AAL 62 — Heine Monographie Journals of the Near East General Editor: Giorgio Buccellati froastatic Gngwstics Editors: Robert Hetzron, Santa Barbara Russell G. Schuh, Los Angeles Advisory Board: Ariel Bloch, Berkeley Talmy Givén, Los Angeles Thomas G. Penchoen, Los Angeles Stanislay Segert, Los Angeles Volunie 6 Issue 2 December 1978 The Sam Languages A History of Rendille, Boni and Somali by Bernd Heine a Undena Publications Malibu 1978AFROASIATIC LINGUISTICS AAL includes contributions in linguistics within the vast domain of Afroasate (Hamito-Semitic) languages. Articles of general, theoretical interest using Afroasitic material, descriptive, historical and comparative studies are included. Editors: Robert Hetzron (698 Zink Av., Santa Barbara, Ca. 93111, U.S.A) Russell G. Schuh (15337 Hart St., Van Nuys, Ca, 91406, US.A) Send all manuscripts to Robert Hetzron or (for Chadic) to Russell G. Schuh. Consult stylesheet on back- cover for editing format. 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No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in waiting from the publisher.Honographic Journats of the Near East Agnoasiatic Linguistics 6/2 (Decenber 1978) i THE SAM LANGUAGES A HISTORY OF RENDILLE, BONI AND SOMALI by Bernd Heine Institut fiir Afrikanistik, Universitit zu Kéin ‘Tho Sam languages are spoken in the Eastern African countries of Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia. They include Rendille, Boni and the various dialects of the Somali dialect cluster. The term "San!" refers to a closely-knit unit of Cushitic, languages within the Qno-Tana (formerly called "Sonaloid” or "Nacro-Sonali") branch of Lowland East Cushitic. The San-speaking people originate from the Ethiopian Highlands. During the last two millennia, it is claimed here, they took possession of the arid plains of northeastern Kenya, Somalia and eastern Ethiopia. In the present paper an attempt is made’at reconstructing aspects of the history of the San Languages. CONTENTS 1, INTROUCTION. ©... ee Oe ee 3 2. eee ae 4 ee cee ee eee eae eet ge aon Bae 5 pe cc cee 6 The other Sab languages 222i iil 8 ge gees ilo8 3. PROIO-SM oo ee oe 9 Se ee nee Dla eee a ee ee Uy Consonant clusters 2222S i itt u Dvowerciusters 22 DDD DDD EDD DIDI a ‘The semi-mite vowel of Boni 2.2... ee eee al to-Sam systems eee ee ee ee Sere ge Consonants | 1) Be er cal me Be eee a a itone and accent) 9 ese ee eee 2 ee eo Bee ez AAL 0, 23Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 3.3. Adjectives Nunerals : 5 Denonstratives 2222222 DDD DID int Nominal possessives 2222202222220 00002 4. Adverbial phrase ss. see eee cc cect eeseseenee 8: Personal pronouns 22... ose Bae + Independent pronoms’ 222 es ee Possessive pronoms 22222222 litt Verbal pronouns. 3.5.3.1, 0 31515.2. Subject" pronouns Imperative S110 Infinitive 22.2 Aspect Conjugation pattems 3.6.4.1, Suffix-Verbs 3.6.4.2, Prefix-Verbs Derivations... ee ee eae 3.6.5.1. Relationship between verbs and noms 222222212. 3.6.5.2. Verbal suffixes... Reflexive ||. Causative : : s particlesltie cere paren Venitive . * ablative. | Intransitive Reflexive . . 3.6.5.4, Frequentative ss... 2! 3.6. ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF SAM LANGUAGES . 22... ee 4.1. The first split of Proto-Sam +. 22.21: 4.2. The first split of Eastern San’ > 1.1 ¢ 4.3. The second split of Eastern Sans)... (OTES ON HISTORY ov ee ee ee ee ees el. East Cushitic expansions 22220221 Ze Proto: camisetas eee 3. Early Sam migrations <1... pete eee ee 4. ‘The “aboriginal population" OF the'tom sve Seer tials 15. The conquest of the Horn. . : 6. Southern migrations... 2222 ee ee PREPRESS : APPENDIX: English - Proto-Sam wordlist... 2... eee eee gdp0o0 AAL 6, 241978] The Sam Languages 3 1, INTRODUCTION ‘The present paper aims at describing sone aspects of the linguistic history of a group of East African languages, i.e. Rendille, Boni, and Sonali. At the sane time it intends to provide some information on the early'history of the people speaking these languages. Our interest, in the stuly of the San, languages was aroused during field research within the project “Language Atlas of Kenya". In the course of this, We were confronted with the task of documenting languages on which Little or no information was available. ost of these languages turned out to belong to the East Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic (Erythraic) fanily. When attenpting to establish a genetic sub-classification we noticed that some of these East Cushitic languages differ considerably fron each other in their structure and lexicon. The Yaaku (Nogogodo) language of central Kenya, for example, has been shown to belong to East Cushitic but it does not exhibit substantial similarities with other languages of this branch (see Greenberg 1963; Ehret 1974:32-33). Other 1an- guages again sharo a relatively close genetic relationship. Such is the case with the San languages. This relationship has been largely ignored by scholars working on these Tanguages, although Harold C. Fleming (1964) had dravm attention to it more than a decade ago. Our field research revealed that it is possible to examine this relationship in more detail by applying the comparative method of historical linguistics. While some scholars have expressed doubts as to whether this method can be applied successfully to African languages outside the Bantu-speaking area, our comparisons within the Sam group suggest that these Languages do not behave any differently from Bantu or Indo-European languages. The con- parative method has been shown to be applicable to the Kuliak languages (Heine 1976a). The San languages constitute the second East African non-Bantu language unit to which this, method proves to be applicable. ‘The notes that follow may suffer from a number of obvious shortcomings. Perhaps the most serious one is that the author is not a "Cushitist". With an academic tradition that goes back to the first half of the 19th century, Cushitic studies constitute one of the best established branches of Africanistics.* To familiarize oneself adequately with this field would require years of intensive study, yet the author mist confess that he did not become interested in comparative Cushitic studies until 1975 when he was compelled to deal with Kenyan Cushitic languages as part of the project ‘Language and Dialect Atlas of Kenya". Secondly, the linguistic materials on which this work is based are in mst cases scanty, the only data on languages like Rendille and Boni available to date being shorter vocabularies and gramatical sketches. Another shortcoming may be seen in the fact that a substantial anount of publications are available on one of the languages considered here, i.e. Somali. ‘Thanks to the work of Leo Reinisch, Emesto Cerulli, B.W. Andrzejewski and others, Sonali has become one of the ‘his project is sponsored by the Deutsche Forschungsgemednschast. It is conducted jointly by Wilhelm Méhlig, who is responsible for the Bantu languages, and the present ‘author dealing with the non-Bantu languages of Kenya. As early as 1845, there was sone literature on Cushitic languages available, including gramatical descriptions and vocabularies. The designation 'Cushitic' was introduced by 1858 (see Kthler 1975: 290). AAL 6, 254 Bernd Heine IAAL 6/2 best-documented languages of Africa. Yet we have decided to exploit this wealth of pub- lished data only to a limited extent so as not to bias the results of our analysis too much in favour of one particular language. In this way we have tried to establish a somewhat balanced basis of interlinguistic comparison, although we cannot be sure whether the disadvantages of this approach do not outweigh its advantages. It is nevertheless hoped that the present study may be of some use to people interested in the languages and history of Gushitic-speaking peoples. It would seem to us that con- parative research so far has been dominated by large-scale comparison involving many divergent Languages.’ On the other hand, very little information is available on the intemal structure of various Cushitic sub-groups; more often, the existence of linguistic relationships has been assumed rather than proven. One of the main goals of this paper is ‘therefore to encourage small-scale comparative research on Cushitic languages, wit! particular emphasis on those languages that have hitherto largely escaped the attention of scholars working in this field. ‘The present paper would not have been possible without the encouragement we received fron Hans-Jtirgen Sasse. We are deeply indebted to him for his invaluable advice on all matters relating to Cushitic studies. We would also like to express our gratitude to Derek Elderkin who made available his unpublished field notes on Boni, to Max Trutenau who read an earlier version of this paper and suggested various improvenents, and to Robert Hetzron for various critical comments. 2. THE SAM LANGUAGES 2.1, THE LANGUAGES The following languages are included in this group: 2.1.1. Rendille* ‘The self-designation for the language is af 2 rcnd'1£le. The Rendille-speaking poople inhabit the southern part of Marsabit District in Northern Kenya. According to the Kenya Population Census of 1969, they nunber 18,729. The total of Rendille speakers, however, must be assumed to be below 15,000 (sce below). Rendille society is givided on economic, social and geographical grounds into two sections: the "Rendille proper", who have what is’essentially a canel economy, and the Ariaal (aré'aal, Pl ariaat'6}.” The "Rendille proper" occupy the northern part of the Rendille country,”i.e. the desert-like areas between Marsabit and the south-eastern shores of Lake ‘Turkana’ (formerly Lake Rudolf), whereas the Ariaal with their focus on cattle economy inhabit the southern part of Rendille country, the Logologo-Laisamis area and a narrow strip all along the northern fringes of Sampur comtry. Socio-econonically, the Ariaal Rendille occupy a position somewhere between the "Rendille proper" and the Sanpur (Samburu), their southern neighbours (Spencer 1973:130). ‘The difference between these two sections of Rendille society is also reflected in 1an~ ‘guage behaviour (see Heine 1976a:1.3): whereas the majority of "Rendille proper" are ‘We do not wish to underrate the relevance of such stulies, Their importence has only recently been demonstrated again in comparative work on the Cushitic verb conducted by Robert Hetzron (1974) and Andrzej Zaborski (1975). “For more detailed information on the language see Heine (1976b). ML 6, 261978) The Sam Languages fj monolingual Rendille speakers, Ariaal society is marked by a pattern of bilingualism which seens to lead to a language shift from Rendille to Sampur, an Lastern Nilotic language. Nowadays, children usually grow up with Saspur as their first and prinary language, having hardly any knowledge of their parents’ language. This is particularly so along the southern fringes of Arial country. In Laisamis, the largest trading center of southern Rendille, for example, Renditie has been found to be the first language of 83 per cent of the people over twenty years. Anong the children under ten, on the other hand, 98 per cent speak Sampur as their first language. Due to this process of language shift, there is a notable discrepancy between ethnic and Linguistic affiliation. There are probably several thousand young Ariaal people who claim to be Rendille by tribe, but who speak Sampur, rather than Rendille, as their first and primary language. Until 1975, Rendille has been a virtually unknown language, the only published data on it being those of Harold C. Fleming (1964:60-71), collected during several hours of informant- work. In 1976, Heine published notes on Kendille gramar (Heine 1976a). Since then, various more substantial contributions to our knowledge of Rendille have been nade, in particular Oonen (1977a; 1977), Hudson (197), and Sin (197). 2.1.2, Boni® ‘The Boni (Aweera) language is spoken in the well-wooded hinterland of Lami District in Kenya between the Tana river and the Sonalia boundary, with some groups extending into southern Somalia. ‘The oni-speaking people consist of a few thousand hunters and gatherers* who in recent years have begun to give up their traditional economy in favour of faring. The Boni are called waat® by the Galla, their western neighbours, b'oon by the Somali and wa°boné by the Swahili. There has been some confusion surrounding the term "Boni" since it has been applied with reference to various other hunter-gatherer communities in ‘the area of the lower Tana, all of which are Galla-speaking. A.N. Tucker (1969) therefore proposed to replace this name by "Aweera"", which he clains iS the name by which the Boni refer to themselves. awect, or adeer-a, ‘is the Boni word for ‘hmter' or 'to hunt’ and may refer to anybody engaged in the activity of hunting, independent of his ethnic background. We have therefore proposed to retum to the name "Boni", mainly because of the following reasons: (a) this is the term being used by the Kenyan’ administration, and (b) the Boni themselves seem to prefer to be referred to by this name (Heine 1977¢:1-3). In order to avoid any further confusion, we shall henceforth reserve the nane "Boni" to the “true Boni” whose language is treated in this paper and refer to the other groups that hhave been subsuned under this label either by their om names (e.g. widt many'6le, wide g’éde) or else by the qualifying designation "Galla-speaking Boni", For more detailed infomation on the Language see Heine (1977). Sthe exact mumber of Boni speakers is not know. The Kenya Population Census of 1969 Lists 3,972 "Boni/Sanye" as Living in Kenya, and of these 1,276 are found in the Lam District where most Boni live, and 835 in Tana River Disgrict, Since these figures include not only Boni but lso sone "Galla-speaking Boni" as well as the South Cushitic Dahalo, one is lead to assime that the total number of Boni speakers may not exceed ‘There is no more recent information on the munber of Boni Living in Southern AAL 0, 276 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 Although the language is spoken by only a relatively small number of people, it can be subdivided into a number of clearly distinct dialects. The Boni themselves Tefer to the various dialect groups by the foliowing nanes: (a) b'ineen’® located in the west, in and aromd Pandanguo; (b) sager’ée? between Pandanguo and Mkununbi (c) ké"éngu? in the center, near the coast, around settlements like Baragoni, Ndununi and Magura (Mal imu) } @ kiaee> in the northeast between Bodhei and Mararani in Milimani, Basuba (Gauri) , and Nangai. Even this list may not exhaust the nunber of possible Boni dialects, other group nanes being: (ce) bité and (£) wayore, both in Somalia around Kisimayu, (g) bera, living in roughly the same area as the ké'déngu? in Ndununi and Magunba, (h) dura, near Kiunga, and G) gedia, near river Tana. The RiLié are said to be mostly Sonali-speaking and the gedia mostly Galla-speaking (Steve Harvey, personal conmmication of February, 1976). ‘Two short vocabularies published in the 19th century by G.A. Fischer (1878:141-144) and HH. Johnston (1886:401-402), as well as a few grammatical notes (Tucker 1969:66-81) are ‘the’ only published data on this language to date. An elaborate discussion on the 19th century vocabularies and on the position of Boni has been provided by Harold C. Fleming (1964:71-78). Our own account of the language (Heine 1977) is based on the western dialect (b'dteexe*) but speakers of central and eastern Boni have been consulted as well. 2.1.3, "“Jabarti” It is neither known wio speaks this language nor wise exactly it is spoken, nor whether it is strun spoken anywhere today. ‘The first account of it Stens fron Leo Reinisch who in 1904 published a short monograph, based on data collected by Wilhelm Hein during his expedition to Aden and Shekh Osman in 1901/1902 (Reinisch 1904). The other major contri- bution to the study of Jabarti was made by Naria von Tiling (1921/22) who was able to work with a "Jabarti" speaker in Hanburg. ‘he "Jabarti" inhabit the southem part of Somalia from 6" n.1. to approximately 3° n.1. along the coast as well as inland between the rivers Juba and Shebelle. "Jabarti" is a name given to them by the Arabs, their own name being unknown.’ They are said to be divided into two main "tribes": the Digil and the Hawiyye (Hoye). Digil and Hawiyye belong to basically different congeries of clans: whereas the Hawiyye form one of the four main clan-fanilies of the Samaale or Somali proper (the others being the Dir, Isaaq, and the Daarood; I.M. Lewis 1960:214/215), the Digil, together with the Rahanwiin, belong to the Sab, i.e. the second major part of the Somali nation which occupies the fertile lands between the Shebelle and the Juba rivers.° From the few details given by Reinisch and von Tiling it would seem that the Jabarti overshelmingly, if not exclusively, belong to the Sab. Maria von Tiling's informant For a discussion of the nane, see Tiling 1921/22:20-22. Sore that IM. Levis clains that both the Digit, and Rabaniin have been Galla-speaking until recently, and both are said to have arisen "from the intermixture of south-driving Sonali with the reargoard of the Calla occupying most of the lover reaches of the suba" CM. Loris’ 1958:40). "In'the light of more hecent Tesearch (see Ch. 5) i is doubt ul whether this view is indeed in accordance wth sone historical developsents in Southern Somalia, ML 6, 21978] The Sam Languages 7 Osman Abdi for example mentioned that the people referred to as "Jabarti" in Aden have a ow standing, doing lowly, jobs such as cleaning public lavatories and drains. Osman Abdi considered the term "Jabarti" as equivalent to low worker and ignorant person. He would insist that this does not apply at all to the Hawiyye, I.M. Lewis describes the Sab in the following way "The Sab are held in contempt for their lowly origins, stemming from Sab as opposed to Somali, for their heterogeneous composition which includes Negroid elenents, for their lack of a clear, politically significant genealogical structure, and, more importantly perhaps, because they are predominantly cultivators” (iM. Lewis 1955:31). Fron the distribution of the "Jabarti" it appears that they are, or have been, largely cultivators, differing from the pastoral Samaale living farther north and south. Both Reinisch and von Tiling consider Jabarti a dialect of the Somali language, though von Tiling has some reservations. She talks of the "language of the Jabarti” and emphasizes that Jabarti differs considerably from Somali (1921/22:23) having been "sepa rated from it a long time ago and forming a linguistic development area of its own" (1921/22:160). TM. Lewis remarks on the difference between Sab and "Somali proper”: “Linguistically the speech of the Sab differs from that of the northern pas- toralists by about as mich as French does from Italian. The gulf in language is thus mich wider than that between any of the northern pastoral dialects” (Lewis 1961:13). Assuming that "the speech of the Sab" is more or less identical with "Jabarti" there would ‘seem to be sone justification in treating Jabarti and Sonali as different languages, which, however, belong to one and the sane dialect contimum—in a similar way as French and Italian do. In more recent times, Jabarti has been influenced considerably by Somali, i.e. the language of the Sanaale or "Sonali proper". 