
0 ujjlpw. :. Radiators !
. Instrument ~ a d i nat
.
1
. . . . :. i

heaters , ' . . . .
~alo;ifiers panels
j
. . . .
. . .

....
. .. .
.
.
. .
.
.

,.
. .
I:, ...
. ;: .,
. . . .. .
.
. .. . . . .. .
. a
. iI I
4 - .
J
. . . . . . . ....
.
...
I
FT . ~p TD. '
. .
.
.
~ p TD
FT'.:- ~. p . ~ ' ~pp FT: .
'.
. .
.
.
,
FT
- I~~+AVI (SM) . (BPI . . . . ( i ~ + ~ \ i )lrbl (SM) :. . (EP~ . ( ~ 1 )" . . . . ~. I B. + ~. V ). t ..
. . . . . .
(BP) . .
...
 The ~onsequencesofSteam Leaks

The heavy cost of wasted steam

What is the impact of-- a 3 mm hole leakingsteam at 7
. .
bar?

1Skg.an.hour of steam . wi&.kewasted .

. - .--
,

,. :. , !.?
. . I
E For a year of. .. 8400
.. .

115,000 H~T,%
hourstm
. .. . . .
.
a
..
- . .
bf natural ggs.. -. ..._.
. .
repi&kntiia
. : -..' !.%:? . ,2:+<:<*i,$: .:;2-
. .1.. .: :
waste
;:>,:-

.
&
of
_ . f &&:!
.-,
i
r.. ..4-
....? -- -:y, ,: ..$,t .
-i;.x-
;pt. . . . .,
. :, : ,:;
... .....
.
..- ..'?.
. . ..
.
.
'

. . .. . . ,
Conden sate is an extremely valuable resource.
The high heatcont.e.nt.
f5edwaterosystem.
* justifies ~eturning
- -
Conden sate has a.lready been treated;and ., :.:
.
it...totl2.e:

thu.s.
.
.

.
..,.:

.
. ... 1-
!
1
I
I
I:'
I

water treatment costs are .lowered.. .,. r l j.:,

i . .
9

The high co5t :of.condensate disp685il . . is avoided.

\Nater ciiarges are lowered because fresh water

I 7. .

is ~ 0 .continually
i being.--added-tqthe boiler. 1.
Result: up to 20% fuel ,savings.

- .. . -
A ....
. .-
Water supply
(15OC)
....

. .

. . . . . . . .

. I-. . . . .
.
. .

.
.
.

;. .
.

.
.
. .

.:,
.
. . .

. . .
. .
-valve..
.
.
.

.
.
. . .
. . . . . . . .

. .. . .
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
-

oiler

I---- Drain
Feed
 a-lmple sream System with C~ndensate ,

2 s
i Return
90C Condensate return

I-1
 . - -_ - _ _-
_-. 'I

'r ,

opera ti or^ ciaf a Flash Steam Vessel i

ir
Flash Steam Outlet

Inlet

Condensate Outlet

I 3
'I ' 3
0
Quantity of F-lash.Steam I1' a

U
8

-
I
!' - .
x-?

Condensate 900 kglh Condensate 0.9 m31h 3

~ i a s hSteam 100 kglh flash Steam 167.3 m 3 h 'I =>

> 3

'[ ; 3

1' .
 2 It c a n be operated with steam, col1lpressed
air or gas
,. 1" It can operate witk a mit~irnurn0.35 bar(g) to
I a maximum of 8.7 bar(g) without any
adjustment
2 Every 1 bir(g) inlet pressurecan lift the
condensate to a height of approximately 911; /
3 When the exhzust is vented to atmosphere,

. .. .,.:.......
..
...

.-1,
.. ......... ,..; .... :.. .. .
... ...
. ... .. . -.......
. ..; . .
.. .:
. ., ... .

....... i
....... .
. . . . .. .. . . . . . . ., . . .
. . .. . .
...
. . . .. . .
. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . : .. : . . . *-
. . . . ... ... . . . . . :. . .:
....n..m
. . . J
,
. .

PPP Filling Stroke

p- Marshall 1

Approximate Amount of Flash Stearn in condens:

Flash
Stearn

-~orbes
Marshall
.rt'
Y
Approximate Amount of ~ n e r g yin Flash Stea1 .r -:i:

Flash
- -. - Steam
 Certificate Course

PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005
+

SELECTION OF PIPE SUPPORTS

T. N. Gopinath
Consultant

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre '

Indian institute of Technology, Bombay '

-
Powai, Mumbai 400 076
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

WEIGHT ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF PIPE SUPPORTS

FOR CRITICAL PIPING
T.N. WPINATH
1.0 GENERAL vii)The movement of all critical equipment
connections such as turbines,
The type and location of supports in compmrs, boilers, etc.
a piping system cannot be d i v o d from the On collection of the above data, the steps in
flexibility calculation. The selection and which the engineer will apply this basic
design of pipe supports is an important part information are as follows:
of the Piping Engineering of any modern i) The determJnation of support location.
Chemical! Petrochemical process plant. The . ii) The dcqcnnination of thermal movement
problems related with the high .prtssure/ of the piping at each supp~rtlocation.
high tcmpmhm piping are critical to the iii) The calculation of load at each support
point that the concentrated loHd imposed by location.
the piping on the building structure and, or iv) The selection of the type of support i.e.
on the equipment nodes are to be taken Anchor, Guide, Rest, Constant or
into consideration at the early stages of the Variable spring etc.
design. The various stages involved in the v) Checking the physical interference of the
design and engincaing of pipe w r t s am support with structures, trays, ducts
presented here in their proper sequence to ' equipments etc.
serve as a good reference document for the
Piping Engineer. The find step does not need
discussion to a great extent. This will be
.The irst step is to eollect the necc~osry governed solely by the mpkment of the
of infodo~~. in&vi& layout. Steps 1 to 4 witl be
These'include general and hold good for any installation
i?. A complete set of piping g a d the following explanation will serve as a
,

amqcment drawings. guide to any pipe support problem.

