ANALYSIS OF POWER SYSTEMS PROBLEMS USING

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS TOOLBOX (PSAT)

By
Mohammed Mahmoud Mohammed El-hag Osman
Index No. 064073

Supervisor:

Dr. Abd El-Rahman Ali Karrar

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

degree of:
B.Sc. (Hon.) In Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering and Architecture
University of Khartoum
July 2011
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY
I declare that this report entitled Analysis of power systems
problems using power systems toolbox (PSAT) is my own work
except as cited in the references. The report has not been accepted for
any degree and is not being submitted concurrently in candidature for
any degree or other award.

Signature : _________________________

Name : _________________________

Date : _________________________

i
Acknowledgements
Special gratitude is extended to all gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to
complete this project.
I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr. Abd El-Rahman Ali Karrar , for his constant
support. I thank him for supervising my research work continuously and providing me with
valuable advice and expert guidance.

I would like to thank my mates in 064, specially my project partner, Mohammed Ahmed
El-Habib, for his hard work, team spirit and the impressive times we spent.
Last, but not least, I would like to thank my family, on whose constant encouragement
and love I have relied throughout my time at the university. Thank you for all the sacrifices you
have made to give me a better chance in life.

ii
ABSTRACT
The Power System Analysis toolbox PSAT has been developed to assist in typical
Electrical Power System Analysis. The one of the objectives of this project is to develop an
educational toolbox for Electrical Power System students and lecturers in order to solve some of
Power System problems: Power Flow Analysis, Voltage Stability Analysis and Transient
Stability Analysis. All this kinds of problems consists of various methods of mathematical
calculation which is difficult to perform by using manual calculation (formula and calculator).
The existence of this educational toolbox will help the user to calculate the calculation become
faster and easier. For this purpose, three power systems case studies were chosen to model for
each type of problems, which were mentioned above
The simulation results of the three case studies gained by PSAT were proved that the
PSAT can be used reliably for education and researches purposes to solve electrical power
system problems.

iii


PSAT
.
.

. .
.
PSAT
PSAT .

iv
Contents
1 Chapter 1 .............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT)........................................................................................ 2
1.1.1 History of PSAT ..................................................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Overview of PSAT ................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.1 Useful features of PSAT ........................................................................................................ 3
1.1.1 Power Flow analysis on PSAT ............................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 Time Domain Simulations on PSAT ...................................................................................... 5
1.1.1 Comparison between PSAT & Other Matlab Power System Toolboxes .............................. 6
1.3 Objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 6
1.1 Scope of Project............................................................................................................................ 7
1.5 Thesis layout ................................................................................................................................. 7
2 Chapter 2 .............................................................................................................................................. 8
2.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 8
2.2 Necessity for Power Flow Studies ................................................................................................ 8
2.3 The Power Flow problem ............................................................................................................. 9
2.3.1 Developing Power Flow Equations ....................................................................................... 9
2.3.2 Classification of Buses ........................................................................................................ 11
2.4 Numerical methods for solving the power-flow equations ....................................................... 13
2.4.1 Gauss-Seidel Method ......................................................................................................... 13
2.4.2 Newton-Raphson method .................................................................................................. 13
2.4.3 Fast decoupled method...................................................................................................... 14
2.4.4 Conditions for Successful Operation of a Power System ................................................... 14
3 chapter ............................................................................................................................................... 15
3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 15
3.2 Elementary view of transient stability ....................................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Response to a step change in ...................................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Equal-area criterion ............................................................................................................ 19
3.2.3 Response to a short circuit fault......................................................................................... 21
4 chapter ............................................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 24
4.2 Voltage stability definitions ........................................................................................................ 25
v
 4.2.1 Large-disturbance voltage stability .................................................................................... 26
4.2.2 Small-disturbance voltage stability .................................................................................... 26
4.2.3 Short-term voltage stability................................................................................................ 26
4.2.4 Long-term voltage stability................................................................................................. 26
4.3 Voltage instability concept ......................................................................................................... 27
4.3.1 Transmission System Characteristics ................................................................................. 28
4.3.2 Generator characteristics ................................................................................................... 29
4.3.3 Load Characteristics ........................................................................................................... 30
4.3.4 Characteristics of Reactive Compensating Devices ............................................................ 31
4.4 Voltage Collapse ......................................................................................................................... 32
4.4.1 Typical Scenario of Voltage Collapse .................................................................................. 32
4.4.2 General Characterization Based on Actual Incidents ......................................................... 34
4.5 Voltage stability analysis ............................................................................................................ 35
4.5.1 Dynamic Analysis ................................................................................................................ 36
4.5.2 Static Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 37
5 chapter ............................................................................................................................................... 38
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 38
5.2 Case study (1): Power flow solution ........................................................................................... 39
5.2.1 Simulation of Case study 1: ................................................................................................ 39
5.3 Case study 2: The transient stability analysis ............................................................................. 41
5.3.1 Simulation of Case study 2 ................................................................................................. 42
5.4 Case study 3: The voltage stability analysis................................................................................ 45
5.4.1 Simulation of Case study 3: ................................................................................................ 45
6 Chapter 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 50
6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 50
6.2 Simulation result of Case study 1 (power flow) ......................................................................... 50
6.2.1 Discussion on case study 1 results ..................................................................................... 51
6.3 Simulation of Case study 2 (Transient stability) ......................................................................... 52
6.3.1 Discussion on case study 2 results ..................................................................................... 53
6.4 Simulation of Case study 3 (Voltage stability) ............................................................................ 54
6.4.1 Discussion on case study 3 results ..................................................................................... 55
7 Chapter 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 57
7.1 introduction ................................................................................................................................ 57
7.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 57
7.3 Future work ................................................................................................................................ 58

vi
Table of Figures
FIG 1.1: PSAT at a glance .............................................................................................................................. 5
Fig 2.1 : The three types of Buses............................................................................................................... 12
Fig 3.1: single machine infinite bus system. ............................................................................................... 16
Fig 3.2: system representation ................................................................................................................... 16
Fig 3.3: power and angle relationship ........................................................................................................ 17
Fig 3.4: response to a step load in mechanical power input ...................................................................... 19
Fig 3.5: illustration of transient stability phenomenon.............................................................................. 22
Fig 4.1: Classification of power System stability ....................................................................................... 25
Fig 4.2: Characteristics of a simple radial system ...................................................................................... 28
Fig 5.1: system representation of case study (1) ....................................................................................... 39
Fig 5.2: The model of case 1 in PSAT simulink............................................................................................ 39
Fig 5.3: single machine infinite bus system ................................................................................................ 41
Fig 5.4: the model of case 2 in PSAT simulink ............................................................................................ 42
Fig 5.5: Test system for voltage stability .................................................................................................... 45
Fig 5.6: The model of case 3 in PSAT simulink............................................................................................ 46
Fig 6.1: case study 1 power flow report ..................................................................................................... 51
Fig 6.2:Rotor angle response for clearing time=1.07s................................................................................ 52
Fig 6.3:Rotor angle response for clearing time=1.086s ............................................................................ 52
Fig 6.4: Rotor angle response for clearing time=1.087s .......................................................................... 53
Fig 6.5: Generator power........................................................................................................................ 53
Fig 6.6: bus11 voltage .............................................................................................................................. 54
Fig 6.7: bus10 voltage .............................................................................................................................. 54
Fig 6.8: bus7 voltage ................................................................................................................................... 55
Fig 6.9: G3 voltage ...................................................................................................................................... 55

vii
List of tables
Table 1.1 : The differences between power systems Toolboxes ................................................................. 6
Table 2.1: Bus classification...................................................................................................................... 13
Table 5.1: input data for PV generator 1 (case study 1)............................................................................. 40
Table 5.2: input data for slack generator 1 (case study 1) ......................................................................... 40
Table 5.3: input data for transformer 1and 2 (case study 1) ..................................................................... 40
Table 5.4: input data for lines (case study 1) ............................................................................................. 40
Table 5.5: input data for PQ load (case study 1) ........................................................................................ 41
Table 5.6: Bus input data (case study 1)..................................................................................................... 41
Table 5.7: input data for PV generator (case study 2) ............................................................................... 43
Table 5.8: input data for slack generator (case study 2) ............................................................................ 43
Table 5.9: input data transformer 1 (case study 2) .................................................................................... 43
Table 5.10: input data for lines (case study 2) ........................................................................................... 43
Table 5.11: input data for PQ load (case study 2) ...................................................................................... 44
Table 5.12: input data for Synchronous generator 1 (case study 2) .......................................................... 44
Table 5.13: input data for breaker 1 (case study 2) ................................................................................... 44
Table 5.14: input data for fault 1 (case study 2) ........................................................................................ 44
Table 5.15: input data for PV generators (case study 3) ............................................................................ 46
Table 5.16: input data for slack generator (case study 3) .......................................................................... 46
Table 5.17: input data for transformers (case study 3).............................................................................. 47
Table 5.18: input data for ULTC transformer (case study 3) ...................................................................... 47
Table 5.19: input data for lines (case study 3) ........................................................................................... 47
Table 5.20: input data for PQ load (case study 3) ...................................................................................... 48
Table 5.21: input data for AVR 2 and 3 (case study 3) ............................................................................... 48
Table 5.22: input data for OXL (case study 3) ............................................................................................ 48
Table 5.23: input data for ZIP load (case study 3) ...................................................................................... 49
Table 5.24: input data for breaker 1 (case study 3) ................................................................................... 49

viii
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

CHAPTER

1
Introduction

1 Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction

Power System Analysis is an analysis that is so important nowadays. It is not only

important in economic scheduling, but also necessary for planning and operation for a system.
Based on that, in recently years, there are many researches, new developments and analysis was
introduced to people in order to mitigate the problems that involving Power System Analysis
such as Load Flow Analysis, transient stability analysis and voltage stability Analysis on Power
Generation.
Load Flow or power flow Analysis is important to analyze any planning for power
system improvement under steady state conditions such as to build new power generation
capacity, new transmission lines in the case of additional or increasing of loads, to plan and
design the future expansion of power systems as well as in determining the best operation of
existing systems. Stability Analysis is necessary for reliable operation of power systems to keep
synchronism after minor and major disturbances.
All the analysis discussed above is an importance tool involving numerical analysis that
applied to a power system. In this analysis, there is no known analytical method to solve the