2.1.4, Somali Sonali is by far the most important of all the Sam languages. ‘The nane of the language is af Soomdaei. ‘The total of its speakers exceeds three millions. Most of them live in ‘the Republic of Somalia where Somali is both the national and the official language. Other areas inhabited by Sonali are the Northeastern Province as well as the Tana river area of Kenya, the Harar region of Ethiopia, and French Somaliland. For the literature on Sonali, se¢ Johnson (1963). Sonali is divided into a number of dialects which seem to form a large dialect continum, ‘A satisfactory description of this continuum has not yet been presented to date. The llandbook of African Languages, following B.W. Andrzejewski, the outstanding Sonali scholar, Lists three min dialect grows, which may be referred to as the Norther, Southern, and Benadir groups, respectively.” "The Northern dialects are spoken by the typically pastoral Tsaaq, Daarood, Dir and Hlaviyye (liawiya, Hoye), i.e, those clan-fanilies which according to TM, Lewis make up the Samaale or "Sonali proper" (I.M. Lewis 1961:12). ‘The Southern dialects include the Rahasiin and probably the Tuuni and Jiddu. The Benadir (bandAdéa) speaking people are said to consist of the "largely detribalized inhabitants of the coastal ‘towns of Somalia" (Tucker/Bryan 1956:125-26).. ‘Note that these terms are based on historical considerations (see Ch. 5). Due to more recent migrations, some sections of Northem clan-families are now found living to the south of the Southern dialect area (5.6). AAL 6, 298 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 2.1.5. Other Sab Languages Apart from "Jabarti", there are two more linguistically divergent "tribes" belonging to the Sab section of Sonali. They are the Yibir and the Midgan.'” J,W.C, Kirk remarks about. them: "the YébUus are said to be sorcerers, and to have prophetic powers and the power of cursing. They live by begging, but expecially by the levy of a tax on Somalis, at a marriage or the birth of a child .... The slidgans are by nature hunters or trappers, and live largely by the meat of game they can kill in the jungle. They’ are also employed by Sonalis to work for them, in retum for which they receive occasional payment, in food or othetwise, and protection, from their employer. ‘This work consists in fetching wood, drawing water, and digging and Cleaning wells. Both tribes also work in leather, tanning hides, and making leather oma- ments, saddles, shoes, etc." (Kirk 1905:184). ‘These two tribes are said to speak languages that, although being structurally similar to Sonali, differ in their lexicon considerably both’ fron Sonali and fron each other. The data published by Kirk (1905) suggest that they might be artificial codes rather than being natural tanguages.!! The scanty evidence available does not allow for any clear-cut statenent on the genetic position of these languages, 2.2. CLASSIFICATION The San languages belong to the Cushitic sub-family of the Afroasiatic (Erythraic) lan~ guage family. Within Cushitic, the genetic position of Sam can be described by means of the following tree diagran (cf. Bender et al. 1976:14; 43): Cushitic 4 North Cushitic Central Cushitic South Cushitic East Cushitic “ightand” “Lowland” Northern "Oromo" Ono-Tana Western Northern Eastern (Galaboid) | (Sam) Anbone Dasenech Etmoto Bayso ‘note that although these two groups are comonly referred to as "Sab" they have to be distinguished rom’ the Bigit and Rahanelin, both on dhachronte and synchronic gromds (cf. TM. Lewis 1961:14). Nxjek mentions with respect to Midgan: "In account, given ne by a Midgan, of the traditional origin of his tribe, it was suggested that this language was invented by the Midgan's ancestors in the jungle as a secret code" (Kirk 1905:189-90). AAL 6, 301978] The Sam Languages 9 ‘The Sam languages, which form the Eastern sub-group of Ono-Tana, are sub-classified in the following way (see Heine 1976b:3): San Western Eastem (Dad) Renditee Bond, Jabarti Somatic ‘The above classification differs in sone ways from previous classifications, especially in the following points: (1) The term "Ono-Tana" is new, it replaces earlier designations Like "Macro-Somali" (Fleming 1964) and "Sonaloia" (Bender 1971) which do not seem justifiable on linguistic grounds (see Heine 1976). (2) The Galaboid Languages Arbore, Dasenech and Elnolo, which were allocated to the southern branch of "Orono" in’Fleming (1976:43), ate classified as Ono-Tana languages on the basis of recent evidence presented by Hans-Jlirgen Sasse (1975). (3) The classification of the Sam languages largely agrees with that proposed by Harold C. Flening (1964:82-83), but differs from that contained in Fleming (1976:43), which considers Rendille, Boni, Rahanwiin, Southern Somali and Northern Somali as co- ordinate menbers of one and the sane group, i.e. Sam. Evidence in favour of the present classification is contained in Ch, '4 of this paper. (4) A particularly close relationship between Elnolo and the Sam languages had been Claimed in Heine (1973). More recent studies suggest that Elmolo has to be excluded from the list of Sam languages after all. ‘The term "San" is derived from the root *sam common to the languages of this group.'? 3. PROTOSAM ‘The present section presents an attempt at “reconstructing” characteristics of the hypotheti- cal ancestor language of the modern Sam languages, called "Proto-San".!* Although it is the aim of the following paragraphs to provide a general outline of the assumed proto-language there are various important aspects of structure that will not be “The same root occurs in other phonological shapes (e.g. soono, gunan) in other East Cushitie Languages (also s4fn in Awmgi). H.J. Sasse (personal communication) suggests that the reconstructed form should be *san, rather than *san. On the basis of evidence fron Sonali and other Eastem Cushitic languages, this appears to be a plausible clain. Qh the other hand, one may postulate a change Proto-Sam ‘sam > Sonali san, pl. san-an (& *san-an) as a result of regressive assimilation, Sonali having general rule m ~ n/ 4. "It would seen that this is a slightly more obvious explanation than assuning that Renditle underwent a change *an > *san. ‘Note that the term “ancestor language" is not, and cannot be, meant in a literal sense. Since we have no records whatsoever of it, all “reconstructions” mist remain hypothetical, i.e. they cannot be considered as actually spoken linguistic forms. AAL 6, 3110 Bernd Heine [ML 6/2 discussed. For example, Proto-San mist have had a case system marked by nominal suffixes, yet the reader will find hardly any information on this phenomenon. Similarly, neither a treatment of tonal structure nor of verbal modality pattems is provided. The main reason for omitting such aspects of language structure is cither that the data available on the various languages are not sufficient, or else that these languages differ from each other so mch that a Comparative analysis of the relevant structures does not seen possible. ‘The Linguistic materials presented in this section have been taken from the following main sources: Heine (1976b) for Rendille; Heine (1977) for Boni; von Tiling (1921/22) for Jabarti; Kirk (1905), Bell (1953) and Tucker/Bryan (1966) for Sonali. ‘The reader is referred to these for further information. In addition, unpublished data on Boni collected by Derek Elderkin have been utilized. ‘The transcription used is sumarized in Table 1. The following abbreviations will be used: Boni easter and central Boni dialects Boni data collected by Derek Elderkin Feminine gender Jabarti Masculine gender noun plural Rendille Somali singular gorge zongee 3.1, Phonology See p. 11 for Table 1. AAL 6, 32,1978] The Sam Languages n ‘TABLE 1 ‘TRANSCRIPTION consonants Bilab. Lab. Dent. Alv, Post- Alv.- Pal. Vel. tvul. Glott, Phar. dent. alv. pal. Plosive t e a : d 4 Sn ds a Inplosive 'd i's Bjective e e e Fricative 4 sh x hook Lateral Roll Nasal ” n yoo Glide ® y VOWELS Short vowels 4, & a 0, uw Long vowels 44, ee, aa, 00, wt Semi-mite vowel & een TONES High 4a High-falling a Low a Accent ‘a (i.e. unmarked; in reconstructed forms: *4) 3.1.1, Consonants *b ‘There is a series of mitually corresponding voiced bi-Labial stops for which a Proto-San phoneme *b is set up. Rendille and Boni 6 has a fricative allophone [6] in intervocalic position. R b'66n F : S been-ta : B b'ée F ‘lie (n)' R béc'g M : |S beiyo-hé : J bé4yO5-gé : B biy’o M ‘water’ R xob'éb F ‘cold (n)' : S qaboob-hi ‘cold weather" : B ab'éob M ‘coolness' %e ‘The voiceless alveolo-palatal stop ¢ of Rendille corresponds to the fricative sh in all other Sam languages in morphene-initial position. We derive this series from a hypothetical proto-phoneme *e, AAL 0, 33v Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 S shan-ta : J shag : B shdn * S shimbin-ta : B sh'imér F shetey, shated : B shal? 'yesterday’ Another series Re : Sy : Jy: By is confined to the intervocalic position within morphenes. It can be assumed that this series, too, derives from Proto-Sam *¢ occurring between vowels. The former series does not occur in this environment. R bic'6 M : $ bédyo-hi : J biiydd-gé : B béy'o M ‘water’ R dee : S dyd-da : J tye 'she R dco : S dyd-da : J Zyyoo : B iyo ‘they’ “4d ‘The morphene-initial dental stop d of Rendille, Sonali and Jabarti corresponds to t in Boni. These phonenes can be said to go gack to a reconstructed phonene *d. R dub "to roast" : $ dub-an ‘roasted’ : B tib 'to roast! Rdin Mi S diin-ké : B tin M (Ed) 'tortoise® R dab M : S dab-ka : B 25M ‘fire’ Following vowels, all languages including Boni have a voiced dental phonene d which may be realized as a fricative (3). Rd’lid : S diid : B t'Lid ‘to refuse! S iddé-da ; B idd't F Fingemail', ‘claw’ Reanx'ad M ‘Lightning’ : S onkod-ké "thunder" 4 ‘The post-alveolar voiced plosive q of Rendille, Sonali and Jabarti corresponds to an in- plosive alveolar stop ‘d in Boni. ‘A proto-phoneme "d is postulated for this series. R dig F B R dig M 4 i Rdéx : S dex J decor (high) : B'd"éex "long! Morphene- internally after vowels, Boni has usually * corresponding to both q and dd in the other San Languages. R hid : S feid : J hi : B hin "to close, shut, tie’ 5 ode sb fant "to iste! RA'GEde +S “eedin + Beot't ‘unripe! In Jabarti the post-alveolar voiced plosive *4 has been replaced by a post-alveolar Liquid A except in initial position (cf. von Tiling 1922: 38-39): R JZ M "neat" ; S jid-ka : J, fix "body" S feedede sb Q'eerd PL geen? F/0L oy goon rib! RNAi Ms S adi-gé 7 BAC : J ax ‘sheep and goats’ 0 ALL Sam Languages have a Labi derived from a proto-phonene *4 R far Mi S fat-ta : J fax : B gan F ‘finger! R fur : S fun : B fur ‘to open" R Lag F : § Lag-ta: B Lag R tug : S hug: Big ‘to fall" sntal voiceless fricative which can be assumed to be "9 Rendille, Sonali and Jabarti have a morpheme-initial voiced velar stop g corresponding to a voiceless velar stop k in Boni. AAL 6. 341978] The Sam Langauges as R gey Mi S geid-ké : J goed : B k'ée N ‘tree’ R gatg'@x : § gaxgax : B kank'aa-s "to help’ S gataan-ti : J gady : B k'a’an F ‘hand, arm’ Rogdb : S gub : B kdb 'to burn’ ‘This series also occurs following x, e.g. R 'Agax/"énga : S grag : Bank ‘to see" (see also 'to help’ above) In non-initial position after vowels all languages, including Boni, have g as their reflex of 8 R dig M: S déig-ga : J diig-ti : B,'dtég M 'blood' daar tetaee* Saag ane R nig’ 'S ming "8 n'Gag ‘to suck fron breast’ The same applies to the environment following 9: R m'igdé M : S mugdi-gi (Mogadishu) : B m'agd® M (E) 'darkness' There is another series of correspondences R j : $ j : Boni sh which is found only pre- coding high front vowels. Tt would seem that there is sone justification for considering this series as being derived from a proto-sound *{ds} which Itself was an allophone of *g ‘occurring before *. R j'2éb Ms S jitib-ka + B sh'itub M "ince" R fat Fo: S jéd-bé : B shéd M road, path’ R fit = § jétd +B ahdid ‘to pull" R yebi + S fib "to break (tr.)' (< *géaba) Norphene-internally between vowels, *g seems to have disappeared in Boni, as far as the following examples suggest: R g'agah M : B kia’ M ‘clap of thunder’ R agis/égis : B dés/iaas ‘to kill! (cf. 3.6.4.2) *h A glottal fricative *h can be reconstructed for the series Rh: Sh Rhel ; S het : B hel ‘to get" R hon ‘first, earlier’ ; $ hor-ta "in front, firstly': B hor-tééd "past! R hagax M: B hag'ax M ‘wind! : Rendille has lost *h morphene-initially in a number of cases. The conditions of this loss are unclear. Raa,: $ haa : B hoa Rab'éx ; S habaat : B hab’ (E) 'to curse! R on'64 fin front’ : S honed 'to be in front’ ; B én? "in front’ In intervocalic and morpheme-final positions, *h has become i in Rendille, merged with “7. R 40h: S Sooh : B sooh (ED) ‘to twist’ R wai" : S wehe ‘companion’ R dai : S deh (Imper.) : B etah (Ed) ‘to say’ Bh. se. it has ‘The voiceless pharyngal fricative f of Rendille and Somali corresponds to a glottal fricative h in Boni and Jabarti in morphene-initial position. For this series, a Proto- San phonene * is reconstructed. AAL 6. 354 TAAL 0/2 s In positions other than norphene-initially 4K is reflected as @ glottal stop ’ in Nestern Boni and as h elsewhere in the Boni-speaking area (E). Room'ah F: B 'éna’ F; 'Sxah F CE) "sun! Raa M : Saai-a : B ta’ M: Aah M (E) ‘frog’ S masqafi-da : B méska’ F; méskah F (E) ‘brain’ Somali has lost *f in most cases if preceded and followed by *a: S taas-ka : B L'Ahas M "well (of water)' R-afa : S-aa: J -aa : Baha ; -a* ‘your (Sg poss.)' *h In morphene-initial position, al1 Sam languages have a regularly corresponding voiceless velar plosive k for which a proto-phonene *k is set up. Rkiately) : § kaated, kaatay : B k'aae® "come!" R kon : $ kor~é : B kon 'to climb! R how : S kow-da : J how : B kbw ‘one! Morphene-intemally following vowels Rendille & corresponds to g in all other San Languages. Ruk'aii F : S ugaf-d : J ogah ‘egg’ Rirc'ék + $ sheegs sheg ‘to tell If *k is followed by *Z its reflex in Boni is sh: S kitkito-dé : B shish'te F 'ampit' S buk-< zB bushé- 'to be sick" There is one seeming counter-example to this rule: R RG 'to wake up’ : S kité 'to awaken" : B k'Z%4 ‘to wake up! Ts set of copnaten appears to be derived from a Proto-Sen root ‘ka ‘to atmd up! (see In Jabarti, *k is reflected as sh if the following vowel is either { or e (see von Tiling 1922149): S keen : B k'Beyk'€éna* : J sheen 'to bring’ R ket'ét : § keti-dé (adj,) : J shégee ‘alone’ S banbi-gi ‘wooden pillow : B batk® F : J barshé "headrest! e There is a consonant £ corresponding between all Sam languages for which a proto-phoneme *€ is reconstructed. iF: $ it (-ha) : J it : BALE 'eye! S gal : B kat 'to enter S Ufi-da : J tik; Ui: BLU ‘six’ F : S tag-ta : § Lag ‘bone’ In a number of cases, Boni has lost word-final 2. The conditions under which this has happened are not known. AAL 6, 361978] The Sam Languages 1s R ménd'ita F ‘shaving knife’ : $ mandéit (-sha) ‘knife’ : B mtind F; ménne (E) ‘knife’ R tum'at F : S tumat-ka : B £'dna M "blacksmith" ALL Sam languages have @ nasal m which can be assumed to be derived from Proto-Sam *n, Romat'afi M: § madahi-g : J midi’ : B mata’ M "head* Rimin M : J még: B mig M ‘house’ R maat'im M : maakin-ta : B m'aat® F ‘day! Word-finally, there is a series Rm: Sn: Jn : Bm (p if the word is a Masculine now) which can be’said to be derived from Proto-San *m as well Raum EF: S sun-ti, PL tuno-hé : B adn F 'truth" R Zin ‘to pound’ :”s tun "to grind, geld’ : B tun ‘to pound’ R xdatén M "young male camel" : S qaatin-ké, PL qaatino-hd "Larger male calf" R lux’ F 2 S uqun-£é PL Luguno-hé "neck" S gaSaan-2i, PL gaSaano-hé : J gag : B k'@°an F ‘hands, am’ In the above examples, Sonali has n if either a consonant or a word boundary follows and m if a vowel follows.’ There are, however, other words where even with preceding vowels Sonali n corresponds to Rendille m: R gac'dm M : S gashan-bé, Pl gashano-dé, ‘shield’ R Sdn Mz S san-ka, PL sanan : B say M ‘nose’ It would seem that in these cases the rule m+ n/_# has been extended to the morphene- final position although it is unclear why this has not happened throughout the language, e.g. in words 1ike Somali aun-2é, sumo-hé ‘truth’ (see above). Boni has lost *m in intervocalic position. This development appears to have affected Prefix-Verbs only (cf. 3.6.4.2; 4.1). R iné(t) ‘to arrive’: § man : B cid/iaad ‘to cone! R amit : B wud/uaad ‘to die ALL San Languages have a nasal n which can be traced back to a proto-phonene *n. R nafias M: S naas-| B n'&’as M ‘female breast’ Rng’? § nuug’? B n'Gug ‘to suck" Rm" 1S maanta : B m'dan ‘today’ Word-finelly, *n is reflected in Jabarti as n. In Boni, it is usually retained as y in the case of Nasculine nouns and lost in other cases. B mfy M ‘house’ 1B be Fs b'Bon F (E) "Iie ()" S bun-ka’ coffee’ : B big M ‘coffee bean’ In other cases again, word-final n has been retained in Boni: S dalign-ti : B *dah'an F ‘cold (n)" Roxan'in : S qandin : B an'tin ‘to bite! Remaf'an F : Bmah'an F ‘barren woman" AAL 0, 3716 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 7 A series of corresponding phonemes Rx: Sq: J q: Bp in word-initial position is assuned to be derived fron Proto-San "g, a voiceless uvular plosive. R x'Bno M : S qoni-gé : J goni : B 'on® M ‘wood, firewood" R xt : S qod-d : Bod "to dig, cultivate’ R xat qaad : B 'aad ‘to take’ R x'&bo : S qabo : B 'dbo 'to catch, hold’ In non-initial position following vowels, the correspondences are Rx: Sq:J3g:B’. R mi 1S mingiqit-ha : B mini! ‘2x ‘intestines’ Remax'al : S magat-shi 'young goats and sheep’ ‘S magat : B m'a’al ‘to hear’ S bogol-bé : J bogée ‘hundred’ on ‘ALL Sam languages have a phoneme 2 which corresponds regularly between them. A proto- phonene ®% is set up for this series. R Gar M: S fan-ta : J for: B far F ‘finger’ Rwar'dba M : S waraabe-ha : J umragba-gé : B uan'éa M ‘hyena’ Raum F: S Aun-td : B adn F "truth’ % ‘There is a phonene 4 in all languages which is to be considered as a reflex of Proto-Sam *s, R sah F : S sat-a: J saa* : Bad? F 'cow' S sié : B gdé ‘to give" R fus'db : S Susub 'new' : B 'usub F 'newness' Rnafias M': S naas-ba : Bn'é?as M "female breast’ te ‘ALL Sam Languages have @ phoneme t in morpheme-initial position which can be said to be derived fron a proto-phonene *t. R tin F : S tin-ha : J tin ‘hair! R tom'én : § zooban-ké : J tundy : B tam'dn ‘ten! R tum'ae Fz S tunaat-ka : B "tina M "blacksmith" Morphene-internally following vowels, Rendille has t which corresponds to d in all other Sam Languages. R hati F : $ kaadi-di : B k'dade F ‘urine’ Rmat'afi M: S madafi-a ; J madd” : B m'dda’ M ‘head R xit : S god-é : Bod 'to dig, cultivate’ ‘A proto-phoneme *w is set up for the labio-velar glide w corresponding between all Sam Tanguages. R wén, "big (of living beings)’ : S wedn; weyn : J weén ; B whe "big" Rwar'aba M : S waraabe-ha : J waraabi-gé : B war'éa M ‘hyena’ R fiawie F : B hawaat F "grave' : $ fabaat (-she) ‘w has become b intervocally in Sonali. AAL 6, 381978) The Sam Languages vv ty . A proto-phonene *y is sot up for the palatal glide y corresponding between all San languages. R yafilals'Z M : S yeRaas-ké: J yah'éas M ‘crocodile’ R yery'€r ‘narrow’: S yar ‘small, young’ : J yer ‘small’ R YGy'to cry! : 8 ay "to weep’ :'B dy "to cry R gdy : S goy : B kéy ‘to cut’ 2 There is a series of correspondences Ry : Sd: J d : Bd for which in accordance with earlier Cushitic reconstructions (see Sasse 1975b: 7£f.) a Proto-Sam phonene *z is set up. R s'éyyah : $ sadeh-dé; saddeh-da ; J siddii : B side’; siddeh "three! R gey N: S geid-ké ; J goed ‘tree’ : B k’Bed-ka ‘this tree’ R yeyatt : S dayaf-a ‘moon’ R fy M: § fiédid-bé : Bh'Céd M "root! It appears that *z got lost in Rendille if preceded and followed by *é: R méig : S midig-ti : B m'Zdig ‘right (side)' R aéx : S Aédégq ‘to grind" There is a series Rf : Sg (*) : B.