ii) A'coqlete set of. steel and structural
. The term "Supportsn or "Supporting.
, - h e . ee+ment E1mentsn ~~~ the -entire mge of
bmdoa.
. ..
.
various mthods of c a q i n g the weight of
iii) A if &;winp: showing. &e the pipehe and the coaten&.. It themfore
<-?-ation of v d a t i n g ducts,, electrical includes "hangers" which generally carry
. ~ ~ , g
. . . , , ~ ~ t- ~ ::.; y . & the
, weight from above, with the supprthg
. . , :..

iv) A . complete :a',

. . of piping specificition. mernbas being d y in tension. Likewise,
.

di
dal' 1b ,wkh:,
o f m&tibn, .h.a. .w *-,.
thiCksess of it hcludes " s q ~ which
,
h
i
I) " en d m are
delineated as those which carry weight ihm
insulation, opgating temperatures etc. below, wit4 supporting member being in
v) A copy of insulation specification with compression.
.densities. . . The code ASME B 3 1.3 specifies
vi) A copy of valve and 'specialty.tist under clause 321.1.1, the objective of the
indicatingweights. . .
support design as:

Selection of Pipe Supports

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The layout and the design of the piping and effects induced by service pressure, wind,
its supporting elements shall be directed earthquake etc. Where the resonance with
towards preventing the following. imposed vibration and for shock occurs
1. Piping stresses in excess of those during operation, suitable dampners,
permitted in the code. nstraints, anchors etc shall be added to
2. Leakage at joints remove these effects.
3. Excessive thrust and moments on Anchors are provided to secure the
connected equipment (such as pumps desired points of piping whereas guides are
and turbines) provided to direct or absorb the same. They
4. Excessive stresses in the supporting (or shall permit the piping to expand a d
restraining) elements. conbad fhxly away from the fixed points.
5. Resonance with imposed fluid induced Sliding or Rest supports pamit free
Vibratiom. -anent of pipSag and shall be.designad to
6. E x d i v e interfkence with thermal include friction rcsktancc along wiih the
expansion and contraction in a piping d d weight of the piping. Resilient
system, which is otherwise adequately supports are those which support the dead
flexible. weight tbioughout the expansion /
7. Unintentional disengagement of piping cantraction of the piping.
from its supports The'primary sapport' is the
8. Excessive piping sag in systems supporting element, which is attached, or in
requiring drainage slope. contact with the piping and the 'secondmy
9. Excessive distortion or rag of piping support' is the supplementary steel
(e.g. thermo plastics) subject to creep provided to carry the load on to the
under conditions of repeated tl~ermal strum.
cycling.
10.Excessive heat flow, exposing 1.1 Anchors
suppMting elements to tern- At an anchor, a pipe is
'

extretnes outside their design limits. . assumed to be completely reshinad against'

. . any displacement or rotation, relative to t&
ASME B 31.1 deals with the design of saucture to which it is attached. This is a
supporting elements undcr clause 121. point where a l l the six degrees of hxdorn
It was indicated in S t n s Analysis that mamstd
. --
when the piping is connected--to strain- "
sensitive equipments, the a l l o d l e forces ~t is p c s i ~ ~
forc an anchor to IUVC a -
a

and moments govern the analysis. In displacanent of rotation imposed upon it by

practice the magnitude of these forces and indumces external to the piping system lurid
moments is contmlled by the use of which it then &e on to the piping
Anchors system. For example, consider one end of a
Line stops pipe, which en& at a nozzle near the
Guides ' s l i w cnd of a shell, and tub he&t
Rests exchanger. The Piping Engineer w d d
regard that n o d e as "mchor" for the
We will analyze each type of support as purposes of calculation, but it will move by
below. an amount determined by the thexmal
In addition to the weight effects, expansion of the exchanger shell and it will
consideration shall be given for other load impose this movement on the piping

Selection of Pipe Supports

 I
PIPINGJNGINEERING CELL

anchored to it; this movement will then intervening pipe ABCD. We could then try
either add or subtract from the restrained anchoring the header on the piperack beam
thermal expansion of the piping as the case (2) as shown in Fig 1.2 and miking a check
may be. on the forces and moinents developed by thd
Anchors may be fitted at points other shape ABCD with only this section of the
than the terminations of a pipe in which case header included in the calculation.
they are known as "intermediate anchors"
and in this sense the great majority of On very long piperack runs, where
anchors used in piping installations are of more than one expansion loop is required to
this intermediate category. These anchors absorb the expansion between given
serve the purpose of defining fixed points in terminal points, intermediate anchors MUST
the system. be fitted between each pair of expansion
loops even though the line is of uniform size
As an example of this use of an anchor, and the loops are nominally identical, as in
consider the case where a 6"(150 mm) NB Fig. 1.3.
branch to the inlet of a Turbine taken h m a ~~i~ ~
12" (300 rnrn) NB header.

=&
11~~n=a
-nH
0
ra -I?-a B
I
+-
Fig.13
The reason for this requirement is that
pM
the pipe is subject to manufacturing
YP tolerances in wall thickness so that even

B
6 -0
8" C
though the loops have the same overall
dimensions they will have somewhat
,different flexibilities and in the absence of -
intermediate anchors which define the
Fig. 1.1
amount of expansion taken by each loop,
O , one or other of them would take more th& -

F' - 12-0
its calculated share of the total movement. .

I " 2
Anchor
1.2 Lint Stops
A line stop is a restraint, which
prevents any axial-movements of the pipe to
which it is fitted but at the same time allows
unrestricted travel in any direction at right
angles to the axis of the pipe. It also permits
B rotation, freely, in my plane.

In many instances where the

1 Fig.l.2
Suppose that a large movement 6 of the 12 requirement is for an axial restraint only, a
- "Line stop" can be substituted for a 'fbll'
in. (300 mm) header at "A" produced
unacceptable forces and moments at the anchor. Situations do arise where the ability
) of the 'stop' to pennit lateral movement
Turbine flange 'D', and that it was not
possible to increase the flexibility of the makes its use imperative.