1
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

problem because it depends on iterative technique. Iterative technique is one of the analysis that
using a lot of mathematical calculations which takes a lot of times to perform by hand. So, to
solve the problems, the development of toolboxes based on MATLAB with Graphical User
Interface (GUI) will help the analysis become quick and easy.
Traditionally, most available power system software packages are commercial products
that can only be used by acquiring costly licenses. This drastically limits education and research,
particularly in developing nations. In contrast, the deployment of Free and Open Source
Software (FOSS) emerges as an alternative platform to distribute an educational
and research tool which can be obtained by anyone around the world, and seamlessly creates a
community of users/learners that interact and collaborate with each other. An underlying reason
behind the success of a variety of FOSS projects (see for example the Linux, Perl and LATEX
experiences) is the freedom of the users of the software as well as the spirit of collaboration
between them. If applied to the power system academic community, the FOSS approach allows
the deployment of tools suitable for education and research, and at the same time to create a
community of learners. Remarkable efforts have been made by the academic community to
provide educational software for teaching power system topics. However, most available tools
do not fully apply the FOSS. The educational computer packages mentioned above, and other
tools such as UWPFLOW, PST , and MATPOWER , are not distributed under the General
Public License (GPL) . The lack of a GPL restricts the freedom of the users to modify, enhance
and redistribute a program that they have modified.
This thesis presents authors and users experience in the development and usage of the
Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT) , a Free and Open Source Software (FOSS). PSAT is
currently used in several Universities all around the world.

1.2 Power System Analysis Toolbox (PSAT)

In this section, history, an overview of PSAT features and a comparison with other
Matlab toolboxes for power system analysis would be provided.

1.2.1 History of PSAT

PSAT is written by Federico Milano , in September 2001, while he was studying as Ph.D.
student at the Universita di Genova, Italy. First public version of PSAT completed in November
2
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

2002, when he was a Visiting Scholar at the University of Waterloo, Canada. Now Federico
Milano is working as assistant professor at the Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Ciudad Real,
Spain but he maintains PSAT in the spare time [1].

1.2.2 Overview of PSAT

PSAT is a Matlab toolbox for electric power system analysis and control. PSAT includes
Power Flow, continuation power flow, optimal power flow, small signal stability analysis and
time domain simulation. All PSAT operations can be assessed by means of graphical user
interfaces (GUIs) and a Simulink-based library provides an user friendly tool for network design
[2]. PSAT core is the power flow routine, which also takes care of state variable initialization.
Once the power flow has been solved, further static and/or dynamic analysis can be performed.
These routines are:

1. Optimal power flow (OPF)

2. Continuation Power flow (CPF)

3. Small signal stability analysis

4. Time domain simulations

5. Phasor measurement unit (PMU) placement.

1.2.3 Useful features of PSAT

The Useful features of PSAT are:

Mathematical Models & Utilities
A variety of utilities
Bridges to other programs
Data Format Conversion capability

1.2.3.1 Mathematical Models

In order to perform accurate power system analysis, PSAT supports a variety of static and
dynamic component models, as follows:
3
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

1- Power Flow Data

2- CPF and OPF Data
3- Switching Operations
4- Loads
5- Machines
6- Controls
7- Regulating Transformers
8- FACTS
9- Other Models

1.2.3.2 PSAT utilities

a. Simulink library for drawing networks:

PSAT provides a Simulink graphical model library that enables the user to draw one line
network diagrams using pictorial blocks. The PMC (Physical Model Component) library of
PSAT provides a complete set of Simulink blocks for network design, which are grouped as
follows connections, power flow data, OPF & CPF data, faults & breakers, measurements,
loads, machines, controls, regulating transformers, FACTS, wind turbines, other models, and
sub transmission equivalent areas respectively.
The PSAT is Matlab based and the Simulink environment is used only as a graphical
tool.Thus, running time domain simulations from the Simulink model menus produces no
effect, since no Simulink dynamic model is associated with PSAT blocks.Simulink network
models built with the PCM library are read by PSAT to exploit the network topology and
extract component data. An advantage of this approach is that the PSAT can run on
GNU/Octave,which doesnt provide a Simulink environment.
b. GUIs for settings system and routine parameters.
c. User defined model construction and installation.
d. GUI for plotting results.
e. Filters for converting data to and from other formats.
f. Command logs.

1.2.3.3 PSAT bridges to other programs

PSAT includes bridges to GAMS and UWPFLOW programs. These bridges highly extend
PSAT ability of performing optimization and continuation power flow analysis. Fig 1.1 depicts
the structure of PSAT.
4
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

Fig 1.1: PSAT at a glance

1.2.4 Power Flow analysis on PSAT

PSAT provides several options to solve power flow, namely:

1- Newton-Raphson method
2- Fast Decoupled Power Flow (XB and BX)
3- Power Flow with a distributed slack bus model
The theory of these methods, in which PSAT bases the models and routines, are presented in
[3, 4, 5] and discussed in chapter 2.
The distributed slack bus model power flow is a feature which its only available in PSAT
among other Matlab based power system programs.

1.2.5 Time Domain Simulations on PSAT

PSAT also provides the option to perform time domain simulations. For this it uses two
different integration methods (Trapezoidal rule and backward Euler) to solve 1 together using the
5
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

SI (Simultaneous-implicit) method, this is also an option only available in PSAT among other
Matlab-based packages for power system analysis.
PSAT is able to introduce common disturbances by means of embedded functions. This
embedded functions are useful to simulate common perturbations for transient analysis such as
faults and breaker operations. Step perturbations can be obtained by changing parameter or
variable values after completing the power flow. Any other disturbance can be defined through a
custom made perturbation function; this functions can modify and include any global structure of
the system.

1.2.6 Comparison between PSAT & Other Matlab Power System Toolboxes

The differences between power systems Toolboxes were shown in Table 1.1

Package PF CPF OPF SSSA TDS EMT GUI CAD

MatEMTP
Matpower
PAT
PSAT
PST
SPS
VST
Table 1.1 : The differences between power systems Toolboxes
The key words of Table 1.1 were shown below:

standard power flow (PF)

continuation power flow and/or voltage stability analysis (CPF-VS)
optimal power flow (OPF)
Small signal stability analysis (SSSA)
time domain simulation (TDS)
Electro Magnetic Transient analysis (EMT)
graphical user interface (GUI)
graphical network construction (CAD)

1.3 Objectives
The main objectives that are wants to be achieved in this project are:
i) To develop an educational toolbox in order to solve Power System Analysis problems.
6
CHAPTER 1 [INTRODUCTION]

ii) To obtain simulation and analysis of three power systems case studies by using PSAT
program.

1.4 Scope of Project

In this project, the thesis will focused on:

1. Study the theory of Power System Analysis that involves power flow Analysis, transient
stability analysis and voltage stability Analysis of Power Generation.
2. This thesis will concentrates on PSAT simulink with Graphical User Interface (GUI).

3. To perform simulation of Load Flow Analysis, transient stability analysis and voltage
stability Analysis of Power Generation.

1.5 Thesis layout

Chapter 1 gives a generally introduction for Matlab Power System Toolboxes. In addition, it
provides history and overview of PSAT features. Finally it shows objective scope and Overview
of this thesis.
Chapter 2 provides a formulation of the load-flow problem and its associated solution
strategies. An understanding of the fundamentals of three-phase systems is assumed, including
per-unit calculations, and circuit-analysis techniques.
Chapter 3 illustrates the nature of transient stability problems, identifies factor influencing
them, and describes modeling consideration and analytical techniques applicable to transient
stability analysis.
Chapter 4 illustrates the basic concept related to voltage stability and characterize the voltage
avalanche phenomena. The dynamic and static approaches to voltage stability analysis will be
described.
Chapter 5 illustrates the three case studies, which were chosen for three types of power system
analysis to investigate their results using PSAT program. Also it shows how case studies were
modelled and how the respective input data was entered to them
Chapter 6 provides details on the simulation results with discussion.
Chapter 7 concludes the thesis with a final regard to the findings and suggests improvements
for future development.

7
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

CHAPTER

2
Power flow solution

2 Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction

The Power flow or load flow problem models the nonlinear relationships among bus
power injections, power demands, and bus voltages and angles, with the network constants
providing the circuit parameters. It is the heart of most system-planning studies and also the
starting point for transient and dynamic stability studies. This Chapter provides a formulation of
the load-flow problem and its associated solution strategies. An understanding of the
fundamentals of three-phase systems was assumed, including per-unit calculations, and circuit-
analysis techniques.

2.2 Necessity for Power Flow Studies

Power flow studies are undertaken for various reasons, some of which are the following
[6]:

8
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

I. The line flows

2. The bus voltages and system voltage profile
3. The effect of change in configuration and incorporating new circuits on system loading.
4. The effect of temporary loss of transmission capacity and (or) generation on system loading
and accompanied effects.
5. The effect of in-phase and quadrative boost voltages on system loading
6. Economic system operation
7. System loss minimization
8. Transformer tap setting for economic operation
9. Possible improvements to an existing system by change of conductor sizes and System
voltages.

2.3 The Power Flow problem

2.3.1 Developing Power Flow Equations

Consider an n-bus system the bus voltages are given by

( 2.1)

The bus admittance matrix

(2.2)

where

(2.3)

(2.4)

The current injected into the network at bus 'i'

9
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

where n is the number of buses

(2.5)

The complex power into the system at bus 'i'

(2.6)

Equating the real and imaginary parts

(2.7)

and (2.8)

where i=1,2,,n

Excluding the slack bus, the above power flow equations are 2 (n - I) and the variables
are Pi ,Qi , |V| and
Simultaneous solution to the 2 (n - I) equations

(2.9)

k slack bus

(2.10)

k slack bus.