* which does not occur in morpheme-initial position. Its phonetic equivalent in Proto-Sam is unclear. Hans-Jirgen Sasse (personal communication of 25-7-76) suggests that it goes back to an East Cushitic glottal stop *°. We tentatively assume that this phonene was Tepresented in Proto-San as a glottal stop ** as well, which merged with *h (> f) in Rendille. Rad's : S ri-da : J ni? "goat" Rnafas M: § naag-ka ; Bn'@*as M ‘female breast’ R guli ; J gid-ke ‘year! : $ quu-gé "long rainy season’ R sah ‘late morning’ : S saa-ka "this morning’ : B sa’ ‘aa ‘The pharyngal plosive * of Somali corresponds to a pharyngal fricative ft in Rendille and 9 (zero) in Boni in word-initial position. For this series a proto-phonene ** is reconstructed. R fus'db : S fusub 'now' : B ‘ugub F, ‘newness’ R haan'éM : S ‘aano-ha :'B aan® PL ‘milk’ R fos F 'grass' : S Saws-ka 'dry grass’ ; B aas® Pl ‘grass’ In non-initial position, ** was replaced by a glottal stop in both Boni and Jabarti, in Jabarti optionally also’as h: 2 Saga : BA'da’ : J-Aa?; Aah, "to follow 2S sas-a : J saa’: Bad? F ‘cow! Sso*0 : B36" 'to walk, go! + Ba’ (BD) : J ka’; kah "to stand up" Note that sone Rendille speakers have retained * as a free variant of fi, e.g. Soff or 40% ‘to walk, go’. 3.1.1.1. Consonant Clusters Proto-Sam can be assuned to have had a nunber of consonant clusters of which the most frequent are discussed briefly below. Predominant patterns of clustering are those involving AAL 6, 3918 Bernd Heini IAAL 6/2 nasals and Liquids as first constituents. Since there are usually only very few examples for each cluster, in sone cases there is only one example, the following reconstructions have to be considered tentative. nb This cluster is set up for Sonali and Rendille mb, corresponding to m in Boni. R cimbin F,: S shinbia-tn ; B sh'énin F ‘bird! $ fiambaan "to carry on back! : ham'éax ‘to carry’ ond, ‘There is a regular correspondence between Rendille and Somali nq and n(n) of Boni for which a cluster "nd is reconstructed. Romindax'da F 2S mindigin-ba : B mint? Be se cig a ta es R had’ F: Bhan'dut F ‘navel’ S qando-dé ‘chills’ : B 'ann® F 'fever' ‘dn F (E) "intestines" ong ng in Somali Rendille again corresponds to a simple nasal n or n in Boni. R "fngag : $ engeg-an 'dry' : B,'aneg M 'dryness" 5 nanditcgt Sia ed hnoee ng preceding *i has a considerably divergent series of correspondences (cf. “g), i.e. Raj Saji Bak. R inj'tx FS injiv-ta : B ishin F "louse" ‘This double consonant is very tentatively set up for a series where Sonali has b correspond- ing to m (in Jabarti occasionally mn) in other Sam languages. R Llang : § taba-dé,: J Lima, "two! R tom'én : S toban-ké : J fuméy : B tamdn 'ten' S kibis-ti : Bkan'Zs (E) "bread! S dabaato : B duunaat (Ed) "to swin' ne ‘This reconstruction is based on a correspondence R nx : S nk. Reflexes in other languages have not been found. R sonx'6a F,: § sonhon-té_ "sugar’ R anx'dd M ‘lightning’ + S onkod-bé ‘thunder ns Somali ns seems to correspond to 4 in Boni for which a cluster *ns is tentatively set up: S qaanso-da : B 'édse F "bow! *2 + voiceless consonant It seems that in a nunber of Proto-San words * preceded other consonants. In Somali, the relevant clusters have been retained whereas in Boni *£ has been lost: AAL 6, 401978) The Sam Languages 19 R ittim, Pl iem's F/M : S itmo-dé : B ifn? M 'tear' (of eyes) R katd'dé: B bae*de*da (E) ‘alone’ 3.1.2. Vowels The reconstruction of the Proto-Sam vowel system is a task that, given the Limited data available at present, would appear alnost impossible to solve. The main problems are: (2) ‘There are inconsistencies in the correspondence of vowels, both with reference to vowel quality and quantity; (2) evidence from Sonali suggests that Proto-San might have distinguished two sets of five vowels each, with the distinction being based on either Jamess vs. tenseness or on the position of the tongue root; yet the data from other San Ianguages do not quite seem to support such a reconstruction. The following attenpt at reconstructing Proto-Sam vowels must therefore be considered very tentative only. It is to be hoped that it will help to stimlate more detailed research in the field. Underlying our reconstructions are sone tentative assumptions on Sam vowel change patterns, the most important of which are: (4) The history of Sonali is characterized by the introduction of aprogrestive assnia1a~ tion rule Vy = X= Ve 4Vi- X= Vi (where X = any consonant) (ii) Renditle and Boni, on the other hand, have an opposite, regressive, assimilation rule of the kind Vy X- Vp 4Ve -X~ Va ‘This rule appears to have been introduced in Rendille earlier than in Boni. (444) Boni has a Lip-rounding rule freemic] 5 [ta] Peonson. back not shared by other Sam languages. "a ALL Languages have a vowel a corresponding regularly with each other. For this series, 4 proto-phonene *a is set up. R GAM: S farta : J far : B far F ‘finger’ R odin F i$ shan-ta : J shay : B shin ‘five! F "agar: S agar-ta : J agar : B Agax ‘four’ ‘There are several other series which can be said to go back to Proto-Sam *a. These series have in common that Sonali @ corresponds to vowels other than a in Rendille and Boni: Bo R somb'66 M : S sanbab-ka ; B somb'3b® M "lungs" R dow'oho F : § dawaso-dé ‘jackal’ S maroodé-gé : B mon'd6x® F 'elephant' Sa:Ri:Bi Ria’ Fi § sariin-ta : B sin'iin F "bed" 7 R mind"Zta F "shaving knife’ : S mandée (sha) : B mtnn® (5) knife’ R fUddiso (Fleming 1964:70) : $ aniiso = B {"inéiso ‘to sit! Sa:Ro MAL 6, 4120 Bernd Heine TAAL 6/2 It is assumed that both Rendille and Boni have assimilated *a regressively to the following vowel. There are, hovever, examples where this assimilation has taken place in Rendille though not in Boni: R fiok'6to F 'stomach’ ; S Satoot-shi 'belly' : B at'éo£ M 'stonach’ R xob'6b F ‘cold (n)' : $ gaboob-hé ‘cold weather’ : B ab'éob M ‘cootness" Neither in Rendille nor in Boni is the assimilation rule applied across morphene boundaries. Together with the regressive assimilation of Rendille and Boni, a progressive assimilation a+e/e(X) may have occurred in Sonali, as the following examples suggest: R d'érag 'to be satisfied’ : S dereg : B ‘d'éxck ‘to be satiated’ Rogas F's S gees-ka "hom! : B 'das M ‘molar’ Another series Ra : S a : B u/o can equally be said to be derived from *a. The Boni re- flexes are due to the lip-rounding rule mentioned above. R g'drab M ‘'shoulderblade’ : S ganab-ka : B k'étub M "shoulder" S Faraab-ké : B ‘daub M ‘tongue R dab M: S dab-ka : B t6b.M ‘fire’ R x'abo : $ qabo : B 'ébo 'to catch, seize, hold’ Short *a frequently corresponds to i in Jabarti (cf. von Tiling 1922:32), occasionally also in Boni Rematahi M : S madafi-a : J médi? : B m'éda’ M ‘head’ S shabeet-ha : J shiSé6e : B shub'éet M ‘leopard’ RCM: S adé-gi : J YL: BEM ‘sheep and goats’ *e ALL Sam languages have a corresponding series of e for which a proto-phonene *e is set up. hel : § hel ; B het 'toget’ dix : S der ‘tong, tall": J deen thigh" R R +B td'éex "long, tall’ Ramet F : 5 meet (sha) : B meet F ‘place’ 4 This Proto-San phoneme is reconstructed on the basis of a series of 4 in all languages. REGS i (-oha) : J i: BLE ‘eye! Rimin Mz J még : B mty M ‘house’ RSL: S sid: B adi 'to give! R baRE : S buuRé : Bb'aGhé "to £111" In some cases, the reflex of Boni is e rather than i: B £'tx® "to count’ R Rid: S Rid : B hia, her 'to close, shut, tie’ There is a series Ra: S a: Bd for which a Proto-Sam segnent "ai is tentatively set up. R gas'ax M : B R'Ls© F "buffalo S gadcka : B hin M ‘chin’ R gin : B kin ‘to shoot! Note that in all cases involved the consonant preceding *ai is %g. ‘The 1ip-rounding rule applying to vowels preceding b in Boni (see above) is also relevant to vowels derived from *: R j'tkib M: S jitib-ka : B sh'Zlub M "knee" (but: B shitébtda PL 'knees") AAL 6, 421978] The Sam Languages a ALL Sam Languages have a corresponding series of 0 for which a proto-phonene *0 is set up. R 482 : S tol : B toe 'to sew" R gdy : S goy : B kby "to cut’ R Rdw : S Rowda : J-kow; koo : B kéw ‘one’ In a number of examples, Rendille, Jabarti and Boni ° corresponds to @ in Sonali: R hob F ; S bqb-ti : B kdb F "shoe, sandal" Rondg F ‘debe’ : S mag-té "blood money" R Geo : S iyd-ga : J Zyyoo : B iyo ‘they’ fu ALL Sam Languages have @ vowel u regularly corresponding with each other. R hug + S hug : B hg "to fait" Rondg : S muiig : B n'Gug "to suck (from breast)' R flus'Gb : S Susub ‘new’ "usub F 'newness" 3.1.2.1. Vowel Clusters Proto-Sam mist have had a nunber of vowel combinations that may have forned rising diphthongs. ‘These combinations have been retained in Somali but were usually replaced by single short or long vowels in the other Sam languages. Ros F, "grass" : § Saus-ka ‘dry grass' : B aas® Pl ‘grass" R dx M "bull (canel)' : $ aun-ka “burden camel’ : B dot M 'nale elephant" R cel'S : S shatec; shetey : B shdee (E) "yesterday" R hyl"8L Ms S kubayl-ka; kuleit-ké : B kut'éel M 'heat* Ruén "big (of living beings)’: $ weén; weyn : J witg : Butifwéin- "big" 3.1.2.2, The Semi-mite Vowel of Boni There is a set of largely devojced centralized vowels [Z], [dJ,, and [3] which appear to be variants of onc vowel phonene ©, This phonene corresponds to short vewels both in the other San languages and in Proto-San, From the data available it is not possible to establish what phonetic equivalent of this vowel there was in Proto-San, Further research on this problen is urgently requited. Proto-Sam +a R te s : st Rk'ard : S karé : Bk'Ex® 'to cook, boil’ to R farn'd M: S foro : B gan€ Pl 'fingers' te R haan'G Mz S faano-ha : Baan® Pl ‘milk’ 3.1.3. The Proto-Sam System ‘he above reconstructions suggest that the hypothetical ancestor language of the present-day spoken Sam languages had the following phonenes: AAL 6, 432 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 3.1.3.1. Consonants Bilab. Lab.- Dent. Alv. Post- Pal. Vel. Uvul. Glott. Phar. dent. aly. Plosive “t “ote ‘ “ * “4 "4 % Fricative 6 “s “h " Lateral e Roll * Nasal ‘n n Guide “ y Most of these consonants occurred both as single as well as double consonants (cf. Comp. Voc., Ch. 6). In addition, Proto-San mist have distinguished various consonant clusters of which the most conspicuous have been mentioned above (3.1.1) ‘The following distributional characteristics of individual consonants may be noted: (Q)_ *g has the alternant *{ds] preceding high front vowels. (2) *b is Likely to be pronounced *(8] in intervocalic position. 3.1.3.2. Vowels Proto-Sam had a least the following five vowels: These vowels occur both as short (a, *e, etc.) and as long vowels (aa, ee, *ii, *oo, *u). Whether there was a third category of vowels, as the semi-mute vowels of Boni suggest, remains to be investigated. Another problem that needs further investigation is whether Proto-Sam may not have distin- guished two sets of vowels based on the distinction of tenseness and/or tongue root Positions. 3.1.3.3. Tone and Accent A systematic comparative treatment of tone and accent in the Sam languages has not yet been attempted. From our survey, however, it would seem that some tentative generalisations are possible: GQ) It is 1ifety that Proto-Sam was a tone Language distinguishing between High (4), Low (a)'* and High-falling tone (@). “Note that in this paper Low tone is unmarked in actually spoken language data. In reconstructed morphems, Low is consistently marked by an accent grave (see 3.0, Table 1). AAL 6, 441978) The Sam Languages 23 (2) One of the functions of tone was to distinguish sex gender of nows denoting human beings or animals. Thus, it is possible to reconstruct word pairs like *'zndm M "boy" : *n'an F 'giri" , *q'daein M ‘young male camel’ : *@aae"n F young female canel', or *w'didx NM ‘male kid’ : *uift'dx F ‘female kid’ which are distinguished by’tone only (but see (3)). ‘Note that in each case the tone pattern is High-Low with Masculine and Low-High with Feminine nouns (cf. 3.3.2). (3) In addition to three tones (see (1)), Proto-Sam can be assumed to have marked an accent which in most, though not all, cases coincides with High tone. Whether the accent (‘a) had distinctive function remains to be investigated. 3.2. WORD ORDER ‘The basic word order of all modern Sam languages is very mich alike and it would seem that the past development of these languages was marked by very few changes only. Proto-San can be described as a Language belonging to the GALA sub-type of type D (see Heine 1976d), i.e. it can be assumed to have been characterized by the following order of constituent: (2) The order of basic sentence constituents is Subject-Object-Verb. This order is found in all Sam languages, e.g. Rmaxabal w'é£-e {'éhi-e "The man hit the child," (an child’ hit) B 'dééh-a by k't-*défit-a "The child hits the dog." (child dog hits) J tani sees mé-q5b-0 "I have no sword." (von Tiling 1921/22:149) Gi Sort notshave) S geek baniis ma Sun-o ‘Camels don't eat rice." (Bell 1953:66) (camels rice not eat) (2) The adverbial phrase Likewise precedes the verb (see 3.4). (3) The auxiliary follows the main verb. (4) Interrogative words usually precede the verb. (S) Postpositions, rather than prepositions, are used (see 5.4). (6) The genitive follows its governing nou (see 3.3.3.4). (7) Nominal determiners and qualifiers follow the noun (see 3.3.3), with the exception of ‘the numeral which precedes (see 3.3.3.2). (8) The bound object pronoun precedes the verb (see 3.5.3.1), but the bound subject pronouns follow it (3.6.4.1) with one exception (3.6.4.2). (9) Tense/aspect markers usually follow the verb. (10) The negative marker either precedes or both precedes and follows the verb (3.6.4). ‘The only notable change of word order that seems to have occurred in the development of the San languages was the placement of the numeral from its pre-noninal to a post-nominal position in Rendille (see 3.3.3.2). AAL 6, 4524 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 Number Nominal nunber distinctions in Proto-Sam are expressed by means of suffixes. There are at east two basic categories on nouns (cf. 3.3.2), i.e. (1) those forming their plural by means of a suffix *-0, and (2) those that reduplicate the last syllable of the noun in order to derive the plural from the singular. ‘The majority of nouns belong to (1). With a few exceptions (see below), their gender is Feminine in singular and Masculine in plural: ada, PL tadai-o F/M "back" Sanit, Pi tavit-o F/M ‘gate of animal pan’ “ban, PL *6B%A-0 F/M 'garden’ Seinbin, PL *cémbix-o F/M "bird" tdea, Pi *dea-o F/M ‘ear’ “gar, PL *fat-o F/M "Finger tgateb, PL *gateb-o F/M "evening' itm, PL ‘itn 's F/M, "tear (of eye)" tkob, Pl *kob-o F/M, "shoe, sandal! ‘thor, PL kon-o F/M "canelbell' ‘tag, Pl *tag-o F/M "bone" sea?am, PL *ka?an-o F/M "branch" tsariit, PL “sariin-o F/M ‘bed! Sul, PI’ *ut-o F/M ‘stick’ *ak'oot, PL **atoot-o F/M 'stomach" A smaller mumber of nouns are Masculine in both singular and plural: %q'tetb, PL ‘gitb-'3 MM, "knee! Ya"andb, Pl *gaxb-o M/M 'shoulderblade’ facéz, Pl *gete-'S M/M ‘tree! ‘na?as, Pl *naas-o M/M ‘female breast" Nouns ending in *é have *-yo instead of *o as their plural suffix: Hoinni, Pl cénni-yo F/M "bed! *nénai, Pl némai-yo ‘uterus, wonb of animals’ Nouns belonging to (2) are monosyllabic and Masculine in gender in both singular and plural. ‘The vowel of the reduplicated syllable is a throughout: ‘dab, PL “dab-ab M/M "Fire! ‘tdiin, Pl, “déén-an M/M ‘tortoise’ Sgog,'Pl *gog-ag M/M 'skin of persons and camels" “sam, PL, “sam-am M/M "nose" ‘tur, "PL tur-ar M/M "belly, abdomen" Swel, PL weit "ae M ‘chitd" **02,"Pl *oz-az M/M ‘voice! Apart from these two predominant categories, Proto-Sam probably had various other, less comon, patterns of nominal number treatment: (3) In a few cases, number was distinguished by means of suppletive stems AAL 0, 461978) The Sam Languages 25 Sit, PL indo F/M 'eye" tinkan, PL'*atb- F/M "girl, daughter" teas, BL *toé F/F *cow (4) Sone nouns seem to have expressed number distinctions by a change of gender only, e.g. *dagah, Pl *dagaht M/F ‘stone’. * (5) Other nouns again probably had no number distinction at all, e.g. ‘*dtig M "blood? 800% F "food" thagan M,'wind" “subafi M ‘butter" Soo M ‘rain’ “ana M 'nilk" *sonkon F sugar’ More recent research on Rendille by Oomen (1977a) seems to indicate that there may have been @ noun class which was Masculine in singular and Feminine in plural. This class, which is Likely to have been different from class (4), might have been as cotmon as class’(1). More research is needed on this question. 3.3.2. Gender Proto-Sam is a gender language having the following characteristic: (2) There are two gramatical genders, Masculine and Feminine, Masculine being the unmarked (2) The singular and plural forms of a given noun may be the same gender (see 3.3.1 (2))— but with the majority of nouns there might have been a system of POLARITY where ‘by a Masculine singular noun is Feminine in plural and vice versa, i.e. Feminine singular nouns having Masculine plural forms (but see below). (3)_A change in gender may be the only means of distinguishing singular and plural of certain nouns (3.3.1). (4) There is sone correlation between sex and grammatical gender in nouns denoting human beings and animals: the singular of nouns denoting males is usually constructed with the Masculine gender and the singular of fenales with the Feminine gender. In addition, differ- ences in sex are expressed by means of tonal oppositions in that nouns denoting malés have ‘the tone pattern High-Low, nouns denoting female concepts having the opposite contour Low- High (see 3.1.3). (S)_ There is gramatical agreement between the gender of a noun and certain grammatical categories governed by the latter. Such categories are denonstrative, possessive and personal pronouns. Looking at the gender/nunber distinction of reconstructed Proto-Sam nouns one remarkable observation can be made: apart from very few exceptions, the plural of nouns is generally of the Masculine gender, distinctions in gender thus being confined to the singular. This situation resembles that found in Boni and differs remarkably from that of Rendille’and Sonali which use both genders in the plural to more or less the same extent. Although there can be hardly any doubt that Proto-San used both genders in the plural, it would seem that this hypothetical language has many traces of an earlier system in which gender distinctions were neutralized in the plural, Masculine being the unnarked gender used for both genders. AAL 6, 4726 Bernd Heine [AAL 0/2 3.3.3. Dependent Categories 3.3.3.1, Adjectives ‘The Proto Sam adjective can be assumed to have had the following characteristics: (2) It follows the noun it qualifies; (2)_ with some possible exceptions, it does not show any gender agreement with the governing noun, although there was probably a gender-sensitive particle linking the two; (3) _its plural form is derived from the singular by reduplicating the first syllable or Segnent. Adjectives reconstructable for Proto-Sam are: fwein, Pl twa-wein "big, large’ tqB2x, PL *ddx-dé2r "long, tall! yet, PL *yer-yer "small “usb, PL *€us-usub ‘new! Seut'és, Pl *sul-Suees ‘heavy' Saidé,'PL *said-saidé ‘unripe' taboo, PL *¢ab-gaboo 'cold” “tum, PL *Tum-Fum "bad" Proto-Sam is likely to have had only a very restricted set of genuine adjectives. 