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Ceramics, Polymers

Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic solids made from heated materials like clay. They are resistant to heat and chemicals. Ceramics have poor mechanical properties like strength but can be engineered for electrical, optical, and piezoelectric applications. Common ceramics include bricks, tiles, and technical ceramics in engines. Ceramics are made through processes like milling, mixing, forming, drying, and firing materials. Polymers are large molecules made of repeating monomers linked by bonds. Natural polymers include rubber and proteins, while synthetic polymers are plastics. Polymers are synthesized through polymerization reactions and can be organic, inorganic, or copolymers. Common plastics include

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
593 views

Ceramics, Polymers

Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic solids made from heated materials like clay. They are resistant to heat and chemicals. Ceramics have poor mechanical properties like strength but can be engineered for electrical, optical, and piezoelectric applications. Common ceramics include bricks, tiles, and technical ceramics in engines. Ceramics are made through processes like milling, mixing, forming, drying, and firing materials. Polymers are large molecules made of repeating monomers linked by bonds. Natural polymers include rubber and proteins, while synthetic polymers are plastics. Polymers are synthesized through polymerization reactions and can be organic, inorganic, or copolymers. Common plastics include

Uploaded by

Arnab Saha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

CHEMISTY: CERAMICS

Overview

o A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic solid prepared by the action of heating and


subsequent cooling

o The earliest ceramic materials were pottery made from clay

o Ceramics are resistant to chemical erosion and high temperatures (up to 1600C)

PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

o Mechanical properties

o Ceramic materials are usually formed by ionic or covalent bonds

o These materials tend to not be elastic and fracture easily

o Ceramics are also porous

o In general ceramics have poor toughness and have low tensile strength

o Electrical properties

o Some ceramics are semiconductors

o Semiconducting ceramics are made using zinc oxide

o Under extremely low temperatures, some ceramics exhibit superconductivity

o Most ceramics exhibit piezoelectricity i.e. the conversion of mechanical stress to


electrical signals. This effect is commonly used in quartz watches

o Optical properties

o Ceramics (esp. those based on aluminium oxide) can be made translucent

o This has immediate applications in sodium-vapour lamps and dental restorations

o Ceramics can be made transparent with applications in laser technology

TYPES OF CERAMICS

1. Structural ceramics such as bricks, pipes, floor, roof tiles etc

2. Refractory ceramics such as kiln lining, steel and glass making crucibles

3. Whitewares such as tableware, wall tiles, pottery, sanitary products

4. Technical ceramics such as jet engine turbine blades, ballistic protection etc

MANUFACTURE OF CERAMICS

1. Milling

1. Process by which materials are reduced in size

2. Involves breaking of cemented material or pulverization

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[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

3. Techniques used include ball mill, roll crusher, jaw crusher, wet attrition mills

2. Batching

1. Is the process of weighing the oxides according to recipes and preparing them for
further processing

3. Mixing

1. Involves mixing the various components in the appropriate proportions

2. Uses ribbon mixers, Mueller mixers and pug mills

4. Forming

1. This is the process of the making the mixed materials into desired shapes such as
toilet bowls, spark plugs etc

2. Forming techniques include extrusion, pressing and slip casting

5. Drying

1. Controlled heat is applied to dry the materials and obtain rigid shape

6. Firing

1. Dried parts are processed through a controlled heating process and oxides are
chemically changed to cause sintering and bonding

BIO-CERAMICS

o Bacteria, plants and animals exhibit a tendency to form crystalline materials composed of
silicon

o These bioceramics show exceptional physical properties such as strength, fracture


resistance etc

o Bio-ceramics are usually made of proteins such as keratin, elastin, chitin and collagen

o The mother-of-pearl portion of marine shells exhibit the strongest mechanical strength
and fracture toughness of any non-metallic substance known

APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS

Application Ceramic components Notes

Armoured vests Alumina, boron carbide Protects against high-calibre rifle fire

Dental implants, Artificial hydroxyapatite


synthetic bone (natural mineral of bone)

Harder, more resistant to heat than metal


Ball bearings Silicon nitride
bearings

Earthenware Kaolin, boll, flint Opaque

ceramics & polymers Page 2


[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

Used to make cups, saucers etc

Translucent
Leached granite (to remove
Chinaware
quartz and mica)
Resists scratching

White, semi-opaque

Porcelain Kaolin, feldspar, quartz Highly resistant to scratching

Stronger than glass

Similar to porcelain but from poor grade raw


materials
Stoneware Kaolin, feldspar, quartz

Hard, infusible

Used on the outer surface of shuttles to


withstand heating during atmospheric re-
entry
Space shuttles Extremely pure Silica

Space shuttle Colombia burnt up on re-entry


due to damage to ceramic tiles

CHEMISTRY: POLYMERS

Overview

o A polymer is a large molecule consisting of repeating structural units

o The repeating units are usually connected by covalent chemical bonds

o Polymers can be of two types

o Natural polymers: shellac, amber, rubber, proteins etc

o Synthetic polymers: nylon, polyethylene, neoprene, synthetic rubber etc

o Synthetic polymers are commonly referred to as plastics

o The first plastic based on a synthetic polymer to be created was Bakelite, by Leo
Baekeland(Belgium/USA) in 1906

o Vulcanization of rubber was invented by Charles Goodyear (USA) in 1839. Vulcanization


is the process of making rubber more durable by addition of sulphur

o The first plastic to be created was Parkesine (aka celluloid) invented by Alexander Parkes
(England) in 1855

Synthesis of polymers

o The synthesis of polymers both natural and synthetic involves the step called
polymerization

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[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

o Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules (monomers) into a


covalently bonded chain (polymer)

o Synthetic polymers are created using of two techniques

o Step growth polymerization: chains of monomers are combined directly

o Chain growth polymerization: monomers are added to the chain one at a time

o Natural polymers are usually created by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the synthesis
of proteins from amino acids using DNA and RNA

Categories of polymers

o Organic polymers are polymers that are based on the element carbon. Eg: polyethylene,
cellulose etc

o Inorganic polymers are polymers that are not based on carbon. Eg: silicone, which uses
silicon and oxygen

o Copolymer is one that is derived from two or more monomeric units. Eg: ABS plastic

o Fluoropolymers are polymers based on fluorocarbons. They have high resistance to solvents,
acids and bases. Eg: teflon

TYPES OF BIOPOLYMERS--

DNA as a biopolymer

1. Structural proteins

1. Structural proteins are proteins that provide structural support to tissues

2. They are usually used to construct connective tissues, tendons, bone matrix, muscle
fibre

3. Examples include collagen, keratin, elastin

2. Functional proteins

1. Proteins that perform a chemical function in organisms

2. Usually used for initiate or sustain chemical reactions

3. Examples include hormones, enzymes

3. Structural polysaccharides

1. They are carbohydrates that provide structural support to cells and tissues

2. Examples include cellulose, chitin

4. Storage polysaccharides

1. Carbohydrates that are used for storing energy

2. Eg: starch, glycogen

5. Nucleic acids

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[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

1. Nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of chains of nucleotides

2. Nucleic acids are universal in living beings, as they are found in all plant and animal
cells

3. Eg: DNA, RNA

TYPES OF SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

1. Thermoplastics

1. Thermoplastics are plastics that turn into liquids upon heating

2. Also known as thermosoftening plastic

3. Thermoplastics can be remelted and remoulded

4. Eg: polyethylene, Teflon, nylon

5. Recyclable bottles (such as Coke/Pepsi) are made from thermoplastics

2. Thermosetting plastics

1. Thermosettings plastics are plastics that do not turn into liquid upon heating

2. Thermosetting plastics, once cured, cannot be remoulded

3. They are stronger, more suitable for high-temperature applications, but cannot be
easily recycled

4. Eg: vulcanized rubber, bakelite, Kevlar

3. Elastomers

1. Elastomers are polymers that are elastic

2. Elastomers are relatively soft and deformable

3. Eg: natural rubber, synthetic polyisoprene

IMPORTANT NATURAL POLYMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Polymer Application Notes