The voltage magnitudes and the phase angles at all load buses are the quantities to be
determined. They are called state variables or dependent variables. The specified or scheduled
values at all buses are the independent variables. Y matrix interactive methods are based on
solution to power flow equations using their current mismatch at a bus given by

(2.11)

or using the voltage form

(2.12)

10
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

At the end of the interactive solution to power flow equation, or more usually
should become negligibly small so that they can be neglected.

2.3.2 Classification of Buses

The general practice in power-flow studies is to identify three types of buses in the
network. At each bus two of the four quantities , |V|, P and Q are specified and the remaining
two are calculated. Specified quantities are chosen according to the following discussion [6]:

(a) Load bus: A bus where there is only load connected and no generation exists is
called a load bus. At this bus real and reactive load demand Pd and Qd are drawn from the
supply. The demand is generally estimated or predicted as in load forecast or metered and
measured from instruments. Quite often, the reactive power is calculated from real power
demand with an assumed power factor. A load bus is also called a P, Q bus. Since the
load demands Pd and Qd are known values at this bus. The other two unknown quantities
at a load bus are voltage magnitude and its phase angle at the bus. In a power balance
equation Pd and Qd are treated as negative quantities since generated powers Pg and Qg
are assumed positive.
(b) Voltage controlled bus or generator bus: A voltage controlled bus is any bus in the
system where the voltage magnitude can be controlled. The real power developed by a
synchronous generator can be varied be changing the prime mover input. This in turn
changes the machine rotor axis position with respect to a synchronously rotating or
reference axis or a reference bus. In other words, the phase angle of the rotor is directly
related to the real power generated by the machine. The voltage magnitude on the other
hand, is mainly, influenced by the excitation current in the field winding. Thus at a
generator bus the real power generation Pg and the voltage magnitude |Vg| can be
specified. It is also possible to produce vars by using capacitor or reactor banks too. They
compensate the lagging or leading vars consumed and then contribute to voltage control.
At a generator bus or voltage controlled bus, also called a PV-bus the reactive power Qg
and g are the values that are not known and are to be computed.
(c) Slack bus :In a network as power flows from the generators to loads through
transmission lines power loss occurs due to the losses in the line conductors. These losses
when included, we get the power balance relations

11
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

Pg Pd PL=0 (2.14)
Qg Qd QL =0 (2.15)

where Pg and Qg are the total real and reactive generations, Pd and Qd are the total
real and reactive power demands and PL and QL. are the power losses in the transmission
network. The values ofPg , Qg , Pd and Qd are either known or estimated.
Since the flow of cements in the various lines in the transmission lines are not
known in advance, PL and QL remains unknown before the analysis of the network. But,
these losses have to be supplied by the generators in the system. For this purpose, one of
the generators or generating bus is specified as 'slack bus' or 'swing bus'. At this bus the
generation Pg and Qg are not specified. The voltage magnitude is specified at this bus.
Further, the voltage phase angle is also fixed at this bus. Generally it is specified as 0
so that all voltage phase angles are measured with respect to voltage at this bus. For this
reason slack bus is also known as reference bus. All the system losses are supplied by the
generation at this bus.
Further the system voltage profile is also influenced by the voltage specified at
this bus. The three types of buses are illustrated in Fig 2.1

Fig 2.1 : The three types of Buses

Bus classification is summarized in Table 2.1.

12
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

Bus Specified variables Computed variables

Slack- bus Voltage magnitude Real and reactive
and its phase angle powers
Generator bus Magnitudes of bus Voltage phase angle
(PV - bus or voltage voltages and real and reactive power.
controlled bus) powers (limit on
reactive powers)
Load bus Real and reactive Magnitude and phase
powers angle of bus voltages
Table 2.1: Bus classification

2.4 Numerical methods for solving the power-flow equations

There are three popular numerical methods for solving the power-flow equations. These
are the Gauss-Seidel (G-S), the Newton-Raphson (N-R) Methods and the fast decoupled -
power-flow.

2.4.1 Gauss-Seidel Method

Gauss-Seidel method is a technique used to solve a linear system of equations. The

method is named after the German mathematicians Carl Friedrich Gauss and Philipp Ludwig von
Seidel. The method is an improved version of the Jacobi method. It is defined on matrices with
non-zero diagonals, but convergence is only guaranteed if the matrix is either diagonally
dominant or symmetric and positive definite [6].

2.4.2 Newton-Raphson method

In numerical analysis, Newton's method (also known as the NewtonRaphson method or

the NewtonFourier method) is perhaps the best known method for finding successively better
approximations to the zeros (or roots) of a real-valued function. Newton's method can often
converge remarkably quickly; especially if the iteration begins "sufficiently near" the desired

13
CHAPTER 2 [POWER FLOW SOLUTIION]

root. Just how near "sufficiently near" needs to be and just how quickly "remarkably quickly"
can be depends on the problem[7].
Unfortunately, far from the desired root, Newton's method can easily lead an unwary user
astray with little warning. Thus, good implementations of the method embed it in a routine that
also detects and perhaps overcomes possible convergence failures.

2.4.3 Fast decoupled method

The Fast decoupled power flow solution requires more iterations than the Newton-
Raphson method, but requires considerably less time per iteration and a power flow solution is
obtained rapidly. This technique is very useful in contingency analysis where numerous outages
are to be simulated or a power flow solution is required for on-line control.
For large scale power system, usually the transmission lines have a very high X/R ratio.
For such a system, real power changes P are less sensitive to changes in voltage magnitude and
are most sensitive to changes in phase angle . Similarly, reactive power is less sensitive to
changes in angle and most sensitive on changes in voltage magnitude.[7]

2.4.4 Conditions for Successful Operation of a Power System

There are the following:

1. There should the adequate real power generation to supply the power demand at various load
buses and also the losses.
2. The bus voltage magnitudes are maintained at values very close to the rated values.
3. Generators, transformers and transmission lines are not over loaded at any point of
time or the load curve[6].

14
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

CHAPTER

3
Transient stability analysis

3 Chapter 3
3.1 Introduction

Transient stability is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when
subjected to severe transient disturbance such as the fault on transmission facilities, loss of
generation or loss of large load. The system response to such disturbance involves large
excursions of generator rotor angle, power flows, bus voltages, and other system variables.
Transient stability is influenced by the nonlinear characteristics of the power system. If the
resulting angular separation between the machines in the system remains within certain bounds,
the system maintains synchronism. Loss of synchronism is because of transient stability, if it
occurs, will usually be evident within 2 to 3 seconds of the initial disturbance.

In this chapter, the nature of transient stability problems, identifies factor influencing
them, and describes modeling consideration and analytical techniques applicable to transient
stability analysis would be illustrated [8].

15
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

3.2 Elementary view of transient stability

Fig 3.1: single machine infinite bus system.

Consider the system shown in Fig 3.1, Consisting of a generator delivering power to a
large system represented by an infinite bus throw two transmission circuits. An infinite bus
represents a voltage source of constant voltage magnitude and constant frequency.

(a)

(b)

Fig 3.2: system representation

16
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

The analysis of this system is evaluated neglecting resistance and the speed governor
effects. The corresponding system representation is shown in Fig 3.2. The voltage behind the
transient reactance ( ) is denoted by . The rotor angle represents the angle by which
leads . When the system is perturbed, the magnitude of remains constant at its
predisturbance value and change as the generator rotor speed eviates from synchronous
speed .

The system model can be reduced to the form shown in Fig 3.2a. The generators
electrical power output is:

(3.1)

(3.2)

Since we have neglected the stator resistance, represented the air gap power as well as
the terminal power. The power angle relationship is shown in Fig 3.2 as curve 1. With
mechanical input power input of , the steady-state electrical power output is equal to ,
and the operating conditions is represented by point a on the curve . The corresponding rotor
angle is (I/S) and (O/S) means in service and out service respectively.

Fig 3.3: power and angle relationship

17
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

If one of the circuits is out of service, the effective reactance is higher. the power
angle relationship with circuit 2 out of service is shown in Fig 3.3 as curve 2. The maximum
power is now lower. With a mechanical input power , the rotor angle is now corresponding
to the operating point b on curve 2; with a higher reactance, the rotor angle is higher in order to
transmit the same steady state power.

During a disturbance, the oscillation of is superimposed on synchronous speed , but

the speed deviation ( ) is very much smaller than , and the per unit air gap torque

may be considered to be equal to the air gap power. We well there for use torque and power
interchangeably when referring to the swing equation.

The equation of motion or the swing equation may be written as

(3.3)

Where:

= mechanical power input, in p.u.

= maximum electrical power output, in p.u.

H = inertia constant, in MW.s/MVA.

= rotor angle, in electrical radian.

t = time in sec.

3.2.1 Response to a step change in

Let us now examine the transient behaviour of the system. With both circuits in service,
by considering a sudden increase in the mechanical power input from an initial value of to
as shown in Fig 3.4a. Because of the inertia of the rotor, the rotor angle cannot change
instantly from the initial value of to corresponding to the new equilibrium point b and
which . The mechanical power is now in excess of the electrical power. The resulting
accelerating torque causes the rotor to accelerate from the initial operating point a toward the

18
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

new equilibrium point b, tracing the curve at a rate determined by the swing equation. The
difference between and at any instant represents the accelerating power.

Fig 3.4: response to a step load in mechanical power input

When point b is reached, the accelerating power is zero, but the rotor speed is higher than
the synchronous speed (which corresponds to the frequency of the infinite bus voltage).
Hence, the rotor angle continues to increase. For values of higher than is greater than
and the rotor decelerates. At some peak value , the rotor speed recovers to the
synchronous value , but is higher than The rotor continues to decelerate with the speed
dropping below ; the operating point retraces the curve from c to b and then to a. The
rotor angle oscillates indefinitely about the new equilibrium angle with constant amplitude as
shown by the time plot of in Fig 3.4b.