3.3.3.2. Numerals ‘The numeral system of Proto-Sam is decimal, the following numerals having been reconstructed: tebe 1 Seih 6 $ Lion. 2 stVzzoba'® 7 Seized 3 ssizy' Bet 8 age 4 tsaagat 9 oan 5 *tomn'an 10 Combinations of tens and digits are formed by placing *ecou between *2omn'an and the following numeral: ‘2omm'an iccou bbw ‘1 Qo +1)! *tom'an iecou Lémma "12 Go + 2)" ‘The attributive use of Proto-Sam mmerals can be characterized thus: (1). The numeral precedes the noun it qualifies. The only modern Sam language deviating from this pattern is Rendille which places the iumeral after the noun, In Sonali, Jabarti and Boni the nuneral precedes the noun altnough in those areas of Boni country where Ssahili is used as a second language the numeral tends to follow the noun (sec Heine 1977:25). (2) There is no gender agreenent between numeral and noun. *Sthe symbol 'V' stands for a vowel whose quality we have not yet been able to determine. AAL 6, 481978) The Sam Languages a (3) Nouns denoting non-human concepts are used in the singular when qualified by nunerals,'* eg. *'agan geiz ‘four trees* “tomm'an gax ‘ten fingers! ()_Bvidence fron Eastem San as vell as from Eastern Cushitic languages outside San Suggests that tens are formed by combining digits with the root *-tom, which is a shortened form of *tomm'an 'ten'. ‘The following tens can be tentatively reconstructed. * Lénma~tom 20" *szz-om (< "4ézz-tom) 130! + agan-tom "40" seift-tom eo! *2¥zzoba-tom "70" satzy"68t-tom "30" *saagas-som, *saagat-tom 90" 3.3.3.3. Demonstratives Proto-San must have had a detailed deictic system of spatial and temporal reference. From the evidence available it seems that at least five denonstrative categories were distinguished (cf. Andrzejewski 1964:119) : I [+ NEAR] t-an this, these" TT [- FAR] ta ‘this, these (there)' TI [- NEAR] ‘that, those" I. [+ FAR] 10 ‘that, those (there)! V [+ PAST] “4 "that, those (referred to earlier)" ‘These denonstrative morphenes are preceded by the gender markers *k for M(asculine) and *¢ for Feminine) which agree with the governing noun. The resulting forms are thus: M 1 than I thea TIT tk-aas IV tk-oo Vi thedé ‘The demonstratives follow the noun they determine, e.g. teinbin t-an, PL *einbin-o k-an,'this bird" ‘tgeiz k-aas,’Pl “geiz~'é k-aas ‘that tree! thoob k-a ‘this rain’ *sooa t-a ‘this food" Ssaanu k-ii, ‘that milk (referred to earlier)" : “béér t-o0 ‘that garden (far away)" ‘The function of these denonstratives has changed in various ways in the modern Sam languages. ‘These changes are sumarized in Table 2. 1] may be that originally only Masculine nouns occurred without plural endings when preceded by a numeral whereas Feminine nouns used a suffix *-ood, which has been retained in Jabarti and Sonali, e.g. J siddié £fin "three men’ but *€far habr-d6d ‘four women’. AAL 0, 4928 Bernd Heine TAAL 0/2 ‘Thus, it would scem that Rendille lost IV *-o0 but acquired a new demonstrative -'us ‘that (middie distance)". Boni appears to have lost both I *-an and III *-aas. In Jabarti, II %a and I *-an have merged into ~e-dy whereas IV *-00 and V *-di seem to have disappeared from the language. In Somali, all Proto-Sam denonstratives have been retained formally but If *a and V *-ié have becone Deictic Determiners ("definite article"; see Tucker/Bryan 1966:525). In addition, there is a demonstrative -eer in Somali which cannot be traced back ‘to Proto-San. ‘TABLE 2 DEVELOPMENT OP PROTO-SAM DEMONSTRATIVES Proto-San I 0 om w -aas *-00 > “a [+ NEAR} C Se) [ea ERDILLE [+ NEAR] (nominal) a connector!” | |] a [+ NEAR] (+ FAR) BON [+ PAST] [+ NEAR] SABARTL [+ NEAR] ee san [+ NEAR] —|——_ -aa(s) general NEA SOMALI FAR 4 -00 [+ FAR) i non "Deictic Deterniners” [+ PAST] "the connector -2 of Rendille links the noun with its dependent categories such as adjectives, (genitive) noun phrases, and relative clauses. AAL 6, 501978) The Sam Languages 29 There is no clear evidence suggesting that Proto-San had any determinative form that could be labelled "Deictic Determiner" or “definite article". Sonali seems to be the only Sam language that has Deictic Determiners, both being derived from denonstratives. 3.5.3.4. Nominal Possessives The nominal possessive (genitive) of Proto-Sam is formed by simply placing the nomen rectum after the nomen regens. This pattern occurs in all San languages with the exception of Rendille which places a gender-sensitive connector (ki/kiye for M and ti/tiye for F) between ‘the two noun phrases.'® “In Somali, the nomen xectum is usually required in the definite form, ice, it is followed by the ~4 ending definite suffixes'® (see Kirk 1905:26). Masculine and Feminine genitives can be assumed to have differed in their inflexional be- haviour: whereas a Masculine nomen xectum has no case ending, a Feminine nomen Acctum, i.e. most of those nouns that form their plural by suffixing *-9 (See 3.3.1), would take the case suffixes *-eet in singular and *-ot in plural. Examples of reconstructed possessive constructions are: tendo weit "the eyes of a child’ (‘child eyes") weielaze dab-ab the heat of fires! “bicelo) Lahas ‘water of the well’ but Seag-0 cémbin-eet "bones of a bird" (‘bone-Pl bird-of") tag-o cinbin-o-ot "bones of birds! (bone-P1 bird-Pl-of") “oz ednni-eet, "the voice of a bee" ‘oz cénné-yo-ot ‘the voice of bees’ For the pronominal possessive see 3.5.2. 3.4. ADVERBIAL PHRASE ‘The adverbial phrase of Proto-Sam follows both the subject and the object nouns but precedes the verb. It consists either of a combination of noun + postposition or of an adverb. Postpositions are mostly derived from noun phrases, i.e. combinations consisting of a noun followed by a pronominal possessive, e.g. min hor-t-Lis "in front of the house’ ("house front-its') L*his gender particle is derived from the Proto-Sam reference demonstrative V *k-di M, *t-ii Fy see 3.3.3.3). '*Sonali has an alternative order xeetum - regens where the nomen regens is qualified by a possessive pronoun: awn a£aab-tiis ‘the loads of a camel’ (Bell 1953:70) canel loads-his AL 6, 5130 Bernd Heine [AL 6/2 3.5. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 3.5.1. Independent Pronouns ‘The independent pronouns of Proto-San are (cf. Comp. Voc.; Ch. 6): Sel tané PL Incl. *énno 2 taté 2 satin 3M tusu 3 “ico F tice ‘There can be hardly any doubt that Proto-Sam had a distinction Inclusive/Exclusive in inde- pendent pronouns. The exact shape of the Pl 1 Exclusive pronoun (R naff, S anna-qu), however, has not yet been reconstructed. ‘The singular pronouns of Proto-Sam are likely to have had alternative forms without final vowels, i.e. Sg1 tan Aeon 3M tu F tie These forms are attested in all Sam languages. 3.5.2. Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns follow the noun they qualify and agree with it in gender. The gender prefix is *h for Masculine and *¢ for Feminine pronouns. The various pronouns are: Se a PL1 Incl. t-eena 4 2 tis 3 ed A distinction Inclusive/Exclusive probably existed but, in the sane way as with the independent pronouns, no form of the Exclusive pronoun can be reconstructed. M F The possessive pronouns of Proto-San are most fully retained in Boni, whereas both Jabarti and Sonali use Shortened forms. Rendille has added a final a and, in the case of the 3rd person pronouns, prefixed the independent pronouns: R B s 3 Sg -aya - -ay -ee 2 “alia ~aha -aa -aa 3M Nise “is ~ids “yoo, ~its Fo -Hee-eda = -eee ~eed ~liylye PL Incl. -eena -ané ~eena ~aanu. Exel: -anya “40 2 dina ~enk da 3 ~Keo-oda —-00"d 00, -cod yoo MAL 0, 821978} The Sam Languages a 3.5.3. VERBAL PRONOUNS 3.5.3.1. Object Pronouns Independent pronouns are used both as subject and object pronouns. For the Sg 1 and Sg 2, Proto-San ha obligatory object pronouns in addition. They immediately precede the verb root. ‘These prefixes are *%- (Sg 1) and *hu~/*ké- (Sg 2). Sg 2 prefixes *ku- and *ké- are likely to have co-existed as optional variants in Proto-Sam.*eé~ occurs in Rendille and Jabarti whereas Somali and Boni use *ku-. Furthermore, all Eastern Sam languages, but not Rendille, have a Pl 1 object prefix. The shape of this prefix differs from language to language (B nu-, J ni-, S na-, 12-).. On the basis of the evidence available it does not seem possible to decide whether Proto-San had a P11 object pronoun. 3.5.3.2. Subject Pronouns Proto-Sam has both subject prefixes and suffixes. the fomer are used with a minority of verbs usually referred to as Prefix-Verbs ("strong verbs"; see 5.6.4.2). All other verbs, i.e. the Suffix-Verbs ("weak verbs"; see 3.6.4.1), take suffixes only. The phonological shape of both affix series is basically the same, with the exception of the 3rd person: Prefix pronouns ‘Suffix pronouns te te ig we wt “Vn avn Dvn Vie The symbol "V" in the Pl 2 and P13) stands for a vowel whose quality depends on both aspect and conjugation type (see 3.6.4). Each phonological constituent has a clearly defined function: = Sp 1, Se 3M (except Prefix pronouns) Dor’ F PL PL2, PLS 3M (Prefix pronouns only) ‘The Suffix pronouns (except Pl 2 and Pl 3 are followed by an obligatory vovel marking aspect/ mood (see 3.6.3). Although the Sg 1 and Sg 3M, as well as Sg 2 and Sg 5 F pronouns, respectively, arg usually formally identical, there are a few verbs that distinguish between them. The verb "to go", for example, has the following singular forms in Rendille and Boni: 'T go, shall go" me32 Bemd Heine [AAL 6/2 ‘The subject pronouns of Proto-Sam do not distinguish between P11 Inclusive and Exclusive pronouns. 3.6. VERB ‘The verb root is usually monosyllabic and has the structure *CV(V)C in the vast majority of cases, e.g. tg to comb! ‘tus to show’ ‘gut to circuncise' *yeet "to do’ thee "to get! ‘fat ‘to Steal’ 3.6.1. Imperative ‘The Imperative consists of the simple verb stem, It has either Low or High-falling tone with monosyllabic roots and usually the pattern ifigh’- Low with bisyllabic roots. ‘The P1 2 Imperative is formed by adding the suffix *-2 to the singular Imperative. ‘The syllable preceding this suffix gets both High tone and accent: ‘play, sing!" "build: ‘enter! ' aa Shon, PL’ *k' saga’, PL ta'dae-d “tdb,'PL te !4b-a ‘return it!" “tum, PL *2"in-a "pound!" ‘The plural suffix is *-cd for verbs having the Causative ending *-2 (see 3. for verbs ending in *-0 (Reflexive; see 3.6.5.2.1), e.g. 2.2) and di a2, PI “baa ‘ea! “RIESE, PL *e'T8i-08 "ake up! ‘neeg-s-0, PL *nees-si-qi ‘breathe! *d'é-3, PL dB 6-dh "belch!" 3.6.2. Infinitive Proto-San may have had a suffix *-an expressing both infinitive and participial functions, eg. ‘to bring, brought" ‘to cook, cooked" "to call, called’ ‘This suffix is retained in Rendille as an infinitive marker -'an, in Sonali as a Static suffix -an (Bell 1953:114) and in Jabarti as a participle -ay, "which has a passive meaning” (von Tiling 1921/22:143). Boni has an infinitive suffix -'6 which is likely to have the sane origin as the infinitive AAL 6, 54.1978] The Sam Languages 33 suffix -cow (00, -aaw) of Jabarti (von Tiling 1921/22:138-142). Whether these suffixes go back to an infinitive form of the Proto-San verb remains to be investigated. 3.6.3. Aspect Proto-Sam does not seem to have distinguished "genuine" verb tenses, deictic time being expressed by means of tenporal adverbs like *nddn-t2 'today', *ceget "yesterday", etc. which precede the vorb. However, there mist have been an aspectual distinction Imperfect/Perfect which correlates strongly with deictic time: the Imperfect has the semantic feature [-PAST], i.e. it usually expresses verbal actions in either the present or the future, whereas the Perfect has the feature [+PAST] and typically indicates actions in the past. ‘The following shapes of the aspect markers of Suffix-Verbs (see 3.6.4.1) can be reconstructed: Imperfect: ‘ea, PL 2,3: *zaan Perfect: ‘say, PL 2,3: teen Modern reflexes of these forms are: R B s Inperfect : -a, -an ma, -i -a, ~aan Porfect: -e, men =*, <6 nay, -een ‘The Pl 2 and Pl 3 suffix -< of the Imperfect in Boni is derived from the Prefix-Verb conjuga- tion, where the Proto-Sam suffix is *-in (see 3.6.4.2). Jabarti has retained the Proto-Sam aspect markers as well but here they have merged with the Durative suffix *-ay,?° which is also found in Somali but may not have been part of Proto-San. In Prefix-Verbs (see 3.6.4.2), the pattern of aspect distinction is renarkably different: Imperfect and Perfect are distinguished by means of a change in the root vowels. These are either zow (*a) or uicH vowels (*, *u). The combinations occurring and their aspectual significance are: Imperfect Low - *High, PL 2,3: Low - *Long High Perfect: High - "High, PL 2,3: *High - *Long Low (cf. Hetzron forthcoming:3.2.3. 4) Negative Perfect: "High - *(Long) Low For examples see 3.6.4.2. ‘This pattern has been retained in Rendille but has been simplified in all other San languages. Jabarti has only very few traces of it left (see 4.1). No systematic reconstructions have been made for the Subjunctive, but the following tentative renark nay be made: for Suffix-Verbs the Proto-Sam Subjunctive is likely to have been marked by a suffix *-0, Pl 2,3: *-aan. For Prefix-Verbs, on the other hand, the Subjunctive appears ‘to have been derived fron the Perfect forms (*iligh - Miligh, Pl 2,3: High - “Long Los) al- though there may have been sone morphophonological irregularities involved. 2*¥or a detailed discussion of the development in Jabarti, see von Tiling (1921/22:130-33). AAL 6, 55oA. Bernd Heine TAAL 6/2 3.6.4. Conjugation Patterns The finite verbal of Proto-San usually has the following structure: ve (ec) + ERB + 0 VERBAL 5 sPECT ** (INDEPENDENT ) STEM PRONOUN PRONOUT ‘This is the structure of Suffix-Verbs which account for the vast majority of Proto-San verbs. Prefix-Verbs place the verbal pronoun before the verb and express aspect by means of ablaut (see 3.6.3). The independent pronoun is used either to emphasize the noun phrase it represents, or to dis-anbiguate finite forms which are not distinguished formally by bound verbal pronouns. Thus, e.g. a form like *axg-t-ay may mean either 'you saw! or ‘she saw’, whereas *até ang-t-ay means "you saw" and *ice atg-t-ay means ‘se saw’ (see 3.5.1). Bu <1. Suffix Verbs SE EN ee ("weak verbs") (cf. 5.3.23 3.6.3): Imperfect ta Mee ha Sg t-aa-n Naan ‘The corresponding negative paradigns are: Imperfect, Perfect Sg1 tn “0 Yani ma- -nin 2 tnt -t-0 taté ma nin SME ie a) usu md nin Fo tnd =teo tice ma- nin Pla tné- =o “inno md- -nin 2 ‘ni -t-aa-n Satin ma- oni 3 ‘mi -aa-n ico md- oir ‘The person-aspect suffixes of the negative Imperfect are identical with those of the Subjunc~ tive. ‘The negative Perfect has an invariable suffix. Distinctions of person are, if needed, ex- pressed by means of isolated pronouns, 3.6.4.2, Prefix-Verbs Prefix-Verbs (‘strong verbs") form a minority of the Proto-Sam verbs. Proto-Sam must have had at least ten of then, but probably their number was considerable higher. All recon- structable Prefix-Verbs belong to the basic vocabulary and can be assuned to be rennants of a formerly mich larger set of East Cushitic verbs of this type. MAL 6, $61978) The Sam Languages 35 Depending on their root vowel, three classes of Prefix-Verbs have to be distinguished: *-a- verbs, *u-verbs and *i-verbs, although *a-verbs may also be considered a sub-class of *u-verbs. ‘These verbs have *a, *u, and'*<, respectively, as their second root vowel in the Inperative. ‘The following is an attempt at reconstructing the conjugation patters of three representative Proto-Sam verbs. Since Rendille appears to be the only language that has retained the “original!” patterns, reconstruction is biased in favor of this language, in sone cases to ‘the extent that actually spoken Rendille forms are taken to reflect forms of the proto- Language. Concerning the shape of the personal pronouns, see 3.5.3.2, concerning the aspect distinctions, see 3.6.3. (2) ta-verbs: *aftan 'to eat! Inperfect Perfect Sel ‘afan "I eat, shall eat! tuum "I ate, have eaten’ 2 *t-afiam ‘t-whiun 3M ty-aliam sy-utiam F St-afiam “tufuon Pla “n-afian ‘nut 2 st-akan-in #tewhiumen 3 *yrahian-in *y-ufiumeen Negative Imperfect Negative Perfect sel ‘nd-afan "I do not, Yané ma-uiian-nar 'T did not eat, 2 ‘nd-t-alian shal not eat’ ‘ati mé-ufian-nan have not eaten 3M Sné-y-afian ete. F ‘ni-2-ahan Pla ‘tmi-n-ahan 2 Snid~t-afiam-én 3 nd-y-ahian- it (2) *u-verbs: amut ‘to die’ Imperfect Sg ‘y-amit "I die, shall die! "I died, have died" 2 St-amut : 3M tyarut F Pla 2 3 Negative Inperfect Negative Perfect Sel "I do not, shall not die’ *ané md-unaat-nan 'I did not die, 2 “ati md-umaat-nan have not died’ 3M etc. F PLL 2 amuut=in 3 amaust- in MAL 6, ST36 Bernd Heine TAAL 6/2 (3) Me-verbs: Fagis "to kin"?! Imperfect Perfect Se 1 "T Kill, shall kill" —ty-égis "Killed, have killed’ 2 igs 3M -igis F “tigi rl jis 2 't~igaas-en 3 “y-égaas-en Negative Imperfect Negative Perfect Sg 1 tnd-y-agis "T do, shall not kill’ tané m-égas-nan "I did not kill, 2 tnt-t-agés “até mé-igas-nan have not killed’ 3M tni-y-agis etc. F tni-t-agés PLL Sind-n-agis 2 tndt-ageis-in 3 tad-yragdis-in Only Rendille has retained all three sets of vowel combinations. The Eastern Sam languages Boni, Jabarti and Sonali seem to have reduced them to tho: High - “High for Perfect and "igh - *Long Low elsewhere. ‘The latter is derived fron the negative Perfect but is now used for all conjugations except the Perfect, i.e. Imperfect as well as all negative paradigns. Boni has added the aspect markers of Suffix-Verbs to the stem of the Prefix-Verbs (see Heine 1977:54-37). In most dialects of Boni, the negative prefix *mi- has been replaced by h'd- (and ha- with the Imperative). 3.6.5. Derivation 3.6.5.1. Relationship between Verbs and Nouns ‘There are a number of Proto-Sam stems which are used both as nouns and verbs, e.g. squgat_ "to cough" 5 ‘quae tough (n)' “hib'éax "to curse" : “hib'aax ‘curse (n)' It seems that Proto-San had a pattern of deriving verbs from nouns by means of the Causative suffix *-ic (see 3.6.5.2.2), e.g. tux F ‘smell, odor! : turd "to smell (tr.)" Other verb-noun relationships observable for Proto-Sam seem to date back to still earlier ‘stages of development in East Cushitic. Thus, the noun *tunaa£ M "blacksmith' appears to be derived fron the Proto-San verb *tun 'to pound’, but no regular pattem of derivation of this kind can be established for Proto-San, *1For a discussion of another *4-verb (*émét 'to arrive"), see 4.1. AAL 6, 51978) The Sam Languages a 3.6.5.2, Verbal Suffixes 3.6.5.2.1, Reflexive ‘The term "Reflexive" is used since this suffix has a function which is similar to that of reflexive forms in various African languages. Furthermore, there are some similarities to reflexive constructions, in French and other, Buropean languages. Hayward (1975) has pro- posed “auto-benefactive" and Sim (1977:11) "benefactive", instead. A sizeable number of Proto-Sam verbs end in #-0, PL -da. The comon denominator of these verbs seems to be that the action expressed by the verb refers to the "logical subject" of the verb which profits from (or is affected by) the action in one or the other way: Yoati-s-3 'to escape 'to learn’ ‘to accumlate herds' ‘to understand" ‘to dress oneself" :0 belch" ‘to catch, seize, hold" It must be assumed that Proto-Sam had a suffix *-o expressing reflexive forms of the verb. Boni has retained this suffix as a productive morphene (see Heine 1977:42). The reflexive function of this ending is evident from examples as the following: $4: "to comb" : fhit-o "to comb oneself" Yodt ‘to buy, sell, exchange’ sa" ‘to buy for oneself" ‘neeg ‘breath ‘nee§-s-0 ‘to breathe! ‘we ‘smell (n), odor" twes-o "to snell (tr., i. - oneselé)" ‘The last two examples suggest that the suffix *-o also functions as a de-nominal derivative suffix. In this case, it is preceded by an elenent *5. 3.6.5.2.2. Causative Furthemore, Proto-Sam has a suffix *-te (*-2 in word-final position) which has the function of a Causative morphene. This suffix is retained as -c (-i in word-final position) in Rendille (Heine 1976a:40), -i in Sonali (Tucker/Bryan 1966:504) , and -ii in Jabarti (von Tiling 1921/22:129). Most, if not all, Proto-Sam words ending in *{ scem to contain this Causative suffix, e.g. ‘daa*-Z "to fall upon ‘ ‘to melt (tr.)" + "to give’ The derivative function of the suffix *-2e (*-2) is evident fron the following examples of ‘to be full! Yeddh-2 ‘to £111" ‘to stand up SRT ‘to vake up! ‘sme oy odor" fuck (to smell (tr.)" *bafi-s-3 "to escape! *bii-i "to take out, pay’ 3.6.5.3. Pre-verbal Particles Proto-Sam mist have had a set of particles placed immediately before the verb. The function MAL 6, 5938 ema Heine TAAL 0/2 of these particles is intermediate between nominal prepositions and senantic verbal extensions. Four such particles can be reconstructed, although Proto-Sam must have had a mich larger number of them. 3.6.5.3.1, Venitive AL Sam languages have a pre-verbal particle indicating that the action takes place TOWARDS the speaker or deictic focus of the sentence. ‘This Venitive particle has the following shape in the various languages: R 4d-, B h'd-, J sa- (ha-), S so0.