Selection of Pipe Supports

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

4. Suppose we have the "header and branch"

5:..
$1
;..
.
situations illustrated in Fig. 1.4 - 1.7
' A1
--A T --------------------E
LINE STOP

Fig.l.7
In the Fig 1.4 we have a 6"(150 mm) NB.
branch ABCD from a 12" (300 mm) NB
header, and analysis shows that the forces
and moments at 'D' due to the deflection A,
.are excessive.
- a2
c
\/
"
In Fig. 1.5, we have added an anchor
at '2' which reduces the axial movement at
.,
-
.,
i
-

iu:
A
F j
II 'kto A2but a check analysis shows that the I . o

I YY branch ABCD is still overstressed as a mult -.

of the restrained expansion A3 due to the I

length of AB. ,
i z
.? 3
z
8 I _ _ _ _ _----
- - EXP a3 The remedy is shown in the Fig.l.6
- ,
above, where the anchor at 'E' has been
replaced with a 'line stop'. This allows the - j3
Fig.l.5 point 'A' to move over to the position 'A'
thereby relieving the forces and moments I , :)
due to the restraining of A3
..~. --
LINE STOP I n the situation shown in Fig.l.6
- 1
<J

'
A
above, there must be an axial compression . . ..' . .
. J
,along the leg "m' to move
. . ..
' . . fme
.' . . I ..,s ?, i
.:
. .
. . . .. . . . . .
. the 12" header sidewciys against the friction.
. . . . .
. . ... . . , .1
. . o l - .--for& exeirtcd a t its sup~orts, This.k c , :
. . .
.. .. I
. . . . .. ti
. . . . . . . . ' ,

. .. .
.. could, in some instance's. exceed that' which..
. .\.
. .
' - em be .taken on the nozzle .at 'D*.
. .'. The. . . . '
J
. . .
. problem can b&rewlvedby the ,@&tion of a : -!
.
E L lc L .. f
... .
fkther 'Stop' 'on the leg 'AB'as,shown at -

'F' in Fig. 1.7.

Ideally, 'F?should beloGated so that.

the deflection '6g t 'C', due to the nozzle
.movement plus the thermal expansion of the
lkg 'DC,is b,dancedby a corresponding 6 . . .
.. .
. . .
. . .

. .
. ..
,. . . ..
. .
, . .

Selection of Pipe Supports .

.
.
, . .
. .: .
. .
4
. . . . .
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL
J \

due to the thermal expansion of the length to move axially and it offers no resistance to
'FB'. In practice, this ideal situation is rotation of the pipe in any direction.
3 difficult to realize but a suitable compromise !
,- i position can usually be found. This Guides are provided whenever it is
I
compromise solution could well entail necessary to maintain the position of the
additional structural steelwork. centerline of the pipe and some of the more
i common applications are as follows.
I

- ?
I
1.2 Guides 1.3.1 ALIGNMENT G U I ~ E SIN A PIPE
1
I
RACK
A guide is a restraint, which precludes The center to center spacing of the

-
.
f
i

1
9 I
i
!
'
lateral movement of the pipe in one or both
of the planes at right angles to the pipe
centerline. It leaves the pipe completely free
pipes in a rack is such that they must be
positively located at intervals along their
length.
L2

i I --I

Fig. 1.8

. .

)i
Suppose that we have a length of
pipe in a m k as shorn:i.n.Ei&.'.B.. There.
.'-Ti
-. . j force
will be an ~ . d "x*at due to the ,' ~t should be n o t d that thiE only occurs i n : . , , . .
. . .
,:
,
, .' tbrmil. &-ion of h c k n g t h ' M * pra.tiGe on mdl born pipwok. . .
.
.. . . ..: . .
this is balanced by the reaction at thekne .,.
... .. . .
. .
.
... .
- < . ' . '
stop at 'A'. The force 'X'.deflects. the.
. . .
' .. . pa :;=..n2 )3/L2 . .. .. . .

)..
' . length 'FG'to the position F'G,' d i t i ' .
. .

be c,o&m~~.vely @.that&, mere.: ,

I> by t h e ' Guided cantilever method.

' '
Pb is thc budding l d d i n kgs
Furthemore, at each of the supports, B,C,
):- D and E, there will be a Eriction force p R;
- . E is Moduhs of Elasticity,
as the pipe expands and this will add the I is Moment of Inertia of pipe cross
basic flexibility f'drce. 'X*. section.
.
)>
.
At any position along the pipe we, L is the guide spacing along the
therefore, have a compression force. 'P'. rack in meters
)I. givenby . . . . - .. '.
.. .
J
,
.
. .
. .. .

),
Selection of Pipe Supports 5
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

In practice, it would be prudent to shear forces. The pump may, therefore, be

limit the practical guide spacing to considered protected from the effects of
something of the order of 70% of the value the piping loads whilst the guide
given by the above expression. Also, construction permits free movement of the
practically, the length 'L' will be fixed by nozzle arising born the expansion of the
the overall design of the rack, and since pump casing as well as the straight length
the rack fiarne spacing will have been of pipe.
settled from other considerations long
before any pipe support work is
commenced, the location of the position of
guides becomes a matter of deciding
whether they shall be fitted at every one,
two or three frame spacing. Note that
because the friction component of the
compression forces in the pipe reduces as
one gets further from the anchor, it may
It should be understood, however, that
it is customary to provide a plain guide
2 Figi 1 3

not be necessary to maintain a uniform and a support at the suction nozzle of a

guide spacing throughout the full length. fiont entry pump.
1.j.2 WIND GULDES ON VERTICAL 1.3.4 GUIDE ON PIPERACK
LINES Use of the Guided Cantilever analysis in
A number of lines extended fiorn deciding the location of guides in a pipe
near Grade elevation to various positions rack is as illustrated below:
on a fractionating column. Particularly at
higher elevations, the wind loading on a
pipe can be quite considerable and the line
must be guided at intervals.
Load at each grade is given by
Load = wind pressure x projected area of
pipe between guides
An average value for the spacing
of wind guides on a column is between 8m
and 121x3depending on diametpr. They are . . . .
. . . . ,..,. . . :. . . . . . .
. . .. .. ..
commonly designed to restrain both d i a l . . . . . .
. .
.
: . ' . .

and circumferential movement and as such . . . . . . .