3.2.2 Equal-area criterion

For the system model considered above, it is not necessary to formally solve the swing
equation to determine whether the rotor angle increases indefinitely or oscillates about an
equilibrium position. Information regarding the maximum angle excursion ( ) and the stability
limit may be obtained graphically by using the power-angle diagram shown in Fig 3.4. Although
this method is not applicable to multi-machine systems with detailed representation of

19
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

synchronous machines, it helps in understanding basic factors that influence the transient
stability of any system.

From Equation (3.3), we have the following relationship between the rotor angle and the
accelerating power:

(3.4)

Now is a nonlinear function of , and therefore the above equation cannot be solved
directly. If both sides are multiplied by , then

(3.5)

(3.6)

The speed deviation d/dt is initially zero. It will change as a result of the
disturbance. For stable operation, the deviation of angle must be bounded,
reaching maximum value as at point c in Fig 3.4 and then changing direction.

This requires the speed deviation d/dt to become zero at same time after the
disturbance. Therefore, from Equation (3.6), as a criterion for stability we may
write

20
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

(3.7)

Where is the initial rotor angle and , is the maximum rotor angle, as illustrated in
Fig 3.4. Thus, the area under the function plotted against must be zero if the system is
to be stable. In Fig 3.4, this is satisfied when area , is equal to area . Kinetic energy is
gained by the rotor during acceleration when changes from to . The energy gained is

(3.8)

(3.9)

As we have not considered any losses, the energy gained is equal to the
energy lost; therefore, area is equal to area . This forms the basis for the
equal-area criterion. It enables us to determine the maximum swing of and
hence the stability of the system without computing the time response through
formal solution of the swing equation.

The criterion can be readily used to determine the maximum permissible

increase in for the system of Fig 3.1. The stability is maintained only if an area
at least equal to can be located above . if is larger than , then
, and stability will be lost. This is because, for , is larger
than and the net torque is accelerating rather than decelerating.

3.2.3 Response to a short circuit fault

Let us consider the response of the system to a three-phase fault at location F on

transmission circuit 2, as shown in Fig 3.5a, the corresponding equivalent circuit, assuming
a classical generator model, is shown in Fig 3.5b. The fault is cleared by opening circuit
breakers at both ends of the faulted circuit, the fault-clearing time depending on the relaying
time and breaker time.

If the fault location F is at the -sending end (HT bus) of the faulted circuit, no power
is transmitted to the infinite bus. The short-circuit current from the generator flows through
pure reactances to the fault. Hence, only reactive power flows and the active power and
21
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

the corresponding electrical torque at the air-gap are zero during the fault. If we had
included generator stator and transformer resistances in our model, would have a small
value, representing the corresponding resistive losses.

If the fault location F is at some distance away from the sending end as shown in Fig
3.5a and Fig 3.5b, some active power is transmitted to the infinite bus while the fault is still
on.

Fig 3.5: illustration of transient stability phenomenon

Fig 3.5c and Fig 3.5d show - plots for the three network conditions:

22
CHAPTER 3 [TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS]

(i) Perrault (both circuits in service)

(ii) With a three-phase fault on circuit 2 at a location some distance from the sending
end.
(iii) Post fault (circuit 2 out of service).

Fig 3.5c considers the system performance with a fault-clearing time of ( ) and
represents a stable case. Fig 3.5d considers a longer fault-clearing time ( ) such that
the system is unstable. In both cases is assumed to be constant.

Let us examine the stable case depicted by Fig 3.5c. Initially, the system is operating
with both circuits in service such that = and = . When the fault occurs, the
operating point suddenly changes from a to b. Owing to inertia, angle cannot change
instantly. Since is now greater than , the rotor accelerates until the operating point
reaches c, when the fault is cleared by isolating circuit 2 from the system. The operating
point now suddenly shifts to d. Now is greater than , causing deceleration of the rotor.
Since the rotor speed is greater than the synchronous speed , continues to increase until
the kinetic energy gained during the period of acceleration (represented by area ) is
expended by transferring the energy to the system. The operating point moves from d to e,
such that area is equal to area . At point e, the speed is equal to and has reached
its maximum value .Since is still greater than Pm, the rotor continues to retard, with
the speed dropping below . The rotor angle decreases, and the operating point retraces
the path from e to d and follows the - curve for the postfault system farther down. The
minimum value of is such that it satisfies the equal-area criterion for the post fault system.
In the absence of any source of damping, the rotor continues oscillate with constant
amplitude.

With the delayed fault clearing, as shown in Fig 3.5d, area above is less than
. When the operating point reaches e, the kinetic energy gained during the acceleration
period has not yet been completely expended; consequently, the speed is still greater
than and continuous to increase. Beyond point e, is less than , and the rotor
begins to accelerate again. The rotor speed and angle continue to increase, leading to loss of
synchronism.

23
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

CHAPTER

4
Voltage stability analysis

4 Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction

Voltage stability deals with the ability to control the voltage level within a narrow band
around normal operating voltage. The consumers of electric energy are used to rather small
variations in the voltage level and the system behaviour from the operators point of view is fairly
well known in this normal operating state. Equipment control and operation are tuned towards
specified set points giving small losses and avoids power variations due to voltage sensitive
loads.
Once outside the normal operating voltage band many things may happen of which some
are not well understood or properly taken into account today. A combination of actions and
interactions in the power system can start a process which may cause a completely loss of
voltage control. The system will experience a voltage collapse and this result in a rapid loss of
electrical supply in wide areas, sometimes affecting millions of people.
The origin of a significant voltage deviation is in most cases some kind of contingency
where a generator in a vital power plant shuts down or an important transmission line is
disconnected from the power grid. This initiates a voltage change and alters the system

24
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

characteristics. The system is normally designed to withstand these kinds of single contingencies
occurring many times a year. However, abnormal operating conditions, several independent
contingencies occurring almost simultaneously in time or completely unexpected phenomena
may violate the normal design conditions. This leads to an insecure operating condition
threatening the voltage stability of the system. The goal is therefore to try to understand the
course of events after such a contingency and propose remedial actions when the control of
voltage is insecure.
In this chapter would be the basic concept related to voltage stability and characterize the
voltage avalanche phenomena illustrated. The dynamic and static approaches to voltage stability
analysis also would be described.

4.2 Voltage stability definitions

Recently lEEE/CIGRE task force [9] proposed various definitions related to power
system stability including voltage stability. Fig 4.1 summarizes these definitions.

Fig 4.1: Classification of power System stability

In general terms, voltage stability is defined as the ability of a power system to maintain
steady voltages at all the buses in the system after being subjected to a disturbance from a given
25
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

initial operating condition. It depends on the ability to maintain/restore equilibrium between load
demand and load supply from the power system. Instability that may result appears in the form
of a progressive fall or rise of voltages of some buses. A possible outcome of voltage instability
is loss of load in an area, or tripping of transmission lines and the other elements by their
protection leading to cascading outages that in turn may lead to loss of synchronism of some
generators.
This task force further classified the voltage stability into four categories: large
disturbance voltage stability, small disturbance voltage stability, short-term voltage
stability and long-term voltage stability. A short summary of these classifications is given
below.

4.2.1 Large-disturbance voltage stability

It is refers to the system's ability to maintain steady voltages following large disturbances
such as system faults, loss of generation, or circuit contingencies. This ability is determined by
the system and load characteristics, and the interactions of both continuous and discrete controls
and protections. The study period of interest may extend from a few seconds to tens of minutes.

4.2.2 Small-disturbance voltage stability

It is refers to the system's ability to maintain steady voltages when subjected to small
perturbations such as incremental changes in system load. This form of stability is influenced by
the characteristics of loads, continuous controls, and discrete controls at a given instant of time.

4.2.3 Short-term voltage stability

It is involves dynamics of fast acting load components such as induction motors,

electronically controlled loads and HVDC converters. The study period of interest is in the order
of several seconds, and analysis requires solution of appropriate system differential equations.

4.2.4 Long-term voltage stability

It is involves slower acting equipment such as tap-changing transformers,

thermostatically controlled loads and generator current limiters. The study period of interest may
extend to several or many minutes, and long-term simulations are required for analysis of system
26
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

dynamic performance. Instability is due to the loss of long-term equilibrium, post-disturbance

steady-state operating point being small disturbance unstable, or a lack of attraction towards the
stable post disturbance equilibrium. The disturbance could also be a sustained load build up.

4.3 Voltage instability concept

Voltage instability may be caused by various system aspects. Generators, transmission

lines and loads are among the most important components. Generators play an important role for
providing enough reactive powder support for the powder systems. The maximum generator
reactive powder output is limited by field current limit and armature current limit. Even though
reactive power plays an important role in voltage stability, the instability can involve a strong
coupling between active and reactive power.
When generator reactive capability is constrained by field current limit, the reactive
output becomes voltage dependent. The maximum load power is severely reduced when the field
current of the local generator becomes limited. Generator limits may also cause limit-induced
bifurcation when voltage collapses occur right after the generator limits are reached [10].
Transmission networks are other important constraints for voltage stability. The maximum
deliverable power is limited by the transmission network eventually. Power beyond the
transmission capacity determined by thermal or stability considerations cannot be delivered.
The third major factor that influences voltage instability is system loads. There are
several individual load models due to variety of load devices. Static load models and dynamic
load models are two main categories for load modelling. Constant power, constant current and
constant impedance load models are representatives of static load models; while dynamic load
models are usually represented by differential equations [11]. The common static load models
include polynomial or constant impedance, constant current or constant power known as ZIP
models. Induction motor is a typical dynamic load model. In real power systems, loads are
aggregates of many different devices and thus parameters of load models may be the composite
among individual load parameters. Another important load aspect is the Load Tap Changing
(LTC) transformer which is one of the key mechanisms in load restoration. During the load
recovery process, LTC tends to maintain constant voltage level at the low voltage end.
Therefore, load behaviour observed at high voltage level is close to constant power which may
exacerbate voltage instability.

27
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

4.3.1 Transmission System Characteristics

The characteristics of interest are the relationships between the transmited power (PR),
receiving end voltage (VR), and the reactive power injection (Qi). For complex systems with a
large number of voltage sources and load buses, similar characteristics can be determined by
using power-flow analysis.