** Proto-Sam is likely to have had foo as its Venitive particié of which the Renditfe, Jabarti and Sonali fos are reflexes. ‘Two verbs have been reconstructed in their Venitive form: 400 nogo ‘to return (intr.)' “soo qaat ‘to fetch’ : tlt to take, receive! Sonali has, in a similar vay as most "Para-Nilotic” and other East African languages, in addition to the Venitive an Andative particle 44 which indicates the opposite deictic direction, i.e. that the action expressed by the verb takes place away from the speaker or deictic focus of the sentence, e.g. 400 8080 "to come on! + "add 400 'to go on over there’ (see Kirk 1905:73/745 Bell 1953:22/23) There is no other evidence suggesting that Proto-Sam has an Andative particle. 3.6.5.3.2. Ablative ‘Another particle, which may be Igbelled “Ablative", has two functions: it indicates either (Q) the source (from, off, asay") or (2) the instrument of the action. ‘The assumed Proto- Sam form of this morpheme is *ka (*ka~ *ke~ Li), This Ablative has been retained in Rendille (ka-), Boni (k'Z-, k'8-, k'4-) and Jabarti (ke, ka). In Somali (ka) the morphene seems to have lost its instrumental function, which is expressed by another particle (ku). The Proto-San verb *qat 'to take, receive’ was frequently used in its Ablative form ka qidt, its meaning then being 'to renove' 3.6.5.5.3, Intransitive The function of this derivative is to delete the "logical subject" of the sentence without changing its surface case structure, i.e. the "logical object" is not moved to the subject position but remains unaffected by this deletion transformation and is expressed by means of an object in the surface. the Intransitive has been variously called "impersonal passive” (von Tiling 1921/22:146) or "Impersonal" (Tucker/Bryan 1966:524) . ‘The Proto-Sam form of the Intransitive is *£a which has the following reflexes in the modem *2Note that there are differences concerning the morphological treatment of this particle: whereas in some Somali dialects it seens to be aword of its owi, it tends ‘to be used as a verbal prefix elsewhere in the San-speaking area. AAL 6, 601978] The Sam Languages 39 Sam languages: R Za-, B e-, J £a (te, Li) and S fa. In the western Boni area, *ta has been replaced by n-. Qe Proto-San verb can be reconstructed in its Intransitive form, i.e, *la-det 'to be bom", derived from *dee 'to give birth’. 3.6.5.3.4. Reflexive In addition to the Reflexive suffix *-0 (see 3.6.5.2.1) , Proto-Sam appears to have employed a pre-verbal particle *s to express a reflexive form of the verb. This particle is retained in Rendille as 'Zs- and in Jabarti as '4s (von Tiling 1921/22: 119-120). “In the other San languages *2s has either changed its function or was lost altogether. 3.6.5.4. Frequentative ALL Sam languages have a productive mechanism of verb reduplication in order to express the repetition or intensive performance of an act. There are, however, two different morpho- phonenic patterns: in Sonali and Jabarti, the whole verb root is reduplicated (Bell 1953: 114; von Tiling 1921/22:129) whereas in Rendille and Boni it is only the initial segnent, usually CV-, which is affected, e.g. R usu G-j'af-a ‘he hits! 1 usu a-j&-j"ai-a ‘he hits frequently" Ban '4-"duu'd-a "I look at hin’ an '4-*du-*duu’d-a "I Look at him frequently" J jab ‘to break" 2 jb-jab "to break into small pieces" S jeek ‘to tear’ 2 jeeinjeok "to tear to shreds" It is possible that both patterns occurred in Proto-San. In our sample of reconstructed verbs, the following seem to be the result of reduplication: *anin-2 ‘to gather, collect’ fdaddan- ‘to taste’ ‘nga ‘to help, (cf. *get-o ‘to understand')* * 1-0 "to yawn" 4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SAM LANGUAGES In Gh. 3 an attempt has been made at reconstructing grammatical features of Proto-San, the hypothetical ancestor language of Rendille, Boni, Jabarti and Somali. In the following, a few details are added concerning the general development of the Sam languages from the ‘time the proto-language was spoken to the present. 4.1, THE FIRST SPLIT OF PROTO-SAM ‘This split separated Rendille, or Western Sam, from the rest of the San languages, referred to here as Eastern San, or Dad languages.?? “2 the name "Dad", first proposed in Heine (1977), is taken from the root “dad common in Eastem San, which means. 'man, person’. AAL 6, 6140 Bernd Heine TAAL 6/2 Rendille does not seem to have changed very much during its long period of separate develop- ment; it has remained the most conservative San language. The following phonological changes may be worth mention: (2) Post-velar stops became fricatives thus giving rise to the sound shifts {Ey > J, (2) Proto-San *2 was palatalized, merging with the semi-vowel y. ‘The pre-nominal position of the muneral was abandoned in Rendille and the mumeral placed after the noun. This development may have been influenced by neighbouring languages (Sampur, Calla, Elmolo) which all place the mmeral after the noun it determines. $nother noteworthy development of Rendille can be seen in the generalization of the past denonstrative V *-ii as a gender-sensitive connecting particle linking nouns with adjectives, genitive noun phrases and relative clauses. ‘The development of the Eastern Sam languages was ‘characterized inten alia by the following Phonological changes: (2) The voiceless stops *¢, *c and *k became voiced morpheme-internally following vowels, thus giving rise to the following shifts: se *d to > ty lee ithe “a (2) *e in morphene-initial position becane a fricative (*sh). (3) *m was de-labalized in word-final position and merged with *n. (4) *z merged with *d. A noticeable morphophonological change within Eastern Sam can be seen in the reduction of Prefix-Verb conjugation patterns. Whereas Proto-San has three vowel combinations, which have all been retained in Rendilie, Eastern Sam has only two combinations (see 3.6.4.2), i.e. ‘the Imperfect vowel pattern *Low -'*High has been lost and the pattern *High - *Long Low, which in Proto-Sam is confined to the negative Perfect as well as the Pl 2, 3 of the affirmative Perfect (see 3.6.4.2), is used for the Imperfect. ‘The following reconstructed conjugation patterns of the verb init 'to arrive’ illustrate this change: Proto-San Proto-Eastern Sam Imperfect Sg =e Se AAL 6, 621978] The Sam Languages a Proto-San Proto-Eastern San Perfect Sg ty-dmé(t) éni.(d) 2 *t-dnd(t) “t-dnild) 3M tydnila} ty-en(d) EF “tdi lt) *t-dmi(d) Pl. *n-dmé(t) 2 “t-dmaat-en 3 *y-dmaat-en Negative Perfect Sgl Pant mf-imaat-nan 2 “ati mé-imaat-nan ete. 4,2. THE FIRST SPLIT OF EASTERN SAM ‘This split separated Boni from al1 other Eastern Sam languages (Jabarti, Somali and possibly others). Only after its separation did Boni introduce a number of changes, the most important of which have been outlined in Heine (1977:9-11). They are in particular’ (see 3.1.1): (2) the loss of all pharyngal phonemes (** and “i (cf. 4.3)); (2) the loss of the wular plosive "¢; (8) The replacement of the voiced plosive *d by the implosive ’d; (0, the Sevotecing of #4 © 2) end *9 © 1) fn moxpheme-nitiel position md after *% (cf. “35 (5) the replacement of velar stops (*k and *g) by sh before *é (cf. 4.3)5 (6) the widespread loss of *£, * and * in word-final position; (1) the labialization of a ( 0/u) preceding *b; (8) the shift “4> 2 in morphene-internal position following vowels; (9) the loss of intervocalic *m in Prefix-Verbs; (10) the tendency to replace clusters of a nasal followed by another consonant by simple Consonants by means of the following rules: @ [+ nas} [: voc > [+ nas} + cons (i) [+ nas) + o 7 [: | + cons (11) the reduction of nominal number distinctions; AAL 6, 63a2 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 (42) the loss of the distinction Inclusive/Exclusive in P1 1 personal pronouns. Ghanges that took place in the Jabarti-Somali branch of Eastern Sam scem to include the following: (2) The Proto-San demonstratives II *-a and V *-i (see 3.3.3.3) became Deictic Deteriners. (2)_ The conjugation patterns of Prefix-Verbs disappeared largely, leaving only a few fos- silized paradigns. 4.3. THE SECOND SPLIT OF EASTERN SAM This split lead to a separation of early "southern Somali", represented linguistically by Jabarti, from "Somali proper". Ghanges that affected Jabarti have been summarized in some detail by von Tiling (1921/22). The most striking developments are: (Q)_ the 10ss of pharyngal consonants; (2) the replacement of *q by a liquid (4) following vowels; (3) the replacement of *k by sh before front vowels. ‘These changes have occurred in a similar, though not identical, form in Boni (see 4.2) and it would seem that they are due to an areal relationship which’ developed after the first split of Eastern Sam in the area between the Tana and Shebelle rivers. Other developments in Jabarti are: (4) the velarization of word-final nasals (*m, *n > 0); (5) the reduction of demonstrative categories to two (see 3.3.3.3; Table 2); (G)_he nereer of the Durative marker *-ay with the Imperfect suffix *-a (von Tiling 1921/22 130-35); (7) phonological contractions in the formation of noun plurals. ‘The development of Sonali was characterized in particular by the following changes: (2). the widespread loss of pharyngal consonants if preceded and followed by *a; (2)_ the introduction of thematic particles preceding the verb in finite sentences. These irticles, which are comonly referred to as Indicators, are waa, baa (yaa, ayaa), ma and Ka (see Tacker/Bxyan 1966:541-82)3 (3) the addition of an Andative derivative sii ("novenent avay"") to complement the Proto- Sam Venitive *soo (see 3.6.5.3.1). 5. NOTES ON HISTORY Research on the history of San-speaking people has so far concentrated on one of these groups, the Sonali. There is a renarkable anount of disagreenent as to the earlier honeland AAL 6, 641978) The Sam Languages 43 of the Sonali people. Murdock (1959:519) claims that until the second half of the first nillenium they, together with the Afar and Galla, were confined to southeastern Ethiopia, east of the great Rift Valley. Ehret (1974:34) assumes that the ancestors of moder. Somali and Rendille left the Southern edges of the Ethiopian Highlands and entered the Kenya-Sonalia borderlands roughly a thousand years ago. According to I.M. Lewis (1960:216) again, the Sonali lived at that time thousands of kilometres away from that area in the northeastern part of the Horn, Harold C. Fleming, on the other hand, considers the low- Jand area between Lake Turkana’ (Rudolf) on the west and the Benadir coast on the east, from the Tana river in the south to the Ogaden in the north as the earlier honelands (Fleming 1964:84). Disagreement also exists concerning the socio-economic structure of the early Somali society. Murdock maintains that they were practicing agriculture supplemented by aninal husbandry and by commerce with the coastal tons. ‘This tallies with Harold Fleming's observation that they adopted their canel econony only later at roughly the sane time with acquiring Islam (Fleming 1964:86). Other accounts again suggest that Somali economy has been based on nomadic pastoralism from the earliest times (see belos). But the most divergent views have been expressed concerning the direction of early Somali, migrations. I.M. Lewis and Enrico Cerulli claim that the conquest of the Hom started in the north and proceded southwards. Fleming, who does not dispute that such migrations took place, suggests that they involved the Daarood clan-fanily only and that they were preceded by earlier south-north movenents in which the whole Somali people took part (Fleming 1964: 84), A similar view has been expressed by Sasse (1975:20). In the following, an attempt is made at drawing sone conclusions from our Linguistic analysis concerning the history and migration patterns of the San-speaking people as a whole. Our research suggests that any attempt at writing on the early history of the Sonali nation must remain fragnentary unless duc consideration is given to its Closest relatives, in par- . ticular the Boni and Rendille. For the larger part of this history, there exist no written records whatsoever and the ‘scope of oral traditions usually does not extend beyond the last few centuries. Thus, next to archeology, linguistics is the most important source of information on the early San history. ‘There are, however, some fundamental shortcomings in the following discussion. The first relates to the fact that ve have to confine ourselves to only one aspect of history which is reflected in DIveRcEnr linguistic development. An attempt at describing CONVENGEND developments, as reflected, e.g. in lexical borrowing, will not be made in this paper. ‘The second shortcoming is inherent in all linguistic coments on essentially extra-Linguistic processes. The tools available to the linguist allow hin access to a restricted range of facts only, and the, resulting interpretation of history is therefore likely to differ from that of,'say, an “oral historian", who, due to the nature of his data, focusses on quite different aspects of historical reality, Although we claim that both approaches are equally valid we are avare of the fact that the interpretation of the linguist may lead to a simplified, and in extreme cases even a distorted, picture of certain historical events. 5.1. EAST QUSHITIC EXPANSIONS Proto-San, the hypothetical ancestor language of Rendille, Boni and the Sonali group, is a menber of’a larger language group for which we have proposed the nane Qno-Tana (Heine 1976b) ALL Ono-Tana languages, with the exception of the San languages, are spoken between Lake ‘Abaya and Lake Turkana! This suggests fairly strongly that the’honeland of the Ono-Tana~ speaking people should have been in roughly this area, i.e. east of the Ono River in the MAL 6, 65,44 Bernd Heine TAAL 6, lacustrine belt stretching from Lake Zwai, in the north to Lake Turkana in the southwest. It is this general area where the "origin" of other East Cushitic populations,’" and probably of Fast Cushitic as a whole, has to be located, as the present distribution and the network of historical relationship between the East Cushitic languages suggest. ‘The subsequent development of these populations is characterized inten aia by an expansion towards the lowlands north, east and south of the Ethiopian Highlands. The following groups participated in this spread: (2) The sao and araR who seem to have migrated in north-eastern direction. It is very Loty that they stilt fomed ene people vhen they reached the plains GH.S. Levis 1966: (2) The omo-rana-speaking people, with the exception of the Bayso (Baiso) and possibly other groups. ‘They spread south in two apparently independent movenents: one segment, which is represented today by Galaboid-speaking people, settled between Lake Stefanie and Lake Turkana. Two of these people, the Arbore and Dasenech (Galeb, Reshiat, Shangila) , are found today in this general area. A third people, the Elmolo, followed’ the eastemn shore of Lake Turkana up to its southern end and becane fishemen. The second movenent of Ono- ‘Tana-speaking populations involves the early Sam comunity (see 5.2). (3)_ The vaaxu (Mogogodo). No specific clues concerning their migrations are available so far. Ne must assume that they proceeded straight south across the arid plains of northern Kenya and settled in the hilly country north of Mt. Kenya, adopting a hunter-gatherer existence.*® (4) ‘The cata (Oromo). They expanded in all directions except west, following mostly the routes that other East Cushitic commmities (Saho-Afar in the north, and San in the south) appear to have chosen before them. More recent research (Haberland 1963; H.S, Lewis 1966; Turton 1975) suggests that of all these movenents towards the lowlands it was the Calla expansion that took place last, per- haps over a millenium later than the other expansions.** A relative chronology of these various lowland migrations does not yet seem possible. The fact that the San-speaking Rendille figure prominently in the oral traditions of the Yasku (Heine 1975:30) may indi- cate that these two groups moved south at about the sane time, but this is only one of several possibilities. Whether the Afar-Saho migrated out of the East Cushitic homelands prior to the Ono-Tana commmities, as H.S, Lewis (1966:41-2) suggests, remains to be inves- tigated. Lewis bases his hypothesis on the observation that the linguistic differentiation between Afar and Saho is greater than between the various Sonali dialects, thus suggesting a higher age of separation for the former, But Lewis does not take into consideration that the Sonali were only one part of a larger community which includes anong others Rendille and Boni, The tine depth of separation between these groups is certainly greater than that between Afar and Saho.?? 2*The Calla, for example, are said to have originated in north-west Borana between Lake Shamo and Lake Stefanie (H.S. Lewis 1966.41). 2°Today, they inhabit the Mukogodo Forest of Laikipia-District, where they are being absorbed both linguistically and culturally by their Measai-speaking neighbours (see Heine 1975). 21 would seem that the Galla were largely confined to their honeland in South Ethiopia until about 1530 (see H.S. Lewis 1966:27). 2yote, however, that this discussion does not prove mich, if anything at all. ‘There need not be’a correlation between the age of migration and the degree of linguistic differen- tiation in this special case, since it is not possible to infer wire the process of language separation started. AAL 6, 661978) The Sam Languages 45 5.2. PROTO-SAM Of all East Cushitic migrations away from the South Ethiopian Highlands that of the San- speaking people turned out to be the most successful in terms of territorial expansion. (ne may say in fact that sub-Suharan Africa has experienced only few migrations within’ a relatively short time span involving such a wide territory.?° t is in the plains to the south of the Ethiopian Highlands east of Lake Turkana where the honeland of the San-speaking people has to be located and it is from there that the early migrations tovards the south started. ‘This view difters slightly from that of Fleming (1964:87) who claims a more north-easterly gtigin for, his "Macro-Somali" comunity.’