A BRIEF HISTORY OF

WAR MEMORIAL
DESIGN


 War Memorials in Manitoba: An Artistic Legacy

A BRIEF HISTORY OF WAR

MEMORIAL DESIGN

A

war memorial may take many forms,thoughfor
mostpeoplethefirstthingthatcomestomindisprobablya
freestandingmonument,whethermoresculptural(suchasa
humanfigure)orarchitectural(suchasanarchorobelisk).

Otherlikelypossibilitiesincludebuildings(functionalsuchasacommunity
hallorevenahockeyrinkorsymbolic),institutions(suchasahospitalor
endowednursingposition),fountainsorgardens.

Today,inthe21stcenturyWest,weusuallythinkofawarmemorialasintended
primarilytocommemoratethesacrificeandmemorializethenamesof
individualswhowenttowar(mostoftenascombatants,butalsoasmedicalor
otherpersonnel),andparticularlythosewhowereinjuredorkilled.Wegenerally
expectthesememorialstoincludealistorlistsofnames,andtheconflictsin
whichthoserememberedwereinvolvedperhapsevenindividualbattlesites.
Thisisacomparativelymodernphenomenon,however;theancestorsofthistype
ofmemorialweredesignedmostoftentocelebrateavictory,andmadeno
mentionofindividualsacrifice.Particularlyrecentisthenotionthatthenamesof
therankandfile,andnotjustofficers,shouldbesetdownforremembrance.

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Ancient Precedents

ThewarmemorialsfamiliaratfirsthandtoCanadiansaremostlikelythose
erectedintheyearsaftertheendoftheFirstWorldWar.Theirmostwellknown
distantancestorscamefromancientRome,andmany(thoughbynomeansall)
20thcenturymonumentsderivetheirbasicformsfromthoseoftheancient
world.TheseRomanmonumentswerelargestructures,especiallytriumphal
arches(suchastheArchofTitus,82AD)orvictorycolumns(e.g.Trajans
Column,113AD).Theyhadnoindividualmemorialfunction,excepttopreserve
inglorythenameofanemperororperhapsagreatgeneral,andwereasthe
namesuggestsnotaboutsacrificeandsorrow,butaboutvictory.Moremodern
descendentsofsuchstructuresincludefamiliarmonumentssuchastheArcde
Triomphe,inParis(18061836,commemoratingtheRevolutionaryand
NapoleonicWars),andNelsonscolumn,inLondon(184043,commemorating
AdmiralHoratioNelson,whodiedintheBattleofTrafalgar).Lessfamiliaris
NelsonscolumninMontral(1809).Thesemonumentssuggest,bytheirvery
names,theirfunctionofmemorializingavictoryandthepowerfulmanwho
effectedit.InCanada,BrocksMonumentonQueenstonHeights(182324;
destroyedandrebuilt185356)isanotherexampleofacolumnbuiltto
commemorateasingleman,andaGeneral.Noneofthesestructuresmadeany
pretencetocommemoratethecommonsoldier.

The Arch of Titus, commemorating the popular Emperor Titus and his victory in
Jerusalem, has been the model for many triumphal arches since. (Dnalor 01)

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19th Century

ForthegreaterpartofEuropesbloodyhistory,noattemptwasmadetoburythe
bodiesofenlistedmeninaknownlocation,muchlesstoidentifythosekilledin
battleortokeeparecordoftheirnames.Wellintothe19thcentury,themajority
ofthedeadwereburiedasquicklyaspossibleinmassgraves,theirnames
rememberedonlybytheirfriendsandfamilies.AftertheCrimeanwar,fertilizer
companiesscoopedupsoldiersbodiestomanurethecropsathome.Though
memorialswereerectedtoBritishdeadinthecourseofBritainsmanysmall
imperialswars,theyweretypicallyputupbytheinvolvedregiments,anddid
notnameindividualsoldiers,particularlyenlistedmen.

