A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in

the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva"

figure.[63] This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paupati)[64] seal shows a large
central figure that is surrounded by animals. The central figure is often described as a
seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals.[52] Sir John Marshall and
others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the
figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet
joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head are often interpreted as two horns. Gavin
Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from
the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the
shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are
echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the
horns of a bull.[63][65]

Indo-Aryan origins[edit]

Main article: Dionysus

The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and
European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva, [66][67] or
lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. [68][69] His contrasting aspects such
as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the
Greek god Dionysus,[70] as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger,
bravery, dancing and carefree life.[71][72] The ancient Greek texts of the time of
Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysius", or alternatively call Dionysius
as "god of the Orient".[71] Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is
also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus[73]) and Roman deities, as was the idea of
this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger
Woodward.[66] Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from
indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.[74]

Vedic origins[edit]

The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called
Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and
he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. [75] The term Shiva also
appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet that means "kind, auspicious", one of
the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless
natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda,
the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. [76] This healing,
nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic
literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers,
the terrific and the pacific, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence. [77]

Rudra[edit]

Three-headed Shiva, Gandhara, 2nd century AD

Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra,[78] and
both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two
names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually
portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.[79]

The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between
1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence.[80] A god named
Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva.
In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.[81]

The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and
cruel (rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (shiva). [82] The Vedic texts do not
mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle (vahana) of Rudra or other deities.
However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi
bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby
unmistakably linking them as same.[83]

Agni[edit]
Rudra and Agni have a close relationship.[84][85] The identification between Agni and
Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual
development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. [86] The identification of Agni with
Rudra is explicitly noted in the Nirukta, an important early text on etymology, which
says, "Agni is also called Rudra."[87] The interconnections between the two deities are
complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:

The fire myth of Rudra-iva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its
potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination. [88]

In the atarudrya, some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipajara ("Of golden red hue
as of flame") and Tivas mati ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities.
[89]
Agni is said to be a bull,[90] and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi.
The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. [91][92] In
medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming
hair as a special feature.[93]

Indra[edit]

Vima Kadphises with ithyphallic Shiva.

Coin of the Kushan Empire (1st-century BCE to 2nd-century CE). The right image
has been interpreted as Shiva with trident and bull. [94]

According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra.
[95]
Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with
mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, transgression of
established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term iva is
used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3,[96] 6.45.17,[97][98] and 8.93.3.[99]) Indra, like Shiva, is likened
to a bull.[100][101] In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never
associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. [102]
The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the
hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion,[103] and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian
religion.[104] The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest
parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is
damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but
the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely
Shiva.[105] Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan
Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. [106] The Shiva
in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the
simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they
were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire. [107][108]

The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical but
generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in
their respective mudras.[109] For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings
show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva
Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link
between ancient Indra and Shiva.[108][109]

Later literature[edit]

Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in
the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400200 BC), according to Gavin Flood.[59][110] Prior to
it, the Upanishadic literature is monistic, and the Shvetashvatara text presents the
earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. [59] Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as
the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The
period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused
on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. [59] Shaiva
devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's Mahbhsya (2nd-century BC) and
in the Mahabharata