® Fleming's reconstruction is based on his “discovery” of Bayso, a language spoken of Gidicho Island in Lake Abaya. Since Bayso is not related to Sonali as closely as was suggested by Fleming, i.e, it is certainly nor a nenber of the San group, it can largely remain out of consideration in a discussion on the Proto-Sam homelands. Judging from the present distribution of the Sam languages and their genetic relationship patterns, the following conclusion sees obvious: the Sam homeland must be sought around or near the area where the first split of Proto-Sam occurred. This split, which separated Rendille from the rest of the Sam languages, is likely to have taken place sonewhere along the south-eastern border of the Rendille-speaking country. The Proto-San honelands must therefore be located to the south of the Ethiopian Highlands in the general area of north-central Kenya, perhaps in the plains surrounding the Marsabit Plateau. ‘The hypothetical Proto-San-speaking commmity was typically one of camel breeders. The camel was probably acquired in the plains of North Kenya after the descent from the Ethiopian Highlands, and it enabled the San-speaking people to conquer all the arid areas between Lake Turkana and the Zeila coast of North Somalia. ** ‘The existence of a camel economy is suggested by the presence of a specialized Proto-San yocabulary involving canels. So far, the following itens have been reconstructed: | *gaat ‘camel’, ain ‘male canel', *hat 'fenale canel’, *q'4atZm "young male canel', *qaat'Zn ‘young female camel", *eox’ 'camol-bell', and *eias- "hump of camel, ‘he assumption that Proto-San vas overvhelmingly, or exclusively, a pastoral society is supported by the presence of reconstructed itens’like *dago 'to accumilate herds’, | *4o0¢é ‘to send (herds) out to grazo', *tun ‘to castrate by crushing", or *maat 'to milk", ‘Com pared to canels, cattle Seem to have been of secondary, if of aly, importance--the Proto San lexicon belig much less specific about. them, **Aithough less spectacular both in the number of people involved and in the territory covered, the Sam migrations show several parallels to the Bantu expansion in southern Africa (see below). 21 would seen that this divergence is,to sone extent due to differences in languages classification: Flening's ‘Macro-Sonali” is nore comprehensive than our San group. It includes Bayso which is an Omo-Tana but not a San language, and it excludes the Galaboid group which, according to the evidence presented by Sasse (1975), belongs to Ono-Tana.” This difference has various implications for the territorial history of "Nacro- Sonali" (see belos). **Wihereas the reconstruction of a camel economy for the Proto-Sam conmmity rests on very strong linguistic evidence, there are no linguistic clues as to who introduced the camel in Eastern Africa, and FROM WHOM did the early Sam people acquire then. MAL 6, 6746 Bernd Heine TAAL 0/2 The only reconstructed items in our list are *sa* 'cow' and *£oi? ‘cattle’. The presence of sheep and goats is attested, by Proto-Sam words like “adi ‘sheep and goats", *magal "young sheep and goats’, *xi goat", *wal'@x ‘kid’, "Cail 'eve", and *Saben ‘virgin ewe’. Agrigulture was know but probably not practiced. There is @ word *qut meaning both 'to dig’ and ‘to cultivate’, but the word *b8t "garden’ is confined to Eastern San. It is Likely that the Proto-San-speaking people practiced circumcision and buried their dead, as is suggested by words Like *gut "to circumcise’, *haw'dae 'to bury’, and *famaat ‘grave’, though no more specific infomation is available. ‘Perhaps more significant is the obServa~ ton ‘that the Proto-San conmmity was familiar with iron-work, words like *6ix ‘iron’ and *tunaat ‘blacksmith’ having been retained all over the San-speaking area.” ‘Any attempt at dating early Sam history mist remain tentative at the present stage of research. Glottochronological calculations suggest that the conmon ancestor language of the modern San Languages is at least between 1700 and 2500 years old, i.e. that the hypothetical Proto-Sam community dates back to roughly the beginning of the Christian era. '* ‘This would mean that of all populations found today in northern Kenya, San-speaking people were the first to settle there, probably with the exception of the Yaaku (see 5.1). Pro- vided that this date is confirmed by further research, this would also mean that a knowledge of iron-working is likely to have existed in northern Kenya before the Christian era. And the same applies, of course, to camel economy. The San-speaking area constitutes one of the best camel regions of the world, and the Eastern Sam territory, i.e. Sonalia, has probably the densest camel population in Africa (cf. Epstein 1971,'11:551). The one-humped canel (dronedary) was domesticated in Central and Southern Arabia’as early as 1800 B.C., if not earlier (Zeumer s.a.:297), and it was introduced from there in eastern and north-eastern Africa. “According to Reinhard Walz (1951:41; 1954), it reached the Horn of Africa during the middie of the first millenium B.C., or even 300’to 400 years earlier. Thus, San-speaking people must have taken up canel breeding before the animal was introduced in Egypt (Epstein °'The regularity of sound correspondences suggests that these words can be traced back to ‘the Proto-Sam community. Archeological evidence, on the other hand, suggests that iron is of extremely recent introduction to the north’Kenya plains (David Phillipson; personal communication of 19-10-1976). *The common percentages of basic vocabulary between the three main Sam languages are: 100-word List 200-vord list Rendille-Sonali 518 468 Rendille-Boni 508 478 Somali-Boni 598 568 Using the glottochronological forma t = log C_ the following figures of time depth result: Oleg F 100-word list 200-word list Rendille-Sonali 2,228 years 1,790 years Rendille-Boni 23295 years 1,740 years Somal i -Boni 1,748 years 13337 years Thus, We nay assume that the separation between Nestern and Eastern San occurred approxi- nately between 300 B.C. and 200 A.D. Since this date marks the end of the Proto-San period, the hypothetical ancestor language mst be assumed to be even older than that. ‘The fitst split within Eastern Sam, i.e. between Boni and Jabarti-Somali, appears to have taken place between 200 A.D. and 680 A.D. AAL 6, 681978] The Sam Languages 47 1971, 11:565). We are led to assume that the Proto-San-speaking people met the camel after having left the Ethiopian Highlands when they began to establish thenselves in the plains of northern Kenya. Subsequently, the economy, culture and social life of the San people became focussed on thé camel. 5.3. EARLY SAM MIGRATIONS. Roughly at the beginning of the Christian era, probably during the first three centuries A.D. ‘the Proto-San-speaking people began to spread’in a south-eastern direction."? These movements led past the Lorian Swamps to the Tana River and along its eastern banks to the Indian Ocean, thus making the whole of north-eastern Kenya, fron Lake Turkana to the Lamu Archipelago 4 San-speaking territory. Whereas the Linguistic analysis (see 4.1) suggests a clear-cut split between the Western and ‘the Eastern Sam people, the actual development was probably more complex: it was a gradual expansion involving thé more active segments of the population rather than a sudden separation. By approximately $00 A.D., we may assume, there existed a continuum of more or Jess independent San groups speaking iitually intelligible dialects, stretching fron Lake Turkana to the sea shores. The extreme onds of this dialect continixm becane more and nore different up to the point that Linguistic commmication was rendered difficult. The Westem dialects developed into a language of its om which is nowadays known as Rendille. These dialects were probably linked vith the eastern dialects by a chain of intelligibility until they were separated by the intrusion of the Galla in the 16th century (see 5.0). ‘The Wester San (Rendille) roughly maintained their territory up to the present. ‘At tines in history, they experienced population movements ranging from the Ethiopian Highlands in ‘the north to the mountainous areas of Sampur country in the south. Around 1820 they are said to have been concentrated on the Lbarta Plains and in the Suguta Valley, but twenty years later they are reported to have migrated back into their present territory driving the Laikipiak Maasai southwards (Spencer 1973:150, 152). ‘The Eastern San continued with their migrations in the same way as earlier Sam people: once a new territory was occupied, part of the population would settle down whereas another part moved on looking for new grazing areas. The Sar-speaking area thus was continually extended, ‘This pattern of territorial expmsion is clearly reflected in the pattem of genetic relation- ship. Tt is the sane pattern that has been observed in the spread of the Bantu people during the last two millenia®* (cf. Heine et al. 1975). °*Most probably, this was not the only direction of spread. Conceiveably, the south and east were other directions of San expansion, but if it was so, then such fovenents were superseded by later inmigrations of both other East Cushites and Nilotes. °“This development can be represented in a simplified form thus: dD 'A' would be the "original" group. B, is that part of A that stayed behind whereas B, left the homeland to look for a new settlement area. C, settled in this new area whereas C, split off and established new homes farther away. "This new C, territory becane the AAL 6, 6948 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 Upon reaching the coastal area, the expansion of Eastern Sam people proceeded in a northern direction into what is today the Republic of Sonalia. The linguistic history records two important break-offs from the main stream of expansion. ‘The first involves those groups that, due to unknown circumstances, were forced to give up animal husbandry and decided on a hunter-gatherer existence in the forest belt of the coastal hinterland north of the Tana River. ‘They are the only Eastern San people on Kenyan territory that survived the invasion of the Galla, Their modern descendants are the various Boni-speaking groups. The second major section that stayed behind, and becane largely sedentary, is represented Linguistically by "Jabarti". This section appears to have Settled first along the lower course of the Juba River where it replaced its traditional nonadic pastoralisn by,a mixed, economy which focussed more and more on agriculture. The settlement area of the "Jabarti"- speaking cluster was gradually extended to cover most of the fertile lands between and in- cluding the Juba and Shebelle Rivers. The evidence available suggests that the pre-tiawiyye (pre-iawiya) mentioned by Colucci (2924:91) and Turton (1975) constituted a najor branch of this section. One Eastern Sam section, hovever, continued to expand in a northern direction by crossing the Shebelle River and penetrating into the Horn of East Africa. This section, wich cane to be known as Samaale or "Somali proper", maintained its traditional camel economy, and its territorial and political development’ accounts for most of what is nowadays known as the history of the Somali and the history of the East African Horn. 5.4. ‘THE "ABORIGINAL POPULATION" OF THE HORN Most, though not all, scholars commenting on Sonali history agree that the East African Horn, and in particular the southern part of it, was inhabited by a "Negro" population, before it ‘was conquered by East Cushitic nomads. This "aboriginal population", as T.M. Lewis (1955: 45) calls it, is said to have contained at least two culturally divergent groups: the major segnent consisted of "cultivators living as sedentaries along the Juba and Shebelle Rivers and in fertile pockets between them" (Lewis 1960:216). ‘The second group was made up of nomadic hunters and fishermen, often possessing dogs. According to I.M. Lewis, the Ribi and Boni of Jubaland and Southern Somalia, though modified by Cushitic influence, are modern descendents of these hunters (Lewis 1960:216). It would seen that this statement is not quite corroborated by linguistic findings (see 5.3). ‘These "Negroid populations" are referred to collectively by medieval Arab writers as Zengd (blacks). They probably did not extend north of the Shebelle River at that tine. homeland of D, whereas D,, another offshoot of C,, pushed on and conquered new lands, ‘he ‘development of Sam languages is very mich in accordance with this model: Rendille (B,) and Eastern Sam (B,) are descendents of Proto-Sam (A). Eastern Sam split into Boni (C.) and "Jabarti-Sonali" (Ca) with the latter group again’ splitting into those that stayed behind (i.e. 'Jabarti"; D,) and those that proceded further (""Somali proper"; Dz). In the case of Bantu history, ‘the model is the sane, the only difference being that’ the number of descendent groups Was usually higher than’two, i.e. A ae oe AAL 6, 701978] The Sam Languages 49 Our knowledge about the early inhabitants of the Hom is scanty, to say the least. Linguis- tic evidence suggests that Bantu people were No? among then. Contrary to the view expressed by ILM. Lewis (1960:216), according to which the pre-Cushitic cultivators living along the Juba’ and Shebelle Rivers ’were partly Bantu, there is every reason to assune that, Bantu speaking commities 1ike Pokono, northern’Svahili (Bajumi, Mini, ot al), or Shebeli, | 4, Shidle and Gosha net already San“speaking people north of River Tana when they arrived’ there. Goorge Peter Murdock estimates that the Bantu reached the Somalia coast in the second half of the first millenium.** By this time, the early Sonali are Likely to have extended at least as far north as River Shebelle (see below). If there wore no Bantu people who preceded the Eastern (ushities in the Hom, the question is vino the other people referred to by T.M. Lewis may have been. Fleming (196492) notes that the assumption of a Negro priority in'the Horn is not supported archeologically. Oral traditions do not seen to shed any light on this problen, mainly because of the tine depth involved. Linguistics does not offer any noticeable clues either. The presence of Dahalo near the mouth of River Tana might imply that Southern Cushites, possibly intermingled with Khoisan-speaking groups, extended as far north as Sonalia. but it is equally possible that large parts of the Hom'vere uninhabited by the tine the East Cushitic pastoralists occupied it. For some time, it has been suggested that the first wave of East Cushites to take possession of the Horn consisted of Galla groups who superseded earlier populations there. G.W.B. Hunting- ford notes: "It is clear that the first African homeland of the Galla was what is now British Somaliland and northern Somalia, to which their om traditions bring then; these traditions are confirmed by the’attribution to the Galla by the Somali of most of the caims and other ruins in Sonaliland, and there can in fact be 1ittle doubt ‘that the Galla occupation here preceded that of the Soamli.” (Huntingford 1959:19) LM. Lewis, sho adopted this view, points out that residual pockets of Galla are still found ‘anongst the northern Somali, especially in the western and Ogaden region (Lewis 1960:219) . ‘This hypothesis has been refuted more recently by scholars working on Somali history (U.S. Lewis 1966; Turton 1975). Linguistically, there is nothing to suggest that the Eastern San expansion was preceded by an earlier Calla occupation of the Hom (see 5.1). 5.5. THE OCCUPATION OF THE HORN Within a relatively short period the Sanaale or "Sonali proper" overflooded and occupied The degree of Linguistic differentiation is the main argument here. Harold Fleming summarizes it thus: “The differences within Somali generally (Rendille, Boni, and Sonali proper) distinctly exceed those obtaining anong the Coastal Bant and are not greatly exceeded by East African Bantu differentiation generally" (Fleming 1964:92). See also Turton (1975). "At some time early in the second half of the first millenium, ... the agricultural Bantu, who had recently arrived in East Africa, spread north eastward along the coast of Somali and occupied the fertile valleys of the Juba and Shebelle Rivers, driving the indigenous hunters into the arid sections of the interior" (Murdock 1953:319). Note, however, that there is archeological evidence for fairly recent Late Stone Age peoples in the Horn (David Phillipson; personal commication of 19-10-1976). MAL 6, TL30 Bernd Heine TAAL 6/2 the whole of the Horn. I£ there existed any earlier populations on the peninsula they were either driven avay, of absorbed both linguistically and culturally. By around 1000 A.D. , if not earlier, the first phase of Eastern San migrations was completed. The Somali had spread all along what Arab writers referred to as the "Zayla coast" (Lewis 1960:217-218) . Probably from 700 A.D. onwards, Arabs and Persians had begun to establish strongholds along the shores of the Horn, From their intercourse with the Somali pastoralists arriving from the south, a new Islamic culture and society emerged, in which Arab traders and proselytisers fomed an’ aristocracy. This culture appears to have been largely urban in outlook. ‘The port towns of eila and Berbera were founded before the turn of the first post-Christian millenium, and a series of other settlements appeared all along the east coast, anong then Mogadishu, Merca and Brava, One important basis of this culture was the trade between the African hinterland and Arabia, “Especially Zeila developed into a flourishing trading center. “This town was politically the most important of the Arab settlenents in the north and owed its economic prosperity to its geographical position as one of the chief ports of early Abyssinia in the trade with Arabia and the Orient. Through Zeila local Sonali produce, consisting chiefly of hides and skins, precious guns, ghoo, and ostrich feathers, and slaves and ivory from the Abyssinian hinterland, ‘was exported; and cloth, dates, iron, weapons, and chinaware and pottery imported. Politically Zeila was originally the centre of the Muslim emirate of Adal, part of the state of Ifat, which lay in the plateau region of eastern Shoa, From the period at which the port enters Islamic history it had apparently a mixed Arab, Sonali and 'Afar population .... In the course of time, no one knows exactly when, these three elenents fused to fom a distinctive Zeila culture and a Zeila dialect which was a blend of Arabic, Somli and 'Afar." (Lewis 1960:217-218). By the 12th century A.D. the whole of the northern coast had been Islanized, as is claimed by the Arab historian Yagut, and the ground had been prepared for Muslim expansion further in- and (Viuntingford 1953:15) 5.6. SOUTHERN MIGRATION After having conquered most, if not all, parts of the Horn, we notice that from the beginning of the second millenium the’direction of migrations was reversed: Muslim Somali groups leave the northern and eastern coasts and migrato south. The motives of this movonent are still largely unclear. I.M. Lewis suggests that increased immigration from Arabia was a contributing factor (I.M, Lewis 1960:220), but proselytism probably also played a role. As early a5 the tenth or eleventh century, Sheikh Ismaa'iil Jabartii had arrived from Arabia and became the founder of the Daarood clan-fanily in north-eastern Sonalia. lle was followed some 200 years later by Sheikh Isaaq who founded another major clan-family of Sonali, the Isaaq who settled to the west of the Daarood. ‘The advance towards the south is described by 1.M. Lewis in some detail (I.M. Lewis 1960:220 f£.). The Muslim Somali seem to have followed two main routes, either along the Indian Ocean coast following the Shebelle River and its tributaries downwards, or in the western interior where they were brought in conflict with the Christian empire of Ethiopia. In the south, groups of Hawiyye pushed towards and crossed the Shebelle River, overpowering non-Islanic ¢arlier Sam residents like the Ajuraan in the 17th century. .M.’Lewis concludes from local traditions that the area between Shebelle and Juba to the south of Bur Hacaba was in the possession of the Galla, but it seems likely that the predominant population of that region were Jabarti-speaking Sam, In the meantime, the Galla had begun to expand from their South Ethiopian homeland in all AAL 6, 72,1978] The Sam Languages 81 directions except west, It was especially the migrations of the Orma, probably starting in Dirre, which affected the more recent history of various San groups. ‘The Orma claim to have moved’via Moyale to the Lorian Swamps, one branch of them pushing south to the Tana River and down to the Indian Ocean (Turton 19752532 ££.). Although the evidence on the history of the Southern Galla is to some extent controversial, some general statements concerning the development of subsequent Galla-San relations seem possible: (2) The southem migrations of the Galla concluded the territorial separation between the Western Sam (Rendille) and the Eastern Sam. (2). The Orma largely followed routes taken by the earliest Eastern Sam people, absorbing parts of tiem and driving others north in the direction of the Juba River. (3)_Later on, after the San country north of the Tana River had largely becone Galla- speaking, the Gala collided with the Islamized northern Sonali who were flooding south. At first, the Daarood-Sonali were seeking alliance with the Galla, but later they fought them and’ drove them southwards. After having crossed the Juba River, groups of Dsarood Feached the western banks of the Tana River in 1909, subjugating local Urma conmmities. ‘The major Somali migrations were brought to a standstill by the British colonial government, although, as I.M. Lewis (1960:222-225) observes, Sonali infiltration southwards still con- tinues ‘today. 6. COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY ‘The following is a list of reconstructed Proto-San roots. Concerning the transcription and abbreviations used, see 3. For transcription, see Table 1, p. 11. “adah, Pl *adafi-o F/M "back (n)' “addi, PL "Zddiin® M/PL "ah, PL adan'é F/M *aab- M "father" R aba S aabbe M J aw M agat M 'house' Sagat M, PL agato F Jagat M “aayo ‘mother' R B aay'é *abees- F 'viper spec.' R eb'Bsa, PI ebesay's F/M S abeeso'F, Pl abeesoyin M ‘viper, serpent, monster" “aboon M "termites! S abooa ‘white ants" B ab!oox M Yaddin M "leg" S. addin W B R 8 #, PL adfio "backbone" AAL 6, 7352 “adi M "sheep and goats" ag M ‘mouth’ ag M "Language', cf. ‘mouth’ *agis ‘to kill", see 3.6.4.2 tagor, PL tagon-o M/F ‘calf-sized ‘animal’ *-afia "your (Sg possess.)' “ahian 'to cat’, see 3.6.4.2 *anaah 'to borrow vater’ “at 'to die’, see 3.6.4.2 "ange ‘ary Gre saat Tang/ "gi "to see’ “anit, PL arit-o F/M "gate of ‘animal pan Bernd Heine [AAL 0/2 adi M adi M we "ae M agM ag M a ag M ey "ganz 46/4 afan F a afer Bune par wan wonE oe gis dis/iaas og'én, Pl ogon’s ‘gazelle (gen.)" ‘agor Ni, Pl agono "bull calf to two years old’ aha, wahas a? aan hay an", amaaho "to borrow" nut wud/uaad. angag engeg-an, "aneg M 'dryness" ban wuan vam wm Om wm wl OF on AAL 0, 741973] tati, Yat ‘you (6e)" *atin "you (P1)" ‘aan M ‘male camel" ay “my” baat, Pl *baal-at ‘leaf, feather’ *babat F ‘palm (of hand)" Ybahat "poisonous snake (spec) *bafis-0 'to escape! *babaat "bright star! *battaad- ‘wide! Sbarar ‘to swell" *baxban M "shoulder" “bani ‘east! “bankey "headrest" *bar-o ‘to lea! *bat-an many" The Sam Languages 53 ati; at adt-ga M; aad “adi ati, adi; at, ad atin Adin-ka My aydin 6x, PL oun'dn, ounu'&x M/M ‘bull camel, bull" awt M, PL wt’ F Gon M ‘male elephant" vaya a ~ee ~e baat M, Pl baatat "feather" b'dat Mi "feather"; bash, PL bate F/PL "leag' babato F beb'a? F; buba’ F (EA) bahat M, Pl bahato F ‘wild aninai' brahae F baiso /bahis ‘ada, baliso bakat 'Venus' (Fleming 1964:70) bak'fat M BR OR BO BO BO BOER wom aw BO bate ade battaad-ans batad-an baron ban'éx/ban'Btra’ barar- (Ed) blixban, Pl baxb!arne M/F banbar M, P1 baxbaro F 'side’ ber" bani barki M, Pl barkiyo F ‘wooden pillow’ bark F banshi bano bano/bar'é? da. badan blad® baz Gen BO Un ow OP eo w MAL 6, 7554 *bgen F ‘Lie (n)" *béen M ‘Liver’ “been, PL *bddn-o F/M 'garden" “bez F "Lake! *bice(o}’ M ‘water’ “bii-i "to take out, pay’ *bit(-ta) F ‘month’ *bitig ‘flash (Lightning)' *bin'é M ‘dangerous wild animal" “bin F iron" *bitah "Left (side)' “bod tdust* “boqot ‘hundred! *bud(-ba) M 'club" bun M ‘coffee bean’ (loanword) ‘oui ‘to be full’ Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 R b'één, PL ben's F/M S. been 'F B b'ée F; b'éen F (B) been M biéex ME) beer, Pl beero beer, Pl beor® F/PL bey, PL bey'ay F/M bad’ F » PL bécey's M/t bin "to give out! bite b'chisbeh'ta bit (aha) bit, bish (+ *bit-t) F ig F bétiheo Lightning’ bood M boon F bogot M bogse £. B bk’ OL bud M brake (« *b'ard-be) M QO bh BH waw wR BH BE BER BlOZ OD OO BE bun M bun M ‘coffee big M bul buuhi~80; bul b'aith-é'"to fill" (see *bidii-<) wom ean we AAL 0, 701978] “badh-2/baah-"40a ‘to £i11" “bun "big (of things)" “eab'eet M "leopard' *can ‘five’ “ceek 'to tell" *eekei ‘yesterday’ cit 'to Light’ *oitim F ‘tick (parasite)' *cimbix, Pl cémbin-o F/M "bird" Yoinni, PL cinné-yo F/M "bee! “cub 'to pour’ ‘ddan ‘to touch' ‘dab ‘to plait! “dab, Pl dab-ab M/M ‘fire ‘dab ‘to set a trap’ The Sam Languages 55 bane bau b'aihé/ bth" Za buwe, PL ab ‘awe buur"an 'stout" shabeek M shipeee shub'Sek M f. R kab'it, Pl kabie'd M/M cin F Shan F shay ‘shi _ sheegs sheg ‘sheog gun an won ‘ahbe cots shaed; shetey shake; sh'8e® (E) shid-i "to light, kindle’ ‘shid/sh'ida cék"im, PL oikém'ém F/M shikin’F, PL shitimo ‘small tick" ahitnt. F cinbix, PI cinbin's F/M shinbix F, PL shénbixo sh'imin F cinnd, P1 cénniy's F/M shinni B, PL shinniyo M hub b't-shub/eé-sh'da. (see 3.6.5.3.2) din; din t"fan/t!atna dab-i t0b/t'6ba; tub (Ed) dab, Pl dab'ab M/M dab'M, Pl dabab ib BO BER EN Bw EO ON WOR BOR EO BaD BlOn Bune dab-i ‘to trap, catch unaware, snare’ ub; tub (Ed) MAL 6, 7756 *dab-in ‘trap (n)" dad M "person" ‘daib M ‘tail’ “dammaae "to swim" dan "to ada" “dawato F "jackal" ‘da? 'to rain’ *d'6*-0/*dé*-6-d@ ‘to belch’ ‘4 "to refuse’ ‘diim, PL *diim-am M/M ‘tortoise’ *doon ‘to want, Like’ ‘dub ‘to roast" “dundum F tant hill! “din/d'tad ‘to play, sing" dub M "hat" *duw ‘group of spies’ Bernd Heine [AML 0/2 nn en eH wae Oe Un BN wR BOR UW WOR WOR OR Cen AAL 6, dabin M oun F did-bi id-bi B dad, Pl d'agg® M/F dub, PL dub'tb M/F dabo F, Pi daboyin M ib, PL tibe? MAL dabaato duumaat (Bd) fu darn fee-tan (Ed) dow" so, P1 dow'shioys F/M dawato F, PL dawatayak Fs dasawo F, Pl daSavoyin M dato tae ie 'Sio/d’hidas "eo 8 olde oda tid iid tid /t"thda dim, P1 diim'am M/F dish My PL diiman ta M (Ed) d'on doon dub ddyb-an "roasted" 2tlb/2'aba dunduno E utun F ‘ant hill, snail hill" dun/d'ana; dt dene & dab, PL dub'ab MM ‘white hat of dabet elders’ daub "turban due, PY duu at duut< "to attack (of troops)"1978} dang ‘to leave out’ daa-t/dga-'Ze8 "to melt (tr.)" “daa-2 "to fal upon" “dabax M 'backbone" *daddami "to taste" “dagali, PL *dagai M/F ‘stone! “dah "to say" “dafian F ‘cold (n)" “dam ‘to drank mitk" “dam-mee ‘to finish (tr.}" *dag-o ‘to accumulate herds" *deqro "to bathe, have a bath’ ‘den M ‘clothes’ *qarbai "to slap der, PL “der-déh "long, tall’ “deg, PL deg-o F/M ‘ear’ Tie Sam Languages ‘7 daag-é, "to leave out, pass by’ *diag/*d"adga ‘to leave’ wm oma daai/da'iea Mia desta ‘to wert tat! we "to drop (tr.)' diaban, PL dab! dare M/F Saban’ PL dans ac! daddant "alt d tdi? dn ta dag'Ahi, PL dag’ M/E ah M, PL dagat F, daghan F “dak aace M es is dah teh (I 5 Bie dafian F "dahan F war wa uz Ga "eo drank mitk, blood! ea mH we won Some (ca) of tzlaes ie an "ix0/d'iada 2 rd'do/"d’ ‘ada dex M M ee dag'an, Pl dang'6 F/M "anbah *danb'ah/? darb'tha ct. S danbaht en, PL derd'dx (er; derer “Length, height" deer ‘high’ gee wax ee (6g, ¥1 dog'd F/M 5 5, 1 dogo F "deg, PL *d'egt F/PL wun Baan g MAL 6, 7938 “det 'to give birth’ *tardet ‘to be bom’ (cf. 5.6.5.3.3) deri M ‘clay pot *albnag "to be satiated’ *dig ‘to Lay down" *ig M8 "blood *disid'%sd "to build’ “doobo ¥ 'mad" ha dugo ‘to hit’ (see 3.6.5.3.2) “duuban 'thin" seed "her (poss.)" ’éndg/"érga_ ‘to send somebody" "to sit" tadgiso “{afin- ‘gap in upper teeth ridge’ "fal ‘to curse’ “Gat 'to do, make" Bernd Heine [AAL 0/2 R det S dat B fdeb/?d'éea R thedee B L-rdeb- (@); n-tdet- R d'iné, Pl dint'd M/M S det B "dng, *d'éxge M R d'arag 'to be satisfied’ 5 dexeg B 'dének/rd'érka 5 toe 5 eats k Pl déig'ég M/F S die M J digk B *dtig M R disid'tsa s da B *dhs/rd'tsa R ib, q'dbo, Pl dob'ab F/M Ss obo F ‘mad, clay" B "doob® F (Ed) S bu duso B k'a-"digo/hi-'dig'i'da S dusban 5 Mia” (6 + v1 R -te-oea Keres B -ee'd R 'éneg/"érga B trey, 'trek/'érga R fiddiso (Fleming 1964:70) S faddiso B gin'iiso R gen, Pa_fahan's S fanaft N, Pl fanaliyo "gap between teeth, knuckle" R fae S fat ‘to put a spell on’ S gat B fae/{'@la ‘to make, prepare’ AL 6, 801978) *fan, Pl *far-o F/M finger" “goed F trib" *feid "to uncover" *glt, "to comb’, ‘422-0 'to' comb oneself" (See 3.6.5.2.1) *4AL ‘to observe’ *4itgit F 'pepper' (Arabic loanword) *$it- M comb" *fooqi "to whistle" *4o0hi "to send (herds) out to graze! * 4602 M 'face" *Gur/$"tad_ ‘to open" “fut M soup’ *gaaban ‘short ‘shield’ “gaacan M ‘gaat M 'camel' The Sam Languages 39 fin, PL fomn's ML 4ar'F, PL fano fan, PL ie PL fe" FPL feed F eon, S'6e'd, g"Gor'd, PL geox® F/PL Buon sua §eid-i 'to undress, disrobe! gid (Bd) a & §il-0/{it'2'da "to’ comb oneself" S ged (uae Soe rn'in (sha) tie Giln'fc, PL gitmacd M/M gre {08 poon'ca §'3554 fooge §6t, PL fot'ae MM foot-dago "to wash face" {Gol M fur fue fur §*tha {uid M fuud M/PL gaab"én, PL agaab'an gaaban gac'an, PL gac time M/F Gashan’M, Pl gashano Fs gaashaan gaat, Pl gaae'ae M/F eta (collect.) fie, P1 gaat gldie (gee Ed) {Ine Boni ‘word is most probably a loanword from South Somali. The reflex should have been *kaal. Buon On ON BO BOR BOR AD BH Fm HM BOD AL 6, 8160 *g'des "horn" “gai M ‘chin’ “gain/g'@ina ‘to shoot “gatsan ‘buffalo’ *gafeb, Pl gateb-o F/M ‘evening “gat/q'ata ‘to enter’ 'g'anab, Pl garb-o| M/M "shoulderblade" ting'én ‘to help" “gaxgax M 'help (n)' gan-o 'to understand" *git/a'#2A "to buy, sell, exchange’ %g!at-3 ‘to buy for oneself! (See 3.6.5.2.4) “gauna* 'to cut throat’ ‘eaSaan F ‘hand, arm’ “geiz, Pl *geiz-'6 M/M ‘tree’ ‘g'éat M ‘giraffe! Bernd Heine On em wm BH HOD tom wom wom On Blow BUR BO wR GED GOD OF [AAL 6/2 gas, PL gas'é F/M gees h'das M ‘molar’ gad M, PL gadad M kin M gin/ ana Rin/h "ina gas'dn, Pl gasaar's MM base F gels, Pl geteb's F/M gatab'F, Pl gatbo gb /q' 8a a. {getil feecata g'trab, Pl gaxb's M/M janab M, Pl gatbo M "shoulder" Pranab,” PL Haxoobe"® M/PL "shoulder" eee Babb /eark'dn-o-0 gang'in M gangan M a'txo gato gor "to know" tg" at ad sda gad g'éto/o' Pade had eae quan. be'Giina* /kiii'é*a? ‘to butcher" gataan F, Pl ga‘aamo gad : . R'@an, Pl kaany® F/PI; ka’ 'dan-ta F "this hand’ gey, Pl gey'd MM gedd M, Pl getdo M eed, PL geédo "Se, Pl keet"@; k"éed-ba "this tree’ g'éré, Pl ger'énye M/F gouge, PL gousyo kine AAL 6, 821978) ‘gifbé ‘to break (tr.)" sid W "body? ‘gia M ‘rat! “giitig'tit2 ‘to pull" *g'eib, Pl *gitb-'6 M/M "knee “git, PL *git-at ‘road, path" *géset 'to love, like’ "aoa, Pl *gog-ag M ‘skin of camels and men" *goob-tan ‘homeless *go08 M ‘polar’ “gonei ‘ostrich’ *ady ‘to cut" “aib/a'aba "to burn" “g'ga* M ‘clap of thunder’ “gint-0 ‘to get dressed’ (see 5.6.5.2.1) tqun- "left (side)" The Sam Languages 1 bow BO Om OF Ok wh Geom Bom BOs BH GAD can On wo um wo jebé abe faa, id im jin M ‘shiin/shiin MM (E) j'Zbib, PL jétb's MAL fikib M, PY jétbo ‘Sh'Ebab, PL ahitibeia M/PL jit, PL jit'at FM Sid's, PL fédad ‘Shed,’ PL shece® MPL jid Jere ahaw sh'éet (E); sheeto 909, Pl gog'g M/F, . 909°, Pl gogag-< ‘canel skin’ goob-t"4n g0b-Lan "childless" 988, Pl gos'd MM 'pre-nolar' goo M, Pl gocsas M joneé M, Pl goneyo F nit; honee F (Ed) aby Bares b/g "tiba fib /'tia, be "tba ‘aga Rida’ M een eda g'dno F gutey M "left-handed man" MAL 6, 8562 “qureé ‘to creep (Like a baby)’ “gut. 'to circumcise’ “oid "tid ‘red “guu? M "year" “our ‘to move house’ “ouun-s-o ‘to marry" haa ‘yes' haan M ‘diarrhea’ *haana- F "soil, sand *hab'aax M ‘curse (n)' “hab'4aa/hab'and ‘to curse" “habar/habro- F 'wonan" *hagon M 'wind" “hat F ‘female camel" *hamhaan-s-o "to yawn" “hand'wuk F ‘navel’ [AL 6/2 gud-é, (of girls) fideo gud’ id Guduid-an "brown's gadtid guzuzto Feuduud-a ou, PL guf'ah M/F guar uur (Ed) guurso R'Giinso/kuuns'2* da hin M han M "human excrement’ s 5 s B R 8 a B R J si 5 gu ‘long rainy season’ s B s B R s B R s B héax M R ab'ax, Pl ab'dne -/F habaak M, Pl haboaro F ab'éx/ab'éixa ‘to insult, curse’ hhabaar haw "dan fhaw "dna; hab'Ax/hab maxab'ét, PL ob'oaré hhabar F,”P1 habro ‘old woman" haban F agar M haga M ay'a, PL at's FAM hat {-sha) an'aaso hhamhamso hhamaanso "ie, PL handr's iota ne cS Rune F ee wom OR wR Gon Bom on AAL 6, 841978] *hangaraana* M ‘centipede’ “hangin M "throat" *hanz'us F 'saliva’ “harmatat M ‘cheetah’ "hee "to get’ *hib'82n M ‘night! ‘hon F ‘past, first, earlier’ “honed ‘in front! “huxd- ‘to sleep long’ “hurt "to kindle" had’ Aad, "bitter" “tagig M ‘rope’ “fambaan ‘to carry on back" “iat "to steal" “R'at-t0 ‘thief" Rawat /Rdw'data "to bury’ The Sam Languages 63 s B s B wn hanggraana®—i hang®naan® (Ea) ni M hhag"Gn® M (Ed) hanj "tig, PL hanjug's EM hany td’ F e.'8 tanduig F Quan wan wo Gee wo on wor wan wn eR BOR BY 4H f. harémasad M himad M "leopard’ (Ed) hoe hee hee 4b'8on, Pl 4b'énne M/E Kebear te hav"Seq-ka "this night’ J hamtin, hon hor-ta "in front, firstly! hon-t"téd ‘past’ on'8t | (adv) hore "to be in front of" hin F Ga "tx/ "tnd hid ‘ixe/wr'za ‘to stir fire’ "ad ‘bad tasting’ fan es £8 xadaad, qadaad, PI fiadeo fed Frambaan hhan'tax/ham'ddna ‘to carry" fat ad hhad/h ida. Wate, Pl fiatay,3 F/M hiatto M Taw" aw ea. haw" fat haw "dt, MAL 6, 8S64 Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 asaat F ‘grave’ Faw, PL fee's FAL haat F Fabaat (-sha) hed F ‘wooden plate’ Fredo-di. "wooden dish! a Le fee rea) *hid, ‘to close, shut, tie! nig hen/h'anas én shen? da hii "root! iy, PI Ry'ay NAL Ridid M, Pl Ridido F h'iid®, PL hicet'e MM “Wiéz (dz) M "vein" féy, Pl fiiy'dy M/F cf. ‘root’ fidéd M, Pl fiddido F hitdde,'PL hciee”e wr “tizz- ‘star’ Ruddig F hittig M hiddé F *fioog M ‘strength’ roog-a hog M “fioot- M ‘wealth" fioot'é M,'wealth, money’ Rooto M stock, goods" fog ho f Rx “fioq ‘to scratch’ "fum, PL *fum-Fum "bad" Fun; fum-a, Fum-eéd, PL Runtun uss ‘*naint "to snore’ Rian, nacre £8 Rhwani QO” UO Aen OF BO won BAR BOR BHT BH neD “ice "she R ice S ets ais ivi-da F J dyye Be ‘ico "they" R deo S iyé-gaM J Zyyoo ° B *-iin "your (PI possess.)" R s J AAL 6, 86"ZL, PL dado F/M ‘eye’ “20 F spring (of water)’ ce. Boyet “item M ‘small boy" ‘itm, Pl ita F/M ‘tear (of eyes)" “init "to arrive! see 4.1 “in'dm, Pl tatb- F/M ‘girl, daughter" *indm M "boy" Ying'ix F "louse! inno ‘we (incl.)' Setaaeet/eaae (Superlative Imperative) “kati 'to urinate’ *h'aaté F ‘urine" kat ‘to stand up" cf Meat The Sam Languages 65 R Ss 42, PL dndé FM we, Pe #, PL Pt dare 2) PL inn! iL, PL tae FM WE, Pl ilo M Ur J B R s J B R Ss B s B R s B R s B R dn'im, PL ‘atbe F/M Sinan F, Pl hablo B hablo , Pl habe" F/PL R » PL ye'éte M/F Sinan M, PI dnamo R Ss B R s R s B R s B R Ss B s B J dnj'tr F Gnjir E, PL dnjino M Ash'tn (E); ishin F AAL 6, 87‘hatdai ‘alone’ *eamis F "bread" ‘haniés F "mosquito" “k'tx-2 "to cook, boil (tr.)' has "to understand! “keen ‘to bring’ *ketei ‘alone *bithic F ‘armpit’ Shei elite “to wake up (tr.)' cf. “eat hob, PL *kob-o F/M ‘shoe, sandal" “hot M ‘tine, occasion’ *hoob M ‘cup' Ybor, PL *hon-o F/M ‘camel bell" *hon/k'6ad "to climb’ how ‘one! bug/e'aga ‘to fall" Berd Heine IAAL 6/2 akg teen ® ibis Fj kémis F ‘flat bread’ ham'is (BE) F haneeo F kandi F (B); kin'tir F kia hand kan’ /kan'ia eas iis/k'tsa 'to know, understand’ keen b'E6/e"6éna sheen bet 6, beebé F (adj) shbLoe, bithite shish'te F’ k'thi/b!afica kisi "to awaken’ bia cee aya, hob, Pl kob'S F/M ab'F, Pl kabo M bbb, PL k'3b® F/PL koto, Pl kot'ae of » PL bitkitoyin F/M hab oob M k'éno, PL konoyo F/M on F, Pl kono N bn fronni feon/e"6na bbw how F bw feow; koo huge 'aga. bu Hive'ase BOn UWON BOR OF OR OF BOR BOR BH LOR GEM BH Bam BE wm Oe AAL 6, 881978) “kae'@te M ‘heat, warmth" “tuts M "hump of canel" *taab 'to fold" *tdb/e'4b2 ‘to retum (tr.)! “tafias M ‘well (of vater)* *taob 'to bend metal’ cf. "hb "lag, Pl *£ag-0 F/M "bone" ‘tah F tewe! *tasan, Pl *easam-o F/M "branch" keg "to Lick’ "Libaali M "Lion" “Litt 'six' “Lois F ‘cattle! *Luqum, PL *Lugun-o F/M 'neck* The Sam Languages 67 fue'8e, PL hue "6Lee M/F ukayl’Ms fut M kut'@ée M theat, pain! k'Gnas, PL fwrs'S M/M ("hump of cows, camels") furs M, PL kurusyo F foab 4ab/t'iba "to fold, bend’ faab-i,'to bend’ ‘o0b/2"S6ba 4g, PL tag's EM 2ag'F, PL Lago tag, PL tage BA BOER BE wR wh oT wa Aah F, PL Lafio M taan-ta, Pl Laano tartan F £.R Liit'im, PL Lidein's F/M S beg-i B leg (Ea) S Libaht M, PL Libahiyo F J kibaah cf. B jao'é 5 juwah M(B) R s B R Lali, PL on's F/M s s B es & § 1» PL Qurum'8 F/M fugun F, PL fuguno M cf. Br'wun F R Ss AAL 6, 89)68 “tut 'to shake part of the body" *ti- F ‘leg, foot" *naat 'to milk’ “natin ‘day’ *nidin-t& "today' (‘this day') “niga; ‘ndsg M ‘name ‘nafi'an F "barren wonan' ‘m'étab Mt ‘honey" “mandiie F "knife' *nantaan, PL mantaano ‘twin’ Ymagat "young goats and sheep’ *nagat ‘to hear" ‘nar "to be round" *nanoodi; ‘elephant hide ‘marti F "guest" Bornd Heine IAAL 6/2 {uf "to shake hand, tail" C'Gubie"wta Luh, PL tufiues F/M 4ug'E, PL Lugo M ue maak maak maak", PI maat'tme M/E matin f, PL matno mage F vom om Gon wo itinta maanta; manta miéan; m'dan-ta ‘this day’ m'agah, Pl magah'énne M/F maga® id M, maya? 2? ag M mafi'dn, PL mafian'6 F/M smah"in’F mind'Za, PL minditay’é F/M (used for shaving) mandiit"F, mind F; mean (E) mant'an, Pl mantan'S; mand'én, PL mandaan's F/M mataan M, PL mataano F max" maga F magat. m'd at int? "ata mix morsan, meer-san, ‘round’ m'ér-e/mer-"ia ‘to encircle’ Ban Bh OF Om BOR BOR Be BOR BAT 3 = manoodi,M, Pl maroodiyal F mon'a6n® F monbzi mianti F marti F MAL 6, 901978) ‘mata M ‘head’ ‘maaan 'sweet" ‘meet F ‘place’ Smid M ‘fruit! ‘min M ‘house ‘intestines’ *nindig'an F ‘mésqah F brain’ ‘nézig 'right(side)' nog F ‘debt! ‘mooye ‘mortar (for pounding)’ *m'Gigd? M ‘darkness! ‘mts "Lizard" “nabat M ‘sign cut into skin" “nag, Pl *nag-ag M/M ‘domesticated ‘animal! ‘nas 'to rest" wa wan Bn wunD won WOR Om whe Be BAD BUR or on on an The Sam Languages 69 nat'afi, Pl matahénye M/F nada ti, PL madafiyo midi’; madi M (def) m'ada? My m'ad® M (E) raaan na?aa meek, Pl meet'GL F/F mee’ F meee F; m'éesh F ido M so way min, PL mén'in M/F mip, PL ménne ty, PL mint? M/PL sina PL mene 6 TM mindigir My mindisin minerer F ‘part of intestines"; mint?'i1 M (E) masqalt F mish Fy wokah F (6) (< tmiyég) nidig F m'idig még, PL mog'd FM, mag’F "blood money" m'6ye, PL moy'dy F/M mooye’M mot midgal,PL mgd Zaye M/F mibece My milgd® NE) mutt, PL mutuh"S F/M mula Mt nidbar, PL nab'arre M/F nabar M, P1 nabaro F ‘wound, stripe’ nag, PL nag'ag M/M neg’ M, Pl negag M ‘one single animal of a flock’or herd" nds aso AAL 6, 910 ‘naras, Pl *na*as-0 MM "female breast" “neg "breath" *neeg-s-0 /neeg-s-tqa'to breathe! peri kia *s00 nogo ‘to return (intr.)" see 3.6.5.3.1 ‘niiig 'to suck (from breast)" “nuug-i ‘to suckle’ see 3.6.5.2.2 Yonkad M ‘Lightning’ *-004 ‘their’ ‘onnai F ‘sun’ *q!daeim, Pl *qaatin-o M/M "young male canel" , PL *qaatin-o F/M "young female camel" *qaanso F ‘bow’ ‘qdat ‘to take, receive’ *ka qi 'to remove! See 3.6.5.3.2 Bernd Heine TAAL 6/2 wor gunn wm sam BOR Bepn OEM um mon eo wan wh un om wa alias, P1 nahas's MM naas M, PL naaso M niaas’M negs'= M need F neg F ness /negs ‘dda. neegso/nees'2?da n'ox0; 40-n'Bxo n'dg-so rua nuush'ZLi/nuush'ZZa anx'éd, PL anxad"é M/M onkod ‘thunder’ “or “ta “00 “oord ona F ff. S_qonahi F P "Ona? F; '6nah F (E) 18 sea von! Sar'ea x'@iLim, Pl xaakim'd M/M qaalin M, Pl qaalimo M ‘larger male calf" xaat'im, P1 xaalin's F/M qaatin F, Pl qaaimo M ‘larger female calf" 40 F Saat AAL 6, 921978] *s00 gfit 'to fetch’ see 3.6.5.3.1 “qaboo, Pl *gab-gaboo ‘cold (adj)' “qab'306 ‘cold (n)' %q'db-0/q'db-da ‘to catch, seize, tot oe “gat 'to butcher" *qattoo®-"to bend’ “gando F ‘fever' *qan'Lin 'to bite’ *qooto F "tribe! *q'3nl M ‘wood, firewood" ‘gon/q'dna ‘to carve’ *qub ‘to pour’ *quéas "to cough’ *qugas M ‘cough (n)* *qut/qita ‘to dig, cultivate’ *naana® F "bat" The Sam Languages n so-x'it ‘800 qaad x'bbo qaboo, Pl qabgaboo xob'db F qaboob M ‘cold weather" ab'é0b M "coolness x'tbo qabo ‘sbo/o'a? da gob xal gak-i x'Btoxes x'dtohie qattooré jando F 'shilis' Same Ro xfnno "to be sick" xan'tn wor Que On on Uso wa om on ganiin an'Zin/an' Zina x'6lo, Pl xotoy'd F/M ‘age set qooko'F, Pl qootoyin M x'6xo, P1 xon'énye M/F aout i, PL qoxiyo. F re, 1 gona ‘xe, PL 'énje M/M xbu/x'dna 'to carve skin’ "to carve, cut, write’ xity xit/x'ta qod-iz qood-é od/éda bm DOR BO wh om BaD Bone OF nine? F AAL 6, 93n “haat /n'G85% ‘to follow’ ‘adh M "frog! “nakuub M ‘riding camel" (loanword) ‘neg M ‘man, husband’ *aiélzliqi/n't(z)4qa ‘to grind’ *rinai, PL *nimai-yo ‘uterus, wot of aninals' “aé?, Pl Aé-yo F/M ‘goat! *noob M rain’ “nuh "to shake! uwn F ‘truth" “saagat ‘nine’ “saben, PL *saben-o F/M "virgin ewe! “sam, Pl *sanam M/M "nose! *samb'66 M “Iumgs! Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 alin" Bia aga® ala? (nd? a Aa’ nah aah, PL nah'A M/E aah M nah M (E); na M aul 'Gub, Pl ruk"abe M/E nak-ub M, PL naluubyo F war Goan on ag M 'nan' (collect.) dg M aoain'txa neilndiva nin’, PL rimeiy' F/M "female camel who has been visited by abull but pregnancy isnot visible anak M, PL rinaiyo F wii, PL Aiy'S F/M XB I< ted), PL niyo um noob, Pl xoob's ‘green country’ noob’, noob M eon unm 2 2 wom Bo awh aul ah, num Fy 2'Gn-ta "this truth! un F, PL Auno M adn F ag "ae ‘sagaak ‘sagaae s"dgak Boom BOR Gon ‘sub'én, PL subeen'd F/M saben F, PL sabéno M sam, PL sam'dim M/M san'M, PL sanan aq M 4omb'6b, PL sombob'S M/M Sanbab-ka, PL sanbabbo ‘Sonb'6be ‘sambab Gene war of AAL 0, 9%1978) Ysaniin, Pl *saniir-o F/M "bed" (loanword) sae, PL ‘toi? F/E ‘cow ce. “tod? ‘*sa°a ‘morning’ “safab ‘clap of hand’ *satad F ‘time’ (loanword) *seafio ‘to sleep’ *seidé M ‘brother-in-law’ “sid ‘to carry’ “sid/s'Zi0i ‘to give! ‘sizzafi ‘three’ “sizy'’dt ‘eight! “sonkor F sugar! *sooh 'to twist! 8662 F 'food" The Sam Languages vor sam oee wn wunRw BonR Om EH we WON meh om BUnD AL B sah, Pl sah's F/M; aah Fait ettyo Pn, cattle! 4q°'M, PL to® F sd? F’ ‘middle-aged cow" ‘saa; sa*/£o0" Saf "late morning’ saa-ka ‘this morning’ sa?'aa s!@fiab, Pl sabh's 3asab 818 b°/sa’ab'Za ‘to clap’ Safi'dd, sad, Pl safiad's F/M sl@ald) F Seefio Seeho/sech'é'da, seseeh’é? da seidi M, PL seidiyo M sidt (Ed) ald sid s!Lils toa, ail ah sti/s'tta sade F, saddefi F, sdddah siddii;' sid’? side; siddeh siyy "Bt siddeed F sv td siyy'd sonx'n F sonkon F 400h-i "to spin thread" Sook (Ed) soft 400k F 466n F 3'00% F 6, 954 ‘soto "to walk’ *subaft M "butter" “sug ‘to wait! *oug F "thirst! *suum M ‘enclosure’ “tagai M "fly (n)" ‘tim, PL tino ‘hair’ *t!ini "to count! “tol M ‘group of people’ *to£ 'to sew *tomn'an "ten’ *tug to spit’ *tum/t!'tnd "to pound" ‘tun ‘to castrate by crushing’ *tunaat, Pl *tunaat-o M "placksmith’ Bernd Heine TAAL 0/2 R sofia; soto S 40t0 B 36°0/s'66"da ‘to walk, go! 8 "aba M ‘subag. "ghee" ug ug sug" F suug F ‘Sim, PL sum'dm M/M ‘enclosure, fence’ suut M'belt, strap" tind, tA ten ta tol, Pl tot'S M/M ‘meeting, gathering’ ‘ot'M, PL total M ‘tribe! abe tok, tok, R s B R ton'én, S toban M J B tan'an S tuf-e B tug (Ea) R thm/t"Gna B tun/é"tna . S tun 'to grind, geld R 8 R s B tum (of goats, sheep) tun-mé (of cattle) tum'A2, PL thmn'fe, tunat'd F/M unaat’M, PL tunaato tla M AL 6, 91978} The Sam Languages 78 Stuuk-i "thief" S tuug-d, PL tuigag- J tiiig-2 “taut ‘to throw" Stuur B "Gut "to throw on heap! “taut ‘hump (gen.)' F S tua F B t'Guk F “tus "to show' R tis S tus B tus'2é/tus'2a “tvzzoba ‘seven' R tech’. S toddoba F J. tBdoba of. B didd'oa “uddé M 'dung" ud’ M uddé’ M “uk'ait ‘egg’ ub'ali, PI ubak"é F/M “ut, Pl *ut-o FAM 'stick' tun M smoke" Yur, PL *ur-ar M/M ‘belly, abdomen’ *wr-i, *we-so 'to smell (tr.)' ‘wt F ‘smell (n), odor’ "auldnt 'to gather, collect’ usu, tus the! “wah M ‘thing’ tugah Si, PL ugaliyal F ogi sus us Gsgu use; us waa wali M waa? M ‘this thing, this’ WOw BOW WOR wan WOR on wR BOR GAR ws AAL 6, 976 Yuifi'ax, Pl Suahar-o 'fenale kid! ‘w'Afidn, Pl *wahar-o ‘male kid" ‘wahel, P1 ‘wahet-o M/M ‘companion’ Swit dae M "brother" ‘wit'dat F ‘sister’ wan M tram! wanaaba M "hyena! “waxan M "spear" ‘was /w'és@ "to call" Sweik, PL wee "at M ‘child’ *wein, PL *wa-wein "big! Sw'éend F heart" ‘wisitt-o ‘to drean' *yahiaas M ‘crocodile’ *yeet "to do! Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 wai", Pl wafiar'd F/M 'fenale kid! wafan it, PL wafiaxo; walian F, Pl ualiaxo "baby goat’ wai", Pl wahiae's -/M wehet, PL wehefo M wal", PL watal'Znye M/E M Laat uat'4at-e ‘my brother" wat'és-aya (+ *wal't-taya) ‘ny sister’ uataat F wnt"Gash (+ *watéag-t) F (Bd) on'd M sheep" (P1) wan M, PL wanan M uan'aba, PL warab'énye M/F tuaaraabe’ M wwanaaba. M uaa M; war "éiwo-ka "this hyena’ magn M w'aran M(B); w'&xen M wafi/w'ahia aa ("2a we, PL nydxut M/F "baby" wé2, Pl weét'&e M/F "baby-camel* witk N, Pl wiit-at “boy'; weye F ‘calf" 'd'éék, Pl wece'd M/M; weet, wesh F wén, PL wew'dn (of Living beings) ween; wen BUne BO 7 ER BE BONR oD BAD BAR OR an wig whijuiin w'éyna, PL weyney"S F/M adie {1 won w'éene; wend? F ds'teto/isine'Bda wisdkto/wisiee'Z>da yaila)s'Z M yoRiaas M, Pl yeliaasyo F "das M £.B jah'das M R yet S_ yeok J weet auer we ‘to make, prepare’ & AAL 6, 981978) The tyor, PL *yer-yer *zeé_'to try, test! ‘see 3.6.5. *zey ‘to look at’ *zeyalt ‘moon! “cana M "milk" (n) “cab "to drink" “cad ‘white’ *sadaad, "fence" “tai ‘to insult! *saidé ‘unripe’ *eat'oot, Pl *atoot-o "stomach" FM “cannab M "tongue" ‘caus "grass! “sid F "fingernail, claw! F “sia ‘rain (Light)" “ol M ‘war! Sam Languages QO UOW BEM BH EH BE OF BOR Oe LED BOR GOR BOR Om BO Ban n yery'éx ‘narrow, thin’ yor ‘small, young"; yor, PL yeryer gtr, PL yeyer vy Bt det ieeat uty days daay dee yeyah dayat Raan't M Saano M ant PL abhi ab "to drink water’ sad ad-aun; Ad\é) M ‘white clovis' Sadaadi "to fence in with bushes’ on'tan ain "Mia need velit Feedén fiot'6620, Pl MéLootoy"s F/M ", Pl fatooto M "belly, abdomen" f. R h'éuab, Pl harr'abe M/F ios, PL fios's FAM Sau M ‘dry grass’ aase PL siddi ddd’ F fin Sin Saddaa gaa ‘continuous light rain’ fot (Fleming 1964:61) “ok (Fleming 1964361) ot MAL 6, 98 Berd Heine [AAL 0/2 “oz, Pl **oz-az M/M "voice! oy, Pl foy'ay M/E sod’M, PL edad M *eae'és, PL **ut-‘uees "heavy fiue'8s M "weight" (weight) ' “ulus, PL Sut utus uetés “dn "to consume (cat, drink)" fin "to drink milk, blood’ Sun "to eat" *suot "to be angry’ Tot/fiok'éa ‘due M anger" us ab Susub, PL sussusub we un wan an *eusub, Pl *eus-fusub ‘new’ *eusuubo F ‘salt’ susbo F us 'albe F REFERENCES Abraham, R.C. 1962a, Somabé-English Déctionary. London. 1962. Engeésh-Somali Dictionary. London. Andrzejewski, B.W, 1964, The Dectensions of Somali Nouns. University of London. ‘Armstrong, L.E. 1934. The Phonetie Structure of Somali. Berlin. Bell, C.R.V. 1953. The Somaté Language. London. Bender, ML.) J.D. Bowen, R.L. Cooper, and C.A. Ferguson, editors. 1976. Language in Ethiopia. London. Bender, M.L, 1971. "The languages of Ethigpia: a new lexicostatistic classification and some problems of diffusion.” AnthtopoLogical Linguéstics 13:165-288. Brenaud, 0. 1969. "Notes sur 1'élévage camelin dans les districts du Nord de 1a République du Kenya." MS. Cerulli, E. 1957-1959. Somatia, sorétti varé edité ed inediti. Rome. Colucci, M. 1924. Painoépé di Dinetto Consuetudinario delta Societi Itatiana Meridionate. Florence. Ehret, C. 1974. Ethiopians and East Africans, Nairobi. Epstein, H. 1971. The Origin of the Domesticated Animats of Agnica, two volunes. New York. Fischer, G.A. 1878. "Die Sprachen im siidlichen Galla-Lande." Zeitschrift iin Ethnologie io:141-44, Flening, H.C. 1964. "Baiso and Rendille: Sonali outliers." Rassegna dé Studé Ethiopict 20:35-96. AAL 6, 1001978) The Sam Languages 79 Fleming, H.C. 1976. "Cushitic and Onotic." In Bender, M-l., J.D. Bowen, R.L. Cooper and C.A. Ferguson (eds.), Language in Ethiopia, pp. 34-53. London. Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The Languages of Africa. Bloomington. . 1963. "The Mogogodo, a forgotten Cushitic people." Jowmnat of Agrican “Languages 2:29-43, Haberland, E. 1963. Dée Gata Siid-Athiopiens. Stuttgart. Hayward, R.J. 1975. "Middle voice verb fons in Eastern Gushitic." Transactions of the Phitologicat Society, pp. 203-24. Heine, B. 1973. "Vokabulare ostafrikanischer Restsprachen, Teil I, 1. Elmolo."” Agrita und Ubersee $6:276-83. = 1975, "Notes on the Yaaku language (Kenya)." Agnika und Ubensee 58:27-615 19-38, 1976a. The Kutiak Languages of Eastern Uganda. Nairobi. pplifge- "Notes on the Rendilte Yanguage (Kenya). Ageita und Uibersee 89: 176-225, + 1976c. "Bemerkungen zur Elnolo-Sprache." Afrika und libersee $9:278-99, 1976d. A Typotogy of African Languages Based on the Order of Meaning fut Elements. KSlner Beitrage zur Afrikanistik 4. Berlin. 1977. "Benerkungen 2ur Boni-Sprache (Kenia)." Agrika und ibensee 60:242-95. Heine, B., H. Hoff, and R. Vossen. 1975. Neuere Engebnisse zur Territoriatgeschichte dex Bantu.” MS. Hetzron, R. 1974. “An archaism in the Cushitic verbal conjugation." In 1V Congnesso Internazionale dé Studi Etiopicé. Tomo II, pp. 275-81. Rome. - Forthcoming. "The limits of Cushitic.” Hudson, R.A. 1977. "Rendille syntax." MS. Huntingford, G.W.B. 1955. The Galea of Ethiopia, the Kingdoms of Kafa and Janjero, ‘Ethnographic Survey of Africa, International African Institute, London. Johnson, J.N. 1969. “A bibliography of the Sonali language and literature." Agaican Language Review 8:279-97, Johnston, H.H. 1886. The KéLémanjano Expedition. London. Keene, A., and H. Spitler. 1966. English-Somaté Dictionary. Pasadena, California. Kirk, J.N.C, 1905. A Grammar of the Somati Language with Examptes in Prose and Verse and an'Account of the Yibit and Midgan Dialects. Cambridge. Kohler, 0. 1975. "Geschichte und Probleme der Gliederung der Sprachen Afrikas." In Baumann, H. (ed.), Dée Vitker Aprikas und inte tradétionetten Kutturen, Teil I: Allgeneiner ‘Teil und siidliches Afrika, pp. 135-373. Wiesbaden. Lewis, H.S. 1962. "Historical problems in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa." Annals of the New York Academy of Scdences 19:504-11. ; 1966. "The origins of the Galla and Somali." Jowtnal of African History 427-46. Lewis, ILM. 1955. Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somati, Agar and Saho. International Africen Institute. Ethnographic Survey. London. MAL 6, 10280 Bernd Heine [AAL 0/2 Lewis, I.M, 1960. "Somali conquest of the Horn of Africa." Jowmnal of African Histony 3:213-229, . 1961. A Pastoral Democracy. A Study of Pastoratism among the Northern ‘Somaki of the Honn of Africa. International African Institute, London. Moreno, NM, 1951, "Brevi notazioni di Giddu." Rassegna dé Studé Etiopicé 10:99-107. 1955. 12 Somalo deta Somakia. Rome. Murdock, G.P. 1959. Africa: its Peoptes and their Culture History. New York. Conen, Antoinette. 19774. "Aspects of Rendille grammar with special reference to focus structure." M.A. paper, Nairobi. . 1977b. "The adequacy of the features tongue root position, high, low and ack in a comparison of aspects of Rendille and Somali phonology." "NS ___._ 1978. "Focus in the Rendille clause." Studies in Agtioan Linguistics 9: 35-65. Palmer, F.R. 1970. “Cushitic." In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Linguistics in Southwest Asia and North Africa, pp S71-85. Current Trends in Linguisitcs, Volume 6. The Hague. Reinisch, L. 1904. Der Dschibintidiatekt der Somatisprache. Sitzungsberichte der Kais. ‘Akadenie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Bd 148, HeftS. Vienna. Sasse, H.-J. 1975, "The extension of Macro-Somali." MS. Forthcoming. "Weiteres zu den ostkuschitischen Sibilanten." Agaika und Tibersee. ‘Sim, R.J. 1977. "Morphophonemics of the verb in Rendille." Nairobi. MS. Spencer, P. 1973. Nomads in AtCiance. Symbiosis and Growth among the Renditee and Sanbutu of Kenya. London. Tiling, Maria von. 1921/22. “Die Sprache der Jabirti, mit besonderer Berticksichtigung der Verwandtshaft von Jabarti und Sonali."” Zeétschadge fiir Eingebonenensprachen 12:17-825, 97-162. Tucker, A.N, 1969. "Sanye and Boni." In Wont und Reigion. Katina na dini. Ernst ‘Dammann zum 65. Geburtsing, pp. 66-81. Stuttgart. Tucker, A.N. and M.A. Bryan, 1956. The non-Bantu Languages of North-Eastern Agrica. Handbook of African Languages, Part TIT. London. = 1966. Linguistic Anatyses. The Non-Bantu Languages of Nonth-Eastean Africa. ‘Intemational African Institute. London. Turton, E.R. 1975. "Bantu, Galla and Somali, migrations in the Horn of Africa: a re- assessment of the Juba/Tana area." Journal of African History 16:519-37. Walz, R. 1951. "Zum Problem des Zeitpunkts der Donestikation der altweltLichen Caneliden."” 2DiKG 101:29-51. 1954. "Neue Untersuchungen zun Donestikationsproblem der altweltlichen Caneliden."” 203 104:45-87, Zaborski, A. 1975. The Verb in Cushitic. Studies in Hamito-Semitic T. Warsaw/Krak6w. Zeuner, F-E. s.a. Geschichte der Haustione. BLV, AAL 6, 1021978) abdomen accumulate herds, to add, to alone angry, to be animal, dangerous wild animal, donesticated ant hill arm armpit arrive, to back backbone bad bat bathe, to bed bee belch, to belly, abdomen bend, to big (of things) big bird birth, to give bite, to bitter blacksmith blood body boil, to bone born, to be borrow water, to bow The Sam Languages 81 APPENDIX: Engh - Proto Sam Wordlist, see ‘belly’ *daa-0 “don “hatdai; *hetei *euot ‘oon’ M ‘nag, PL *nag-ag MM “dundum see "hand! *eithit F Yada, Pl *adali-o F/M aban M "Fun, PL "Ruan traanat F “daq-o teariir, PL taariin-o F/M Teinné, PL *eénniyo F/M sd!8*-B/dés-6da tun, PL tur-an WAM seattooe Poa *wein, PL *wa-wein Yeimbin, PL teimbix-o F/M sdet Yqan'tin had ad, ‘tunank, PL *tunaad-o M/M *aeig M “oid M see 'cook' Yeas, PL *Lag-o F/M cf. ‘birth’82 boy boy, snatt brain branch bread break (tr.), to breast, female breath breathe, to bring, to brother brother-in-law butfalo build, to bum, to burry, to butcher, to butter buy, to buy for oneself, to calf-sized animal call, to camel camel, female camel, male camel, young fenale camel, young male camel, riding came1-bel1 carry on back, to carry, to carve, to castrate by crushing, to catch, to cattle centipede Bernd Heine [AAL 0/2 ee “den M tmisqatt F “ta*an, PL *ta%an-o F/M vgitbe *nazas, PL "naras-o MIM, noes Ynee§-5-0 /neeg-s-ida heen Tune "4a M *seidé M gaisan *disiditsa ‘gdb/a'aba rdw’ ade wae “gat subait M “gat/g aed “glat-0 *agok, Pl *agon-o W/E suk (aaa gaat M *hat F “ain NW ‘adde'im, PL *qaatim-o F/M “g'd8tim, PL “qaakin-o N/M *rakuub M “kon, PL *kon-0 F/M “fambaar, “sid *qon/q’snd “tum Sqlab-d “toi? F “*hanganaanas M AAL 0, 1041973] cheetah child chin circumcise, to clap of hand claw climb, to close, to clothes club coffee bean cold (aaj) cold (n) collect, to comb, to comb oneself, to comb (n) cone (Inper.) companion consume, to cook, boil, to cough, to cough (n) count, to cow creep (like a baby), to crocodile cry, to cultivate, to cup curse, to curse (n) cut, to cut throat, to The Sam Languages 83 *harmasat M Ywede, PL wb2-"ae M *oaid “gut Ysasab seiddi F hon/k'6na hid, *dax M "bud(-ka} M Yun M *eaboo *qab'60b; *dahian F see ‘gather’ tee *git-0 “em “h'aaeaz/eaaL' 82a (see arrive’) Yuahet, PL *ualiet-o M/M, teat *qugar “quga® NW tela “ea F oureé *yahiaas M sty que /qaed *hoob M “fat; Shab'Aan/hab'4ana hab'aan M “aby *gaurat AAL 6, 10884 darkness daughter day debt diarrhea die, to dig do, to drem, to dressed, to get drink, to drink milk, to ary dung dust. ear east eat, to cag elephant. enclosure enter, to escape, to evening ewe, virgin eye face fall, to fall upon, to far father feather fence fetch, to fever Bernd Heine [AL 0/2 *n'tigdt M see "girl! *raatin nog F haan M Samat: *qut/qita *yoot; see 'make' *uisite-o Ygant-3 Sab ‘dan *ingeg fudaé M *bood, *deg, Pl *deg-o F/M *bani *afiam *uk'ah *etzy'€at *naood *ouum M *gat /*g'aea *bahis-d. *gateb, Pl *gateb-o F/M “saben, Pl *saben-o0 F/M "2, PL tando FM "4652 M hug /e aga nies *hog *aab “baat M; cf. "leaf! *sadaad, *s00 gate *aande F AAL 6, 1061978) fill, to finger fingemail finish (tr.), to fire firewood first, earlier five flash (Lightning) fly fold, to follow, to food four frog front, in fruit full, to be gap in upper teeth ridge garden gate of aninal pan gather, collect, to get, to giraffe girl, daughter sive, to goat goats and sheep, young grass grave graze, to send herds out to grind, to group of people guest hair hand, arm The Sam Languages 85 *badR-2/bOaN' 208 “fax, PL *far-o F/M seiddé F Sdamnee dab, PL dab-ab M/M see ‘wood" thon F ean *bieig *tagsi M “tab “raat /n' 4862 *s60n F agar “aah M honed tnt M “buh Safin "baer, PL *b2dr-o F/M AE ud *g'tnt M *Dn'dm, PL *2atb- F/M “att /a'tod ‘nk? , PL tni-yo F/M magae Feaus Rawat F *4o0si Ytuny *rilzliq/n'£(z)4qa “tol M Smanti F “tim, PL *tin-o *gataam F MAL 6, 10786 hat he head headrest hear, to heart heat, warmth heavy help (n) help, to her (poss.) hilt his (poss.) hit, to hold, to homeless honey horn house ump (gen.) hump of canel hundred hyena insult, to intestines iron jackal kid, female kid, mate Kill, to kindle, to knee knife know, to Bernd Heine [AAL 0/2 veae'ae M seats, PL *eut-sutes “gargan M tang cox, Yea duso *a'db-3/9'ab-da *goob-Laan tm'aab tg "ats mins Me tagae M tun F hues M *bogot, “waraaba M Yuah'ax, PL tualiar-o F/M ‘w'dhdn, Pl *waiar-o MM sagis a *g'teib, Pl *gitb-' MM tnandiit F see ‘understand" AAL 6, 1081978) Lake ‘Language lay down, to leaf learn, to leave out, to left (side) leg leg, foot leopard lick, to lie (n) Light, to Lightning. like, to Lion liver lizard Jong ook at, to louse love, like, to dung make, do, to man, husband many marry, to meat melt, to (tr.) milk milk, to molar month, moon moming mortar The Sam Languages Sdédn, PL *der-didn toy ting "in F *gitee *samb'db M fae eg M *batan *quur-s-0 cf. "body" *daa-2/daa- "40a Psaanu M ‘maak *goos M *bit(-ta) F *zeyah *saea *mooye AAL 6, 108 8788 mosquito mother mouth move house, to ane navel neck night nine observe, to odor one open, to ostrich palm (of hand) past pay, to pepper person place plait, to plate, wooden play, to pot, clay pound, to pour, to prepare, to pull, to rain, to rain (n) Bernd Heine tnaigas M hand! wwe F “tugun *usub, PL **us~fusub *hib! én M *saagat sam, PL tsan-am M/M “Giant see ‘snell" eb uni g'Ond *goneé *baba® F *hon F *béhi-Z *4ingin F “dad M meek F “dab hed F *ddn/d'inds cf. ‘sing’ “deni M *tuum/t' ima *eubs *qub see ‘make’ glut ‘dar teins *xoob M AL 6, 110 [AAL 6/21978) The Sam Languages 89 rat *giin receive, to “gat red “gad "ad refuse, to va'aad remove, to ha gaat rest, to nas return, to (tr.) “edb/e'aba return, to (intr.) *s00 nogo rib “feed F right (side) Snizig road ‘git, PL *git-at roast, to dub root “hii M ‘Tope “hiadig M round, to be man saliva Yhanz "ug salt *susuubo F sand haan F sandal see "shoe" satiated, to be *d!exag say, to “dah scratch, to *fog see, to Yang! "ange seize, to *elb-0 sell, to *aat; cf. "buy' send somebody, to *"enda/ "tga seven *evzz0ba sew, to “tot shake, to sau shake (part of the body), to *tuue she “ice sheep cf. ‘ewe"; koats and sheep’ sheep and goats Yad M sheep and goats, yong “nagat shield “gaacaam M shoe, sandal “hob, Pl *hob-o F/M MAL 6 UL90 shoot, to short shoulder shoulderblade _ show, to shut, to sick, to be sign cut into skin sing, to sister sit, to six skin of camels and men slap, to sleep, to sleep long, to ‘small smell, odor smell, to (tr.) smoke snake snake, poisonous spec. snore, to soil soup spear spell, to cast spies, group of spit, to spring (of water) stand up, to star star, bright steal, to stick stomach stone strength Bernd Heine [AAL 6/2 *aain/g ‘dina gnaban *banbax M *g'anab, Pl *garb-o M/M ‘tus hid, *bukeé “aban N tata *utt!dat F *gaddiso eh goa, Pl *g0g-ag M “darbah *seetia hurd “yer ‘wt F turds tur-so von M see ‘viper’ *bahal F “haarh- F “gut M Swaran M. see ‘curse’ “duu “tus "iL Fy ef. 'eye’ hae “hize- F “bakaat fiat “ut, PL *ut-o F/M *

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