Withchangingnotionsofnationhoodandcitizenshipin19thcenturyEurope,
however,thecitizensoldiersselfsacrificeonthebattlefieldcametoseemwhat
KarineVarleyhascalledtheultimateactofpatrioticdevotion.Inasociety
developingcreepingdoubtsabouttheabsolutepromiseofaheavenlyafterlife,it
wascrucialforfightingmenandtheirfamiliesthatanearlydeathshoulditself
seemworthwhile.Forstatesexpectingmentolaydowntheirlivesespecially
farfromhome,makingithardertoconvincethemthattheyweredefendingtheir
ownhearthsandfamiliesitbecameconvenienttoemphasizethepatriotic
natureoftheactofwarthroughritualandtradition.

Nearingthefourthquarterofthecentury,theFrancoPrussianWarof187071
becamethefirstwidelycommemoratedconflictinEuropeandalsothefirstone
inwhichaneffortwasmadetoburyeverysoldierandofficer,albeitoften
hurriedly.Forthefirsttime,ordinarysoldiersweregrantedpermanentresting
places,warmemorialswereerectedintheirhonour,andeachyear,communities
gatheredtocommemoratetheirdeaths.Therituals,language,creationofsacred
places,andobjectsthatdevelopedthroughthecommemorationoftheFranco
PrussianWarhelpedtolaythefoundationsforthepracticesofremembrancefor
theFirstWorldWar.Inthiswar,asVarleyobserves,thecivilianpopulation
begantotrytoreclaimsomedignityforthedeadwhohadoftenbeenburied
crudelyandwithoutceremonybyonesideortheother.Localpeopleerected
littlecrossestomarkgravesiteshastilyfilledinbytheauthorities,sometimes
duringaceasefirecalledforthatpurpose.Somevillagesevenheldfuneralsfor
deadcombatantsonbothsides.Despitetheseindividualefforts,mostfallen
soldierswerestillburiedinmassgraves,andthememorialsdidnotlistthe
namesofthedead.Nonetheless,thiswardidseethefirstextensivememorials,

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andcommunitiesgatheredaroundthemyearlytocommemoratetheirlossesand
toremind(andperhapsconvince)themselvesofthegloryofthesacrificeandits
noblepatrioticpurpose.

A 1914 photo showing a group standing in front of a memorial commemorating battles of

the Franco-Prussian War involving the 5th Army Corps.

JustbeforetheFrancoPrussianWar,theAmericanCivilWar(186165)had
representedthefirstlargescaleattempt(onthepartofthevictoriousUnion)to
disinterthedeadfromtheirhastybattlefieldburialsor,insomecases,tocollect
theirbonesfromthegroundwheretheylayandreburythemincentral
cemeteriesafterthewar(Faust,211).Initialattemptshadbeenmadebyboth
sidestokeeplistsofthosewhodied,toburythem,andtokeepsomerecordof
wheretheywereburied,butthesetaskswereoftenoverwhelmedbytheurgent
needsoftheinjuredandill.Afterthewarhadended,supportersofthebillto
establishandprotectnationalcemeteries,passedearlyin1867,arguedthatthe
statehadanobligationtothebodiesofitssoldiers,andeventhattheobligation
tothecommonsoldierwasequaltothatowedtothehigherborn.Theresulting
reintermentprogrammeprovidedindividualburialsforthosewhomight
initiallyhavebeenpushedenmasseintoditches.Italsoaffordedanopportunity
tomarkgraveswithaname,althoughthiswasoftenimpossibleinanerabefore
soldierswereprovidedwithidentifyingdogtags.Forthosewhocouldbe
identified,thegovernmentofferedfamiliestheoptionofhavingtheirlovedones
bodiessenthomeforburial;thispracticehascontinuedthroughtothepresent.

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Thisgovernmentsponsoredefforttoprovideadecentburialforthesoldiersof
thewinningsidedidnotextendtotheConfederatedead.IntheSouth,welltodo
whitewomenformedmemorialassociationstoimproveandmaintain
Confederategraves,andtoburythescattereddeadinhallowedgroundinnew
orexpandedcemeteries.OnlyaftertheSpanishAmericanwarin1898,where
northernandsouthernsoldiersfoughtsidebyside,didConfederategraves
becomeAmericangraves,asPresidentMcKinleyannouncedthatthefederal
governmentwouldfinallytakeashareintheirmaintenance.