Fig 4.2: Characteristics of a simple radial system

Let us briefly review the characteristics of the simple radial system. For reference the
schematic diagram of the system is produced in Fig 4.2a. The current and receiving end voltage
VR and power PR are given by the following equations:

(4.1)

(4.2)

(4.3)

where

Plots of , , and are shown in Fig 4.2b as a function of load demand ( / ), for the
case with tan =10.0 and cos =0.95. To make the results applicable to any value of , the
values of , and are appropriately normalized. As load demand increases ( decreases),

28
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

increases rapidly at first and then slowly before reaching a maximum, and finally decreases.
There is thus a maximum value of active power that can be transmitted through impedance from
a constant voltage source. The power transmitted is maximum when the voltage drop in the line
is equal in magnitude to , i.e., when / = 1. The conditions corresponding to maximum
power represent the limits of satisfactory operation. The values of and corresponding to
maximum power are referred to as critical values.

For a load demand higher than the maximum power, control of power by
varying the load would be unstable, i.e., an increase in load admittance would reduce
power. In this region, the load voltage may or may not progressively decrease depending
on the load-voltage characteristic. With a constant-admittance load characteristic, the
system condition stabilizes at a voltage level that is lower than normal. On the other
hand, if the load is supplied by a transformer with ULTC, the tap-changer action will try to
raise the load voltage, which has the effect of reducing effective . This lowers VR
still further and leads to a progressive reduction of voltage. This is the phenomenon
of voltage instability.

4.3.2 Generator characteristics

Generator AVRs are the most important means of voltage control in power
system. Under normal conditions of lowsystem voltages, the reactive power demand
on generators may exceed their field current and/or armature current limits. When the
reactive power output is limited, the terminal voltage is no longer maintained constant.

The generator field current is automatically limited by an overexcitation limiter

(OXL). With constant field current, the point of constant voltage is behind the
synchronous reactance. This effectively increases the network reactance significantly,
further aggravating the voltage collapse condition.

On most generators, the armature current limit is realized manually by operators

responding to alarms. The operator reduces reactive and/or active power output to bring
the armature current within safe limits. On some generators, automatic armature current
limiters with time delay are used to limit reactive power output through the AVR [12].

29
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

4.3.3 Load Characteristics

Load characteristics and distribution system voltage control devices are among
the key factors influencing system voltage stability.
Loads whose active and reactive components vary with voltage interact with
the transmission characteristics by changing the power flow through the system. The
system voltages settle at values determined by the composite characteristic of the
transmission system and loads.

Distribution system voltage regulators and substation transformer ULTCs

attempt to hold constant voltage at the point of consumption. Within the normal
control range, loads appear effectively as constant MVA loads. This may have a
destabilizing effect during conditions of voltage collapse.
When the ULTCs reach the end of their tap range, distribution system voltages
begin to drop. The residential active and reactive loads will drop with voltage. This
will in turn reduce line loading and, hence, the line reactive losses. The industrial
loads, with large components of induction motors, will change little. However, the
capacitors in the industrial area will supply less reactive power, thereby causing a net
increase in the reactive load [13].
When the distribution voltages remain low for a few minutes, thermostats and
other load regulation devices, as well as manual controls, tend to restore load. For
example, heating-type loads will run longer to bring the temperature to the level
called for by the thermostats. Consequently, more such devices will be operating at
any given time. Many loads of this type will be restored to their normal full voltage
value over a 10 to 15 minute period [14]. As voltage-sensitive controlled loads creep
back, transmission and distribution voltages will drop further.
At voltages below 85 to 90% of the nominal value, some induction motors
may stall and draw high reactive current. This brings the voltages down further.
Industrial and commercial motors are usually controlled by magnetically held
contactors; therefore, the voltage drop will cause many motors to drop out. The loss
of load will result in the recovery of voltages. After some time, the motors are
restored to service. This may cause voltages to drop again if the original cause of the
voltage problem still persists.
It is evident from the above discussion that, for accurate analysis of voltage
30
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

stability, the network representation must include the effects of distribution

transformer tap-changer action and capacitors in the distribution systems. Depending
on the scope of the study, the representation of load characteristics should take into
consideration the effects of thermostats and other load regulation devices. In
industrial areas, motors and capacitors may need to be represented explicitly.

4.3.4 Characteristics of Reactive Compensating Devices

4.3.4.1 Shunt capacitors

By far the most inexpensive means of providing reactive power and voltage
support is the use of shunt capacitors. They can be effectively used up to a certain
point to extend the voltage stability limits by correcting the receiving end power
factor. They can also be used to free up "spinning reactive reserve" in generators and
thereby help prevent voltage collapse in many situations.

Shunt capacitors, however, have a number of inherent limitations from the

viewpoint of voltage stability and control:

In heavily shunt capacitor compensated systems, the voltage regulation

tends to be poor.
Beyond a certain level of compensation, stable operation is unattainable
with shunt capacitors.
The reactive power generated by a shunt capacitor is proportional to the
square of the voltage; during system conditions of low voltage the var
support drops, thus compounding the problem.

4.3.4.2 Regulated shunt compensation

A static var system (SVS) of finite size will regulate up to its maximum
capacitive output. There are no voltage control or instability problems within the
regulating range. When pushed to the limit, an SVS becomes a simple capacitor. The
possibility of this leading to voltage instability must be recognized.

31
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

A synchronous condenser, unlike an SVS, has an internal voltage source. It

continues to supply reactive power down to relatively low voltages and contributes to
a more stable voltage performance.

4.3.4.3 Series capacitors

Series capacitors are self-regulating. The reactive power supplied by series

capacitors is proportional to square of the line current and is independent of the bus
voltages. This has a favourable effect on voltage stability. Series capacitors are
ideally suited for effectively shortening long lines. Unlike shunt capacitors, series
capacitors reduce both the characteristic impedance (Z C) and the electrical length ( )
of the line. As a result, both voltage regulation and stability are significantly
improved.

4.4 Voltage Collapse

Voltage collapse is the process by which the sequence of events

accompanying voltage instability leads to a low unacceptable voltage profile in a
significant part of the power system. Voltage collapse may be manifested in several
different ways. We will describe a typical scenario of voltage collapse, and then
provide a general characterization of the phenomenon based on actual incidents of
collapse.

4.4.1 Typical Scenario of Voltage Collapse

When a power system is subjected to a sudden increase of reactive power demand

following a system contingency, the additional demand is met by the reactive power reserves
carried by the generators and compensators. Generally there are sufficient reserves and the
system settles to a stable voltage level. However, it is possible, because of a combination of
events and system conditions that the additional reactive power demand may lead to voltage
collapse, causing a major breakdown of part or all of the system. A typical scenario of a voltage
collapse would be as follows [15]:

The power system is experiencing abnormal operating conditions with large

generating units near the load centres being out of service. As a result, some EHV

32
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

lines are heavily loaded and reactive power resources are at a minimum.
The triggering event is the loss of a heavily loaded line which would cause
additional loading on the remaining adjacent lines. This would increase the
reactive power losses in the lines (Q absorbed by a line increases rapidly for loads
above surge impedance loading), thereby causing a heavy reactive power demand
on the system.
Immediately following the loss of the EHV line, there would be a considerable
reduction of voltage at adjacent load centres due to extra reactive power demand.
This would cause a load reduction, and the resulting reduction in power flow
through the EHV lines would have a stabilizing effect. The generator AVRs
would, however, quickly restore terminal voltages by increasing excitation. The
resulting additional reactive power flow through the inductances associated with
generator transformers and lines would cause increased voltage drop across each
of these elements. At this stage, generators would likely be within the P-Q output
capabilities, i.e., within the armature and field current heating limits. The speed
governors would regulate frequency by reducing MW output.
The EHV level voltage reduction at load centres would be reflected into the
distribution system. The ULTCs of substation transformers would restore
distribution voltages and loads to prefault levels in about 2 to 4 minutes. With
each tap change operation, the resulting increment in load on EHV lines would
increase the line XI2 and RI2 losses, which in turn would cause a greater drop
in EHV levels. If the EHV line is loaded considerably above the SIL, each
MVA increase in line flow would cause several MVArs of line losses.
As a result, with each tap-changing operation, the reactive output of generators
throughout the system would increase. Gradually, the generators would hit their
reactive power capability limits (imposed by maximum allowable
continuous field current) one by one. When the first generator reached its field
current limit, its terminal voltage would drop. At the reduced terminal
voltage for a fixed MW output, the armature current would increase. This
may further limit reactive output to keep the armature current within
allowable limits. Its share of reactive loading would be transferred to
other generators, leading to overloading of more and more generators. With
fewer generators on automatic excitation control, the system would be much
more prone to voltage instability. This would likely be compounded by
33
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

the reduced effectiveness of shunt compensators at low voltages. The

process will eventually lead to voltage collapse or avalanche, possibly
leading to loss of synchronism of generating units and a major
blackout.

4.4.2 General Characterization Based on Actual Incidents

There have been a number of voltage collapse incidents worldwide (see

references [12],[13],[16] and [17] for descriptions). Based on these incidents,
voltage collapse may be characterized as follows:

1. The initiating event may be due to a variety of causes: small gradual system
changes such as natural increase in system load, or large sudden disturbances
such as loss of a generating unit or a heavily loaded line. Sometimes, a
seemingly uneventful initial disturbance may lead to successive events that
eventually cause system collapse.
2. The heart of the problem is the inability of the system to meet its reactive
demands. Usually, but not always, voltage collapse involves system conditions
with heavily loaded lines. When transport of reactive power from neighbouring
areas is difficult, any change that calls for additional reactive power support
may lead to voltage collapse.
3. The voltage collapse generally manifests itself as a slow decay of voltage. It is the
result of an accumulative process involving the actions and interactions of many
devices, controls, and protective systems. The time frame of collapse in such
cases could be on the order of several minutes. The duration of voltage
collapse dynamics in some situations may be much shorter, being on the order
of a few seconds. Such events are usually caused by unfavourable load
components such as induction motors or dc converters. The time frame of this
class of voltage instability is the same as that of rotor angle instability. In many
situations, the distinction between voltage and angle instability may not be clear,
and some aspects of both phenomena may exist. This form of voltage
instability may be analyzed by conventional transient stability
simulations, provided appropriate models are used to represent the devices,
particularly induction motor loads, and various control and protection associated with

34
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

the generators and transmission equipment.