. .
Fig.'l.iQ.. ;... .: . . .
.
.
.

are often referred to as 'boxed' guides. . . . . . .. . ,

. :
. . . .
.
. ..
. .
.
.
. .
.
.
.

GGde is to .be positioned 04.he. . . .

1.3.3 GUIDES AT PUMP SUCTION in. that: the. force

NOZZLES exert@ due to thermal expansion' should . .
One way of relieving high forces not be excessive . for the structural
and moments at the suction nozzle of a arrangement.provided.
front suction pump is to fit a @de which Ciwly, if the guide which was
is made to very close tolerances and which ' positioned on h e 'K' had instead been
has an appreciable length. It is argued that located on Column Row 'J', the sideways
this guide is capable of absorbing any force on it would have beengiven by; - . . , "
terminal moments in addition to the side . . .
. .

Selection of Pipe Supports

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Where 'L' now had the value of x

+ 1.8minstead of X + 3.6m. The value of where,
the force gets multiplied in the 3d degree ,M = maximum bending moment, ftlb
of this factor. (Nm)
The practical implication of this is f = Bending stress, psi (Nlmm2)
that the guide would have broken long
before this sideways load had developed, w = weight per unit length,. lblin
possibly causing a permanent set in the CNII~)
pipe during the process; This situation is
now known in practice, hence the reason 1 = length of pipe, in (mm)
for the warning in the Code.
F = force on support, lb @I)

2.0 THE DETERMINATION OF Z = section modulus in3 (m3)

SUPPORT LOCATIONS
The support location is dependent For fixed end beam
on the pipe size, piping configuration, the
location of heavy valves 'and specialties LOAD w
and the structure available for support.
The simplest method of estimating the
support load and pipe stress due to weight
is to model $the pipe as a beam loaded
uniformly along the length, the length of
the beam equal to distance between
~uppo*; . .
w12 . . ....
There are two 'possible ways to M- =' -
model the pipe, .depinding upon .he end . . 12 . -. . .
conditions - tht simply supported @inned w12
end) beam or the fixed end beam.
,For shply supp&&- beant, the
f . = . -
. . 12z- . .
.
m a i m m &ess a d ,.sqpofi ae* . '
.
. . .
. .
. .
. .
. . . .. w1; . .
' . LOAD w . . ' . .., ' : . ':'
'F . =. ' .- ?..
. .
. . . . . . . .

. . . . 2 :..
. . . . . . .

For either model, the support load remains '.

the s m e . H o w e v ~ ,&pending upon h e , . .

model chosen the stress in pipe varies. In

actual practice the .pipe at the point of
support is not ti.& to support .filly, since it
is partially restmined through its
attachment to piping segment beyond the
support. If the pipe runs between supports . .

are equally loaded and of equal iength,

. .
segment'end rotation could cancel each
' '

'

. .

Selection of Pipe Supports

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

other &sing the pipe to behave as fixed- 2.5mm (0.1 inch) sag is permitted between
end beam. Therefore, the true case lies supports. The suggested maximum spacing
somewhere between the two beam models. between supports is for horizontal stmight
Hence, as a compromise case, the stress is runs of standard and heavier pipes at a
calculated as maximum operating temperature of
4 0 0 ' ~(750'~).
These do not apply where there are
concentrated loads between supports such
as flange, valve, specialties etc. and also
where change in direction occurs between
Hence, support spacing is decided by the supports.
formula
1 = JY The location of supports should consider
the following guidelines:

i) The support should be located as

wliere near a s possible to concentrated
S is the allowable stress as per the code in loads such as valves, flanges etc. to
psi (N/mm2) kccp the bending stress to the
minimum.
. The suggested maximum spans between ii) When changes of direction in a
the supports, a s recommended by ASME horizontal plane occur, it is
B 3 1.1 in Table 121.5, are as follows. Tbis suggested that the spacing be
is adapted by ASME from the MSS-SP limited to 75% of the tabulated
standard MSS-SP-69 values to promote stability and
reduce eccentric loadings. Note
Nominal Suggested Maximum Span that the supports located directly on
Pipe Size, Water Service, Steam Gas elbows arc not recommended since
NB Inch m (ft) Air ~ervicem(ft) that will stiffen the elbow and no
flexibiliq wilt be avaiIabIe. .
1 2.1(7) 2.7(9) iii) The shudard span docs not apply '

2 3.0(10) 4.0(13) to vertical'mspigas (risers) since

3 3.7(12) 4.5(1 5) no moment and no stress will
4 4.3 (14) 5~ ( 1 7 ) develop due to gravity bad in the
6 5.2(17) 6.4(2 1) riser. The support should be
8 5.8 (19) 7.3 (24) - located on the upper half of a riser
12 7.0(23) 9.1(30) . (above the center of gravity) to
16 8.2(27) 10.7 (35) prevent instability in overturning
of pipe under its own weight.
20 9.1(30) 11.9(39) '
Guides may be placed on long
24 9.8 (32) 12.8 (42)
vertical risers to reduce pipe sag
resulting in excessive pipe
The above spacing is based on fixed beam 'deflection. These guides are
support with a bending stress not to exceed usually placed in span intervals of
2300 psi and insulated pipe filled with twice the normal horizontal span
water or the equivalent weight of steel and do not carry any dead weight.
pipe for steam, gas or air service and .