Civil War Memorial in Stratford, Connecticut, 1889. Like this one, a number of Civil War
memorials are constructed of cast zinc (or white bronze), a process that became
available in the 1870s. Relatively inexpensive, it enabled communities to erect very large
and ornate monuments like this one, which lists the names of those who died. (Jon Best)

TheCivilWarwasthefirstconflictintheUnitedStatestobeheavily
memorialized.Thereasonforthisprobablyliesinthefactsthatthesoldierswere
almostallcitizenvolunteers,andthatthewarwassoincrediblybloodyandtook
anunprecedentedtollonlife.Whenitfinallyended,noncombatantswereeager
toexpresstheirgratitudeforthissacrifice.Battlefieldmemorialsareparticularly
prominent.Theywereerected,oftenbystategovernments,withlargebudgets,
andwithreferencetoparticulareventsorpeople.Buttherearealsowidespread
communitymemorialsdedicatedtoeveryonewhodied(orsometimeswho
fought)fromagivencommunity.Afewofthesewentupevenbeforethewar

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hadended,andthesetendedtotakesimplerformssuchasobelisks.Numerous
memorialswereaddedoverthecourseofdecades,followingthestylesdominant
atthetime(ConnecticutsCivilWarMonuments).

SeveralaspectsoftheCivilWarmemorializationofsoldiershaveparallelsin
activityduringandaftertheFirstWorldWar,particularlythereintermentof
bodiesinNationalCemeteries,thoughitisnotclearthattherewasadirect
influence.Inaddition,awidespreadcreationofcommunitywarmemorials,
completewithlistsofnames,wouldoccuraftertheGreatWaracrosstheBritish
Empire(thoughmuchlesssointheUnitedStates).Itislikely,however,that
CanadaswarmemorialsowemoretotheBritishtradition.

The Volunteers Monument in Winnipeg (Samuel Hooper, 1886) was dedicated to nine
men of the 90th Winnipeg Battalion who were killed in the Northwest Rebellion, and
whose names are carved in the stone. As a regimental (though privately funded)
memorial, this has more in common with those erected during Britains various imperial
wars than it does with the community memorials that followed the earlier U.S. civil war or
the later Boer War. (Gordon Goldsborough, Manitoba Historical Society; Christian Cassidy)

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Early 20th Century

TheSecondAngloBoerWar(18991902)sawlargenumbersofvolunteersjoining
theranksofprofessionalsoldiersintheBritisharmy.Thegrievingfamiliesofthe
deadwerenothappytoseetheirsonsandhusbandsunceremoniouslydumped
intounmarkedgravesasinpreviousconflicts,theirpersonalbelongingsand
eventeethoftenremovedandsold.Asaresult,thearmy,forthefirsttime,took
responsibilityforbothburyingandrecordingthegravesofthedead.TheRoyal
Engineersweregiventhisjob(HonouringtheFallen).Avolunteergroup
calledtheGuildofLoyalWomentookovertheresponsibilityforlookingafter
gravesandcemeteries,andrecordinggravelocations.Theybecame
overwhelmedbythetask,however,andburialgroundsinSouthAfricaquickly
fellintodisrepair.

1902 Boer War Memorial (figure carved in Carrara, Italy), Camperdown, Australia
(Authentic Heritage Services Pty Ltd)

MorerelevantforourstudyofwarmemorialsinManitobaisthefactthat,in
responsetothiswar,manytownsandcitiesinBritainandelsewhereinthe
Empireraisedfundsanderectedmonumentstotheircitizenswhohadfought
anddied.MeurigJonessuggeststhatthesememorialsrepresentthefirstever
massraisingofwarmemorialsintheUnitedKingdom.