4. Voltage collapse is strongly influenced by system conditions and Characteristics. The
following are the significant factors contributing to voltage instability/collapse:

Large distances between generation and load

ULTC action during low voltage conditions

Unfavourable load characteristics

Poor coordination between various control and protective systems

5. The voltage collapse problem may be aggravated by excessive use of shunt

capacitor compensation. Reactive compensation can be made most effective by the
judicious choice of a mixture of shunt capacitors, static var systems, and
possibly synchronous condensers.

4.5 Voltage stability analysis

The analysis of voltage stability for a given system state involves the examination
of two aspects [18]:

1- Proximity to voltage instability: How close is the system to voltage instability?

Distance to instability may be measured in terms of physical quantities, such as
load level, active power flow through a critical interface, and reactive power
reserve. The most appropriate measure for any given situation depends on the
specific system and the intended use of the margin; for example, planning versus
operating decisions. Consideration must be given to possible contingencies (line
outages, loss of a generating unit or a reactive power source, etc.).
2- Mechanism of voltage instability: How and why does instability occur? What are
the key factors contributing to instability? What are the voltage-weak areas? What
measures are most effective in improving voltage stability?

Time-domain simulations, in which appropriate modelling is included, capture the

35
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

events and their chronology leading to instability. However, such simulations are time-
consuming and do not readily provide sensitivity information and the degree of stability.
System dynamics influencing voltage stability are usually slow. Therefore, many aspects
of the problem can be effectively analyzed by using static methods, which examine the
viability of the equilibrium point represented by a specified operating condition of the
power system. The static analysis techniques allow examination of a wide range of system
conditions and, if appropriately used, can provide much insight into the nature of the
problem and identify the key contributing factors. Dynamic analysis, on the other hand, is
useful for detailed study of specific voltage collapse situations, coordination of protection
and controls, and testing of remedial measures. Dynamic simulations also examine
whether and how the steady-state equilibrium point will be reached.

In this section, we discuss static as well as dynamic analysis techniques and we

illustrate how the two approaches can be used in a complementary manner.

4.5.1 Dynamic Analysis

The general structure of the system model for voltage stability analysis is similar to
that for transient stability analysis. The overall system equations, comprising a set of first-
order differential equations, may be expressed in the following general form:

= f(x,V) (4.4)

and a set of algebraic equations

I(x,V)= YNV (4.5)

with a set of known initial conditions (x0, V0), where

x = state vector of the system

V = bus voltage vector
I = current injection vector
YN = network node admittance matrix
Since we include the representation of transformer tap-changer and phase-shift angle
controls, the elements of YN change as a function of bus voltages and time. The current
injection vector I is a function of the system states x and bus voltage vector V,

36
CHAPTER 4 [VOLTAGE STABILITY ANALYSIS]

representing the boundary conditions at the terminals of the various devices (generating
units, nonlinear static loads, motors, SVSs, HVDC converters, etc.). Due to the time-
dependent nature of devices such as field current limiters, the relationship between I and x
can be a function of time.
Equations (4.4) and (4.5) can be solved in time-domain by using any of the numerical
integration methods and network power-flow analysis methods. The study period is
typically on the order of several minutes. With the inclusion of special models
representing the "slow system dynamics" leading to voltage collapse, the stiffness of the
system differential equations is significantly higher than that of transient stability models.
Implicit integration methods are ideally suited for such applications. Facilities to
automatically change the integration time step, as the solution progresses and fast
transients decay, greatly enhance the computational efficiency of such techniques.

4.5.2 Static Analysis

The static approach captures snapshots of system conditions at various time

frames along the time-domain trajectory. At each of these time frames, time
derivatives of the state variables (i.e., ) in Equation (4.4) are assumed to be zero,
and the state variables take on values appropriate to the specific time frame.
Consequently, the overall system equations reduce to purely algebraic equations
allowing the use of static analysis techniques.
In the past, the electric utility industry has largely depended on
conventional power-flow programs for static analysis of voltage stability. Stability
is determined by computing the V-P and Q-V curves at selected load buses.
Generally, such curves are generated by executing a large number of power flows
using conventional models. While such procedures can be automated, they are
time-consuming and do not readily .

37
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

CHAPTER

5
Simulation of Case studies

5 Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction

This chapter will be illustrated the three case studies, that are chosen for three types of
power system analysis to investigate their results using PSAT program. Also it shows how case
studies were modeled and how the respective input data was entered to them. All data in this
chapter was entered according to the standard of PSAT Parameters entry, and this standard was
written by Federico Milano with all documentation of PSAT [2].

38
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

5.2 Case study (1): Power flow solution

Case study 1 of power flow was reprsented in Fig 5.1 is chosen from refernce [20]. This
example examined power flow solution to determine the unknown variables V, P, Q, and for
every bus.

Fig 5.1: system representation of case study (1)

The input data parameters and their result for this example are found in Appendix A

5.2.1 Simulation of Case study 1:

Case 1 was modelled using PSAT simulink library as shown in Fig 5.2. Power and
frequency ratings are (100 MVA, and 60 Hz) respectively.

Fig 5.2: The model of case 1 in PSAT simulink

39
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

In this case, voltage ratings will vary according to the voltage level by entering the
voltage ratio in transformers. Input data that was entered in PSAT blocks for this case were
shown in Table (5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6).

PV Power Voltage Active Voltage

generator rating rating power magnitude
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 1.0 5.2 1.05
Table 5.1: input data for PV generator 1 (case study 1)

Slack Power Voltage Voltage Reference phase

rating rating magnitude angle
[MVA] [kV] [ p.u] [rad]
1 100 1.0 1.0 0
Table 5.2: input data for slack generator 1 (case study 1)

Transformer Power Voltage Frequency Voltage Resistance Reactance

rating rating rating ratio
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] [kV/kV] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 1.0 60 0.0437 0.0015 0.02
2 100 1.0 60 0.0437 0.00075 0.01
Table 5.3: input data for transformer 1and 2 (case study 1)

Line Power Voltage Frequency Length of Resistance Reactance Susceptance

rating rating rating line
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] [0 for p.u] [p.u] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 23 60 0 0.009 0.1 1.72
2 100 23 60 0 0 0.93 0.88
3 100 23 60 0 0 0.93 0.44
Table 5.4: input data for lines (case study 1)

40
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

PQ load Power Voltage Active Reactive power

rating rating power
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 1.0 8 2.8
2 100 1.0 0.8 0.4
Table 5.5: input data for PQ load (case study 1)

Bus Voltage rating [kV]

1 1
2 23
3 1
4 23
5 23
Table 5.6: Bus input data (case study 1)

5.3 Case study 2: The transient stability analysis

This system was taken from reference [8], examined the transient stability of a thermal
generation station consisting of four 555 MVA, 24 kV, 60 Hz units supplying power to an
infinite bus through two transmission circuits as shown in Fig 5.3.

Fig 5.3: single machine infinite bus system

The network reactances shown in the Fig (5.3) are in per unit on 2220 MVA, 24 kV base
(referred to the LT side of the step-up transformer). Resistances are assumed to be neglected.

41
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

The initial system-operating condition, with quantities expressed in p.u on 2220 MVA
and 24 kV base, is as follows:

P =0.9 Q=0.436 = 0.90081

The generators are modelled as a single equivalent generator in p.u on 2220 MVA, 24 kV
base: = 0.3 H=3.5 MW.s/MVA =0

Circuit 2 experiences a solid three-phase fault at point F, and the fault is cleared by
isolating the faulted circuit.

The transient stability analysis can be attained by determining the critical fault-clearing
time and the critical clearing angle by computing the time response of the rotor angle, using
numerical integration method. Also the system value of critical clearing angle can be verified
using the equal area criterion.

The critical fault-clearing time and the critical clearing angle results of this example are
shown in Appendix B.

5.3.1 Simulation of Case study 2

In this case the infinite bus was represented with slake bus and PQ load to maintain a
constant voltage of 0.90081 to bus 3. Power and frequency ratings are (100 MVA, and 60 Hz)
respectively. Fault time was set to1sec, breaker First invention time and fault clearing time were
entered randomly to get a suitable critical clearing time. System was modeled as shown in Fig
5.4.

Fig 5.4: the model of case 2 in PSAT simulink

42
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

Input data for this case is shown in Table (5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 5.10, 5.11, 5.12, 5.13 and 5.14),
and all buses at voltage ratings of 1 kV; because, all system at the same voltage level.

PV generator Power rating Voltage rating Active power Voltage magnitude

[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 1.0 0.925 1.0
Table 5.7: input data for PV generator (case study 2)

Active power p.u = = = 0.925 p.u

Voltage magnitude p.u = = = 1.0 p.u

Slack Power rating Voltage rating Voltage magnitude Reference phase angle
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [rad]
1 100 1.0 1.0 0
Table 5.8: input data for slack generator (case study 2)

transformer Power Voltage Frequency Voltage Resistance Reactance

rating rating rating ratio
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] [kV/kV] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 1.0 60 1.0 0 0.15
Table 5.9: input data transformer 1 (case study 2)

Line Power Voltage Frequency Length of Resistance Reactance

rating rating rating line
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] 0 for[ p.u] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 1.0 60 0 0 0.15
2 100 1.0 60 0 0 0.93
Table 5.10: input data for lines (case study 2)

43
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

Item Power Voltage Active Reactive power

rating rating power
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [p.u]
PQ load 100 1.0 0.9 0.436
Table 5.11: input data for PQ load (case study 2)

Parameter Value
Power Voltage Frequency ratings [MVA kV HZ] [100 1 60]
Machine order 2
[ ] [0.3 0.3 0.3]
[ ] [0.3 0.3 0.3]
0
0
[ ] [100 100]
[ ] [100 100]
M = 2H 7
Table 5.12: input data for Synchronous generator 1 (case study 2)

Breaker Power Voltage Frequency

rating rating rating
[MVA] [kV] [Hz]
1 100 1 60
Table 5.13: input data for breaker 1 (case study 2)

fault Power Voltage Frequency

rating rating rating
[MVA] [kV] [Hz]
1 100 750 60
Table 5.14: input data for fault 1 (case study 2)

44
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

5.4 Case study 3: The voltage stability analysis

In this example the analysis of large disturbance voltage stability of the system shown in
Fig 5.5, using time domain simulation. The test system considered here is based on the system
originally described in reference [8] for analysis of various aspects of voltage stability.

