Engine Fundamentals

Engine Performance

Introduction:

To understand diesel engine design and performance, it is necessary

to know the terminology and math calculations that apply to diesel
engines.

Fig. 1.3.1

There are many

factors that
determine the
performance of an
engine. The
operating conditions
that an engine is
exposed to and the
specific application
an engine is placed in can affect the performance of the engine. Many
of the determining factors for performance, however, are determined
by the manufacturer of the engine.

Some of the basic specifications that a manufacturer makes on an

engine that affect performance of the engine are:
Bore Stroke
Displacement
Compression Ratio

The performance of an engine is typically rated by comparing power

output and/or efficiency of the engine. These evaluations can be
measured in several different ways. The basis for these
measurements and the manufacturers specifications must be known
in order to better understand the effects that all of these factors and
measurements have on engine performance.
 BORE

TDC

STROKE

BDC

CRANKSHAFT
AT TDC

CRANKSHAFT
AT BDC

Fig. 1.3.2

Top Dead Center (TDC)

Top dead center (TDC) is a term used to describe the position of the
piston when the piston is at its highest point in the cylinder. This
occurs when the crankshaft and the connecting rod are fully extended
and straight with one another. Many events in the operation of the
engine are identified by crankshaft position, measured in degrees
either before or after TDC.

Bottom Dead Center (BDC)

Bottom dead center (BDC) is a term used to describe the position of

the piston when the piston is at its lowest point in the cylinder. This
occurs when the crankshaft and the connecting rod are fully retracted
and straight with one another.

Bore (B)

Bore is a term used to describe the diameter of a single cylinder in an

engine. Bore is typically measured in millimeters or inches.

Stroke (L)

Stroke is a term used to describe the distance that a piston travels in

the cylinder of the engine. The stroke is measured as the difference
between the position of the piston at BDC to TDC. The amount of
stroke is determined by the design of the crankshaft. The stroke is
equal to exactly twice the throw of the crankshaft. Stroke is typically
measured in millimeters or inches.
Engine Displacement

The bore, the stroke, and the number of cylinders all determine the
displacement of an engine. The displacement of an engine is simply
the amount of volume displaced by all cylinders in an engine during
one complete rotation. The displacement of an engine can be
calculated using the following formula:

Displacement = x r2 x L x N
Where...
= 22/7
r2 = radius x radius
radius = 1/2 bore
L = stroke
N = number of cylinders in the engine

DIESEL ENGINE
17 TO 1

Fig. 1.3.3

Compression Ratio

The compression ratio of an engine is determined by the cylinder

displacement and the combustion chamber volume. In order to
calculate the compression ratio use the following formula:

CR = Total Cylinder Volume / Combustion Chamber Volume

Typical compression ratios of diesel engines range from 11:1 to

22:1. this is significantly higher than the compression ratio of a
typical gasoline engine. Diesel engines utilize higher compression
ratios to increase the pressure within the combustion chamber.
Higher pressures will cause an increase in the temperature of the air
and fuel in the combustion chamber. This high temperature
(approximately 1000F) will cause the diesel fuel to ignite without
the use of a spark plug.
 Work
Work is defined as a force that is applied over a distance.

W = F x D

Power

Power is defined as the rate at which work is performed

P=F x D / T
Or
P=W/T

Where T is the time that the work is performed in.

The standard measure of power in the metric system is the kilowatt

(kW), and in the English system the standard measure of power is the
horsepower (HP).

1 HP = 0.746 kW
1 kW = 1.340 HP

The term horsepower was originally derived by James Watt, a

Scottish inventor. Watt observed the ability of a horse in coal mine
hoisting coal. He defined 1 HP to be equal to the ability of a horse to
raise 33,000 lb of coal a distance of 1 ft in 1 minute.

There are several different types of power that are often discussed.

Indicated horsepower (IP) is the power that an engine is

theoretically able to produce. This is found by multiplying the
displacement of the engine by the mean effective pressure in the
cylinder in pounds per square inch and dividing it by 33,000.
Brake engine horsepower (BP) is the power that is found by
physically testing an engine on a dynamometer. A dynamometer
is a device that is coupled to an engine for the purpose of
measuring the torque and the horsepower output of the engine.
Friction power (FP) is the power that an engine requires in order
to overcome the frictional losses of bearings, gears, and other
moving parts of the engine. Friction power increases as the size
and/or the speed of an engine increases.

BP = IP - FP
Torque

When the engine is running, the combustion that takes place causes the
pistons to move downward in the cylinder. This downward piston
motion pushes on the connecting rods and causes the crankshaft to be
turned. The resulting twisting force produced by the crankshaft is
called torque.

The torque and the horsepower that an engine produces are related to
one another with the following equation:

HP = T X RPM
5252

NOTE: This formula can not be used with metric units. Convert
the metric units to english units before performing the
calculation.

Where...
T = Torque (measured in ft lb)
5252 = 33,000 / 2 (constant)

The constant of 5252 is derived by dividing the 33,000 lb in Watts

horsepower formula by the angular value of one rotation of the
crankshaft in radians, 2.

Torque is measured in foot-pounds (ft lb) in the English system and

in Newton-meters (Nm) in the metric system.

1 ft lb = 1.3558 Nm
1 Nm = 0.7376 ft lb

Friction

A certain amount of force is required in order to slide the surfaces of

two objects against one another. The resistance to this motion is
called friction. As the load is increased, friction is increased. For
example it requires more effort to slide a heavy object than it does to
slide a light object. The condition of the two surfaces in contact also
makes a difference. This is why the lubrication system in an engine
is so important. The oil film between the moving parts of an engine
keep the friction between the two surfaces very low. This not only
gives the engine a long service life, but also creates less drag on the
engine, reducing the amount of frictional power. This allows the
engine to produce more brake power.
 Instructor Copy: Exercise
Inertia

Sir Isaac Newtons first law of motion states that an object in motion
tends to stay in motion and an object at rest will tend to stay at rest,
until acted upon by an outside force. This phenomenon is due to
objects possessing inertia. The amount of inertia an object has is
directly proportional to the amount of mass that the object has. For
example a car has more inertia than a bicycle. This is why it is
harder to move or stop a car than a bicycle.

Efficiency

The efficiency that a particular engine has is expressed as a

percentage of the actual power to the theoretical power of an engine.
The actual power produced by an engine is always less than the
theoretical power. There are several ways to describe the efficiency
of an engine.

Volumetric efficiency is defined as how capable an engine is of

filling the cylinder with air on the intake stroke compared to the
cylinder being completely filled with air at atmospheric pressure.
Because air must be sucked into the cylinder with the downward
motion of the piston, the engine is never able to fill the cylinder
100%.
Brake horsepower is the amount of usable power that an engine
actually produces. Indicated power is the amount of theoretical
power that an engine should be able to produce. Mechanical
efficiency is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.
BHP / IP = Mechanical Efficiency

Thermal efficiency is the degree to which an engine is able to

successfully convert the energy in the fuel into heat energy to
cause the pistons to turn the crankshaft.
Fuel efficiency is defined in several different ways. The most
common of which is kilometers per liter (km/L) or miles per
gallon (mpg), which would be used to describe the fuel efficiency
of an engine in an over the road application such as in a truck.
Fuel efficiency for marine or industrial applications may be
expressed in liters per hour (Lph) or gallons per hour (gph) at
rated speed.
Fuel efficiency may also be expressed in brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC). BSFC is defined as the amount of fuel
used per unit of power and time. The bsfc of an engine is
expressed in either G / (kW hr) or lb / (hp hr). (G = grams)