Connective tissue
Collagen Most abundant protein in mammals
Gelatine (food)

Keratin Hair, nails, claw etc

Enzymes Catalysis

Hormones Cell signalling

Cell wall of plants


Cellulose Most common organic compound on Earth
Cardboard, paper

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[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

Chitin Cell wall of fungi, insects

Starch Energy storage in plants Most important carbohydrate in human diet

Glycogen Energy storage in animals

DNA Genetic information

RNA Protein synthesis

IMPORTANT SYNTHETIC POLYMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Constituent
Polymer Developed by Application Notes
elements

Alexander
Parkesine Parkes Cellulose Plastic moulding First man-made polymer
(Britain, 1855)

Leo Radios,
Phenol and First polymer made
Bakelite Baekeland telephones,
formaldehyde completely synthetically
(USA, 1906) clocks

Henri
Polyvinylchloride Vinyl groups Construction Third most widely used
Regnault
(PVC) and chlorine material plastic
(France, 1835)

Ray McIntre Thermal


Styrofoam Phenyl group Brand name for polystyrene
(USA, 1941) insulation

Family of polyamides
Wallace Fabric,
Nylon Carothers Amides toothbrush, rope First commercially
(USA, 1935) etc successful synthetic
polymer

Fritz Hoffman Tyres, textile


Synthetic rubber (Germany, Isoprene printing, rocket
1909) fuel

Charles Vulcanized rubber is much


Vulcanized Rubber,
Goodyear Tyres stronger than natural
rubber sulphur
(USA, 1839) rubber

Textiles,
Karl Rehn and
stationary, Second most widely used
Polypropylene Guilio Natta Propene
automotive synthetic polymer
(Italy, 1954)
components

Polyethylene Hans von Ethylene Packaging Most widely used synthetic


Pechmann

ceramics & polymers Page 6


[CERAMICS & POLYMERS]

(Germany,
(shopping bags) polymer
1898)

Brand name for


polytetrafluoroehtylene
Cookware,
Roy Plunkett (PTFE)
Teflon Ethylene construction,
(USA, 1938)
lubricant
Very low friction, non-
reactive

DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS

o Degradation of polymers can be desirable as well undesirable: desirable when looking for
biological degradation, undesirable when faced with loss of strength, colour etc

o Polymer degradation usually occurs due to hydrolysis of covalent bonds connecting the
polymer chain

o Polymer degradation can happen because of heat, light, chemicals and galvanic action

o Ozone cracking is the cracking effect of ozone on rubber products such as tyres, seals,
fuel lines etc. Usually prevented by adding antiozonants to the rubber before vulcanization

o Chlorine can cause degradation of plastic as well, especially plumbing

o Resin Identification Code is the system of labelling plastic bottles on the basis of their
constituent polymers. This Code helps in the sorting and recycling of plastic bottles

o Degradation of plastics can take hundreds to thousands of years

Biodegradable plastics

o Biodegradable plastics are plastics than can break down upon exposure to sunlight
(especially UV), water, bacteria etc

o Biopol is a biodegradable polymer synthesized by genetically engineered bacteria

o Ecoflex is a fully biodegradable synthetic polymer for food packaging

Bioplastics

o They are organic plastics derived from renewable biomass sources such as vegetable oil,
corn, starch etc

Oxy-biodegradable plastics

o Plastics to which a small amount of metals salts have been added

o As long as the plastic has access to oxygen the metal salts speed up process of degradation

o Degradation process is shortened from hundreds of years to months

ceramics & polymers Page 7

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