Fig 5.5: Test system for voltage stability

The test system input data and results for this case study is found in Appendix C.

5.4.1 Simulation of Case study 3:

All voltage levels were guessed in appropriate manner to suit this case study because the
voltage levels of buses were not attached with example in reference [8]. Power and frequency
ratings are (100 MVA, and 60 Hz) respectively. The load of bus 11 is modelled as PQ load and
ZIP load the simulink model of case 3 is illustrated in Fig 5.6

45
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

Fig 5.6: The model of case 3 in PSAT simulink.

All input data of this case are shown in Table (5.15, 5.16, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 5.20, 5.21, 5.22,
5.23 and 5.24).These input data entered in PSAT simulink model for load level 1 only
PV Power Voltage Active Voltage
generator rating rating power magnitude
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [p.u]
2 100 11 17.36 0.9646
3 100 11 11.54 0.1.04

Table 5.15: input data for PV generators (case study 3)

Slack Power Voltage Voltage Reference phase

rating rating magnitude angle
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [rad]
1 100 1.0 0.98 0
Table 5.16: input data for slack generator (case study 3)

46
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

transformer Power Voltage Frequency Voltage Resistance Reactance Fixed

rating rating rating ratio tap
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] [kV/kV] [p.u] [p.u] ratio
1 100 11 60 0.1466 0 0.02 0.8857
2 100 11 60 0.1466 0 0.0045 0.8857
3 100 11 60 0.1466 0 0.00125 0.9024
4 100 11 60 7.5 0 0.0045 1.0800
5 100 11 60 7.5 0 0.0026 1.0800
Table 5.17: input data for transformers (case study 3)

transformer Power Voltage Voltage Resistance Max Min Tap Reference

rating rating ratio & tap tap ratio voltage
[MVA] [kV] [kV/kV] [Reactance] ratio ratio step
p.u
5 (ULTC) 100 100 9.09 0 & 0.001 1.1 0.9 0.00625 0.92
Table 5.18: input data for ULTC transformer (case study 3)

Line Power Voltage Frequency Resistance Reactance Susceptance

rating rating rating
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] [p.u] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 750 60 0 0.004 0
2 100 750 60 0.0015 0.0288 1.173
3 100 750 60 0.0015 0.93 1.173
4 100 750 60 0.0015 0.0288 1.173
5 100 750 60 0.0015 0.0288 1.173
6 100 750 60 0.0015 0.0288 1.173
7 100 100 60 0.001 0.003 0
Table 5.19: input data for lines (case study 3)
The shunt capacitors at buses (7, 8, and 9) were modeled as PQ laod (3, 4and 5) respectively,
with zero active power and negative reactive power as shown in Table 5.20

47
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

PQ load Power Voltage Active Reactive

rating rating power power
[MVA] [kV] [p.u] [p.u]
1 100 100 32.71 10.15
2 100 11 33.84 9.71
3 100 11 0 -7.63
4 100 11 0 -6
5 100 11 0 -17.1
Table 5.20: input data for PQ load (case study 3)

Parameter value
Automatic voltage regulator type 1
Maximum voltage regulator [p.u] 5
minimum voltage regulator [p.u] -5
Regulator gain [p.u/p.u] 50
First regulator pole [s] 0.02
First regulator zero [s] 0.01
Second regulator pole [s] 0.01
Second regulator zero [s] 0.01
Time constant of the field current [s] 0.38
Time delay of the Measurement System [s] 0.001
Coefficient of the ceiling function [A B] [0.0006 0.9]
Number of input signals for AVR2 & AVR3 0&1
respectively
Table 5.21: input data for AVR 2 and 3 (case study 3)

Parameter value
Integrator time conistant T0 [s] 1
Maximum field current [p.u] 3.02
Maximum output signal 3.85
Table 5.22: input data for OXL (case study 3)

48
CHAPTER 5 [SIMULATION OF CASE STUDIES ]

Parameter value
Power voltage and frequency rating [MVA kV Hz] [100 11 60]
Percentage of resistant active current & active power [% % %] [0.50 0.50 0.50]
Percentage of reactant reactive current & reactive power [% % %] [0.50 0.50 0.50]
Table 5.23: input data for ZIP load (case study 3)

Breaker Power Voltage Frequency First invention

rating rating rating time
[MVA] [kV] [Hz] [s]
1 100 750 60 1
Table 5.24: input data for breaker 1 (case study 3)

49
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

CHAPTER

6
Simulation results and Discussion

6 Chapter 6
6.1 Introduction

In this chapter, details on the simulation results with discussion would be provided. In
discussion , the PSAT simulation result compared with case studies result, those were mentioned
in chapter 5.

6.2 Simulation result of Case study 1 (power flow)

The PSAT power flow report of case study 1 is shown below in Fig 6.1

50
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

Fig 6.1: case study 1 power flow report

6.2.1 Discussion on case study 1 results

The PSAT power flow report shown in Fig 6.1 illustrated the power flow result that
identical to bus output data in Table A.4 and line flows result that were very close to line flow
result in Appendix A in Table A.5 and Table A.5.

Note: in PSAT the transformers flow result shown as line flows.

51
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

6.3 Simulation of Case study 2 (Transient stability)

Fig 6.2, Fig 6.3, and Fig 6.4 Show plots of as a function of time, for three values of
fault clearing time (tc): 0.07 s, 0.086 s, and 0.87s. The corresponding values of clearing angle (c)
are 48.580, 52.040, and 52.300, respectively. The time of first intervention breaker near so as to
give the exact switching time fault clearing time.

Fig 6.5 shows plot of generator power as function of time prefault, during fault and post
fault.

Note: in PSAT the angles in radian .

Fig 6.2:Rotor angle response for clearing time=1.07s

Fig 6.3:Rotor angle response for clearing time=1.086s

52
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

Fig 6.4: Rotor angle response for clearing time=1.087s

Fig 6.5: Generator power

6.3.1 Discussion on case study 2 results

From the simulation results shown in Fig 6.2, Fig 6.3, and Fig 6.4, we see that the
system is stable with tc=0.86 s, (c=52.040), and unstable with tc=0.87 s (c =52.300). So that the
critical time is, there for 0.0865 0.0005, and the critical angle is 52.170 0.130.
The generator power prefault occur was 0.925 pu and during fault will become 0.0 pu to
postfault will try to return to its value before the fault occur , but it value will oscillates

53
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

approximately at 0.77 pu and never back to 0.925. These simulation results of transient stability
are very similar to result of case study 2 shown in Appendix B in Fig B.1 and Fig B.2.

6.4 Simulation of Case study 3 (Voltage stability)

Fig 6.6, Fig 6.7and Fig 6.8 shows the time responses of the voltage at buses 11, 10 and
7 following the loss of one of the lines between buses 6 and 7, for each of the only load level 1.
The corresponding terminal voltage of generator G3 is shown in Fig 6.9.

Fig 6.6: bus11 voltage

Fig 6.7: bus10 voltage

54
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

Fig 6.8: bus7 voltage

Fig 6.9: G3 voltage

6.4.1 Discussion on case study 3 results

The effect of the loss of the line is to cause the system to drop initially. For load level 1,
the ULTC action of transformer T6 restores bus 11 voltages to nearly its reference value in about
50 second as shown in Fig 6.6, but not 40 second as shown in result found in Appendix C in Fig
C.1 . That is small difference in time, it is not has a value because the system behaves in normal
manner.

55
CHAPTER 6 [SIMULATION RESULTS &DISCUSSION ]

The voltages of buses 10 and 7 settle at value bellow the predisturbance value as shown
in Fig 6.7 and Fig 6.8 equal to reference value shown in Appendix C in Fig C.2 and Fig C.3
The system voltage is stable.
The simulation result shown in Fig 6.8, the terminal voltage of generator G3 is
maintained at the initial value by the AVR . That is value is very similar to the terminal voltage
of generator G3 shown in Appendix C in Fig C.4.
The results gained from PSAT simulation and results in Appendix C of this case study of
voltage stability shows that the system is stable under load level 1.

56
CHAPTER 7 [CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK ]

CHAPTER

7
Conclusion and future work

7 Chapter 7
7.1 introduction

In this chapter, a conclusion for this thesis and mentioning about further work development
and research would be discussed.

7.2 Conclusion

It could be said that, this thesis has fulfilled its intended objectives of development
MATLAB based power system simulation package, power systems analysis toolbox (PSAT) as
an educational toolbox for electrical power system students, lecturers, and researchers in order to
solve three power system problems. Those problems are Power Flow Analysis, voltage Stability
Analysis and Transient Stability Analysis.
In chapter 1, the history, an overview of PSAT features a comparison with other Matlab
toolboxes for power system analysis, to give small glance about the program that was used to
investigate the power systems problems.
57
CHAPTER 7 [CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK ]

In chapters 2, 3 and 4 the concepts and theory for the three type power systems problems,
which are used to meet the objectives and purposes for this thesis.

In chapter 5, the three case studies, those were chosen for three types of power system
analysis to investigate their results using PSAT program. Also it showed how case studies were
modelled and how the respective input data was entered to them. At this stage of project, many
problems were faced, because some input data was not found. The program result resembles the
manual calculation, yet it uses some typical values that are not required in manual calculation.
But these problems was solved by many methods mentioned this chapter.