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1903 Boer War Memorial, Forest Recreation Ground, Nottingham, England
(Nottinghamshire Heritage Gateway)

Thismovetomemorializecanbeascribedtoanumberofcauses.Theseinclude
thehighnumberofvolunteercombatants(asopposedtoprofessionalsoldiers),
patrioticfervourattheheightofEmpire,agrowingmiddleclasswithsome
moneytospare,acontemporarycultureofchivalrythatmadedeathinbattle
seemnobleandworthwhile,andnewlyefficientandspeedycommunications
thatgavethepublicathomeaccesstothedreadeventsinSouthAfricaalmostas
soonastheyoccurredgivingrise,forthefirsttime,tothepossibilityofa
popularmoodthatcouldaffecttheentirecountry,plungingitintocollective
prideordespairasthewarunfoldedfaraway(Jones).

1903 Boer War Memorial, Halifax Public Gardens, NS (Friends of the Public Gardens)

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First World War

ManyAngloBoerWarmemorialsbearastrongformalresemblancetotheFirst
WorldWarmonumentsthatweretoriseacoupleofdecadeslaterintownsand
citiesacrosstheworld.Inaddition,theyoftenincludedcompletelistsofnames,
generallydividedbyrank.ButtheGreatWarinvolvingmillionsofvolunteer
combatantsandunthinkablecasualtiesovercountlessbattlefieldsprovideda
challengeunprecedented:agargantuantaskofmemorializingonahitherto
unknownscale.

ThetaskwasbegunbyFabianWare.ABritishsubjectwhohadworkedinthe
Transvaalfromthemid1890s,hehadseenthedevastationwroughtbythe
AngloBoerWarandhadbeensaddenedbythedecliningstateofthememorials
andgravesitesofhisdeadcountrymen.PastfightingageinWorldWarI,he
commandedamobileunitoftheBritishRedCrossinFrance.Athisbehest,his
unittookonthedauntingtaskofrecordingandcaringforgraves,manyofwhich
startedoutasmakeshiftsoldierscemeteries,markedbyhelmetsbalancedon
rifles,sometimeswithroughcrossesandinscriptions;Waresoughttomakethese
intopermanentburialgrounds(Lichfield).By1915,theWarOfficehad
incorporatedthisworkintotheresponsibilitiesoftheBritishArmy,underthe
auspicesofthenewlynamedGravesRegistrationcommission(Commonwealth
WarGravesCommissionwebsite),whichsoonfounditselffieldinglarge
numbersofrequestsforphotographsandinformation(HonouringtheFallen).
TheGravesRegistrationCommissionacquiredextensiveplotsoflandfromthe
Frenchgovernmentthatcouldbeusedforpermanentcemeteries,andmadethe
somewhatmomentousdecisiontoallownofurtherbodiestoberepatriated;all
soldierswouldbeburiedintheseofficialcemeteries,neartheplacetheyhad
fallen.Furthermore,officersandenlistedmenwouldlietogether,regardlessof
rank.RenamedtheDirectorateofGravesRegistrationandEnquires,the
Commissionwouldsendbereavedfamiliesaphotographoftheirlovedones
grave,withinstructionsforfindingitshouldtheybeabletovisitoneday.

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An example of the information sent by the War Office to a deceased soldiers next of kin,
this card includes a photograph of the grave of Private Ernest P. Bartlett, killed on 8
August 1918 and buried at Hourges Orchard Cemetery, Domart-sur-la-Luce, along the
Somme River, France. (George Metcalf Archival Collection CWM 20010076-007)

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Imperial War Graves Commission

Asthewarandtheslaughtercontinued,Wareandhiscompatriotsbeganto
thinkaboutlongertermmaintenancefortheburialsites.Theywerealsoeager
fortheirworktoreflectthespiritofImperialCooperationevidentinthewar
effortitself,andin1917,theImperialWarGravesCommission(IWGC)was
established.ThemembershipoftheCommission(renamedtheCommonwealth
WarGravesCommissionin1960),comprisedtheUnitedKingdom,Canada,
Australia,NewZealand,IndiaandSouthAfrica,witheachcountryproviding
fundingaccordingtothenumberofsoldiersithadlost.TheCommissionswork
beganinearnestaftertheArmistice,whentheybeganidentifyingandregistering
graves,andeventuallymovingtensofthousandsofbodiestonewImperialwar
cemeteries(workthatstillcontinuesasbodiesareunearthedinthecourseof
agricultureorconstruction).Fortheimportantworkofmemorializingthe
Empireswardead,theIWGCemployedluminariesofarchitecture,landscapeand
literature:SirHerbertBaker,SirReginaldBlomfieldandSirEdwinLutyensto
designthemonuments,withtypefacedesignedbyMaxGill;GertrudeJekyllto
overseethelandscapedesign,andRudyardKiplingtochoosetheinscriptions.
Thefirstthreeexperimentalcemeterieswerecompletedin1921,withoneat
Forceville,France,beingdeemedthemostsuccessfulandbecomingatemplate
forfurtherwork.