Selection of Pipe supports 8

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

? I iv) Support location should be selected

1
near the existing building steel to
7
z=,
minimizti the use of supplementary
\ steel.
, , In case of pipeline running in multiplane,
the support load is determined by applying
' i I
a method called 'weight balancing'. This
i
method involves breaking the larger piping
system into smaller segments of pipe ~ i t h
. '.. ( CASE- 3
I supports, which are modeled as free bodies
i in equilibrium and solved statically.
-

> 4.0 PROBLEM APPROACH

Let us apply these principles to a
..q
I 3.0 DISTRIBUTION OF simple practical problem.
9
MOVEMENTS . .
In the illustrated example seven
r i
- I supports are shown on a 6"(150 mm) N B
Z'
~+ 3
...
1 The movement at the specified pipeline routed to join the equipment
I
:.. t . location is calculated based on the known nozzle 'A' with the equipment nozzle 'B'.
movements using the following methods.
:> .!
I 4.1 Location of Supports
I
The hanger H1 is placed adjacent
to the valve to keep .the load at the
equipment to the minimum. Location of
H2 is governed by the suggested
maximum span. Support H3 on vertical leg
is placed above the center of gravity.
Calculations would indicate that the CG of .
the vertical leg falls at about 5000 mm
above the lower horizontal run. If the
support is placed below the center of
gravity, an unstable turnover condition -

would result. The support would then act

as a pivot and would not resist sway. It
could also be checked with minimum leg
calculation
The location of H7 is kept adjacent
to thc valve weight concsn&tion. ~ h c
proximity of the support to the valve is
helpfbl in keeping the load at the
equipment flange B to the minimum or nil
as required. The hanger H6 is located
CASE- 2 considering the suggested maximum span.
The selection of location for H5
entails a change in direction of pipe
between two hangers. In order to avoid
excessive overhang of the pipe between
hangers H5 and H6, the developed length

Selection of Pipe Supljorts

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

of pipe between the hangers is kept less those employed by Piping Engineer in the
than three fourth (314)of the suggested design of support. Although the individual
maximum span. The hanger H4 is located piping configurations and .strhcture layout
clearing the bend at point D and within the will vary practically in every instance; the
maximum suggested span from HS. general methods outlined above will apply
The method involved in locating for any critical piping system.
hangers for this problem are typical of

EQulPuENl N O Z N A1 'T YMZ W BY 50-1 CRW COCD 10 -1.

EQUIPYEH~NOZ:LL AI '8' Y(MS UP Br 25,-
PI=-150 tie x n IW ASIU UJS ~r ~ 1 2 .
CROM tom r r ~nor. EXAMPLE
ILLUSTRATED - PIPE HANGERDESIGN
QPERARU; KIN'. SW C
rUELBt)YScdELaELBO*S.

4.2 The Determination of Thermal

movement of the Piping at each Slipport
Location. ~riw PCpiping systcm under analysis s r ' .. . . .,
I
. .$r
The next step in the design of pipe shown and, indicate..: all: termid-
, ' ,. .- , . ' .. , .
: <. .:'
.'

hangers involves the calculation of the movements fiom its cold to - 'operating. . .
I , i:
,! ..B
thermal movement of the pipe at each position. Those movements will include. .
$
hanger location. The simplified method the . supplied by equipment --
,.&

illustrated here is the one, which gives manufacturers for

. the terminal '

L . = ;
>
satisfactory approximation of piping connections. :_.I

3.
movements. However this approximation For the illustrated problem the
. .-
will always give positive error. The following vertical movements are known, u.. I

distribution of the movement at the various -

Point A 50 m m up, Cold to Hot ..,
supporting points are done based on the Point B - 241mm up, Cold to Hot ' ; .P
following arrangement. The 'above data is as - furnished by the l..;
manufacturers of equipment.

Selection of Pipe Support; 10

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

.
.- .x
I
i"
H3 - 0 mrn Cold to Hot -

The pipeline is 6 Inch (150 mm) NB Alloy 1950 x 27.14

Carbon Steel pipe carrying high-pressure A2= = 6.74 mrn
steam. The operating temperature of the 7850
0
system will be 550 C. Referring to Vertical movement at H2
'Thermal Expansion Data' Appendix B, = 22.86+6.74
ASME B 3 1.1 (or Appendix C 1 ASME = 29.60 Say 30 mm
B31.3), the Coefficient of thermal i.e. 30 mm up
0
expansion for low chrome steel at 550 C
Step I11
-

(1022'~) is 0.09143 inchfft. i. e. 7.62 Make the sketch of piping between

mm/m the points B and D,extending the piping to
Calculate the expansion at point C a single plane as shown.
and D by multiplying the Coefficient of
expansion by the vertical distance of each
point from the position of zero movement
on the riser CD.
3.0x7.62 = 22.86 mm up at point C
6.1 x 7.62 = 46.48 mm down at point D

Step I1
Make a simple sketch between two
adjacent points of lcnown movement

(Refer Case 1 o f "Distribution

. o f movements") .

- -- = -42.99 mm say -43 llnm

(Refer Cose 3 o f "Distribution
I> o f movements") Vertical movement at PI4 = 43 m m do'm
1
).
' .
3 The vertical movement at hanger location - 5750(46.48 + 24) - E350 X 46.48
);
-
can be calculated by proportioning the A5 =
same. 15360
1; 6950 X 27.14
A1 = = 24.03 = -19.70m m say -20 mm
7850 Vertical moviment at PI5 = 20 m m d0.m
Vertical movement of A H1 = 22.86+24.03
= 46.89 -
925q46.48 + 25) 15350 X 46.48
I Say 47 m m A6 =
i.e. 47 mm up 15350
);
)t '
I Selection of Pipe Supports
i
11
PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

= -3.4 1 mm say -3 mrn

Vertical movement at H6 = 3 m m down
4.!3 The Calculation of load at each
Support Location
The thermal expansion of high
temperature piping makes it necessary
for the Piping Engineer to specify flexible
support, thereby requiring considerable
== 20.81 say 21 m m thought to calculation of hanger loads.
High degree of accuracy is required in
Vertical movement at H7 = 21 mm up determining the support force, in order to
select the appropriate type and size of
For easy reference when selecting spring support.
the appropriate hanger, let us make a The calculation of the loads for
simple table of hanger movement hangers involves dividing the system into
convenient sections. A h e body diagram
Hanger Number Movement (mm) of each section should be drawn to
H1 47 up facilitate the calculation with simple
H2 30 up arithmatic solution to the problem.
H3 0 The first step in the solution is to
H4 43 down prepare a table of weights. For the
H5 20 down illustrated problem, the table shall be as
H6 3 down below
H7 21up
Table of Weights
' "