In chapter 6, the simulation results gained using PSAT were compared with the results
output data of our three case studies and found very similar to each other.

Finally, this thesis proved that, The Power System PSAT software was found versatile
and allowing some of the typical problems to be solved by several methods. This feature will
enables students to investigate alternative solution techniques.

7.3 Future work

From the conclusion of this thesis, there are many further future works that can be done in
power systems analysis toolbox (PSAT) more suitable as an educational toolbox for electrical
power system students, lecturers, and researchers.
In this thesis, PSAT was used to investigate only three types of power system problems:
power flow analysis, voltage stability analysis and transient stability analysis. But PSAT
provides other additional types of analysis to investigate as future work such as:
Optimal power flow (OPF)
Continuation Power flow (CPF)
Small signal stability analysis (SSSA)
Electro Magnetic Transient analysis (EMT)
Saddle-node Bifurcation
Limit-Induced Bifurcation
N-1 Contingency Analysis
Eigenvalue analysis

58
REFERENCES

REFERENCES
[1] F. Milano, F. Milano Website. http://thunderbox.uwaterloo.ca/ fmilano

[2] F. Milano, Power System Analysis Toolbox version 1.3.4. Documentation.

http://thunderbox.uwaterloo.ca/ fmilano

[3] Peter Sauer and M.A. Pai, Power system dynamics and stability. USA: Prentice Hall, 1998.

[4] R. A. M. van Amerogen, "A General-Purpose Version of the Fast Decoupled Loadflow",
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 760-770, May. 1989.

[5] W. R. Barcelo and W. W. Lemmon, "Standardized Sensitivity Coefficients for Power System
Networks", IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 1591-1599, Nov. 1988.

[6] P.S.R Murty,Power System Analysis,,2007

[7] Badrul H.Chowdhry, Loadflow Analysis in Power System,

[8] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. USA, EPRI, 1994.

[9] Kundur, P., Paserba, J., Ajjarapu, V., Anderson, G., Bose, A., Canizares,C, Hatziargyriou, N.,
Hill, D., Stankovic, A., Taylor, C. W.,Van Cutsem, T., Vittal, V., Definitions and classification
of power system stability, lEEE/CIGRE Joint Task force on Stability Terms and Definitions ,
IEEE transactions on Power Systems, vol. 19, no.3, pp. 1387-1401, Aug. 2004.

[10] Dobson, I. L., Lu, L., Voltage collapse precipitated by the immediate change in stability
when generator reactive power limits are encountered, IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems I: Fundamental Theory and Apphcations, vol. 39, no. 9, pp.762-766, Sept. 1992

[11] Hill, David J., Nonlinear dynamic load models with recovery or voltage stability studies,
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 8, no. l,pp. 166-176, Feb. 1993.

[12] CIGRE Task 38-02-10, Modelling of Voltage Collapse Including Dynamic Phenomena,
1993

[13] IEEE, Special Publication 90TH0358-2-PWR, Voltage Stability of power systems: Concept
Analytical Tools, and Industry Experience, 1990

[14] H.K. Clark, Voltage Control and Reactive Supply Problems , 1987
59
REFERENCES

[15] W.R Lachs, Voltage Collapse in EHV Power Systems, Paper No. A78057-2, presented at
the IEEE PES Meeting,1978

[16] Y. Mansor and P. Kundur, Voltage collapse,pp. 111-162

[17] C.W.Taylor, Power System Voltage Stability,McGraw-Hill,1993

[18] B.Gao, GK. Morison, and P. Kundur Voltage Stability Evaluation Using Modal
Analysis,1992

[19] J. Duncan Glover, Mulukutla S. Sarma and Thomas J.Overbye, Power System Analysis and
Design, Fourth Edition,

[20] J. J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson Jr., Power System Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1994

60
APPENDICIES

Appendix A: Case study (1)

The input data parameters for this example are shown in Table A.1,A.2 and A.3

Bus Type V [p.u]

[p.u] [p.u] [p.u] [p.u] [p.u] p.u
1 Swing 1.0 0 -- -- 0 0 -- --
2 Load -- -- 0 0 8.0 2.8 -- --
3 Voltage 1.05 -- 5.2 -- 0.8 0.4 4.0 -2.8
4 Load -- -- 0 0 0 0 -- --
5 Load -- -- 0 0 0 0 -- --
Table A.1: bus input data (case study (1))

Bus-to-Bus Maximum
[p.u] [p.u] [p.u] [p.u] MVA [p.u]
2-4 0.00900 0.100 0 1.72 12.0
2-5 0.00450 0.050 0 0.88 12.0
4-5 0.00225 0.025 0 0.44 12.0
Table A.2: lines data (case study (1))

Bus-to-Bus R [p.u] X [p.u] p.u] Maximum

[p.u] MVA [p.u]
1-5 0.00150 0.02 0 0 6.0
3-5 0.00075 0.01 0 0 10.0
Table A.3: transformer input data (case study (1))

The results written for this example are shown in Table A.4, A.5 and A.6.

A-1
APPENDICIES

Bus Voltage Generation load

Magnitude[p.u]
PG [p.u] QG[p.u] PL[p.u] QL[p.u]
1 1.000 3.948 1.144 0.000 0.000
2 0.834 0.000 0.000 8.000 2.800
3 1.050 5.200 3.376 0.800 0.400
4 1.019 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
5 0.974 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Table A.4: bus output data (case study (1))

Line Bus-to-bus P [p.u] Q[p.u]

1 2-4 -2.92 -1.392
4-2 3.036 1.216
2 2-5 -5.080 -1.408
5-2 5.256 2.532
3 4-5 1.344 1.504
5-4 -1.332 -1.824
Table (A.5): load flow in lines (case study (1))

Line Bus-to-bus P [p.u] Q[p.u]

1 1-5 3.948 1.144
5-1 -3.934 -0.804
2 3-4 4.400 2.976
4-3 4.380 -2.720
Table (A.6): load flow in transformers (case study (1))

A-2
APPENDICIES

Appendix B: Case study 2

The critical fault-clearing time and the critical clearing angle results of this case are shown in
Fig B.1 and Fig B.2

Fig B.1: results for critical fault clearing times(case study (2))

Fig B.2: results for equal area criterion(case study (2))

B-1
APPENDICIES

Appendix C: Case study 3

The test system input data:

- Transmission lines:

line R [pu] X [pu] B

5-6 0.0000 0.0040 0.0000
6-7 0.0015 0.0288 1.1730
9-10 0.0010 0.0030 0.0000
Table C.1: Transmission lines ( 100 MVA base) (case study (3))

Transformers:
Transformer R [pu] X [pu] Ratio
T1 0.0000 0.0020 0.8857
T2 0.0000 0.0045 0.8857
T3 0.0000 0.0125 0.9024
T4 0.0000 0.0030 1.0664
T5 0.0000 0.0026 1.0800
T6 0.0000 0.0010 0.9750 (load level 1)
Table C.2: Transformers (100 MVA base) (case study (3))

- Shunt capacitors:

Bus MVAr
7 763
8 600
9 1710
Table C.3: Shunt capacitors(case study (3))

C-1
APPENDICIES

- Loads

Bus P (MW) Q (MVAr)

8 3271 1010 (load level 1)
3320 1030 (load level 2)
3345 1038 (load level 3)
11 3384 971 (load level 1)
3435 985 (load level 2)
3460 993 (load level 3)
Table C.4: PQ Loads (case study (3))

- Generators:

Bus P (MW) V (pu)

G1 3981 0.9800 (load level 1)
4094 0.9800 (load level 2)
4152 0.9800 (load level 3)
G2 1736 0.9646 (load level 1)
1736 0.9646 (load level 2)
1736 0.9646 (load level 3)
G3 1154 1.0400 (load level 1)
1154 1.0400 (load level 2)
1154 1.0400 (load level 3)
Table C.5: Generation Data (case study (3))

- ULTC for transformer T6 between buses 10 and 11:

Dead band: 1% p.u bus voltage

Tap range: 16 steps

Step size: 0.00625

- Machine parameters:

Machine 1: Infinite bus

Machine 2: H = 2.09, MVA rating = 2200MVA

C-2
APPENDICIES

Machine 2: H = 2.33, MVA rating = 1400MVA

Parameter of machine 2 and 3 on their respective MVA ratings:

= 2.07 = 0.28 = 0.215

= 1.99 = 0.49 = 0.215

= 0.0046

= 4.10 = 0.033

= 0.56 = 0.062

- Exciter:

Machine 2 and 3 have thyristor exciter with gain 400 and the sensing circuit-time constant of
0.02 seconds.

Over excitation limiter for machine 3:

= 3.02 p.u = 3.85 p.u

- Load level:

Load level 1: 6655 MW, 1986 MVAr

The load in bus 11 is modeled as 50% constant impedance and 50% constant current for
both active and reactive components. The load in bus 8 is modeled as constant MVA For both
active and reactive components. The transformer T4 is assumed to have a fixed tap.

Results for this case study obtained as follows:

Fig C.1, C.2 and C.3 shows the time responses of the voltage at buses 11, 10 and 7
following the loss of one of the lines between buses 6 and 7, for each of the three load levels.
The corresponding terminal voltage of generator G3 is shown in Fig C.4.

The effect of the loss of the line is to cause the system to drop initially. For load level 1, the
ULTC action of transformer T6 restores bus 11 voltages to nearly its reference value in about 40
second. The terminal voltage of generator G3 is maintained at the initial value by the AVR. The
voltages of buses 10 and 7 settle at value bellow the predisturbance value. The system voltage is
stable.
C-3
APPENDICIES

Fig C.1: Bus 11 voltage (case study (3))

Fig C.2: Bus 10 voltage (case study (3))

C-4
APPENDICIES

Fig C.3: Bus 10 voltage (case study (3))

Fig C.4: Generator 3 terminal voltage case study (3))

C-5