A military cemetery at Coxyde, Belgium as IWGC standard headstones (right) replace the
wooden crosses of wartime burials.

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MostofthesecemeteriesareatornearbattlefieldsitesinEuropeandelsewhere.
Butwefindwargravesonthehomefrontaswell,becauseanyveteranhasthe
righttomilitaryburial.SometimesonerunsacrossasolitaryWarGraves
Commissionstoneinachurchcemetery,andsomecemeterieshavelargerareas
setasideforwargraves.InManitoba,wartimeburialsmighthavebeenfor
soldierswhowerekilledinearlytrainingandnevermadeittothebattlefront,or
forinjuredsoldierswhoweresenthometodie.Laterburialsmightbefor
soldierswhodiedofwarrelatedcausesaftertheArmistice:ofwounds,ofthe
effectsofgas,orofsuicidebroughtonbywhatwasoncecalledshellshock,and
wenowknowasPostTraumaticStressDisorder.Lookingatthedatesonthe
stones,wecanseethatsomeveteranswholivedtoaripeoldagealsochoseto
receiveasoldiersburial.

WarGravesCommissioncemeteriesarenotidentical,buttheyhavecertain
featuresincommon.Mosthavestoneenclosingwallsandwroughtirongates,
andallfeaturestandardheadstones.Cemeterieswithmorethanfortygraves
generallyhaveaCrossofSacrificeasafocalpoint.DesignedbySirReginald
Blomfield,theCrossofSacrificeisagranitecrosswithabronzeswordembedded
onthefront,mountedonanoctagonalbase.BrandonandWinnipegsBrookside
CemeteriesbothhaveCrossesofSacrifice.

Brandon Cross of Sacrifice

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Largercemeteries,generallythosewithoverathousandgraves(thoughthereare
exceptionssuchasatBrookside),alsohaveaStoneofRemembrance,designedby
SirEdwinLutyens.Devoidofovertreligioussymbolism,theStonerecallsatomb
orperhapsanaltar.Thegravestonesthemselvesareoflightcolouredlimestone
anddifferonlyintheirinscriptions.Theygenerallyfeatureanappropriate
religioussymbol,anationalemblem(inCanadascase,amapleleaf)or
regimentalbadge,thesoldiersname,rank,unit,dateofdeathandage.Relatives
alsohadtheopportunitytopayforashortepitaphorotherinscriptiontobe
added.

The only Stone of Remembrance in North America, at Brookside Cemetery in Winnipeg

(Commonwealth War Graves Commission Canadian Agency)

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AroundtheperipheryofmanycemeteriesoverseasaregravesmarkedA
SoldieroftheGreatWar/KnownuntoGod.Thebodiesofthesesoldierswere
unidentifiable.Butthoughtheirgravesdonotidentifythem,theIWGCSgreat
memorialstotheMissingensurethattheirnamesarepreserved.

Thiepval Monument to the Missing. Unveiled in 1932, this vast structure is inscribed with
the names of 72,195 British and South African men who went missing in the Battles of
the Somme. (Carls Brum Blog; 1st Battalion, the Cheshire Regiment)

Theseenormousmonuments,architecturalinscale,wereintendedbothto
conveytheenormityofthecollectivelossandtoprovideaslateuponwhichto
carvethenameofeverysoldierwhosebodyhadneverbeenfound,orcouldnot
beidentified,andwhothereforehadnoknownheadstone.Themostfamousof
theseareprobablyBlomfieldsMeninGate,atYpres,withitsmorethan55,000
names,andtheThiepvalMemorialontheSomme,byLutyens,commemorating
over72,000lost.Alittlelater,someothermembersoftheCommissionbuilttheir
ownmemorialstotheMissing.Canadasprincipalmemorial,atVimyRidge,was
designedbythesculptorWalterSeymourAllward,andcommemorates11,285
soldierswhodisappearedintothemudinFrance.