Description . . Weight Weighi of Insln (CaSi) ~ 6 t aWeigh)

l weight used in'
Calculation
150 NB Sch 160 pipe 67.5 kglm . 17.0 kglm '84.5 kglm 84.5 kg/m
150 NB Sch 160 90 BW 24.0 kg 8.0 kg 32 kg 32kg
. .
LR Elbow
150 .NBBW 725 kg . . , . 37.0 kg . : .762kg . . 762kg .,
_
cg

. . . .
. ._ . .. , _
.
. . . . . , . ..
1500 lb c l a s s ' ~ a t t . ~ a f v: e :
. .
. . .
. . .
. .
. .
. .
. . . .
. .

Draw a fiee body diagram of the piping is considered that the. weight o f 9OU bend ..

between point. A. and HI showing. all. . ' . acts at h e

, of- p + t y ifthe.bm& '., - . , . .

supporting and d l valve ~d wei.ghtg The various distances to the.c.mtcr of .

The load at the supporting point can be gravity of the bend can be calculated using ,

calculated as indicated in ~ i g 4 : l Note

. that the formula as below: . . . .

the value of H1 on this section of piping

system represents only part of the totd load
at HI. This has to be combined with the load
available by the calculation of the next
section starting at HI as indicated in Fig.42
Fig.4.3 is the free body diagram of
the section of piping between H2 and H3. It

Selection of pipe Supports

PIPING ENGINEEFUNG CELL

Taking moments about HI,

m x kg. = kg.m

0.60 x 762.0 = 457.20

A =
2R Sin 012
.
- -
787.4' 461.01
8
. . ..
461.01
B =
R (1- Cos 8) Reaction at the'pointA = -
0.9
8 512;23kg.
= . '

Reaction at the.point Hl = 787.4 - 512.2 ' '

R Sin 8 . . = 275.17 kg.

C =

Applying the above formula for the distance

of CG &om the center of the arc for 140 NB
LR elbow.
RSin 8
C =
8

= 145.8-
Reaction at the point Hl & H2
-
= -
2
Distance of the CG form the center line of
the straight pipe = 229.0 - 145.8 = &3.2mm

Selection of Pipe Supports 13

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

Taking moments about H3

m x kg. =, kg.m .

. '
--
0 x 234.15 =, 0 ,.3-..
, Taking moments about H4 '
I . .>
. . i +
0.0832 x . . . ' 32.00
. = 2.66 .
m x. kg. = kg.m
, .'.. -?
%
,
2 s
.J

;
*-*3
161.10 - .
0.750 x 496.1 . = 372.08 . . 8 .J

Reaction at H2 = - . . -
.s

1 :. . . . . . . . .
. .
. . .. 572.1:
. . . ., . .. . . 404.88 .. ' *I

. .
.: .. .. .. .. .. . : . . .. . ..

, . . . . . .
.
.
. .

. . .
. . :
. . .
.. . .
-- . - ' .$I
*I.
. . I . . .
1 .;
. . .. . . .
=.82.62Q.. . .
:". . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
. .
.
. .
. . ' ' . 404.88
. . . .

. ..
.
. . .
. :)
. . . . . . . . . . . ! -<.J
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~eactionat ~3 : =
!
Reaction at H3 = 41 1.57 - 82.62.
. .
i.T
, '
. . . .
i ,
'.,
. . 0.750 . . . . . .

-. .I
= 328.95 kg.
= 539.84kg 1
572.1 - 539-84
--
Reaction at H4 =
. 1
= 32.26 kg.
1

I.,-
Selection of Pipe Suppotts
 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

.
I
f

i
422.5
I ~ e a c t i o nat the point H4 & H5 = -
i 2

= 211.25 kg:

399.8
Reaction at H5 =-
2.5
m x kg. -
>>

)\ 0.5 x 105.6 =
Reaction at H6 = 295.75 - 159.92

Selection o f Pipe Supports 15

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

I 2.
Taking moment about H6 - As the nozzle B is relieved of load
.
.,
-'-4-.
2
.2
-
e
:

m x kg .= kg.m 5697.93 1 .,
Reaction at H7 = .,--:
;' 2

2.60 x. 439.4 = 1142.44 5-2 -9

-
.;
.r I
: 'i.:
! . :

5.35 x 25.4 = '135.8'9. ' 1095.76 kg .. C --I

...
Reaction at H6 = 1226.8 - 1095.76

I ,

Selection of Pipe Supports 16

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

. SUMMARY OF LOAOING
-4

. . WOC4T Or PIPING SYSTEM

accomplished by the use of a helical coil

5.0 THE SELECTION OF spring working in conjunction with a bell
FLEXIBLE SUPPORTS crank lever in such a way that the spring
force times its distance to the lever pivot is
When vertical displacement occurs always equal to the pipe load times its
as a result, of thermal expansion, it is distance to the lever pivot.
necessary to provide a flexible support,
which applies supporting force th~~ughout
the contraction and expansion cycle of the
system
Flexible han&rs are of two types:
Constant Spring and Variable Spring
.
5.1 G@,,s,hQ . : ' .
.
. . ,

. . c0-t: s p ~ gb.g e n ,we . .

where absolutely n&essary, . w h e n the . ,

. . . .

percentage variation of load from cold to

*
hot should be less than 6% for critical
This counter balancing of the load
pipelines axid less than k 25% for non
critical pipe lines and when it cannot be and spring movements about the main pivot
obtained by the type of variable spring is obtained by the use of carefully designed
hangers, which give the lowest %, load compression type load springs, Iever and
variation. The geometry and kinematics of spring tension rods.
these constant spring hangers is such that As the lever moves from the high to
theoretically a constant supporting force can low position, the load spring is compressed
be achieved throughout its full range of and the resulting increasing force acting on
expansion and contraction. This is the decreasing spring moment arm creates a
turning moment about the main pivot which