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Canadian National Memorial, Vimy (1936). This memorial is dedicated to the memory of
some 60 thousand dead of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. The names of over 11
thousand, missing in France, are carved in the stone. At right, a young Mother Canada
mourns her dead. (Juno Beach Educator Tour; Michael MacKay)

TheWarGravesCommissionsdecisionnottoallowtherepatriationofbodiesof
menwhodiedoverseasmeantthat,forthemajorityofbereavedfamilies,they
wouldneverseetheplacewheretheirlostlovedoneswereburied.Inaddition,
therewerethecountlesssoldierswhohadsimplydisappearedinthefraytheir
bodiesneverrecoveredorunidentifiable.Thesefactsgavewarmemorialsonthe
homefrontaparticularlypoignantfunction:theystoodinforthegravestones
thatmanysoldiersneverhad,orthattheirfamilieswouldprobablyneversee.
Thecarvingofnamesintothesememorialsprovidedagravestoneinabsentiafor
mourningeverylostsoldier.

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The Cenotaph and the Unknown Warrior

Forthefamiliesofthosewhosebodieshadneverbeenidentifiedorfound,a
TomboftheUnknownSoldiercouldprovideafocalpointforgrief.Thefirst,
knownastheUnknownWarriorandburiedinLondonin1920,waschosenfrom
amongstsixunidentifiedbodiescollectedfromcemeteriesindifferentlocations
inEurope;thiswastoensurethatthebodycould,intheory,beanyonesson,
thusimbuingthetombwithspecialresonanceforthosewhohadlostafamily
member.(CanadasTomboftheUnknownSoldierwasestablishedatthe
cenotaphinOttawaonlyin2000,andholdsthebodyofanunidentifiedsoldier
whowaskilledatVimyRidge.)

The unveiling ceremony at the Cenotaph on Whitehall, in London, 11 November 1920

LondonsUnknownWarriorwasburiedamongmonarchsinWestminster
Abbey,simultaneouslywiththeburialofanunknownFrenchsoldierattheArc
deTriompheinParis.Atthesametime,Englandscenotaphwasunveiledat
Whitehall.Thiswasapermanentcopyinstoneofaversionoriginallydesigned
byLutyensinplasterandwood,fortheLondonVictory(orPeaceDay)Parade,
commemoratingthesigningoftheTreatyofVersaillesin1919.Thecenotaphisa
starkstonepylon,rising,throughaseriesofseveralsetbacks,tothe
representationofanemptytomb(orcenotaph,inGreek)atitssummit.
Variouslyinterpreted,thecenotaphbecameamodelformanyotherwar
memorialsinEnglandandacrosstheempire,includinginManitoba.

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Manymemorialsthatwerevaguelyverticalortomblikewereatthetime
describedaslikethecenotaph(King,147),butmanyothersarecopiesor
heavilyinfluencedbythisform.

MANITOBA
Winnipeghaditsowntemporarycenotaph,erectedbytheWomensCanadian
CluboutsidetheBankofMontralatPortageandMain,inJune1920(Manitoba
FreePress,Saturday5June1920).Itstoodforaboutthreeyears,andwasthen
replacedbytheBanksownbronzefigureofasoldier,whichstandstherestill.

Winnipegs Temporary Cenotaph, with the Bank of Montral visible at right. On the front
was painted The Glorious Dead; Their Name Liveth Forevermore (Provincial Archives of
Manitoba, Smith Collection).

Theremovalofthetemporarycenotaphpromptedapublicdemandfora
replacement.Afterconsiderabledelayresultingfromcontroversyoverboththe
siteandthesculptor,GilbertParfittsgreystonecenotaphwaserectedon
MemorialBoulevardoutsidethelegislature.AnumberofotherManitoba
communitiesalsooptedforacenotaphformfortheirmemorials.

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