Selection of Pipe Supports

 I

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

5

is exactly equal and opposite to the turning

.moment of the load and load moment arm.
As the lever moves &om the low to Sina =
high position, the load spring is relaxed and z
the resulting decreasing force acting on the
Since Y SinP = X
increasing spring moment arm creates a
turning moment about the main pivot which
X
is exactly equal and opposite to the turning Sina = -
moment of the load and load moment a i . z
Y A
t
A
7 Substituting in Eqn. - - - -
Sina Sin+

Y A'
i.e. - -
- -
X/Z Sin$
YZ A

The Load 'L' is suspended &om the lever at

Y!Lmmw
point 'A' and at kypoint within the load
travel range the moment'of the load about
-
the main lever pivot 'P*is equal to the load
times its moment arm.
Thus Load moment = L (W Sine), where W
Sine is the load moment arm.
* - - The- springis attached to one-&.its
ends to the fixed pivot "B". The h e end of
the spring is attached by means of a rod t~
the lever-pivot 'D".This spring amngcmcnt
provides a spring moment about the main
Y A Z lever-pivot "P" which opposes the load
- - - - - moment and is equal to the spring foxce, "F"
times its moment arm.
Sina Sin+ sinp
F (YZSin 4)
Considering, Y Z Thus spring moment = FX =
- - A
Sina Sinp Where X is the spring moment arm

Selection of Pipe Supports 18

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

The spring force."F" is equal to the spring. manufacturer specific and generally as
constant "K" times to the spring deflection below.
"E" a) sdring located horizontally with the
Thus F = K E supporting structure above and the
KE ( Y Z Sin+) supported pipeline below the spring called
Spring Moment = model "H" by the manufacturers.
A b) Spring located horizontally with the
supporting structure below and the
To O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ P E Rconstant
F E C spring,
T supported pipeline also below the spring
the load moment must always equal to called model "E" by M/s Sarathy and model
spring moment. " M by M/s Myricks.
c) Spring located horizontally with the
KEYZ Sin+ supporting structure below and the
LWSinO= supported pipeline above the spring called
A model "F"by M/s Sarathy and model "S" by
By proper design 9 and 8 are made equal W s Myricks.
KMZ d) Spring located vertically with the
Therefore LW = supported structure above .and the supported
pipeline below the spring called "V" by the
manufacturers.
The spring and the rod are so e) Spring located vertically . with
designed that the spring deflection "E" supporting structure below and the
supported pipeline above the spring called
always equals the distance "A" between
model "P"by W s Myricks.
pivots "B"and " D

ThereforeLW. = KYZ
5.1.1 HOW TO SEIBCT A CONSTANT
SPRING SUPPORT
i) F a se1& fhd k i c model best suited for
'

KYZ
piping layout and the physical structure
or L - . available for mounting. .. . .

-
W. ii) Establish the total travel by giving a
This equation holds true. for all pos.it.ive dlo.wace of about,20%.to the
pos.ition of .within its, travel ranie. ealeulatd :actual.travel in no case
4 6 ~ * *P' "y",
. and "w* rem&..constant. It b : , 2 s . in ag&r to dl&r fm a '
. .

is-therCfoietrue-that p&ea constant support. . .

. . .
. possible discrepancy between calculated
isobtained. .. .'. . . . . .
and actualpiping movement
'

. . . . .. .
. . .. .. ..
: But due to spring hysteresis, bearing-' i.e. Totaltravel = Actual travel + Over
friction, sliding. fiction of moving .'par&and
,

m m u f m h g .tolerances, jt is n O m a i ~ .... travel . .

111) Use the selection table supplied by

possible to keep constant effort throughout . .
manufacturer and locate the total travd'
the travel range. The deviation is kept very
required at the corresponding table.
minimum by using PTFE washers and iv) Move along the l:i,neuntil load nearest to
bushes at all pivot points and lifetime
the operating load to b e supported is
lubricated-antifiictionbearings. . . '
located such that the load fits in within a
There are. different models of
'
' .

reserve range of i lO%of the average of .

constant springs available based' on the,
' '

type of supporting arran.gement. These are

Selection of Pipe supports 19

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

the maximum and minimum loads piping systems and where constant supports
specified. are not required. The inherent characteristic
of a variable spring is such that its
v) If the total travel lies between the two supporting force varies with spring
indicated figures, the loads between the deflection and spring scale. The vertical
successive travels can be interpolated. expansion of piping causes a corresponding
compression or extension of spring and
'.

vi)The corresponding hanger size can be causes a change in the actual supporting
. read from the respective column. effect of the hanger The variation in
supporting force is equal to the product of
5.1.2 SPECIFICATION FOR ORDER the amount of vertical expansion and the
The following data is required to be spring scale. Since the pipe weight is the
specified while inquiring / ordering for a same during any condition, cold or
constant spring. operating, the variation in supporting force
results in additional stresses in the piping
i) The exact Hot or Operating load system. Accepted practice is to limit the
required to be supported during the amount of supporting force variation to
working condition. *25%.
The Spring hangers are specified by
ii) Hydrostatic test load. the Series, the Type and the Hanger size.

iii) . The total-travel 5.2.1 HOW TO SELECT SERIES

The selection of the hanger series
iv) The direction of travel either shall be done to limit the supporting force
upwards or downwards tiom the within the allowable range. In choosing
erected position. between the series VS1, VS2, and VS3, it
must be ensured that the calculated
v) The set pin locking position (Top, movement will fall within the working load
Middle, Bottom or as required) range. The series VS1 has the maximum
variation in supporting force ahd hence is
vi) The basic model. not a competitive selection but an invention
. .
. . of necessity where headmom is not
vii) Requirement of bof&m aceasow:
' .
.. .
sufficierit to use VS2. Good &&&g
components such as mds,-clampsetc..
. .
.-. _lc . .
sense combined with available space and
.. . . .
reasonable economic considerations should
viii) Any hazardous environmental ultimately determine which series of
conditions variable &ring hangers should be used.
5.2.2 HOW TO DETERMINE TYPE
ix) Any special finish on the body such The type of variable spring hanger to
as galvanizing etc. be used depends upon the physical ,

charactwistics required by the suspension

x) Tag or Identification number problem i.e. available headroom; pipe to be
supEiorted above the spring or below the
5.2 Variable Spring spring etc. The type should be selected Erom
Variable spring hangers are the seven standard types available. These are
recommended for general use on non-critical

Se!ection of Pipe Supports

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

identified by Type A to Type G as

illustrated in the Fig. 5.1 ii) Hydrostatic test load.
!
iii) The calculated vertical movement.
5.2.3 HOW TO DETERMINE SIZE
For determining the size of the iv) The direction of travel either upwards or
hanger the load deflection table shall be downwards fiom the erected position.
referred. In order to choose the proper
hanger size the data required is the actual v) The hanger series, type and size
load or the working load (also called the hot
load) and the magnitude and direction of the vi) The allowable percentage variation of
pipeline movement f h m cold to hot. load from cold to hot
Locate the hot load in the table. To
determine the cold load, read the spring vii) Requirement of accessory components .
-.-i
-_ !I
scale up or down for the amount of expected such as rods, clamps etc.
..,
I
I i ) movement The chart must be read opposite
porn the direction of pipe movement. The viii) Any hazardous environmental
'! I! load anivd is cold load. conditions
"
. i If the cold load falls outside the
I
'.3
working load range of hanger selected, ix) Any special finish on the body such as
. .
relocate the hot load to the adjacent column galv&g etc.
,
;
i and find the cold load. When both the hot
. .
and cold loads are within the working range x) Tag or Identification number.
>, i of a hanger, the size of the hanger is the
1, ; number found at the top of the column. 5.2.5 COMMlSSIONING OF SPRING
.Should it be impossible to select a SUPPORTS
).: : .
hanger in any series such that both loads fall ' Securely attach the spring to the
- D. i i)
within the working range, consideration building structure by idcntiPying and
i..
- ..
f should be given for a constant spring hanger. locating at each support point in
Once selected, thc percentage load variation accordance with hanger installation
shall be checked as fqllows: drawing. The location should be such
that the hanger should be
Travel x Spring Rate x 100 perpendicular in the hot or operating
Load Variation % = . position 1 the load should act
Hot load vertical.
ii] Make sure the moving parts are
unobstructed.

5.2.4 Specification For Order

. iii) The locking should not be disturbed
The following data is required to be till complete erection is over. This
specified while inquiring1 ordering for a lock makes the support work as a
variable spring rigid support during erection,
hydrostatic testing or chemical
i) The exact Hot or Operating load required clearing etc.
to be supported during the working iv) The locking pins must be removed
condition. after the hanger is filly loaded to put

Selection of Pipe Supports 21

PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

the piping systems into operation. In temperature piping at some location it may.
case of top mounted support, this develop elevated stress levels. Ln these cases
lock shall be freely removed by the snubbers are used. Snubbers resemble rigid '
hand after adjusting the distance struts, except that they contain a mechanism,
between the hangers and pipe by which movkent in presence of
rotating the turnbuckle. In case of static or slowly applied loads; but which
foot mounted supports the load locks up during rapidly applied loads.
flange is rotated till it touches Snubber will resist dynamic loads while
equipment / pipe being supported. permitting the natural and slower thermal
Then the threaded bush with growth of pipe a snubber will not act as a
hexagonal sides is rotated so that it. weight support. When both weight. and
moves up and the load is gradually vertical dynamic restraint are required at a
transferred on to the support. The point of large vertical movement, both
preset pin becomes loose when the spring and snubber are required. The spring
pipe load becomes the preset or will carry weight load while the s n u W will
factory calibrated load. The support restrain dynamic loads, with both supports
is then ready for use. permitting the required thennal movements.
There are two types of snubbers available,
v) Once the preset pin is removed the hydraulic and mechanical. The hydraulic
support allows movement up or snubber is made up of a piston and a double
down by the specified amount of chamber filled with viscous fluid. The
travel in accordance with the sealing of this fluid is the main problem
expected pipe movement. associated with it. The mechanical snubbers
operate purely on mechanical basis.
vi) When the line is in operation, Mechanical snubbers are also prone to
carefblly check the support for its inadvertent locking giving rise to additional
free movement. Generally no further pipe stresses.
adjustment is necessary. In case of
any adjustment, the same shall be 5.4 Sway Braces
achieved by turning the threaded Sway braces are used to limit the
bush with hexagonal sides in case of effect of pipe vibration. These art little more
foot-mounted support or the than variable springs acting in horizontal
turnbuckle in case of top mounted plane. When sway- brace is .insjdled,-'the -.
support. spring preload is adjusted to be zero when
pips- is in the operating position. Sway
5.3 Snubbers - braces, like~variablesprings, do add some
Rigid restraints are usually necessary expansion stresses in the pipe.
when the pipe is strong to s k i v e loads such
a s earthquake or high winds or other
dynamic loads such as fluid hammer. But
when these restraints are used in high

Selection of Pipe Supports 22

 PIPING ENGINEERING CELL

-
. . . .. - .
. . . . ..
. . - - - - -. cb
. -
!

I
!

TYPE '0' . TYPE 'c'

-4

. . TYFE 'A'
'fu',wch-
C
TYPC '0'
5

)j
)' . Fig.S.l TYPE OF SPRING SUPPORTS
I
Selection of Pipe Supports
 Certificate Course
on
PIPING ENGINEERING
-
May 11 27,2005

EXPANSION JOINTS.

T. N. Gopinath
Consultant

Piping Engineering Cell

Computer Aided Design Centre
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
-
Powai, Mumbai 400 076